term paper on motivation

Motivation: Introduction to the Theory, Concepts, and Research

• First Online: 03 May 2018

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• Paulina Arango 4  

Part of the book series: Literacy Studies ((LITS,volume 15))

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Motivation is a psychological construct that refers to the disposition to act and direct behavior according to a goal. Like most of psychological processes, motivation develops throughout the life span and is influenced by both biological and environmental factors. The aim of this chapter is to summarize research on the development of motivation from infancy to adolescence, which can help understand the typical developmental trajectories of this ability and its relation to learning. We will start with a review of some of the most influential theories of motivation and the aspects each of them has emphasized. We will also explore how biology and experience interact in this development, paying special attention to factors such as: school, family, and peers, as well as characteristics of the child including self-esteem, cognitive development, and temperament. Finally, we will discuss the implications of understanding the developmental trajectories and the factors that have an impact on this development, for both teachers and parents.

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Arango, P. (2018). Motivation: Introduction to the Theory, Concepts, and Research. In: Orellana García, P., Baldwin Lind, P. (eds) Reading Achievement and Motivation in Boys and Girls. Literacy Studies, vol 15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75948-7_1

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Essay 1.1 What Is Motivation, Where Does It Come from, and How Does It Work?

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Motivation is the process that drives, selects, and directs goals and behaviors. Motivation typically arises out of the person’s needs, and it then comes to life through the person’s specific goals. In this essay, the authors examine the concept of “needs” as the crucible from which motivated behavior arises because all individuals are born with needs that jump-start the goal-oriented, motivated behaviors that are critical to survival and thriving. These are both physical needs (such as hunger and thirst) and psychological needs (such as the need for social relationships, optimal predictability, and competence). The aim of motivation is therefore to bring about a desired (need, goal) state. Motivation underlies and organizes all aspects of a person’s psychology. As it does so, motivation “glues” a person together as a functioning individual in their culture and context.

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What is Motivation? A Psychologist Explains

The simplest definition of motivation boils down to wanting (Baumeister, 2016). We want a change in behavior, thoughts, feelings, self-concept, environment, and relationships.

People often say that motivation doesn’t last. Well, neither does bathing – that’s why we recommend it daily.

This article shows what motivation is, both in real life and in how psychology observes and studies motivation. It includes an explanation of the process by analyzing real-world motivational problems like procrastination and avoidance.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients create actionable goals and master techniques to create lasting behavior change.

This Article Contains:

What is motivation, motivation definition in psychology, motivation model, motivation process, motivation cycle, recommended books on motivation, a take-home message.

Motivation is an internal process. Whether we define it as a drive or a need, motivation is a condition inside us that desires a change, either in the self or the environment. When we tap into this well of energy, motivation endows the person with the drive and direction needed to engage with the environment in an adaptive, open-ended, and problem-solving sort of way (Reeve, 2015).

The essence of motivation is energized and persistent goal-directed behavior. When we are motivated, we move and take action.

Motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of needs that are either necessary for sustaining life or essential for wellbeing and growth. Physiological needs for food, water, and sex (yes sex) serve the organism to maintain life and also provide satisfaction from doing so.

Psychological needs for autonomy, mastery, and belonging direct our behavior in much the same way. As do the needs for achievement, power, closure, meaning, and self-esteem. Some of these needs will become motives as will all the intrinsic activities we engage in.

Our environment and social context will play a significant role in terms of extrinsic motivation. We will also be motivated by goals, values, and desires to experience specific emotions associated with certain end-states (Reeve, 2015).

The best way to explain motivation is to show what it looks like in everyday life. Here is an example of possible motivational reasons a person could have to engage in exercise.

For a more in-depth discussion of the many mechanisms of motivation, see our article on Motivation and What Really Drives Human Behavior .

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The study of motivation in psychology revolves around providing the best possible answers to two fundamental questions: what causes behavior, and why does behavior vary in its intensity?

Motivational science is a behavioral science that seeks to construct theories about what constitutes human motivation and how motivational processes work.

Motivation, when seen in the real world, and when measured by science , becomes visible and detectable through behavior, level of engagement, neural activation, and psychophysiology. Some would also include self-report in this list, but studies show that self-reports have proven to be highly unreliable sources of information (Reeve, 2015).

So how does motivation behave? With presence, intensity, and quality. Motivation is visible through gestures and facial expressions, intense effort, immediacy (or as psychologists like to call it short latency).

The presence of motivation can also be inferred from the levels of persistence and decisiveness in choosing one goal over another, which taken together make for a high probability of occurrence (Atkinson & Birch, 1970; 1978; Bolles, 1975; Ekman & Friesen, 1975).

Motivation can also be inferred from the level of engagement.

For example, in a coaching scenario or a motivational interview, a competent practitioner will enthusiastically and generously contribute to the flow of conversation (agentic engagement), express interest and enjoyment (emotional engagement), process deeply and pay attention (cognitive engagement), and persist in these efforts as if time and the outside world didn’t exist (behavioral engagement). And yes, for many of us, we don’t have those kinds of conversations often.

Psychophysiology

There are five psychophysiological expressions of motivation:

Brain Activations

Just like changes in behavior, engagement, and psychophysiology, brain activations mark the rise and fall and maintenance of motivational states. A different pattern of neural activity is present with each motivation and emotion. For example, the hypothalamus is active when we are thirsty, and when we feel disgusted, there is a rise in insular activity.

Researchers use sophisticated equipment like electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe, detect, monitor, and measure brain-based neural activity.

See our blog post on Motivation Science for more information on the neuroscience of motivation.

Putting all this together to answer the perennial question of what motivation is, but most importantly what it does, we define motivation as rising and falling of needs, cognition, and emotions expressed through patterns of behavior, levels of engagement and neural and psychophysiological activity directed toward realizing essential life outcomes. Video

How to motivate yourself to change your behavior – Tali Sharot

In a nutshell, motives are internal experiences in the form of needs, cognitions, and emotions and are the direct and proximal causes of motivated action. Social contexts and external events act as antecedents to motives that cause or trigger motivational states. Our motives express themselves through behavior, engagement, psychophysiology, brain activations, and self-report.

The model below illustrates the framework for how motivational psychologists study the process of motivation and its elements and try to find the answer to the questions about what causes motivation. It also shows why the study of motivation is so relevant to people’s lives and how motivation contributes positively to significant life outcomes like achievement, performance, and wellbeing, to name a few (Reeve, 2015).

Our motivation, when it originates from internal motives, as categorized into needs, cognitions, and emotions, is often experienced as more immediate and potent than extrinsic motivation.

Since we don’t exist in a vacuum, however, these inner experiences cannot take place without some degree of the external influence, be it in the form of consequences, incentives, or other forms of pressure arising out of the social context of our environment.

Our physiological and psychological needs drive us, our cognitions direct us, and emotions land intensity and energy to our pursuits. When the combination of antecedent conditions and the internal motives align, they create a ripe environment for engagement, which propels the action behavior.

When these behaviors, in turn, create more positive motivational and emotional states, they reinforce the behavior through a positive feedback loop and increase the likelihood of repetition (Reeve, 2015).

The greatest thief this world has ever produced is procrastination, and he is still at large.

Josh Billings

The self-concordance model of goal setting differentiates between four types of motivation (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999).

• External motivation Goals are heavily guided by external circumstances and would not occur without some kind of reward or to prevent a negative outcome.
• Introjected motivation Goals are characterized by self-image or ego-based motivation, reflecting the need to keep a certain self-image alive.
• Identified motivation The actions needed to accomplish the goal are perceived as personally important and meaningful, and personal values are the main drivers of goal pursuit.
• Intrinsic motivation When a behavior is guided by intrinsic motivation, the individual strives for this goal because of the enjoyment or stimulation that this goal provides. While there may be many good reasons for pursuing the goal, the primary reason is simply the interest in the experience of goal pursuit itself.

Goals guided by either identified or intrinsic motivation can be considered self-concordant. Self-concordant goals are associated with higher levels of wellbeing, enhanced positive mood, and higher life satisfaction levels than non-self-concordant goals.

Consider a motivational problem like procrastination or avoidance

Our needs, cognitions, emotions, environments, and relationships can play a crucial role in procrastination or avoidance.

All needs are born either out of deficiency or need for growth. Physiological needs are a particularly strong force in determining behavior. Our bodies will signal our brain if our wellbeing is threatened, and this can lead to avoidance and procrastination when we are suffering from hunger, thirst, or lack of sleep, for example.

Psychological needs are also significant drivers of motives as they represent inborn needs for the development of a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. When we try to force ourselves to do something that contradicts those needs, these innate forces can be tough to overcome.

The conflict between chosen behavior and the need for satisfaction of psychological needs like autonomy can create dissonance, which can lead to avoidance or procrastination. While the fulfillment of physiological needs is about preserving wellbeing, satisfying psychological needs is about thriving and growing as a person (Reeve, 2015).

When we are no longer able to change a situation, we are challenged to change ourselves.

Viktor E. Frankl

There are also implicit needs which are acquired from our environment through socioemotional development. They vary from person to person as our experiences vary, and unlike inborn psychological needs, implicit motives are acquired.

Implicit here means unconscious. These needs occur without conscious awareness and are trait-like and enduring. Implicit needs motivate us toward the pursuit and attainment of specific social incentives (Schultheiss & Brunstein, 2010).

An implicit motive is a psychological need that arises from situational cues that cause emotional reactions, which then predict, guide, and explain people’s behavior and lifestyle. They can be inferred from the person’s characteristic thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. What a person “needs” within an implicit motive is to experience a particular pattern of affect or emotion.

For example, if we have little or no need for achievement, we may experience negative affect, such as anxiety, shame, and embarrassment while engaging in that challenging task and will avoid or procrastinate as a result. Implicit motives predict our behavior far more accurately than do explicit motives, which are basically what we tell others about what motives us (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989).

Our cognitions can also influence our tendency to avoid or procrastinate. Cognitions are mental constructs like goals, mindset, expectations, beliefs, and self-concept, to name a few that influence our motivation. If we have conflicting goals, for example, we may be more likely to avoid or procrastinate.

Change the way you look at things and the things you look at change.

Wayne W. Dyer

Emotions, although closely linked to cognitions and psychological needs, in and of themselves can motivate or demotivate. They can signal the importance of particular behavior. We may feel joy or pride at the possibility of goal attainment through engagement in particular behavior, or we can be afraid of failure and choose to avoid or procrastinate.

Our environment can also be either ideal and supportive or an obstacle to staying motivated and achieving our goals (Reeve, 2015). It can be full of distractions or lack optimal conditions that allow for sustained motivation.

Finally, our relationships can be supportive and empowering when it comes to change. This can be explained through a concept like the Michelangelo phenomenon, where our relationships support our potential. They can also be demotivating as in the Blueberry phenomenon, where the relationship brings out the worst in us and can contribute to procrastination and avoidance.

Motivation is a dynamic process, and our motives vary over time. Raising and falling as circumstances change, and as time passes, motives contribute to the ongoing stream of behavior. To further complicate matters, we are driven by a multitude of different motives at any one point in time.

One motive, usually the one most situationally appropriate, will be strongest and dominate our attention while other motives will be subordinate and lie relatively dormant. Although typically the strongest motive will have the most considerable influence on our behavior, as circumstances change, each subordinate motive can become dominant.

The below example shows how a student’s motivation to read varies over time in strength, starting relatively strong then weakening when compared to the need to hang out with friends or to eat a snack (Reeve, 2015).

The awareness of how motivation varies over time is particularly important when it comes to goal setting.

When we differentiate the motivational and the performance-based advantages versus disadvantages for those who adopt a short-term goal, as in eating less than 2000 calories today, versus performers who adopt a long-term goal, as in losing 20 pounds this year, we must consider the type of activity they are engaging in before making recommendations.

Short term goals work better for uninteresting activities as they boost commitment by providing feedback on progress more often, which further reinforces the effort to persist (Reeve, 2015).

Motivation to perform routine or boring activities can be improved; however, by providing clarity of goals and choice in how to perform a task. Clarity and choice can fuel a sense of mastery and autonomy, and both, in combination, can increase overall motivation as they satisfy basic psychological needs.

When it comes to interesting tasks, or as Mihaly Csíkszentmihályi (1990) calls them autotelic activities, long-term goals work better as they often provide for greater flexibility and more autonomy in how to pursue them. Short terms milestones can feel intrusive for interesting activities. Autotelic activities are already engaging, and we are often intrinsically motivated to perform them because they produce enjoyment. But most importantly, we are motivated to pursue them in the absence of external rewards or incentives.

′Autotelic′ is a word composed of two Greek roots: auto (self), and telos (goal). An autotelic activity is one we do for its own sake because to experience it is the main goal.

Mihaly Csíkszentmihályi

We also need to keep in mind that motivation to act on the goals is often higher when the goal is based in the near future, while far off goals do not create the tension of immediacy that would motivate us to act right away (Reeve, 2015).

To learn more about the types of motivation that exist, see our article on Motivation and What Really Drives Human Behavior .

You can also find many different approaches to increase motivation in the below list of self-help books published on the subject. Some are more philosophical, others biographical, and a few present recent research in motivation psychology.

17 Tools To Increase Motivation and Goal Achievement

These 17 Motivation & Goal Achievement Exercises [PDF] contain all you need to help others set meaningful goals, increase self-drive, and experience greater accomplishment and life satisfaction.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

There is a wide array of books on motivation, covering different aspects and genres. Making a selection of the top ten was just not possible, so here is a list of 16 excellent books on motivation.

1. Finite and Infinite Games

The goal is to keep playing with boundaries.

Available on Amazon .

2. Talent is Overrated: What Really Separates World-Class Performers from Everyone Else

Masters practice, practice, practice. One must deliberately engage in mentally demanding and repetitive activity to become an expert.

3. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience

Flow as motivation.

4. Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation

Motivation is something people do, not something that is done to them.

5. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success

Keep finding opportunities to improve.

6. Then We Came to the End

Joshua Ferris shares a humoristic yet emotionally true reflection about survival in life’s strangest environment – the office.

7. Good Work

Focusing on genetics and journalism, this eagerly awaited book investigate the exhibition of humane creativity, where performance is coupled with social responsibility.

Available on  Amazon .

8. Outliers: The Story of Success

Creative work is more satisfying, but success is influenced by many factors.

9. Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

Winner of the prestigious Lincoln Prize and the inspiration for the Oscar Award winning–film Lincoln, starring Daniel Day-Lewis, directed by Steven Spielberg, and written by Tony Kushner. Need we say more?

10. The Amateurs

Pulitzer Prize-winning writing skills combined with sport journalism results in a highly acclaimed book.

11. Punished by Rewards

Rewards motivate us only to get more rewards.

12. Once a Runner

Always better than himself.

13. The War of Art: Break Through the Blocks & Win Your Inner Creative Battles

We are not ready for freedom. The paradox is that we are free only to the extent of our self-mastery.

14. Maverick: The Success Story Behind the World’s Most Unusual Workplace

How to be self-sufficient.

15. The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of The Learning Organizations

In learning organizations, life is a work of art.

16. Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap and Others Don’t

A study by Jim Collins and his research team over five years, revealed much-needed insight into management strategies and more.

It seems it isn’t that simple to find the motivation to do this thing that is so important to us. We must consider if it competes with other motives, and perhaps take stock of our values to make sure that this not the case. Often we may have to intervene in how our motivation is influenced by external incentives present in our environment or social context to make sure that we match those to high internal motives.

Motivation science tells us that if we want to be successful in motivating our own or other people’s behavior, high internal motives should be matched with high external motivations. Finally, we will often want to sustain the motivation over some time and may have to create a regiment of reminders, repetitions, and rituals — more on that in our article on motivation tools .

How do you hack motivation? What helps you stay committed?

Share your experience in the comments section.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Goal Achievement Exercises for free .

• Atkinson, J. W., & Birch, D. (1970). On the dynamics of action. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie en haar Grensgebieden, 25 (2), 83-94.
• Atkinson, J. W., & Birch, D. (1978). An introduction to motivation (2nd ed.). Van Nostrand.
• Baumeister, R. F. (2016). Toward a general theory of motivation: Problems, challenges, opportunities, and the big picture. Motivation and Emotion, 40 (1), 1-10.
• Bolles, R. C. (1975). Learning theory . Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
• Csíkszentmihályi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. HaperCollins.
• Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1975). Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from facial expressions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96 (4), 690-702.
• Reeve, J. (2015). Understanding motivation and emotion (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Schultheiss, O., Brunstein, J., & Brunstein, J. C. (2010). Implicit motives . Oxford University Press.
• Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: the self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3) , 482.

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I am looking for the Wayne W. Dyer reference – is there any pointers for this?

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First, I appreciate your blog; I have read your article carefully, Your content is very valuable to me. I hope people like this blog too. I hope you will gain more experience with your knowledge; That’s why people get more information.

It’s THAN not THEN.

Motivation Process Our motivation, when it originates from internal motives, as categorized into needs, cognitions, and emotions, is often experienced as more immediate and potent —then —-extrinsic motivation

Oops! Thank you for bringing this to our attention — I’ve just corrected it 🙂

Amazing article, I came across this article for a paper I am writing in college and found it extremely useful. Additionally I own a part time dog training business and find that motivation is a hugely underappreciated concept within dog training. I base much of my training on motivation and find this article to be extremely beneficial in understanding motivation as it applies to both humans and animals as well as the behavior that come from it. Lastly I really appreciated the recommended books at the end, I just downloaded a few of them off of audible and will continue my studies on motivation.

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Motivation: The Driving Force Behind Our Actions

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Emily Roberts 

• Improvement

The term motivation describes why a person does something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.

For instance, motivation is what helps you lose extra weight, or pushes you to get that promotion at work. In short, motivation causes you to act in a way that gets you closer to your goals. Motivation includes the biological , emotional , social , and cognitive forces that activate human behavior.

Motivation also involves factors that direct and maintain goal-directed actions. Although, such motives are rarely directly observable. As a result, we must often infer the reasons why people do the things that they do based on observable behaviors.

Learn the types of motivation that exist and how we use them in our everyday lives. And if it feels like you've lost your motivation, do not worry. There are many ways to develop or improve your self-motivation levels.

Press Play for Advice on Motivation

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares an exercise you can use to help you perform your best. Click below to listen now.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts

What Are the Types of Motivation?

The two main types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic.

• Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and often involves external rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
• Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the gratification of solving a problem.

A Third Type of Motivation?

Some research suggests that there is a third type of motivation: family motivation. An example of this type is going to work when you are not motivated to do so internally (no intrinsic motivation), but because it is a means to support your family financially.

Why Motivation Is Important

Motivation serves as a guiding force for all human behavior. So, understanding how motivation works and the factors that may impact it can be important for several reasons.

Understanding motivation can:

• Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals
• Drive you to take action
• Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors
• Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors, such as risk-taking and addiction
• Help you feel more in control of your life
• Improve your overall well-being and happiness

Click Play to Learn More About Motivation

This video has been medically reviewed by John C. Umhau, MD, MPH, CPE .

What Are the 3 Components of Motivation?

If you've ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon), you probably already know that simply having the desire to accomplish these things is not enough. You must also be able to persist through obstacles and have the endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties faced.

These different elements or components are needed to get and stay motivated. Researchers have identified three major components of motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

• Activation is the decision to initiate a behavior. An example of activation would be enrolling in psychology courses in order to earn your degree.
• Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be showing up for your psychology class even though you are tired from staying up late the night before.
• Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort (minimal intensity) while another student studies regularly, participates in classroom discussions, and takes advantage of research opportunities outside of class (greater intensity).

The degree of each of these components of motivation can impact whether you achieve your goal. Strong activation, for example, means that you are more likely to start pursuing a goal. Persistence and intensity will determine if you keep working toward that goal and how much effort you devote to reaching it.

Tips for Improving Your Motivation

All people experience fluctuations in their motivation and willpower . Sometimes you feel fired up and highly driven to reach your goals. Other times, you might feel listless or unsure of what you want or how to achieve it.

If you're feeling low on motivation, there are steps you can take to help increase your drive. Some things you can do to develop or improve your motivation include:

• Adjust your goals to focus on things that really matter to you. Focusing on things that are highly important to you will help push you through your challenges more than goals based on things that are low in importance.
• If you're tackling something that feels too big or too overwhelming, break it up into smaller, more manageable steps. Then, set your sights on achieving only the first step. Instead of trying to lose 50 pounds, for example, break this goal down into five-pound increments.
• Improve your confidence . Research suggests that there is a connection between confidence and motivation. So, gaining more confidence in yourself and your skills can impact your ability to achieve your goals.
• Remind yourself about what you've achieved in the past and where your strengths lie. This helps keep self-doubts from limiting your motivation.
• If there are things you feel insecure about, try working on making improvements in those areas so you feel more skilled and capable.

Causes of Low Motivation

There are a few things you should watch for that might hurt or inhibit your motivation levels. These include:

• All-or-nothing thinking : If you think that you must be absolutely perfect when trying to reach your goal or there is no point in trying, one small slip-up or relapse can zap your motivation to keep pushing forward.
• Believing in quick fixes : It's easy to feel unmotivated if you can't reach your goal immediately but reaching goals often takes time.
• Thinking that one size fits all : Just because an approach or method worked for someone else does not mean that it will work for you. If you don't feel motivated to pursue your goals, look for other things that will work better for you.

Motivation and Mental Health

Sometimes a persistent lack of motivation is tied to a mental health condition such as depression . Talk to your doctor if you are feeling symptoms of apathy and low mood that last longer than two weeks.

Theories of Motivation

Throughout history, psychologists have proposed different theories to explain what motivates human behavior. The following are some of the major theories of motivation.

The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behavior. Psychologists such as William James, Sigmund Freud , and William McDougal have proposed several basic human drives that motivate behavior. They include biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival—such as fear, cleanliness, and love.

Drives and Needs

Many behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sleeping are motivated by biology. We have a biological need for food, water, and sleep. Therefore, we are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep. The drive reduction theory of motivation suggests that people have these basic biological drives, and our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another motivation theory based on a desire to fulfill basic physiological needs. Once those needs are met, it expands to our other needs, such as those related to safety and security, social needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization.

Arousal Levels

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal. A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities such as reading a book, while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors such as motorcycle racing.

The Bottom Line

Psychologists have proposed many different theories of motivation . The reality is that there are numerous different forces that guide and direct our motivations.

Understanding motivation is important in many areas of life beyond psychology, from parenting to the workplace. You may want to set the best goals and establish the right reward systems to motivate others as well as to  increase your own motivation .

Knowledge of motivating factors (and how to manipulate them) is used in marketing and other aspects of industrial psychology. It's an area where there are many myths, and everyone can benefit from knowing what works with motivation and what doesn't.

Nevid JS.  Psychology: Concepts and Applications .

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Work Motivation: The Roles of Individual Needs and Social Conditions

Thuy thi diem vo.

1 Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No. 43, Section 4, Keelung Road, Da’an District, Taipei City 106335, Taiwan; wt.ude.tsutn.liam@31880701d (T.T.D.V.); wt.ude.tsutn.liam@nehcwc (C.-W.C.)

Kristine Velasquez Tuliao

2 Graduate Institute of Human Resource Management, National Central University, No. 300, Zhongda Road, Zhongli District, Taoyuan City 320317, Taiwan

Chung-Wen Chen

Associated data.

The data that support this study are publicly available.

Work motivation plays a vital role in the development of organizations, as it increases employee productivity and effectiveness. To expand insights into individuals’ work motivation, the authors investigated the influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on their work motivation. Additionally, the country-level moderating factors of those individual-level associations were examined. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to analyze data from 32,614 individuals from 25 countries, obtained from the World Values Survey (WVS). Findings showed that autonomy and social relatedness positively impacted work motivation, while competence negatively influenced work motivation. Moreover, the individual-level associations were moderated by the country-level religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism. Contributions, practical implications, and directions for further research were then discussed.

1. Introduction

Work motivation is considered an essential catalyst for the success of organizations, as it promotes employees’ effective performance. To achieve an organization’s objectives, the employer depends on the performance of their employees [ 1 ]. However, insufficiently motivated employees perform poorly despite being skillful [ 1 , 2 ]. Employers, therefore, need their employees to work with complete motivation rather than just showing up at their workplaces [ 3 ]. Work motivation remains a vital factor in organizational psychology, as it helps explain the causes of individual conduct in organizations [ 4 ]. Consequently, studies on the factors that encourage work motivation can contribute to the theoretical underpinnings on the roots of individual and practical social conditions that optimize individuals’ performance and wellness [ 5 ].

Several decades of research have endeavored to explain the dynamics that initiate work-related behavior. The primary factor examining this aspect is motivation, as it explains why individuals do what they do [ 6 ]. The basic psychological needs have represented a vital rationalization of individual differences in work motivation. Psychological needs are considered natural psychological nutrients and humans’ inner resources. They have a close relationship with individual conduct and have a strong explicit meaning for work performance [ 7 , 8 ]. Different needs are essential drivers of individual functioning due to the satisfaction derived from dealing with them [ 9 ]. In addition to individual-level antecedents, the social context has also been regarded to have implications for work motivation. Social exchange and interaction among individuals accentuate the importance of work motivation as something to be studied with consideration of contextual factors [ 10 ].

Significant contributions have been made to the socio-psychological perspective of work motivation ( Table 1 ). However, current literature shows three deficiencies. First, over 150 papers utilize the key approaches of psychological needs to justify motivational processes in the workplace [ 11 ], which justifies the vital role of psychological needs in interpreting individual work motivation. The association between psychological needs and work motivation has often been implicitly assumed; however, the influence of psychological needs on work motivation has been inadequately tested [ 8 ]. The verification of the extent and the direction of influence will provide a better understanding of, and offer distinct implications for, the facilitation of work motivation. In examining the influence of psychological needs on work motivation, this paper mainly focuses on the intrinsic aspect of motivation. The study of Alzahrani et al. (2018) [ 12 ] argued that although intrinsic motivation is more efficient than extrinsic motivation, researchers have mostly neglected it.

Several investigated predictors of work motivation in general and intrinsic motivation in particular.

Second, there is no study examining the country-level moderating effects of social conditions and national cultures on individual relationships between psychological needs and work motivation. Pinder (2014) [ 20 ] argued that contextual practices could influence variables at the individual level. Culture is a crucial factor influencing motivation [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Researchers (e.g., [ 19 ]) have further suggested that both the proximal social situations (e.g., workgroup) and the distal social situations (e.g., cultural values) in which humans operate influence their need for satisfaction and their motivation type. Intrinsic motivation interacts with prosocial motivation in judging work performance [ 21 ]. By including the social conditions in the framework, prosocial motivation is considered. Prosocial motivation refers to the desire to help and promote the welfare of others [ 22 , 23 ]. The study of Shao et al. (2019) [ 24 ] proposed that prosocial motivation promotes employee engagement in particular organizational tasks. Researchers often consider prosocial motivation as a pattern of intrinsic motivation [ 23 ]. This implies that when intrinsic motivation is investigated, prosocial motivation should be examined together to obtain a comprehensive understanding.

