what is a good thesis statement for criminal justice

Thesis and Capstone Requirements for Criminal Justice Programs

Enrolling in a bachelor’s or master’s program often includes completing a cumulative writing assignment and presentation. Bachelor’s degrees typically demand a capstone project during the final semester of study, while master’s degree students generally write, present, and defend a thesis over the course of their final year. Capstones and theses give each student the opportunity to prove their deeper understanding of an academic field and their ability to research and draw conclusions. These assignments help determine the likelihood that students will make significant professional contributions to their field after graduation.

In criminal justice programs, theses and capstones assignments often coincide with a final practicum or internship period at a local police department or related field office, allowing for hands-on experience and practical research.

In criminal justice programs, theses and capstones assignments often coincide with a final practicum or internship period at a local police department or related field office, allowing for hands-on experience and practical research. Capstone and thesis students who do not participate in an internship typically complete much of their research in traditional spaces, such as online or in the library. Often collaborative in nature, capstones and theses may involve extensive discussions with faculty advisers, working professionals, and peers.

What’s the Difference Between a Capstone and a Thesis in Criminal Justice Programs?

Capstones and theses involve the composition of a written work and require students to use knowledge and skills developed throughout their entire academic program. Thesis assignments generally appear in master’s programs, while capstone projects often take place during undergraduate work. Additionally, capstones can align with a practicum or internship. The practicum/internship component of a capstone allows for the intensive study of an existing problem, which the student attempts to answer or solve. Thesis assignments, on the other hand, attempt to develop new knowledge through broad research.

What Is a Capstone Like in Criminal Justice Programs?

Criminal justice capstone format.

A capstone project typically fulfills the requirements of a single course and is typically scheduled in the final semester of an academic program. Capstone completion generally takes several months of work outside the classroom setting, but students can begin planning and preparing ahead of time if they choose. Depending on your particular program, the capstone may result in a written paper or a classroom presentation. The structure can vary, assigned as individual projects or as group assignments. Some programs assign capstones in conjunction with a criminal justice internship.

Choosing Your Criminal Justice Capstone Topic

Many students find it helpful to work with an adviser during the completion of their capstone project. This adviser can be a faculty member or a professional working in the field, and they may assist you in brainstorming topics for your capstone project. Criminal justice thesis topics should include a field current issue and a specific approach or solution to the given problem. This can range from broader societal issues to specific problems commonly faced by individual offices and police departments.

Completing Your Criminal Justice Capstone

Completed capstones may take form as extensive research papers, multimedia presentations, speeches with visual aids, or even short films.

Your professor may provide a set of guidelines or suggestions for you to follow during the completion of your capstone project, but you will retain responsibility for much of the final design and presentation. Make sure to obtain any necessary faculty approval for your chosen topic or format before you begin working. If completing an internship or practicum alongside your capstone course, consider aligning your topic and research accordingly to allow yourself extensive in-person study rather than limiting yourself to traditional methods in the library or on the web. As you progress, maintain a log of your research, a portfolio or list of your findings, and keep track of any important conclusions you draw. Once you gather your information, prepare it according to your course requirements. Completed capstones may take form as extensive research papers, multimedia presentations, speeches with visual aids, or even short films.

Presenting Your Criminal Justice Capstone

Completed capstone projects often culminate with student presentations given in front of a small group. Typical presentation audiences might include an academic committee, a classroom of peers, or a board of familiar program faculty. Some schools make capstone presentations open to the public. The exact nature and format of each presentation depends on the assignment’s requirements and the student’s personal choice, but most presentations employ the use of visual aids to support and exemplify research and talking points, such as PowerPoint slides, video footage, or charts and photographs.

How Is a Criminal Justice Capstone Graded?

Students obtain information at the beginning of a capstone course, ranging from general guidelines to a specific rubric. Completed capstones receive letter grades, but professors may offer a detailed numerical grade as well. Students who fail capstone projects typically must retake the course in another semester, delaying their degree. Learners accused of plagiarism will go through an appeals process before earning a second chance.

What Is a Thesis Like in Criminal Justice Programs?

Criminal justice thesis format.