Third, there are few studies using a considerable number of cross-national samples to investigate factors influencing work motivation. A cross-cultural analysis makes the findings more objective by minimizing individual bias towards any particular culture. Therefore, the examination of the study is crucial to expanding insights on the influence of social situations on the individual associations between psychological needs and work motivation.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

2.1. work motivation: a conceptual background.

Work motivation is considered “a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form direction intensity and duration” [ 20 ]. Nicolescu and Verboncu (2008) [ 25 ] argued that work motivation contributes directly and indirectly to employees’ performance. Additionally, research (e.g., [ 26 ]) has postulated that work motivation could be seen as a source of positive energy that leads to employees’ self-recognition and self-fulfillment. Therefore, work motivation is an antecedent of the self-actualization of individuals and the achievement of organizations.

Literature has identified several models of work motivation. One of the primary models is Maslow’s (1954) [ 27 ] need hierarchy theory, which proposes that humans fulfill a set of needs, including physiological, safety and security, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Additionally, Herzberg’s (1966) [ 28 ] motivation-hygiene theory proposed that work motivation is mainly influenced by the job’s intrinsic challenge and provision of opportunities for recognition and reinforcement. More contemporary models also emerged. For instance, the study of Nicolescu and Verboncu (2008) [ 25 ] has categorized the types of motivation into four pairs, including positive-negative, intrinsic-extrinsic, cognitive-affective, and economic-moral spiritual. Additionally, Ryan and Deci [ 29 ] focused on intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

With the existence of numerous factors that relate to work motivation, this paper mainly focuses on intrinsic motivation. Previous research found that emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationship quality predict individuals’ intrinsic motivation [ 14 ]. Additionally, the study of Lin (2020) [ 13 ] argued that personal factors, including age, gender, educational level, living setting, health status, and family support, impact people’s intrinsic motivation. To understand more about intrinsic motivation, the authors examined individuals’ psychological needs. Fulfillment of the basic needs is related to wellness and effective performance [ 7 ]. Since intrinsic motivation results in high-quality creativity, recognizing the factors influencing intrinsic motivation is important [ 5 ].

Although a significant number of important contributions have been made regarding intrinsic motivation, self-determination theory is of particular significance for this study. Self-determination theory (SDT) postulates that all humans possess a variety of basic psychological needs. One of the primary crucial needs is the need for competence [ 30 , 31 ], which makes individuals feel confident and effective in their actions. Additionally, the need for autonomy [ 32 ] is one of the important psychological needs, which makes people satisfied with optimal wellness and good performance obtained as a result of their own decisions. Moreover, SDT proposed the crucial importance of interpersonal relationships and how social forces can influence thoughts, emotions, and behaviors [ 33 ]. This means that the psychological need for social relatedness [ 34 ] also plays a significant role in human’s psychological traits. Individuals need to be cared for by others and care for others to perceive belongingness. The need for relatedness can motivate people to behave more socially [ 35 ].

Prior research (e.g., [ 36 ]) has explored self-determination theory and related theories as approaches to work motivation and organizational behavior. The study of Van den Broeck et al. (2010) [ 37 ] emphasized grasping autonomy, competence, and relatedness at workplaces. This paper contributes to the exhaustive understanding of intrinsic work motivation influenced by further examining the impact of these three factors on work motivation as well as the moderating effects of social contexts.

2.2. Main Effect

2.2.1. individuals’ competence and work motivation.

Competence is “the collective learning in the organization, especially how to coordinate diverse production skills and integrate multiple streams of technologies” [ 38 ]. The study of Hernández-March et al. (2009) [ 39 ] argued that a stronger competence was commonly found in university graduates rather than those without higher education. Competence has been considered a significant factor of work motivation that enhances productivity and profits. Harter’s (1983) [ 40 ] model of motivation proposed that competence enhances motivation because competence promotes flexibility for individuals [ 41 ]. Likewise, Patall et al. (2014) [ 42 ] indirectly argued that competence positively affects work motivation. Individuals become more engaged in activities that demonstrate their competence [ 6 ]. When people perceive that they are competent enough to attain goals, they generally feel confident and concentrate their efforts on achieving their objectives as soon as possible for their self-fulfillment.

Individuals’ competence positively relates to their work motivation.

2.2.2. Individuals’ Autonomy and Work Motivation

Autonomy is viewed as “self-determination, self-rule, liberty of rights, freedom of will and being one’s own person” [ 43 ]. Reeve (2006) [ 44 ] argued that autonomy is a primary theoretical approach in the study of human motivation and emotion. Autonomy denotes that certain conduct is performed with a sense of willingness [ 30 ]. Several researchers (e.g., [ 45 ]) investigated the positive relationship between individuals’ autonomy and work motivation. When humans are involved in actions because of their interest, they fully perform those activities volitionally [ 36 ]. Dickinson (1995) [ 46 ] also proposed that autonomous individuals are more highly motivated, and autonomy breeds more effective outcomes. Moreover, when individuals have a right to make their own decisions, they tend to be more considerate and responsible for those decisions, as they need to take accountability for their actions. Bandura (1991) [ 47 ] has argued that humans’ ability to reflect, react, and direct their actions motivates them for future purposes. Therefore, autonomy motivates individuals to work harder and overcome difficulties to achieve their objectives.

Individuals’ autonomy positively relates to their work motivation.

2.2.3. Individuals’ Social Relatedness and Work Motivation

The psychological need for social relatedness occurs when an individual has a sense of being secure, related to, or understood by others in the social environment [ 48 ]. The relatedness need is fulfilled when humans experience the feeling of close relationships with others [ 49 ]. Researchers (e.g., [ 34 ]) have postulated that the need for relatedness reflects humans’ natural tendency to feel associated with others, such as being a member of any social groups, or to love and care as well as be loved and cared for. Prior studies have shown that social relatedness strongly impacts motivation [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. Social relatedness offers people many opportunities to communicate with others, making them more motivated at the workplace, aligning them with the group’s shared objectives. Marks (1974) [ 53 ] suggested that social relatedness encourages individuals to focus on community welfare as a reference for their behavior, resulting in enhanced work motivation. Moreover, when individuals feel that they relate to and are cared for by others, their motivation can be maximized since their relatedness need is fulfilled [ 54 ]. Therefore, establishing close relationships with others plays a vital role in promoting human motivation [ 55 ]. When people perceive that they are cared for and loved by others, they tend to create positive outcomes for common benefits to deserve the kindness received, thereby motivating them to work harder.

Individuals’ social relatedness positively relates to their work motivation.

Aside from exploring the influence of psychological needs on work motivation, this paper also considers country-level factors. Previous research (e.g., [ 56 ]) has examined the influence of social institutions and national cultures on work motivation. However, the moderating effects of country-level factors have to be investigated, given the contextual impacts on individual needs, attitudes, and behavior. Although social conditions provide the most common interpretation for nation-level variance in individual work behaviors [ 57 ], few cross-national studies examine social conditions and individual work behaviors [ 56 ]. Hence, this paper investigates the moderating effects, including religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism, on the psychological needs-work motivation association.

A notable theory to explain the importance of contextual factors in work motivation that is customarily linked with SDT is the concept of prosocial motivation. Prosocial motivation suggests that individuals have the desire to expend efforts in safeguarding and promoting others’ well-being [ 58 , 59 ]. It is proposed that prosocial motivation strengthens endurance, performance, and productivity, as well as generates creativity that encourages individuals to develop valuable and novel ideas [ 21 , 60 ]. Prosocial motivation is found to interact with intrinsic motivation in influencing positive work outcomes [ 21 , 61 ]. However, there are few studies examining the effects of prosocial motivation on work motivation [ 62 ].

Utilizing the concept of prosocial motivation and examining it on a country-level, this paper suggests that prosocial factors promote basic psychological needs satisfaction that reinforces motivational processes at work. Therefore, prosocial behaviors and values may enhance the positive impact of individuals’ basic psychological needs, including competence, autonomy, and social relatedness, on work motivation.

2.3. Moderating Effects

2.3.1. religious affiliation.

Religions manifest values that are usually employed as grounds to investigate what is right and wrong [ 63 ]. Religious affiliation is considered prosocial because it satisfies the need for belongingness and upholds collective well-being through gatherings to worship, seek assistance, and offer comfort within religious communities. Hence, religious affiliation promotes the satisfaction of individuals’ psychological needs, which directs motivation at work and life in general. Research (e.g., [ 64 ]) has argued that religious affiliation is an essential motivational component given its impact on psychological processes. The study of Simon and Primavera (1972) [ 65 ] investigated the relationship between religious affiliation and work motivation. To humans characterized by competence, autonomy, and social relatedness, attachment to religious principles increases their motivation to accomplish organizational goals. Religious membership will increase the influence of psychological needs on work motivation. The tendency of individuals affiliated with any religion to be demotivated is lower compared to those who are not. Individuals with religious affiliations also tend to work harder as the virtue of hard work is aligned with religious principles. Accordingly, religious affiliation may enhance the positive association between individuals’ psychological needs and work motivation.

2.3.2. Political Participation

Political participation, indicated by people’s voting habits, plays a crucial role in ensuring citizens’ well-being and security [ 66 ]. Political participation encourages shared beliefs and collective goals among individuals [ 67 ]. The communication and interaction among people help them grasp the government’s developmental strategies, motivating them to work harder. Political participation is a collective pursuit that makes societal members feel more confident, socially related, and motivated at work to achieve communal targets. Increased political participation reinforces effective public policy to enhance its members’ welfare, congruent with the perspectives of prosocial motivation. The prosocial values and behaviors derived from political participation satisfy human needs and interact positively with intrinsic motivation. Therefore, political participation may strengthen the positive influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on work motivation. Conversely, poor political participation is perceived as a separation from the society that may lead to demotivation. In a society with poor political participation, an individualistic mentality is encouraged, thereby decreasing the desire to pursue cooperative endeavors.

2.3.3. Humane Orientation

GLOBE characterizes humane orientation as “the degree to which an organization or society encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others” [ 68 ]. Research (e.g., [ 69 , 70 ]) has argued that a high humane orientation encourages members to develop a strong sense of belonging, commit to fair treatment, and manifest benevolence. The desire to help others or enhance others’ well-being indicates prosocial values and behaviors [ 71 , 72 ]. Since humane orientation is correlated with philanthropy and promotes good relations, this cultural value may enhance work motivation. Fairness, which is derived from a humane-oriented society, is one of the most vital influences on work motivation [ 1 ]. Moreover, altruism, promoted by humane-oriented societies, encourages individuals to sacrifice individual interests for shared benefits. Altruism then encourages attachment to others’ welfare and increases resources needed for prosocial behaviors such as work [ 73 , 74 ]. Members of humane-oriented countries view work in a positive light—it is an opportunity for them to perform altruistic behaviors and engage in collective actions. Therefore, people are more likely to work harder for common interests in humane-oriented societies. In such conditions, individuals with competence, autonomy, and social relatedness will be more motivated to work. By contrast, a less humane-oriented society gives prominence to material wealth and personal enjoyment [ 75 ]. Although this may be perceived as a positive influence on the association between psychological needs and work motivation, such an individualistic mindset works against the prosocial factors that further motivate individuals.

2.3.4. In-Group Collectivism

House et al. (2004) [ 68 ] defined in-group collectivism as “the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families”. Collectivistic cultures indicate the need for individuals to rely on group membership for identification [ 76 ]. High collectivism enhances equity, solidarity, loyalty, and encouragement [ 77 , 78 ]. Humans living in a collectivist culture are interdependent and recognize their responsibilities towards each other [ 79 ]. In-group collectivism transfers the concepts of social engagement, interdependence with others, and care for the group over the self (e.g., [ 79 , 80 , 81 ], thereby motivating individuals to work harder for the common interests. Oyserman et al. (2002) [ 82 ] have further argued that individualistic values encourage an independent personality, whereas collectivistic values form an interdependent one. Therefore, in-group collectivism is a prosocial value that emphasizes the importance of reciprocal relationships and encourages people to work harder to benefit the group. By contrast, low collectivism promotes individual interests and personal well-being while neglecting the value of having strong relations with others [ 70 ]. Considering that in-group collectivism promotes individuals’ prosocial behaviors of individuals, people who are competent, autonomous, and socially related to collective societies are less likely to be demotivated at the workplace. Consequently, in-group collectivism may intensify the positive influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on their work motivation.

(a–d): The positive relationship between individuals’ competence and their work motivation is enhanced as religious affiliation (a), political participation (b), humane orientation (c), and in-group collectivism (d) increase.

(a–d): The positive relationship between individuals’ autonomy and their work motivation is enhanced as religious affiliation (a), political participation (b), humane orientation (c), and in-group collectivism (d) increase.

(a–d): The positive relationship between individuals’ social relatedness and their work motivation is enhanced as religious affiliation (a), political participation (b), humane orientation (c), and in-group collectivism (d) increase.

3.1. Sample

The data came from the seventh wave (2017–2021) of the World Values Survey (WVS) [ 83 ], which examines humans’ beliefs and values. This survey is performed every five years to explore changes in people’s values and perceptions. Face-to-face interviews, or phone interviews for remote areas, were conducted by local organizations. Almost 90 percent of the world’s population is represented in the WVS. At least 1000 individuals were selected as respondents to exhibit each nation’s population. Further information regarding the WVS can be reached at the WVS website ( http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org , accessed on 14 October 2021).

The samples of this study were based on the availability of national-level data for the moderators and individual-level data for the measures of independent and dependent variables. Respondents without answers on the individual measures and corresponding country-level data were excluded from the analysis. The final data included 32,614 respondents in 25 countries aged 18 and above. The 25 countries included Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Russia, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, and the USA.

3.2. Dependent Variable

Consistent with previous researchers (e.g., [ 84 ]), the authors used four items to gauge individual work motivation, namely “Indicate how important work is in your life”, “People who do not work turn lazy”, “Work is a duty towards society”, and “Work should always come first, even if it means less spare”. The first item was measured on a scale from 1 to 4, in which lower scores indicate a higher level of work importance. The other three items were gauged on a scale from 1 to 5 (1 indicating strongly agree and 5 indicating strongly disagree). The scores for each item were reverse coded, and the mean scores were computed so that higher scores indicate greater work motivation.

3.3. Independent Variables

The independent variables of this study include individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness. First, people’s competence was measured by the item “What is the highest educational level that you attained” on a scale from 0 to 8, in which higher scores indicate a higher level of educational attainment. The authors used the item to gauge individual competence, as a capacity for learning is highlighted in the examination of competence [ 39 ]. Second, a scale from 1 to 10 was utilized to measure the item “How much freedom of choice and control”, which represented individual autonomy (1 indicating no choice at all and 10 indicating a great deal of choice). The authors used the item to gauge people’s autonomy as this item indicates the degree to which individual can make their own decisions. Finally, the individual’s social relatedness was gauged by twelve items, representing twelve types of organizations where individuals are active/inactive members or do not belong. The twelve items were measured on a scale from 0 to 2 (0 indicating do not belong, 1 indicating inactive member, and 2 indicating active member). The mean score of the twelve items represents the individual’s social relatedness. The membership in organizations represents social relatedness, as this indicates the reciprocal relationship between the individual and the organization through their mutual rights, responsibilities, and obligations towards each other [ 85 ].

3.4. Moderators

The four country-level moderators in this study were religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism. Similar to prior research (e.g., [ 86 ]), the authors used the percentage of the country’s population with religious affiliation obtained from Pew Research Center 2015 [ 87 ]. Secondly, the index of voter turnout collected from the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance [ 88 ] was utilized to gauge political participation. Voting habits are an indicator of an individual’s presence in their country’s life, and a nation with a high index of voter turnout illustrates its substantial degree of political participation [ 89 ]. Finally, two cultural values, including humane orientation and in-group collectivism, were obtained from the GLOBE study [ 68 ]. The authors used scores on cultural practices as the moderators for this study because they indicate the actual behaviors as “the way things are done in this culture” [ 68 ].

3.5. Control Variables

Several individual-level and country-level elements related to the dependent variable were considered control variables. The effects of gender, marital status, age, and income level were accounted for, as these four variables are basic personal factors that may impact individual’s motivation [ 90 ]. Gender (1 indicating male and 0 indicating female) and marital status (1 indicating married and 0 indicating other status) were dummy coded. Moreover, age was measured in years, while income level was gauged using a scale from 1 representing the lowest group to 10 representing the highest group. Along with the above individual-level controls, education and family strength were treated as country-level control variables. Education and family are primary institutions that shape individuals’ motivation [ 91 , 92 ]. Similar to prior researchers (e.g., [ 93 ]), education was computed as two-thirds of the adult literacy rate attained from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2020 [ 94 ] and one-third of the mean years of schooling obtained from the Human Development Report 2020 [ 95 ]. This score is commonly approved as representing access to education in a country [ 42 ]. Regarding family strength, the score was quantified by the ratio of divorces to marriages per 1000 members of the population consistent with previous researchers (e.g., [ 93 ]). The data was obtained from the United Nations Demographic Yearbook [ 96 ].

3.6. Measurement and Analysis

To perform the descriptive statistics, cross-level correlations, scale reliability, confirmatory factor analysis, convergent validity, and discriminant validity, the authors utilized SPSS software.

The framework of this study considers independent variables, dependent variables, and moderators at different levels. Thus, the authors used a hierarchical linear model (HLM) [ 97 ] to test the hypotheses. HLM was defined as a “complex form of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression that is used to analyze variance in the outcome variables when the predictor variables are at varying hierarchical levels” [ 98 ]. This technique evaluates the impacts of higher-level outcomes on lower-level ones while preserving an appropriate degree of analysis [ 99 ]. HLM has been employed in several cross-level studies (e.g., [ 100 , 101 ]).

Table 2 presents a matrix of correlations and sample statistics from the individual-level to country-level variables. Table 3 and Table 4 report convergent and discriminant validity test results, respectively. Finally, Table 5 illustrates results for hypotheses testing using HLM. Three models are presented in the table: those of individual-level main effects and control variables (Model 1), those of country-level main effects (Model 2), and country-level moderating effects (Model 3).

Descriptive statistics, cross-level correlations and scale reliability a,b,c .

a   n = 32,614 level 1; n = 25, level 2. b * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01. c The reliability found in the parentheses is expressed as Cronbach’s alpha for scales with ≥four items.

Convergent validity.

Discriminant validity—Fornell and Larcker’s criterion.

* p < 0.05.

HLM results: (The DV is work motivation) a,b .

a , n = 32,614 level 1; n = 25, level 2. b , †, p < 0.10, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

For the confirmatory factor analysis, previous research (e.g., [ 102 , 103 , 104 ]) suggested that analysis of each variable requires at least three items. Factor analysis using statistical software will provide imprecise results if there are fewer than three items per variable [ 105 ]. Therefore, the authors only performed Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) for social relatedness and work motivation.

To assess the measurement, convergent and discriminant validity were tested. Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were performed to illustrate convergent validity. The study of Hair et al. (2019) [ 106 ] suggested that CR is required to be above a threshold of 0.7. On the other hand, the AVE value should be higher than a threshold of 0.5 [ 107 ]. As shown in Table 3 , CR is acceptable while AVE is slightly lower than a threshold of 0.5. Despite the limitation of AVE, the acceptable result of the discriminant validity is achieved. The discriminant validity was tested using Fornell and Larcker (1981)’s criterion [ 107 ]. This proposes that the square root of the AVE of any latent variable should be higher than its correlation with any other construct. The result of the discriminant validity test indicates that all the two latent constructs have a square root of AVE higher than its correlation with the other construct, as presented in Table 4 .

The authors argued that individuals’ competence (H1), autonomy (H2), and social relatedness (H3) positively relate to their work motivation. However, the findings only supported H2 (β2 = 0.036, p < 0.001) and H3 (β3 = 0.042, p < 0.001). In contrast, the findings presented that H1 was also significant, but in the opposite direction compared with our original prediction. The result suggests that individuals’ competence negatively relates to their work motivation.

In Hypotheses 4a–d, we proposed that higher levels of religious affiliation (4a), political participation (4b), humane orientation (4c), and in-group collectivism (4d) strengthen the relationship described in H1. However, the results only demonstrated support for the two hypotheses, H4c (γ13 = 0.032, p < 0.001) and H4d (γ14 = 0.042, p < 0.001). In contrast, the findings presented that H4a was also significant, but opposite our initial prediction. This different result proposes that a higher level of religious affiliation weakens the association between individuals’ competence and work motivation.

In Hypotheses 5a–d, the authors argued that the higher levels of religious affiliation (5a), political participation (5b), humane orientation (5c), and in-group collectivism (5d) enhance the positive relationship between individuals’ autonomy and their work motivation. However, the results only supported the two hypotheses H5b (γ22 = 0.012, p < 0.05) and H5c (γ23 = 0.012, p < 0.1), while H5a and H5d were not significant.

In Hypotheses 6a–d, the authors argued that the higher levels of religious affiliation (6a), political participation (6b), humane orientation (6c), and in-group collectivism (6d) enhance the positive relationship between individuals’ social relatedness and their work motivation. However, the results only supported H6c (γ33 = 0.019, p < 0.01). In contrast, the findings indicated that H6d was also significant, but in the opposite direction compared to our initial hypothesis. The different result suggests that higher in-group collectivism weakens the positive association between individuals’ social relatedness and work motivation. Figure 1 , Figure 2 , Figure 3 , Figure 4 and Figure 5 represent the significant moderators of the associations examined.

The association between competence and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.

The association between competence and work motivation at different levels of in-group collectivism.

The association between autonomy and work motivation at different levels of political participation.

The association between autonomy and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.

The association between social relatedness and work motivation at different levels of humane orientation.

Regarding the statistical results of the control variables, gender, marital status, and age consistently indicated significant positive relationships with work motivation across three models. On the other hand, family strength indicated a significant negative association to work motivation only in Model 1.

5. Discussion

The study’s objective was to examine the influence of individuals’ competence, autonomy, and social relatedness on their work motivation, as well as the impact of country-level moderators, including religious affiliation, political participation, humane orientation, and in-group collectivism on their relationships. Seven primary findings are crucial in this research. First, people’s autonomy and social relatedness positively relate to their work motivation. This result is in line with the findings of prior researchers (e.g., [ 45 , 52 ]), postulating that humans’ autonomy and social relatedness breeds work motivation. The study of Theurer et al. (2018) [ 108 ] argued that, among motivational elements, autonomy had been found to greatly predict positive work motivation. When people feel they have enough control over their activities, they are more confident and motivated to work. Along with autonomy, humans’ social relatedness promotes communal benefits, thereby motivating people to work harder for their organization. Second, the association between individual competence and work motivation is moderated by cultural values, including humane orientation and in-group collectivism. The findings are consistent with the viewpoints of prior researchers (e.g., [ 69 , 70 , 77 , 78 ]), namely that a society with higher levels of humane orientation and in-group collectivism strengthens altruism, solidarity, loyalty, and the encouragement of individuals, which results in work motivation. Consequently, there will be an increase in the differences in individuals’ competence and work motivation if they live in a society with greater humane orientation and in-group collectivism. Third, political participation and humane orientation moderate the relationship between individual autonomy and work motivation. These results are in line with the investigations of prior researchers (e.g., [18,45), which found that social circumstances and cultural practices promote people’s motivation. Accordingly, the differences in individuals’ autonomy based on their work motivation will be enhanced if they belong to nations with higher political participation and humane orientation. Fourth, the association between social relatedness and work motivation is moderated by humane orientation. Accordingly, in a humane-oriented society, the differences in individuals’ social relatedness based on their work motivation will be strengthened.

The remaining findings were contrary to the original propositions. Pinder (2014) [ 20 ] argued that it is possible to find that contextual practices can influence variables at the individual level in the opposite prediction in motivation research. Fifth, individuals’ competence negatively influences their work motivation. This finding proposes that more competent individuals are less motivated at work. One possible interpretation of this opposite result is that, when the majority of the organization members recognize individuals’ competence, these individuals may perceive that it is not necessary to devote most of their time and energy to work anymore. These individuals may believe that no matter how unwillingly they perform, they are still competent enough because of their prior achievements. Additionally, competent individuals recognize that they have already sacrificed their enjoyment of life for their previous successes; therefore, they tend to offset this by investing their valuable time in other aspects. This is consistent with other researchers’ investigations (e.g., [ 109 ]), which found that low-skilled individuals are more often compelled to engage in regular work activities and are more easily motivated than others. By contrast, highly competent individuals tend to be motivated by challenging tasks and improving themselves through further education. Sixth, the relationship between competence and work motivation is negatively moderated by religious affiliation. This finding suggests that religious affiliation weakens the association between individuals’ competence and work motivation. One possible explanation for this finding is that strong religious beliefs are the foundation for virtuous living [ 110 ]. Individuals with religious affiliation usually employ religious principles to guide their behavior, regardless of their competence. In other words, both competent and incompetent individuals tend to be more motivated at the workplace if they are affiliated with any religion, thereby diminishing the influence of competence in work motivation. Seventh, the relationship between social relatedness and work motivation is negatively moderated by in-group collectivism. This result proposes that a higher degree of in-group collectivism weakens the association between individuals’ social relatedness and work motivation. One possible explanation for this is that, under an in-group collective society, people put more weight on mutual relationships and encourage acts that may build up the solidarity of groups. Since in-group collectivism is viewed as a social attachment in which people emphasize the group over the self (e.g., [ 79 , 80 , 81 ]), individuals are fairly conscious of their responsibility to the group regardless of their social relatedness. Both socially related and unrelated individuals belonging to in-group collective cultures tend to work harder for common goals. Accordingly, the influence of individuals’ social relatedness on their work motivation is reduced.

6. Limitations and Future Research

Despite its significant contributions, this study has its limitations. The use of secondary data represents the fact that the data collection process was beyond the authors’ control. However, the collection of cross-national data is time-consuming and costly. The authors used the available data but strove for the efficient use of multilevel data. The secondary data also limited the measurement of individual-level factors based on the available data. Moreover, it is quite complex to gauge an individual’s work motivation appropriately, since personal work motivation may not be one-dimensional. Nevertheless, the authors made efforts to employ the measurements utilized by prior research. Moreover, it is complicated to measure social factors such as political participation. There are challenges in investigating social contexts due to the absence of direct measurements [ 111 ]. This compels the authors to identify substitute measurements for this study. Finally, this study covered 25 samples from 25 countries with different characteristics. Despite the attempt of this study to include the most relevant social conditions in the framework, the influence of other national differences and cultural sensitivities were not considered.

This paper directs further research considering that several frameworks and approaches should be employed to better examine motivation [ 112 ]. First, as some of the results were opposite to the original propositions based on the theoretical foundations employed, combining different concepts and approaches is necessary to enhance perspectives of psychological needs and social issues. For instance, the relationship between competence and work motivation can be further investigated by employing other theories to understand their association better. Similarly, the moderating effects of social contexts such as religious affiliation and in-group collectivism should be further examined to obtain a more in-depth comprehension of the roles of contextual circumstances and cultural values in individual-level relationships. Additionally, self-determination theory and the concept of prosocial motivation may be used to explore motivation towards specific behavior in organizations, such as organizational citizenship and proactive behaviors. Organizational context, such as rewards, training, and culture, can be considered as part of the framework to enhance the conception of work motivation.