Although some master’s programs offer non-thesis tracks toward graduation, the majority of students earning a master’s degree need to successfully write and defend an individual thesis. Similar to undergraduate capstone courses, theses occur during the program’s final year, but students can begin preparing for them earlier if desired. A long-form research paper, theses develop original thought and present new insight within an academic field. Along with the paper’s composition, students typically defend their thesis to a faculty panel by answering questions about their research and conclusions.

Choosing Your Criminal Justice Thesis Topic

With so much riding on the success of your thesis, selecting a topic can prove a difficult task. Most students completing theses will have access to a faculty adviser. You should also use the professional networking connections you already possess to consider potential topics. Originality makes up the most important component of a successful thesis. Choose a topic that allows you to prove your understanding and ability within your field.

Completing Your Criminal Justice Thesis

Before you begin writing your thesis, obtain any necessary faculty approval for your topic. To get an idea for a solid thesis, take a look at criminal justice thesis examples online. Theses contain all the main components of your past college writing assignments. The main difference lies in length. Theses completed in master’s programs regularly reach 100 pages or more. Understandably, completing this task takes a significant amount of time and organization.

Theses completed in master’s programs regularly reach 100 pages or more.

Make sure to set aside several hours each week to work through research, writing, and revising as needed. Consider keeping a separate physical binder or digital folder for organizing your criminal justice thesis topics online research. Your faculty adviser will work with you throughout the year to keep track of your progress, answer questions, and offer additional advice.

Presenting Your Criminal Justice Thesis

During the presentation — often open to the public and lasting approximately 20-25 minutes — you share information about your research and conclusions. Consider preparing visual aids for use during this talk, such as PowerPoint slides. Afterward, you will field relevant questions from a committee, typically consisting of your faculty adviser and other faculty members. This portion of the presentation, known as the defense, intimidates many students preparing a thesis. Remember that your committee just wants to see you perform well and show a thorough understanding of your material.

How Is a Criminal Justice Thesis Graded?

While you may not get a detailed rubric before starting your thesis, rest assured you will receive clear expectations. Completed theses receive letter grades based on the written paper and presentation/defense. Failures typically occur due to plagiarism, cheating, or not following required guidelines, rather than subpar research, writing, or poor performance at the defense. If you do fail, your ability to try again depends on the cause of your failing grade and the policies of your institution.

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Criminal Justice Reform is an urgent topic aiming to address issues within the judicial, correctional, and law enforcement systems. Thesis statements in this field should be compelling and precise to reflect the complexity and importance of the matter. Below are examples of good and bad thesis statements on criminal justice reform, along with detailed explanations for their effectiveness or inadequacy.

Comparing Good Thesis Statement Examples

Specific and Clear Good: “This thesis will explore the effects of restorative justice programs on the recidivism rates of juvenile offenders in the United States.” Bad: “Restorative justice programs are beneficial.”

The good statement is specific and clear, focusing on restorative justice programs, a defined demographic (juvenile offenders), and a measurable outcome (recidivism rates). In contrast, the bad example is vague and general.

Arguable and Debatable Good: “Mandatory minimum sentencing policies disproportionately affect minority communities, perpetuating systemic racial biases within the criminal justice system.” Bad: “Mandatory minimum sentences are controversial.”

The good statement is debatable and presents a clear argument, highlighting the racial disparities and systemic biases due to mandatory minimum sentences. The bad example is non-committal and fails to present a clear standpoint or argument.

Researchable and Measurable Good: “Investing in community policing initiatives can foster trust and collaboration between law enforcement and local communities, thereby improving public safety.” Bad: “Community policing is a good approach.”

The good example presents a researchable hypothesis regarding investment in community policing and its potential effects on trust, collaboration, and public safety. The bad example is too general and lacks specific variables or measurable outcomes.

Bad Thesis Statement Examples

Overly Broad: “The criminal justice system needs reform.”

Though true, this statement is excessively broad and does not provide specific areas or aspects of the criminal justice system that require reform.

Lack of Clear Argument: “Incarceration rates are high in many countries.”

While factual, this statement lacks a clear argument or focus, serving as a poor guide for research direction and analysis.

Unmeasurable and Unresearchable: “A fair criminal justice system is crucial for society’s well-being.”