7. Conclusions

This study has utilized a multilevel framework to examine the influence of psychological needs and social context on work motivation. Through this research, a deeper understanding of the roles of competence, autonomy, and social relatedness, as well as social situations and cultural values on work motivation, is achieved. The contrary findings call for integrating other concepts and approaches towards a more comprehensive knowledge of work motivation.

Along with the theoretical contribution, the study’s findings offer practical implications. The satisfaction of psychological needs promotes self-motivation, which creates positive outcomes. Hence, organizations can provide programs and activities to promote employees’ autonomy and social relatedness as this will enhance their work motivation. Employee empowerment can be advocated by encouraging them to make their own decisions at the workplace, providing constructive criticisms rather than instilling the fear of failure. Additionally, managers should encourage solidarity, support, and mutual care among employees. Putting more weight on employees’ fulfillment of needs will further increase employees’ motivation, thereby diminishing costs related to stress or turnover [ 50 ]. To establish a novel mechanism towards promoting work motivation in the entire nation, the government should pay attention to the political structure and conditions that encourage citizens’ participation. Additionally, a culture of humane orientation should be promoted in the workplace and society so that solidarity, kind assistance, and altruism among communities as well as among individuals can be strengthened. For instance, teamwork should be encouraged for employees to help each other overcome difficulties at the workplace or share responsibilities with their colleagues. This will motivate people to work harder for collective goals, contributing to the development of organizations.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; data collection, T.T.D.V.; methodology, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; formal analysis, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; resources, K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; writing-original draft, T.T.D.V. and K.V.T.; writing-review, editing & proofreading, T.T.D.V., K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; visualization, K.V.T.; supervision, K.V.T. and C.-W.C.; project administration, K.V.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This paper does not receive funding from any individuals or organizations.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Motivation Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on motivation.

Everyone suggests other than the person lack motivation, or directly suggests the person remain motivated. But, no one ever tells what is the motivation of how one can stay motivated. Motivation means to face the obstacle and find an inspiration that helps you to go through tough times. In addition, it helps you to move further in life.

Meaning of Motivation

Motivation is something that cannot be understood with words but with practice. It means to be moved by something so strongly that it becomes an inspiration for you. Furthermore, it is a discipline that helps you to achieve your life goals and also helps to be successful in life .

Besides, it the most common practice that everyone does whether it is your boss in office or a school teacher or a university professor everyone motivates others in a way or other.

Role of Motivation

It is a strong tool that helps to get ahead in life. For being motivated we need a driving tool or goal that keeps us motivated and moves forward. Also, it helps in being progressive both physically and mentally.

Moreover, your goal does not be to big and long term they can be small and empowering. Furthermore, you need the right mindset to be motivated.

Besides, you need to push your self towards your goal no one other than you can push your limit. Also, you should be willing to leave your comfort zone because your true potential is going to revel when you leave your comfort zone.

Types of Motivation

Although there are various types of motivation according to me there are generally two types of motivation that are self- motivation and motivation by others.

Self-motivation- It refers to the power of someone to stay motivated without the influence of other situations and people. Furthermore, self-motivated people always find a way to reason and strength to complete a task. Also, they do not need other people to encourage them to perform a challenging task.

Motivation by others- This motivation requires help from others as the person is not able to maintain a self-motivated state. In this, a person requires encouragement from others. Also, he needs to listen to motivational speeches, a strong goal and most importantly and inspiration.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Importance of Motivation

Motivation is very important for the overall development of the personality and mind of the people. It also puts a person in action and in a competitive state. Furthermore, it improves efficiency and desire to achieve the goal. It leads to stability and improvement in work.

Above all, it satisfies a person’s needs and to achieve his/her goal. It helps the person to fight his negative attitude. The person also tries to come out of his/her comfort zone so that she/ he can achieve the goal.

To conclude, motivation is one of the key elements that help a person to be successful. A motivated person tries to push his limits and always tries to improve his performance day by day. Also, the person always gives her/his best no matter what the task is. Besides, the person always tries to remain progressive and dedicated to her/his goals.

FAQs about Motivation Essay

Q.1 Define what is motivation fit. A.1 This refers to a psychological phenomenon in which a person assumes or expects something from the job or life but gets different results other than his expectations. In a profession, it is a primary criterion for determining if the person will stay or leave the job.

Q.2 List some best motivators. A.2 some of the best motivators are:

• Inspiration
• Fear of failure
• Power of Rejection
• Don’t pity your self
• Be assertive
• Stay among positive and motivated people
• Be calm and visionary

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Ambition, Goals

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Motivation is the desire to act in service of a goal. It's the crucial element in setting and attaining our objectives.

Motivation is one of the driving forces behind human behavior. It fuels competition and sparks social connection. Its absence can lead to mental illnesses such as depression . Motivation encompasses the desire to continue striving toward meaning, purpose, and a life worth living.

• Sources of Motivation
• How to Set and Accomplish Goals
• How to Increase Motivation
• Diet, Exercise, and Finance Goals

People often have multiple motives for engaging in any one behavior. Motivation might be extrinsic, whereby a person is inspired by outside forces—other people or rewards. Motivation can also be intrinsic, whereby the inspiration comes from within—the desire to improve at a certain activity. Intrinsic motivation tends to push people more forcefully, and the accomplishments are more fulfilling.

One framework used for understanding motivation is the hierarchy of needs proposed by American psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943. According to Maslow, humans are inherently motivated to better themselves and move toward expressing their full potential—self-actualization—by progressively encountering and satisfying several levels of need from the most fundamental, such as for food and safety, to higher-order needs for love, belonging, and self-esteem .

Eventually, Maslow extended the theory to include a need for self-transcendence: People reach the pinnacle of growth and find the highest meaning in life by attending to things beyond the self. Although the universality of Maslow's theory has been challenged, many believe it captures fundamental truths about human motivation.

Motivation can stem from a variety of sources. People may be motivated by external incentives, such as the motivation to work for compensation, or internal enjoyment, such as the motivation to create artwork in one’s spare time. Other sources of motivation include curiosity, autonomy, validation of one’s identity and beliefs, creating a positive self-image , and the desire to avoid potential losses.

Intrinsic motivation is a drive that comes purely from within; it’s not due to any anticipated reward, deadline, or outside pressure. For example, people who are intrinsically motivated to run do so because they love the feeling of running itself, and it's an important part of their identity. Extrinsic motivation can increase motivation in the short term, but over time it can wear down or even backfire. By contrast, intrinsic motivation is powerful because it is integrated into identity and serves as a continuous source of motivation.

Extrinsic motivation is any reason someone does work other than the joy of doing the work itself. Anything promised for completing the task or received as a result of completing the task are extrinsic motivators. An extrinsic motivator needs three elements to be successful, according to research by psychologist Victor Vroom: expectancy (believing that increased effort will lead to increased performance), instrumentality (believing that a better performance will be noticed and rewarded), and valence (wanting the reward that is promised).

Achieving a goal is a process. And all of the components of that process deserve attention to ensure success, from setting the objective, to overcoming obstacles, to sustaining momentum until the project is complete.

Failing to accomplish a goal is sometimes due to the way it was set. But a few psychological tricks can help set and reach those goals. One is to ensure that the goal is attached to a value, such as the value of supporting your local community or fighting climate change . Another is to frame your goal as an asset to be gained rather than a threat to be avoided. For example, instead of thinking, “I shouldn’t bother my boss, so we can avoid a rocky relationship,” try thinking, “I want to learn new communication skills to reset our relationship.” Yet another idea is to try setting a learning goal instead of a performance goal; instead of deciding to lose 20 pounds, decide to learn more about nutrition and cook two healthy recipes each week.

Motivation targets the “why” of change, but momentum targets the “how.” Generating momentum is pivotal for taking the concrete steps needed to shift out of entrenched patterns and make change. Focusing on momentum can also be used in a therapeutic context. For example, a therapist might address a pattern of avoidance in a patient with depression by identifying small steps they have already taken (getting out of bed that morning, coming to therapy ) and then listing the next steps they can take next. Recognizing the motivation for change and focusing on the dynamics that support change can also help build momentum.

It’s natural to feel stuck at certain points, especially when working through difficult tasks. But research suggests that several strategies can help. One is to focus on the positive consequences of the activity, such as passing a final exam. Another is to try and regulate your emotions during the task, such as by thinking about an upcoming vacation while running on the treadmill. Yet another is to monitor and track your progress, which can continue to propel you toward the next milestone. Lastly, try to enrich the task and make it more enjoyable (called “temptation bundling”), like listening to a podcast as you do the laundry.

Tracking progress is key to sustaining motivation and achieving your goals. It’s helpful to make progress visual and concrete, such as by writing it down or using an app. Tracking can also help you spot patterns that might derail your success. For example, health and wellness goals are generally long-term. Tracking your progress and behavior can help you spot when you tend to slip up, and then address the underlying causes. Additionally, it can be motivating to reflect back on the progress you’ve made, or look forward to the work to come if it’s a core part of your identity.

Some people may find themselves completely stymied by a project; others may simply want to pack a little more productivity into their timeline. No matter where motivation begins, there are always ways to increase it—whether that be your own motivation or someone else’s.

Sometimes you might feel completely unmotivated —and that’s ok. In that situation, allow yourself to feel the discomfort, hear the negative self-talk , and then take action anyway, For example, let’s say you come home after a long day at work and just want to unwind and watch TV. Instead of turning the TV on, acknowledge that you’re tired and then challenge yourself to read five pages of the book on your nightstand first. This approach gives space for negative thoughts and feelings, while helping you change ingrained patterns.

Procrastination is often driven by underlying feelings of distress or anxiety elicited by a given task. But there are ways to navigate the discomfort and beat procrastination. You can break the project into small, more manageable pieces; accomplishing one step will fuel your motivation for the next. You can set limits for the time spent preparing to begin, or aim to complete tasks as quickly as possible. You can also set a reward that you’ll get after completing the task or a part of it.

Companies have the opportunity to motivate employees with incentives, but they also need to be mindful that incentives can backfire—as in the case of the Wells Fargo scandal. Employees are motivated by external rewards when they believe that working harder will lead to a better performance, that they’ll be rewarded for a better performance, and they appreciate the reward, such as a bonus or time off. It can be difficult to meet those criteria—“Will my hard work really be noticed?” “Does my contribution really matter since I’m on a large team?—so companies should tailor incentives to each unique team and role.

Successful interventions often motivate through a combination of psychology and economic policy, which vary by context but often leverage social norms. For example, more people enrolled in a sustainable energy program when the sign up sheet was in their building lobby, because they could showcase their values to their neighbors—or perhaps feel pressured to sign up to maintain a good reputation.

Some of the most common goals people make—and the most common goals they struggle to meet—are to eat healthier, work out more, and save more money. Many traps can prevent people from achieving those goals, but anticipating those challenges can help achieve real change.

Many people struggle to stick to a diet. Research suggests that extrinsic motivators—to avoid hurtful comments or fit into an outfit—can jumpstart the process but that intrinsic motivation—interest, enjoyment, and challenge in the journey—is key to sustained, lasting weight loss. Intrinsic motivation encompasses competence, autonomy, and relatedness, so it’s helpful to 1) choose a diet that will be sustainable and effective 2) believe that the diet, start date, and end goals have been chosen autonomously and not “assigned” by others 3) find a community of supporters.

There are a few creative ideas to consider if motivation is a barrier to exercise. One is to widen the options you have: If you don’t have time to go to the gym, exercise by going for a walk, doing a bodyweight circuit, or watching a yoga video. Another is to make exercise more enjoyable, such as by listening to a book on tape. Yet another is to establish a social contract with a friend or family member. For example, if you allow phone time to supersede exercise, you must donate to a cause of the other person’s choosing.

Four steps can help cultivate the habit of saving money. The first is to set a specific saving goal for an emergency fund. This focused goal will build habits that become sustainable saving. The second is to save something every day, even if it’s just a few dollars, because repetition helps to form habits. Third, making savings visible, whether by checking a savings account online or keeping cash in a glass jar. Fourth, consistently spend less than you make—in addition to cultivating a saving mindset, it’s important to change a spending mindset.

Most people, unfortunately, fail to follow through on their New Year’s resolutions. This might be because people tend to set overwhelming goals, engage in all-or-nothing thinking, don’t anticipate obstacles, and beat themselves up when they get off track. By addressing those traps—such as by breaking large goals into smaller pieces or thinking of results as a range of positive outcomes rather than “success or failure”—people are more likely to truly achieve their goals.

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Coaches need to empower their athletes through congruent communication.

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Psychology Discussion

Motivation of individuals: nature and strategies | term paper | psychology.

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In this term paper we will discuss about:- 1. Definitions of Motivation 2. Aspects of Motivation 3. Various Opinions 4. Nature 5. Factors Accounting 6. Factor Affecting Motivation 7. Selection of Appropriate Strategies.

Term Paper Contents:

• Term Paper on the Selection of Appropriate Strategies of Motivation

Term Paper # 1. Definitions of Motivation:

Although motivation is not the basis of learning, it imparts dynamism and activity to the process of learning. Experimental studies have confirmed the view that the relations between learning and motivation are not direct. Even today, psychologists are faced with one major obstacle, whether the relationship between learning and performance is due to motivation. They have not been able to solve this problem.

Morse W.C. and Wingo G.M. writes about motivation- ‘Motivation is what lies behind our behaviour the reason we do, what we do.’ Lindslay defines ‘motivation as a combination of force which initiates, direct and sustains behaviour towards a goal.’ Combs and Snyng see to preserve and enhance one’s concept of oneself. For Guthrie motivation is simply “the condition which increases the vigour of responses.”

Motivation pushes a student to try to learn. ‘To motivate’ means to get the student to apply himself to the learning at hand. Hence, scientists have provided many varied definitions of the concept of motivation.

These are as follows:

1. Bernard H.W.:

“Motivation is to find those approaches that will make the child eager for the kind of learning the school endorses.” It refers to all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards those goals.

2. Johnson:

“Motivation is the influence of general pattern of activities indicating directing the behaviour of the organism.”

3. Mc Goach:

“Motive is that condition of the organism which points it towards the practice of a given task and defines the satisfactory completion of the task.”

4. Woodworth:

“A motive is a state of the knowledge which disposes him for certain behaviour and for seeking certain goals.”

5. Shaffer and Others:

“A motive may now be defined as a tendency of activity initiated by drive and concluded by adjustment.”

6. McDougall:

“Motives are physiological and psychological conditions within the organism, that motivate it to act in certain ways.”

7. M.K. Thomson:

“Motivation covers and every factor of the springs of human action from the beginning to the end, i.e., attitudes, bias, urges, impulse, drive, craving, incentives, desires, wish, interest, will, intention, longing and aims.”

8. Guilford J.P.:

“A motive is any particular internal factor or condition that tends to initiate and to sustain activity.”

9. Atkinson:

The term motivation refers to the around of tendency to act to produce one or more effects.

10. Maslow:

Motivation is constant, never ending fluctuating and complex and that it is an almost universal characteristics of particularly every organism’s state of affairs.

11. D.C. Hebb:

The terms motivations refers- (i) to existence of an organised phase sequence, (ii) to its direction and content and (iii) to its persistence is given direction of stability content.

If we analyse the foregoing definitions, the following features of motivation will become apparent:

(i) Motivation is not the end but the means; it provides the way to the end or goal.

(ii) Motivation is not the main but the complementary part of learning.

(iii) Motivation makes clear the behaviour of the individual.

(iv) Motivation leads to the manifestation of activity.

(v) Motivation is affected by physical and mental as well as internal and external conditions or circumstances.

Motivation has a very long history as a determinant of human behaviour. Want, striving, desire, need, goal, aspiration, drive, wish, aim, ambition, hunger, thirst, love and revenge, etc., are the few words which refer to motives. For example— a girl want to be a doctor, a youth for political leader, a patient wants relief, a hungry person thinks about food only, these are few motives play part in human behaviour.

Term Paper # 2. Aspects of Motivation :

Motivation is a state in a person or animal that drives behaviour towards some goal.

It has three aspects:

(i) A driving state with in the organism that is set in motion by bodily needs environmental stimuli or mental events such as thoughts and memories.

(ii) The behaviour aroused and directed by this state.

(iii) The goal towards which the behaviour is directed.

Motives are inferences drawn from behaviour. From a laborious student we might infer the motive to achieve, to master challenges. Motives are also the tools of explanation of behaviour. Clinical psychologists use this predictions about behaviour. Infact motive give us an idea about the behaviour.

Some psychologists need to add cognitive motivational cycle in basic motivational cycle. In this motivational cycle, the first step is stimulus inputs having environment, memory and internal states, second step is awareness of potential satisfaction, and then goal selection and goal directed behaviour. This behaviour gives reward to the individual satisfaction.

Motivation inspires the organism to indulge in activity in order to reach specific goal.

There are three aspects of motivation:

(i) Physical need, environmental stimuli, events, chain of thoughts and the inspiring condition existing in the organism are all responsible for motivation.

(ii) This condition gives rise to behaviour and the organism moves towards the desired goal.

(iii) The behaviour is initiated for the purpose of achieving the desired goal.

Motivation inspires the person for a particular activity which becomes the goal of him.

After analyzing these definitions, the following functions of motivation occur:

(i) Motives energize and sustain behaviour

(ii) Direct and regulate our behaviour

(iii) It is a selective behaviour.

Term Paper # 3. Various Opinions Regarding Motivation :

Every human being indulges a particular activity because of his need and interest. In doing any activity, he is influenced by a multiplicity of thoughts. Every activity is inspired by some kind of motivation inherent in it. Many views and opinions have been prevalent in society with regard to motivation.

Some of these opinions are elucidated as follows:

1. Pawn of Fate:

It is opined by some that an individual does a particular act because he is fated to do it, a view based upon faith in divine forces. This view is best expressed by the statement- “Man is a puppet in the hand of Gods and motivation is outside the person.” Thus, this view lays the entire emphasis upon the fact of human destiny. This reflects- ‘Man is the puppet in the hands of God and motivation is inside the person.’

2. Man is Rational:

With the passing of time, and evolution in man’s experience, the thought arose that man is himself the architect of his destiny, that he can determine the rationality and propriety of any deed on the basis of reason. This view is based upon the faith in man’s mental powers. It argues that man’s behaviour is determined by his rational activity.

3. Man is a Machine:

Scientists have tended to view man as a machine, a highly ordered mechanism. It is there contention that this machine is activated by stimuli. According to behaviourists, man comes into action because of various stimuli provided to him by the environment.

4. Man is an Animal:

This view was propounded by Darwin, who argued that there was no essential difference between the activities of man and beats. In his view, man has evolved from animals. Darwin’s evolutionary theory was based upon the principle of “survival of the fittest”.

In the Darwinian Theory, there are three main elements:

(i) Biological drive which stimulate man to action (for instance, the motivation of hunger, thirst, fear, etc. fall into this category);

(ii) Acquired drives which are born of physical motives, and

(iii) Similarity of instincts between man and animals.

5. Man is a Social Animal:

Man is born in society, and it is in society, that the individual achieves his own growth and development. He adapts himself to society by accepting the rules of the society. In every sphere of life, man is stirred to activity by social influences.

6. The Theory of the Unconscious:

This view was propounded by Sigmund Freud, according to whom the sole factor responsible for man’s activity is his unconscious motivation. It is often seen that the individual indulges in activities the causes of which are not obvious even to himself. His behaviour is controlled by some unconscious forces. According to this view, man himself is the source of his own motivation.

All the forgoing views regarding motivation as being influenced by psychological and social factors. All these views indicate that motivation is a complex phenomenon. It is influenced by various variables operating with the organism and in the environment. Lashley said—the problem of motivation is far more complex than the Freudians would have us believe and its solution is to be sought in investigation of many related fields. The analyses of instinctive responses, the neural basis of emotions, the mental influence of habits and to total integration of all such systems of reaction.

Following factors influence the motivation:

(i) Physiological system of organism,

(ii) Motivating conditions or emotions,

(iii) Habit and

(iv) Mental sets values.

“Motivation is the sine-qua-non of learning.”

In means, without motivation there is no learning. It gives speed in the process of learning.

The term ‘motivation’ refers:

1. To existence of an organized phase sequence.

2. To its direction and content, and

3. To its persistence in given direction or stability of concept.

The word motivation had been derived from the Latin word Motum. It means to move, motor and motion.

“Motivation is an internal force which accelerates a response or behaviour. It includes all the internal conditions which initiate or sustain any activity. If internal conditions are not active, the external stimulus cannot evoke the response. The stimulus may be internal as well as external but psychological motivation includes only the internal stimuli.”

“Motivation in school learning involves, arousing, persisting, sustaining and directing desirable behaviour.” —B.F. Skinner

“Motivation is the process of arousing, sustaining and regulating activity.” —Good

“Motivation is a process in which the learner’s internal energies or needs are directed towards various goals or objects in his environment.” —Blair, Jones and Simpson

It may be concluded from the above definitions of Motivation that is an internal force or energy or need which initiates, sustains, directs and regulates the behaviour of the learner.

Term Paper # 4. Nature of Motivation :

The motivation is a psycho-physiological concept or internal process which initiates and directs the activity.

Lovell gives emphasis on internal factor for motivation:

“Motivation is defined more formally as psycho-physiological or internal process initiated by some need which leads to activity which will satisfy that need.”

1. It is psycho-physiological phenomenon.

2. It is an internal condition or process or factor of the learner.

3. It initiates or sustains the learner’s activity.

4. It orients and directs the responses of the learner towards the desired objectives.

5. It controls and regulates the learner’s responses.

6. It provides the energy and accelerates the behaviour of the learner.

7. It releases the tension and satisfies the needs of the learner.

Most of the psychologists—Boring, Murry, Maslow and others have emphasized the ‘need’ as an important factor for human learning.

Term Paper # 5. Factors Accounting for Motivations :

John P. Decceco has described four factors accounting for motivation:

Arousal, Expectancy, Incentive and Punishment. These four factors are closely related to one another.

In teaching-learning situation, they are considered as functions:

1. Arousal function

2. Expectancy function

3. Incentive function and

4. Punishment or disciplinary function.

The meaning and description of these functions have been given here.

1. Arousal Function:

Donald Hebb (1955) has defined ‘arousal is an energizer but not guides the activities, of an organism.’ The arousal initiates the activities, but it does not regulated and control. Human have both internal and external success of arousal. An external source is the stimulation provided by the environment and an internal source of arousal is down flow of thought simple and fantasy from the cortex. When classroom teaching fails to provide motivation, the students may have day dreams.

(a) Internal Sources of Arousal:

Generally, a person remains active to satisfy his physiological needs. Human are active by their nature. The sources of internal range from lower physiological needs to higher mental needs.

(b) External Sources of Arousal:

An individual receives stimulation from his environment. The factors of the environment functions as stimuli. The novelty of the environment provides the motivation to the learner. The curiosity and arousal both raise the level of feelings. The curiosity is highly loaded by feelings and emotions. The curiosity is positively related to student-achievement.

Take Role of a Teacher for Arousal Function:

The arousal means to make the learner active in teaching-learning situation. The students learn better when they are neither very active nor very inactive or lazy. The job of a teacher is to make the student active in his presentation.

The students should be encouraged by illustrating the abstract concepts with concrete examples. The analogy can be used for the comprehension of the unknown concepts. The discovery and brain storming strategies can be used by the teacher for this purpose. The entering behaviour should be considered as the appropriate arousal for students.

2. Expectancy Function:

Vroom (1964) defines, ‘expectancy is a momentary belief that a particular outcome will follow a particular act. The discrepancy between what do we perceive and what do we expected to perceive, is the main source of arousal. Discrepancies between perception and expectancies are the sources of arousal.

The objectives of instruction and teaching function as expectations. The teacher is highly concerned with this aspect. He should consider the student’s expectation and values in organizing his teaching. The student’s attempt to achieve the objectives with some psychological force that is the result of expectancy.

The student’s expectation and balancing forces can be identified by their motive which is to be achieved by them. The greater discrepancies between perception and expectation develop the feeling of dissatisfaction and small discrepancy provides happiness to the learner. The achievement motivation is the function of expectancy.

The Role of a Teacher for Expectancy Function:

Teaching-learning objectives can be achieved by changing the level of expectation of the students. The immediate expectation of learners should be related with their ultimate expectation. The student can be involved in teaching-learning activities.

Mc Clelland suggests that teachers may teach students. How should the motives be developed to achieve, especially those students who are notable deficient in the desire to meet challenges, to master and generally to succeed. The student must be made to desire instructional outcome which he has a good chance of reaching (expectancy). Teacher must also be concerned with expectancies and valences of the students.

3. Incentive Function:

The incentives are actual goal objects. Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence believe that some activities of an organism can be motivated by the goal object or incentive. An organism wants to receive something through its activities. The amount of motivation depends upon the size of incentive. The positive and negative reinforces can be viewed as incentives. The nature of incentive influences the working efficiency of an individual. B.F. Skinner considers that reinforces are the incentives. The incentives are those factors which increase the vigour of an individual’s behaviour.

Role of a Teacher in Incentive Function:

It is duty of a teacher that he should provide incentive to student’s activities, so that their behaviour may be reinforced for achieving the objectives of learning. This type of motivation can be provided by the techniques of praise, encouragement, examination result and competition, etc. The examination result provides that feedback to the learner. The teacher should assign grade or marks in evaluating the students-assignment. The level of achievement of the students can be raised by praised the students- activities. The student takes interest in learning activities.

4. Punishment of Discipline Functions:

Solman (1964) defines that punishment as a stimulus, an individual seeks to escape or avoid. The punishment is considered as a negative motivation which decreases the probability of undesirable behaviour. The punishment is extremely effective when an individual is offered a rewarded alternative to the punishment.

(a) An individual is punished for his undesirable behaviour so that he would not repeat the same behaviour in future.

(b) He is punished before others, so that they may also not repeat the undesirable behaviour.

Role of a Teacher in Punishment Function:

Under particular conditions, a punishment procedure may be very effective—particularly when an individual is permitted to make an alternative response which is desirable and incompatible with the punished response. The teacher should make use of punishment in such a situations.

The punishment should be used in the following situations:

(a) When the result of undesirable behaviour is harmful.

(b) The undesirable behaviour should be immediately punished so that he may realized and associated with it.

(c) Reward and punishment should be used simultaneously. The good behaviour should be rewarded and bad behaviour should be punished.

B.F. Skinner is not in favour of punishment. He believes that positive reinforces are more effective than punishment in controlling the behaviour. According to Skinner, wrong responses should be ignored and correct responses should be reinforced. The punishment develops fear and inferiority complex among students. Therefore, it should be rarely used in dealing with students-problems and classroom teaching-learning situations.

The four factors can be summarized in the following manner. Motivation result in increased vigour of performance. Arousal is the general state of alertness of an individual. Expectancy, as a motivational factor is that a particular outcome will occur. Incentives are goal objects which are associated with certain stimuli and responses. Punishment is a stimulus. An individual seeks to avoid or suppress undesirable responses. The following are the main criteria to select appropriate techniques of motivation.