Though philosophically sound, this statement is unmeasurable and broad, making it inappropriate for scholarly research.

Crafting a strong thesis statement for research on criminal justice reform is crucial for guiding your investigation and clarifying your study’s objective and scope. Effective thesis statements should be specific, arguable, and researchable, acting as a guiding light for scholarly inquiry. In contrast, ineffective ones are often too broad, lack clear arguments, and are not conducive to empirical study. The examples and analysis provided in this guide offer students valuable insights for developing thesis statements that serve as robust foundations for their research on the imperative issue of criminal justice reform.

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222 Criminal Justice Thesis Topics To Make You Shine

What is criminal justice? Criminal justice deals with delivering justice to people who have committed crimes. The field entails a series of institutions and government agencies that co-work to bring illegal activities to book. Some of the purposes of a criminal justice thesis paper include:

• Facilitating the rehabilitation of offenders
• Ensuring that similar crimes do not occur again
• Providing moral support for victims

Such papers are critical, and this one has to take a professional approach, especially when writing criminal justice paper topics.

How To Write Criminal Justice Thesis Papers

Students in college and university taking criminal justice as a major are supposed to equip themselves with various writing techniques. For instance, there are times when one has to employ the methods used by a lawyer in presenting a case.

Since this is a cross-disciplinary field, you will have to formulate your arguments in a defensible thesis with evidence to support them. The criminal justice thesis statement should be:

Concise, Easy to understand, and Backed up by evidence and research.

You can choose to present the evidence either in qualitative or quantitative data. The former is expressed in texts, observations, and interviews, while the latter is in the form of numbers drawn from statistics.

For a quality criminal justice paper, use these expert writing tips:

• Use the APA style guide in formatting your paper
• Present your arguments in a clear language
• Do not stuff up too many pieces of evidence in one paragraph
• Avoid using personal opinions when defending a particular argument

With that, let us now look at some of the most brilliant thesis topics for criminal justice:

Criminal Justice Senior Thesis Topics

• Discuss the history and development of the criminal justice system
• How the rate of crime varies with different age brackets
• The impact of aggression in compelling one to commit a crime
• Why illegal immigrants are primarily associated with crime
• The role of education level in contributing to crime
• How does unemployment cause crime in society?
• Why are teenagers the majority of victims violating the law?
• The relationship between gender and criminal activity
• The role of firearms in advancing illegal activities
• How policies and government laws can lead to crime
• The role of the media in promoting crime
• Why is it challenging to manage crime in a society where the rule of law is obscure?
• The role of political campaigns and elections in contributing to crime
• Factors that led to the attack at the US Capitol
• Why drug and substance abuse is a leading cause of crime
• Programs that can help alleviate crime in any given society

General Criminal Justice Thesis Ideas

• Contribution of the study of criminology to the society
• How the study of criminology leads to the formulation of public policies
• The role of parents in preventing crimes
• How the education system has helped prevent crime
• The role of social media in planning and funding criminal behaviour
• How criminal gangs recruit members
• The implication of coronavirus on increased criminal behaviour
• How corrupt leaders can stir up criminal behaviour among citizens
• Why you should know your neighbours and what they do
• The role of biometric and facial recognition systems in curbing crime
• The effectiveness of the police in reducing crime
• Are penalties related to crimeless punitive?
• What is the implication of representing a serial killer in a criminal case?
• How to sensitize society on what constitutes criminal behaviour
• The impact of racism on criminal behaviour
• How bullying can be a cause of criminal behaviour in the future

Hot Criminal Justice Research Topics

• The role of forgeries and fake documents in advancing crime
• How corrupt police officers are creeping crime
• Ways of dealing with criminal behaviour at the grassroots level
• The role of the International Criminal Court in curbing crime
• Why social media is a significant fuel for crime
• The role of hate speech in advancing criminal activities
• How the family background of a person can lead him/her to crime
• Why students in college are at risk of joining gangs
• Latest ways in which criminals are smuggling goods into the country
• The impact of being labelled as a criminal on one’s reputation
• Is it possible for a criminal to genuinely transform while in prison?
• Religious ways of preventing crime in communities
• Why it is necessary to be careful when walking at night
• The role of the FBI in dismantling criminal groups
• How school dropouts get into illegal activity
• The part of peer pressure in leading one to commit a crime

Tip-Top Criminological Research Topics

• The role of mental health in any criminal behaviour
• How protests and demonstrations amount to illegal activities
• The implication of religious beliefs on committing a crime
• How social class is a critical player in the crime
• Does weather facilitate criminal behaviour in any way?
• Does cheating in exams amount to criminal behaviour?
• Ways of detecting and curtailing criminal activity before it happens
• How terrorism is facilitating crime in developing nations
• What amounts to an environmental crime?
• The implication of prejudice in violence
• Methods of deception used by human traffickers
• Forms of identity theft in America
• Causes and effects of juvenile delinquency
• How to curb criminal activities related to gambling
• Is prostitution contributing to crime in societies?
• Effective ways of prosecuting and punishing rape criminals

Criminology Research Paper Topics On Discrimination

• How racial profiling leads to crime
• Are our court systems becoming discriminatory based on race and social class?
• The impact of systematic bias on criminal justice
• How targeting minority groups leads to crime
• The impact of ethnic backgrounds on criminal activities
• Why the government should implement policies against gender discrimination
• The role of social movements in preventing discrimination
• How to deal with people who incite racial discrimination
• Ways of managing stereotypes as portrayed by the media
• The role of the clergy in breaking class-based social violence
• How discriminatory crime affects families
• The impact of discrimination on the performance of students
• The effects of corporate crime on the minor businesses
• How influential people in government contribute to crime
• Ways of dealing with hate crime and its implication on justice
• Effective crime preventions programs against marginalized communities

Criminal Law Research Topics

• The role of corrupt judges in enhancing crime
• Why tampering with evidence is facilitating the advancement of more criminal activities.
• How to manage cases of premeditated murder
• Should court systems use more punitive measures for punishing murderers?
• How does society view lawyers who defend murderers?
• Are there loopholes in criminal law that are advancing criminal behaviour?
• In what ways is the justice system perverted?
• Discuss the essence of studying criminal law
• The role of the jury in delivering just sentences to guilty criminals
• What is the implication of the presidential pardon on criminals?
• How to protect the privacy of inmates
• Do convicts on death have rights as any other human being?
• How technology is advancing the practice of criminal law
• Compare and contrast the number of men and women pursuing criminal law in the United States
• What are some of the cultural impediments to the rule of criminal law?
• The implication of fines and bonds on criminals with money

Criminal Justice Research Questions

• How does street lighting helps reduce the crime rate?
• Can security agencies use technology to prevent terrorism?
• Discuss illegal research techniques in genetics and their dangers
• What is the impact of smartphones on crime rates?
• How does the National Guard help in reducing crime?
• What is the role of psychometric examinations in criminology?
• Does the court system take too long to administer justice?
• Is arbitration applicable in the case of a murder charge?
• What are the fundamental principles of crime prevention?
• The role of mass media during chaotic elections
• Is it to keep a registry of sexual offenders?
• What can institutions do to prevent cases of sexual assault?
• What is the motive of a ransom in a kidnapping case?
• When do felony disenfranchisement laws apply?
• What is the role of forensic science in modern criminology?
• Discuss the association between substance abuse and crime?

Expert Criminal Law Topics For Research Paper

• Effects of forging contracts in a work setting
• Should presidents face criminal proceedings during their tenure?
• The implication of the president’s immunity to international crimes
• How can the courts ensure a fair trial for all accused persons?
• How long should attorneys take to prepare a defence?
• Implications for substantial injustice for any criminal case
• Effects of giving self-incriminating evidence
• How to deal with a crime under the international law
• Should prosecutors obtain evidence in a manner that violates a person’s rights?
• The place of torture in obtaining information from a suspect
• What is the effectiveness of a petition in a murder case?
• The role of the press in criminal proceedings
• Discuss the rights and welfare of victims of criminal offences
• How ballistic experts differentiate between an accidental and intentional shooting
• The role of the state in upholding law and order
• How lawyers defend their clients: Is it unethical at times?