Term Paper # 6. Factor Affecting Motivation :

The following are the factors which affect motivation:

1. Maturation and Motivation:

You do not send a boy to do man’s job. To demand more than can be delivered physically, mentally or emotionally is worse than useless. Maturation and motivation should be synchronized “By your age” is the popular version of recognized correlation between stages of maturation and concurrent behaviour.

2. Purposive Strivings Goals and Ideals:

Experimental data proves definitely that when the learner has dynamic purpose, clearly perceived goals. This learning is more effective. Every effort to make the goal more vital and vivid is a step in the direction of effective motivation.

3. Knowledge of Results in Motivation:

It enhances the incentive for great effort, stimulates an extra-zest and creates a more favourable atmosphere. Sears and others have pointed out that informing of progress is desirable as long as he making progress.

4. Law of Effect:

It is based only impart on psycho-hedonism. Almost every act is coloured with feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness. The law tends to select or repeat these acts which have a pleasant accompaniment.

5. Punishment Negative:

The art of inflicting pain deliberately with the purpose of the future conduct of the one being punished. It is based on fear—the fear of physical pain embarrassment and loss of status, caste. But it destroys initiative and develops inferiority complex. The severity does not count as much as the certainty and consistency count.

6. Positive Rewards:

It calls forth initiative energy, competition, self-expression and some creative ability. It appeals to ego-maximation and the elation that comes with success. It suggests security and status. It may be material, social or spiritual. Hartshorne and May in their study of honesty, hold that reward leads to dishonesty, for shadow rather than for substance.

7. Praise and Blame:

Other forms of reward and punishment. Considerable studies prove that praise is superior to blame or reproof which is another indication that rewards are better than punishments.

8. Working for self (rivalry, competition) versus working for the groups (co-operation).

9. Participation through Participation:

In addition to the tremendous appeal for status, it calls for creativeness, originality and initiative and affords the ideal outlet for the gregarious impulse. This implies greater democracy in the home and in the school.

10. Interest:

Interest is halfway between motive end attitudes. It grows by what it feed upon.

11. Audio-Visual Aids are great:

Audio-visual aids are Great allies to motivation, helping to set the stage saving time and energy and makes the test more interesting and vivid.

12. Enlisting the Total Personality:

Calls for total mobilization and challenge to the whole self.

Term Paper # 7. Selection of Appropriate Strategies of Motivation :

A classroom teacher performs certain activities to provide learning experiences for the desirable change among learners. The teaching activities create the appropriate learning conditions and situations in which the student has to respond physically or mentally. These responses are imitated and sustained by using an appropriate technique of motivation. Without the use of motivation, students-behaviour cannot be energized and accelerated. The effective teaching and effective outcome can be possible only by employing suitable techniques of Motivation.

The teacher should select appropriate techniques of motivation on the basis of the following criteria:

(a) Need of the students,

(b) Learning objectives, and

(c) Learning structures.

(a) Need of Students and Techniques of Motivation :

Most of the human learning and behaviour are controlled and related by his needs. When an individual has a need of something, it creates tension and he wants to satisfy the need. He continues his effort till need is fully satisfied. Threnodies’ experiment supported this view that his cat was hungry and food could satisfy her need. The cat’s responses or trials were controlled by the food only because its need could be satisfied with it.

It is evident from his example that after identifying the needs, it is also essential to diagnose how these can needs be satisfied- The teacher should follow this procedure in selecting an appropriate technique of motivation.

Maslow has classified the motivation into three categories:

(i) External motivation

(ii) Internal motivation and

(iii) Internal-External motivation.

Therefore, techniques of motivation can also be classified accordingly.

(i) External Motivation:

An external motivation means to present a thing object or environment before students which can encourage or motivate their behaviour. According to Maslow, physiological and safety lower needs can be satisfied by the use of external motivation. The reward, praise, punishment and criticism techniques may be used for satisfying the lower needs. The reward and praise are most effective for poor and low intelligence students whereas reproof and challenges are effective for bright students. It is useful for lower classes and dealing with small children.

(ii) Internal Motivation:

An internal motivation means self-motivation which the students receive from content and their own activities. The learner’s responses and activities are controlled and regulated by an internal motivation which satisfies the higher needs. The esteem need and self-actualization need satisfy the higher internal motivation. The level of aspiration academic motivation, knowledge of result, novelty and attitude are the main techniques of internal motivation. This type of motivation concerns with the ego involvement learning. It is useful for higher classes and dealing with adults or grown up students.

(iii) External-Internal Motivation:

This type of motivation concerns with both external environment and content. This form of motivation is partially concrete and partially abstract. In view of Maslow, the needs of belongingness and esteem may be satisfied by external-internal motivation. The success and failure cooperation and competition techniques of motivation may be effectively used for this purpose. It is more useful for developing the social efficiency of the students.

(b) Learning Objectives and Techniques of Motivation :

The major function of motivation is to control and regulate the behaviour of the students. The teacher-learning activities are oriented towards learning objectives by the use of appropriate techniques of motivation. These techniques facilitate the learning conditions and help in achieving the learning objectives. The learning objectives—knowledge, understanding, appropriate techniques of motivation.

(i) Knowledge Objective:

This objective is achieved to develop the recall the recognition abilities. It is the lowest learning objective and concerns with the environment of objects. The reward, praise, punishment and reproof techniques of motivation may be employed to achieve knowledge objective. The concrete form of motivation is effective for this purpose.

(ii) Understanding Objective:

The understanding objective is realized by developing the abilities of seeing relationship, discrimination, cite example and generalization. The environment and content both are equally important for providing appropriate learning experience to the students. The praise, success, punishment and failure techniques of motivation can assist in achieving this objective.

(iii) Application Objective:

An application objective is achieved by developing the abilities of reasoning, hypothesizing, inferring and predication. The perception and expectancies of the students play the significant role. The success and failure, cooperation and competition, knowledge of result and attitude, cooperation and competition, knowledge of result and attitude, techniques of motivation can help in realizing the objective of application.

(iv) Creativity Objective:

The creativity is the highest objective of cognitive-domain. This can be achieved by satisfying the highest needs of a person and employing internal motivation. The analysis, synthesis and evaluation of judgement abilities are developed for achieving this objective. The content is most important and environment is least important. The ego environment and self-motivation is essential for creativity. The level of aspiration, novelty and attitude, techniques of motivation can be used for achieving creativity .objective.

The learning structures are basic for selecting the appropriate techniques of motivation.

(c) Learning Structures and Techniques of Motivation :

The teachings are used for creating the specific learning structures and conditions. The techniques of motivation accelerated the learning activities and energize the behaviour of the students. The techniques of motivation also initiate and sustain the learning activities. This appropriate technique of motivation can be selected on the basis of learning structures because they directly related to learning situations and learning activities.

(i) Signal Learning:

The signal learning concerns with stimulus and response association. The environment is more important in this type of learning and an external motivation is effectively used to facilitate signal structures. The reward and punishment techniques can be used successfully.

(ii) Chain Learning:

The stimuli and responses are placed in a sequence to form a chain. The chain of stimulus-response is developed by organizing the elements of content in a sequence. The environment and content both are important in this type of learning. The reward, praise, success, punishment and reproof techniques of motivation are used to facilitate the chain structures.

(iii) Multiple Discrimination:

The learner has to identify the similarities and differences in various type of learning. The type of learning structure may be facilitated by employing cooperation and competitive, knowledge of result and attitude as technique of motivation.

(iv) Concept Learning:

The earlier three types of learning are the pre-request of the concept learning. It is purely concerned with content. Therefore an internal motivation may be appropriate for concept learning. The learning situations help in developing the generalization ability. The knowledge of result, progress, attitude and level of aspiration, techniques of motivation may be employed in facilitating the concept learning.

(v) Principle Learning:

The chains of concepts are provided to identify the similarities and differences among them and draw some principles. The mastery over content is very essential and the environment is in signification. It requires purely internal motivation. The level of aspiration, self-motivation, ego involvement and attitude, techniques of motivation may facilitate principle learning structures.

The learning structures provide scientific basis for selecting and employing the psychological forces and achieving the learning and objectives. The learning objectives of B.S. Bloom are organized in a hierarchical order. This teaching-learning activity can be organized and appropriate techniques of motivation can be selected by integrating these concepts and approaches.

In addition to these criteria, the four factors which produce the motivation and vigour the student’s behaviour are grouped—arousal, expectancy, incentives and punishment. If it is taken one must be careful about monotony and boredom, he should always provide the students enough to think about and to do. The teaching methods can capitalize on the student’s needs for new stimulation and on their propensities to be curious and to explore.

The expectancy function requires that a teacher should maintain and modify the student’s expectation of success or failure in achieving the learning objective. The teacher should reward students’ performance in such a way as to encourage for further efforts and to control undesirable behaviour by the use of punishment but it should be rarely used. The teacher should use a combination of reward and punishment in controlling and regulating student’s behaviour.

The various criteria and techniques of motivation have been summarized in the following table:

The above table indicates that the appropriate techniques of motivation can be selected by considering the needs of students, learning structures and teaching objectives. The teacher should provide motivation in such a way as to encourage for further efforts on the part of the students. The main focus of providing motivation is to achieve the learning objectives by facilitating learning structures and to energise and to accelerate the behaviour of students.

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Three Major Theories of Motivation Term Paper

Motivation is a set of factors that activate, direct, and maintain behavior, usually, toward a goal (Carpenter & Huffman, 2010). Thus, motivation is a moving force that activates human behavior and directs it to the achievement of a certain purpose. There are three major theories of motivation that explain the forms that motivation can take and the sources of different types of motivation. In this paper, we are going to compare the differences between four hypothetical individuals who want to obtain a promotion at their place of employment.

The first one is Ella, whose motivation can be accounted by a biological theory of motivation. The second one is Marcello, whose actions and behavior coincide with the psychosocial theory of motivation, and the third one is Masoko, whose actions are characterized by an interactionist theory of motivation.

At the end, we are going to analyze the sources of motivation of the fourth individual Sam, who has a realistic combination of motivating theories, which give rise to various factors inspiring him to pursue a promotion. Finally, we will explain how the factors of each motivation theory might interact with each other.

Thus, the first question under consideration is the sources of motivation for Ella, Marcello and Masoko. Ella is characterized by a biological theory of motivation:

This biological theory of motivation (The Intuition Theory), suggests that motivation levels are regulated by neural pattern recognition events. Subconscious drives impel people to achieve excellence, or to spend exceptional energies on services to humanity” (Thomas).

In other words, the biological motivation is based on our basic needs such as food, for example. Thus, the Ella’s motivation is caused by her will to survive. It is quite possible that her motivation is triggered by the fear of poverty and inability to support her family. According to the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (motives), Ella’s sources of motivation are the bottom of the pyramid. Marcello’s behavior is characterized by the psychological theory of motivation which can be explained by incentives and cognition.

“Incentive theory holds that external stimulation motivates people to act to obtain desirable goals to avoid undesirable events” (Carpenter & Huffman, 2010). According to a cognition theory, the motivation is affected by how we interpret our achievements. In this light, the source of Marcello’s motivation may be his esteem needs to achieve success and gain approval among his relatives, friends or fellow workers.

Perhaps, he was the best students in the class, and now he cannot let himself to be considered unsuccessful. Thus, the sources of his motivation are external factors (everybody considers his successful) that influence his psychological state and encourage acting in a particular way to prove that he is worth his status.

Finally, Masoko is associated with the interactionist theory of motivation. This theory presupposes that one’s behavior and actions are shaped by social interactions and everything that happens in the society. Thus, we can come to a conclusion that Masoko’s desire for promotion was shaped by the social opinion that “if one wants to be a part of a society, he/she should take an advance position and achieve new goals”. Thus, Masoko considers that promotion is necessary and it is his social duty.

Consequently, different educational background, personal peculiarities, social level, psychological characteristics formed in childhood and goals in life shaped the main sources of motivation for those people. Ella’s sources of motivation are psychological and mixed with basic instincts.

Marcello’s sources of motivation are psychological and partially social which come from his childhood and educational background as well. Finally, Masoko’s sources of motivation are purely social; they are shaped by his desire to be an active participant of the social development. And prove his ability to make a valuable contribution to society through his social status.

Different emotions serve as motivators for individuals:

Emotions occur as a result of an interaction between perception of environmental stimuli, neural/hormonal responses to these perceptions (often labeled feelings), and subjective cognitive labeling of these feelings (Huitt, 2001).

However, emotions can reinforce the motivation. Thus, Ella, Marcello and Masoko experienced different emotions affecting their motivations. According to Carpenter & Huffman (2010), “psychologists define and study emotion according to three basic components – psychological, cognitive and behavior”.

Thus, Ella’s emotion is fear of losing job and not being able to support basic survival needs. Marcello’s emotions are based on cognitive components. As a result, he anticipates getting the promotion to feel satisfaction with his position. Masoko’s emotions are based on behavior component, as he tries to behave according to social norms and get a promotion to perform his social responsibility.

Depending on the sources of motivation, Ella, Marcelo and Masoko will put forth different types of effort. Thus, Ella might show her persistence to demonstrate that she is capable to make any amount of job. Marcello might show his intellectual dominancy comparing with other candidates, and Masaco might demonstrate his organization and leadership qualities to show that he can be valuable part of society. These differences in the efforts are explained by the personal motivations and psychological characteristics of every candidate.

Another individual is Sam. He has a realistic combination of motivating theories, which give rise to various factors inspiring him to pursue a promotion. In this light, seeking for promotion, he is guided by biological, psychological and interactionist components. So, he seeks promotion to have an appropriate level of living, realize his mental capacity and elevate his social level.

None of the components is dominant, thus, he will be more conscious on the emotional level and work out better strategy to achieve his goal. The Sam’s effort will be more effective and he will demonstrate different talents and abilities applicable to the desirable position.