Law Enforcement Research Paper Topics

• Is how police handle suspects justified?
• Weigh in on the ongoing police brutality claims on a racial basis
• The role of law enforcers in sensitizing people on peace
• Why it is necessary to have police stations in every community
• Causes of corruption and crime among some law enforcers
• Evaluate the response of law enforcers during the attack at the US Capitol
• Assess how male and female police officers handle crime
• What is the effect of police patrols on crime rates?
• How police involvement with criminal groups fuels up crime
• Police technologies used to detect and counter crime
• What improvements should the police have to handle crime effectively?
• Compare and contrast law enforcement strategies used in the UK and US
• Comment on the use of biometric data in tracing criminals
• How effective are informers in assisting the police to curb crime?
• Evaluate how different law enforcement agencies handle crime
• How digital footprints have helped law enforcers to arrest criminals

Criminal Justice Research Proposal Topics

• The role of community policing in preventing crime
• Does the length of criminal trials affect their outcome?
• Should courts punish crimes committed on a religious basis?
• What are some of the challenges to implementing stringent prosecution laws?
• Does infringement of copyright laws amount to criminal behaviour?
• Should journalists take photos of suspects on trial and publish them?
• Assess the different classes of crime systems
• How to deal with cyber-stalking in the case of couples
• Discuss the effectiveness of courts dealing with drug-related cases
• Analyzing the implication of mandatory sentencing
• What happens in the case of a wrongful conviction in a criminal case?
• What motivates people to commit crimes?
• Discuss the psychology behind aggressive criminal behaviour
• Compare and contrast between murder and homicide
• Evaluate the different classes of criminal offenders

Criminal Investigation Research Paper Topics

• Discuss the process of beginning a criminal investigation
• Interrogation methods that are involved in criminal investigations
• How does investigative journalism complement criminal investigations?
• How crime-related movies have created a perception in people’s minds
• The role of criminal investigations in delivering sentences
• How technology has made criminal investigations more effective
• The difference in investigating between civil and criminal cases
• Discuss the unethical sides of criminal investigations
• The role of information sharing technologies in criminal investigations
• Why murder cases take too long to be solved
• Secretive methods of conducting criminal investigations
• Discuss the relationship between criminal investigations and the evidence presented in court
• Why most detectives do not have a specific regalia
• The implication of conducting criminal investigations in the face of the coronavirus
• How to handle inquiries for cases beyond a country’s border

Criminal Justice Research Topics For College Students

• The impact of TV series on crime rates
• How different countries handle criminal cases
• Discuss the impact of witness interference in a criminal case
• How court systems contribute to crime
• Are the witness protection policies effective enough?
• The role of CCTVs in promoting justice in criminal cases
• The impact of criminal courts on advancing good morals in a society
• Discuss the truth in the statement ‘justice delayed is not justice denied.’
• Importance of studying criminal justice in the 21 st century
• Discuss the role of fingerprints in a criminal investigation
• Should criminal cases be completed in less than a week?
• What happens when a president commits a national crime during his tenure?
• How the Director of Public Prosecutions can help in combating corruption
• The responsibility of court officers in protecting the suspects
• Do criminal cases caught on camera need any further investigations?
• How should a state deal with foreigners who are guilty of criminal offences in their country?

Other Criminal Justice Dissertation Topics

• Areas of the prevalence of wildlife crimes
• How to deal with cases of shoplifting
• Evaluate methods used by online predators to lure children
• Why exposing your location details on social media may be dangerous for you
• Should parents answer to suicide cases involving their children?
• Discuss why parents should not leave their children alone at home
• The role of police hotline numbers in combating crime
• The impact of living in neighbourhoods known for criminal activity
• How we can use religion to prevent crime
• How one can anonymously report a criminal activity
• Impact of hacking technologies on people’s privacy
• Latest innovations in tracking criminal behaviour
• Why investigations concerning a prominent person take too long to complete
• Who is liable to pay damages in case of a mishap in a criminal case?
• How to follow the rule of law in any criminal proceeding
• How to know if you are being trailed at night by criminals

Research Methods In Criminal Justice Topics

• Use of questionnaires
• Real-time survey systems in criminal justice
• Effectiveness of one on one interviews
• Field research in criminology
• Observation as a criminology research method
• How participant observation works
• Impact of ethnography
• Use of case study in investigating crime
• Experiments in criminology
• Second data analysis methods
• Deliberate manipulation of social customs
• Analysis of government data
• Research of historical documents
• Studies using the Delphi method
• Conclusive research methods for criminal justice
• Descriptive research methods

Your top-rated criminal justice is just a step away from A+ grades with our expert thesis titles. Use our high-tech thesis writing services to improve your paper today!