In fact, factors of each motivation do not go separately but interact with each other. However, some of the factors can dominate depending on the situation, current needs and even age and sex of the applicants. For example, the one, who does not have a need to support family and does not experience the money shortage, can be motivated by psychological need of self-realization. At the same time, the one who lack money will be probably guided by biological motivation.

Analyzing everything mentioned above, we can come to a conclusion that in different situation people can be motivated by different factors. The sources of motivation can be formed under the influence of various factors, such as educational background, events that happened in the childhood, peculiarities of the social environment, etc. The motivational factors always interact with each other and influence our emotions (and vice versa) and the types of efforts we apply to achieve our goals.

List of References

Carpenter, S., & Huffman, K. (2010). Visualizing psychology, 2nd Ed . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Huitt, W. (2001). Motivation to learn: An overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/motivation/motivate.html

Thomas, E. A biological theory of motivation. Effective mind control . Web.

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Term Paper Contents:

• Term Paper on the Features of a Sound Motivational System

Term Paper # 1. Definition of Motivation :

Management is the art of getting things done through people. The purpose of functioning of all managers is to achieve the goals of the organisation. For this purpose the management is to inspire and motivate people for accomplishing organisational objectives. To keep the employees always in good spirit for performance is a tough job.

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A good manager is to realise that mental revolution is necessary to push the organisation members to work willingly and enthusiastically. Only highly motivated people can meet and achieve organisational requirements. Further they require lesser control for achievement on time.

It is to be understood that motivation is not a better substitute of managerial functions. The organisational behaviour affects the working of the people. Before directing the management must know “why do people act as they do” and “what will make them to give best on the job.”

The only answer to these questions is motivation. Psychologists view motivation as the force which implies all living organism to action in the direction towards achieving the objectives of organisation.

It is the duty of the management to provide for motivating forces to intensify their desire and willingness to apply their potentialities for the achievement of common objectives. Some are self-motivated or some people are motivated by intense outer pressures of reward.

The word motivation has been derived from the word ‘motive’ which means any idea, need or emotion or organic state which prompts a man to an action. Motive is an internal factor that integrates a man’s behaviour. As the motive is within the individual it is necessary to study needs, emotions etc.; in order to motivate him at work.

There are so many inducing factors which influence the human behaviour and induce him for the best performance to meet his needs and emotions. This is known as the stimulus and this is dependent upon the motive of the person concerned. Motive can be known by studying his needs and desires.

There is no universal theory than can explain the factors influencing motives which control man’s behaviour at any particular point of time. Generally different motives operate at different times among different people and influence their behaviour. The management should try to understand the motives of individuals which cause different types of behaviour.

The human resources are considered as the unique element in every organisation. Outstanding people can transform a poor organisation to operate successfully. Poorly motivated people can nullify the performance of a sound organisation.

In motivation, manager is to develop the skills of command. He must know how to direct others without arousing offence or resentment and must be able to secure obedience without destroying initiative and creativity.

Koontz and O’Donnell define, “Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces.” He continues and states that managers motivate their subordinates is to say that “they do those things which they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and induce the subordinates to act in a desired manner.”

Robert Dubin has defined motivation as “the complex of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organisation. Motivation is something that moves a person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated.”

Edwin Flippo “Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain reward”.

According to Dalton E. Mc Farland, “The concept of motivation is mainly psychological. It relates to those forces operating within the individual employee or subordinate which impel him to act or not to act in certain ways.” So this definition considers motivation as a term which applies to the entire class of urges, drives, desires, needs and similar forces.

Motivation is highly individualistic. It is the essence of human behaviour.

Motivation consists of three parts:

(a) Motives i.e. need, ideas, emotions or organic state.  

(b) Motivating factors and

(c) Attainment of objectives.

In every organisation the employees come from different background, needs and aspirations. Though the principles of motivation and theories of motivation may not be of much help but they provide a better understanding in predicting people’s response to performing their tasks, despite the unique of human beings.

Term Paper # 2. Nature and Features of Motivation: 

The nature and features of motivation are:

(i) Motivation is an Unending Process:

Man is a social animal. He is guided by want satisfaction. He has innumerable wants. All these wants cannot be satisfied at one time. One want is satisfied and the other may emerge.

Satisfaction of wants is an unending process and motivation which is connected with wants is also an unending process.

(ii) Motivation is a Psychological Concept:

It is a psychological concept as it connected with motives which is an internal factor. The inner feeling balances the perception of an individual and satisfaction of his needs that influence the direction, volume, behaviour and limitations of efforts of individuals. So motivation deals with inducement of inner feeling of an individual for performance.

(iii) Goals are Motivators:

Goals and motives are inseparable. Here the term goals refer to satisfaction of needs. Every individual has his own need and the need satisfaction is the propelling factor for performance. It is the duty of the organisation to identify the needs of individuals to develop motivational policies to induce for performance. Integration of personal goals with that of the organisational objectives is important.

(iv) Self-Concept is the Unifying Force:

Every individual has a unifying force. The unifying force means the drive to actualize his image. This image exists in everybody’s life right from his childhood. Every individual wants to function like a role-model he has in his mind and tries to perform what he is capable of. So a successful individual tries to come up in life what he has in his mind and what he wants to achieve with his potentials. So it is the self- realisation that plays an important role.

(v) Motivation is System-Oriented:

It is the result of interplay of three factors known as:

(a) Influences operating within an individual refer to his needs, values and goals,

(b) Influences operating within an organisation (refer to organisation structure, technology, physical facilities, nature of job etc.)

(c) Forces operating in the external environment (refer to culture, customs, norms of society).

(vi) Motivation can be Positive or Negative:

Positive motivation implies use of incentives like increase in pay, reward, promotion etc. Negative motivation emphasises penalties like reprimands, threat of demotion, fear of loss of job.

(vii) Motivation can be used to Enthuse Individual:

Motivation can be used to enthuse the individual completely by developing his outlook and personality and providing him with necessary requirements for achievement.

(viii) Motivation can be Successful only with People whose Mental Health is Sound:

Motivation cannot succeed with frustrated people and people with sick mind. To motivate frustrated men one has to focus on the satisfaction of his basic needs.

Term Paper # 3. Importance of Motivation :

Motivation is one of the important functions of management. It is the duty of the management to induce employees on the job to extract performance and to have the best results out of minimum efforts. All administrative actions lose its points unless the members of the organisation are willing to contribute their efforts for the achievement of completed jobs.

This can be identified with the help of the following points:

(i) Proper Utilisation of Human Resources:

Motivation induces subordinates to work efficiently and effectively. This increases productivity. Further the organisation culture and the use of improved technology facilitate the organisation to improve its operating efficiency. The interaction of all these forces leads to proper utilisation of human resources.

(ii) Proper Use of Material Resources:

The utilisation of resources is not possible to the fullest extent unless the employees are induced to contribute their efforts towards achieving organisational objectives.

(iii) Willingness for Work:

In every organisation there maybe employees who are disciplined and self-motivate. There may be a person who has capacity to work and they may be physically, mentally and technically fit for work but he may not be willing to work. So motivation is needed in organisations to include all employees to achieve the organisational objectives.

(iv) Motivation is Responsible for Developing Good Labour Relations:

In an organisation with proper motivation approach by the management the employees will try to achieve pre-determined objectives within the framework of policies and programmes.

This is mutually beneficial to both management and employees. This increases the operational efficiency of employees and that of the organisation. This results in reduction of labour problems like absenteeism, labour turnover, indiscipline, grievances etc.; are considerably reduced. So motivation helps to improve better labour relations.

(v) Develops Co-Operation:

In their enthusiasm to produce more the employees work as a team and lend their support and loyalty. They play an efficient role in achieving the goals of the organisation. So motivation forms the basis for co-operation to get the best results out of their efforts.

(vi) Improvement of Skill and Knowledge:

The employees of the organisation will try to be as efficient as possible and to improve upon their skill and knowledge so that they may be contributing to the progress of the organisation. They will do it because they know what they have been promised and ultimately they will be able to satisfy their personal and social needs.

Finally an effective motivation policy facilitates in developing better understanding and better human relations. So motivation is needed for achieving organisational and individual goals in an economical and efficient manner. For this motivation is an important tool in the hands of management.

Term Paper # 4. Techniques of Motivation :

In management literature motivation techniques have been identified. They are:

(i) Motivation by Leadership:

Leaders can be successful only when they are able to motivate their subordinates. He is a follower as well as the leader of his men. All great leaders might not have always been ideally good men, but they were able to motivate men to perform. Examples, Gandhi, Nehru, Shivaji, Buddha, Napoleon and Hitler.

All these leaders were themselves inspired men, and in turn inspired their followers towards achieving their goals. These leaders were able to inspire irrespective of the laudable nature of their objectives.

(ii) Motivation by Participation:

Participation means the process of giving, taking or sharing advice, experience, exchange of information ideas etc.; as well as action. Normally in matters where people are affected they like to be consulted. Participation provides a psychological satisfaction that money cannot buy.

(iii) Motivation by Goals:

A goal is like a target. This is to be pre­determined to facilitate employees to know its location, direction elements which are obstructive and which are conducive. The manager can sense both personal and organisational goals through good counselling, proper guidance and correct follow-up.

(iv) Motivation by Empathy:

Empathy means seeing things from the point of view of the other fellow. This can be achieved by interacting with other individuals in the group. Interaction can be creative or it may turn hostile. Developing a free flow of communication both ways, upward and downward, and developing and making use of informal communication can make it effective.

(v) Motivation by Competition:

Developing the spirit of competition for better performance in group endeavour motivation by competition has to be kept objective without any inkling of favouritism. It requires skill to keep man or race and maintain the spirit of sports man-ship at the same time.

(vi) Motivation by Challenge:

It is a known fact that most men do not work to their full potential. The employees do have capabilities and resources to rise to unexpected and unprecedented performance provided there is enthusiasm, encouragement, coaching and support from higher authorities. There will always be new things to reach for and challenge men at work. To facilitate employees to accept challenge the management is to provide for the following-Freedom to experiment, Encourage creative thinking, permit employees to think differently and imaginatively and promise of rewarding accomplishment and reward achievements.

(vii) Motivation by Attention:

Employees like to feel important as they feel the need to be recognised. They would like to get the attention of others socially, physically, emotionally and in other manners.

(viii) Motivation by Change:

Mangers play the role of catalyst. A catalyst is one which facilitate changes quickly. A manager has to change the attitude of a person by changing his own attitude towards that person. So long as mutual attitudes remain unchanged, one has to unfreeze first. Change is inevitable, but the manager must be aware of the direction of change and the effort he has on others, that is, to cause least emotional disturbance in the employee.

Successful managers foster and maintain team play and co-operation among their subordinate groups. They recognise individual differences in people and make them feel important. They ask tactful questions to know the deep-seated feelings of others and avoid arguments. They are good listeners. They persuade rather than command.

They practice participative management and give adequate and provide effective supervision. They develop a balanced pattern of financial rewards to motivate people. They practice motivation through consistent use of these cardinal guidelines.

Term Paper # 5. Features of a Sound Motivational System :

(1) It has to reflect the goals, objectives and philosophy of the organisation. The organisation is to evolve a system that satisfies individual requirements.

(2) A good motivational system should be simple and easily intelligible to all employees.

(3) Motivation system should be directly related to efforts. The system should establish a positive interconnection between efforts and rewards.

(4) Motivation system should be flexible. It should have a built-in mechanism for accommodating desirable changes in the motivational system which is well within the framework of organisational objectives.

(5) It should be comprehensive and competitive. The system is to satisfy the needs of various employees. It has to undertake a careful study of various needs, degree of intensity and prospective consequences of the various schemes are to be considered and incorporated carefully. To make it competitive the managers is to develop it in such a way that it is on par with competitors and induce employees to join this organisation.

(6) It must have a permanent place in the organisation. No adhocism is to be permitted.

Financial and Non-Financial Incentives :

Money plays an important role in motivation. This is given in the form of wages and salaries, bonus, retirement benefits, health insurance, medical reimbursement etc. To attract good labour force and to maintain them organisations may offer competitive wages and salaries. Though money is a good motivator it is not the only motivator. There are non-financial motivators.

(1) Competition:

This is a kind of non-financial incentive. The management is to develop a healthy competition among individuals and groups. This will help to achieve their individual and group goals.

(2) Group Incentives:

A powerful tool to motivate employees is group incentives other than individual incentives. This develops team spirit. This increases high morale and productivity.

(3) Praise:

People respond better to praise and it is considered as more effective than any other incentive. Care should be taken to praise an employee as praising incompetent employees may create resentment. But an occasional praise for achievements may act as an incentive.

(4) Job Enrichment:

This means increasing the contents of a job by upgrading responsibility, scope and challenge in its performance. Executives at the higher levels like Job enrichment because the Job becomes more challenging. This is done to improve Job satisfaction and increase the motivation of employees.

(5) Chances for Growth:

This is another incentive. Employees are to be provided with opportunities for advancement and growth. They feel very much satisfied and become more committed to organisation goals.

(6) Performance Rating:

An employee is interested in knowing about his performance. A worker gets satisfied when he is appreciated for performance. So to motivate an employee the management is to inform him about his performance and achievements.

(7) Fringe Benefits:

The benefits like free housing, free electricity, provision of free gas, free school to children, free medical facilities, subsidized canteen, guest house facilities in tourist places are some of the examples to motivate employees.

(8) Worker’s Participation in Management:

This acts as an incentive by providing psychological satisfaction that their voice is being heard by pro­viding two-way communication.

(9) Suggestion System:

The organisations use this to make use of cash awards for useful suggestions. To publish the employee’s name with his photograph in the company’s magazine. This motivates the employees to be in search for something which may be of greater use in the organisation.

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