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Criminal Justice Guide for Graduate Students: Write a Thesis

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The UNT College of Education, Office of Research Consulting supports faculty and graduate students' research and statistical needs. The office serves faculty, doctoral and master students in support of advanced coursework and independent research such as theses and dissertations and preparation for professional publication. You can submit a request for assistance on their website:  https://coe.unt.edu/research/research-consulting 

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The UNT Writing Center offers services just for graduate students. Graduate students needing help with course papers, publications, a thesis, or a dissertation may contact graduate tutors at  [email protected]  to set up an appointment. Graduate tutors do more than merely proofread; they teach strategies and techniques to improve writing for the long term. 

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Nadine Anderson, Behavioral Sciences and Women's & Gender Studies Librarian

Thesis writing can seem like a very daunting task but your Criminology & Criminal Justice librarian, Nadine Anderson, is here to help. Contact me at [email protected] with your questions about identifying research gaps, finding sources for your literature review, and putting together your thesis proposal.

1.  Identify a research gap : your thesis should address a research gap which you identify in the literature, a research question or problem which has not been addressed in your area of interest.

2.  Build and defend your thesis proposal : a written document that outlines what you're going to study and why it's important, as well as the methods you will use to study your thesis topic.

3. To graduate after successfully defending your Master's thesis:

The Graduate Studies Office requires you to have your thesis submitted to  Deep Blue (the University of Michigan's institutional repository) in order to release your final grade. You and your advisor can choose from either of the following process options below to have your thesis submitted to Deep Blue

The deadlines for submission for either option  are:

• Fall 2023: December 4, 2023
• Winter 2024: April 14, 2024

Option 1: Submit your Master's Thesis for a format check before you have it submitted to Deep Blue

• Your thesis needs to be finalized and approved by your Thesis Chair before you submit it for a format check
• Use the Master's Thesis Formatting Checklist below to make sure that your thesis meets the Graduate Studies Office formatting requirements for Masters theses. 
• Library staff will check your thesis once using the Master's Thesis Formatting Checklist (see below) against the Graduate Studies Office formatting requirements for Masters theses.
• Library staff will send you an email that includes the formatting revisions needed as well as a link to the Deep Blue Submission form 
• You will also add information about your thesis needed for Deep Blue submission
• You will then submit your Master's Thesis as a pdf file with embedded fonts for Deep Blue

Option 2: Waive a format check and just submit your thesis to Deep Blue

• Fill out the Thesis/Dissertation Waiver Statement  and have your committee chair sign it
• This statement must be  signed by your committee chair before you submit it
• Library staff will send you an email that includes the link to the Deep Blue Submission form 

To help you format your Word document correctly , use:

• UM's online  Microsoft Word for Dissertations (and Theses) guide : look for the Scholar Space Word Template for Dissertation (and thesis) , which has many of the formatting guidelines built in.
• Word for Windows Training Page  or Word for Mac Help Page
• Master's Thesis Formatting Checklist

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Thesis Writing & Research

• Conducting Your Literature Review (2020)
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• Succeeding With Your Master's Dissertation: A Step-By-Step Handbook [ebook]  (2015)
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Thesis Guidelines

Criminal Justice graduate students are required to complete a thesis. The thesis is designed to provide students with an opportunity to display knowledge and skills that have been developed during graduate school. The thesis requires students to analyze either quantitative or qualitative data in some way.

Students in the traditional master's program must complete a thesis. The thesis is designed to be a theoretically guided examination of some criminal justice issue. Thus, the thesis can be similar to a professional paper insofar as it may be an evaluation of a program or policy issue, but the evaluation should be based on predictions derived from a theory. Alternatively, the thesis could involve basic research where a student tests hypotheses that are derived from theories relevant to criminal justice. Ideally, the thesis is similar to a journal article on a topic that makes a contribution to the field.

The thesis format is that of a journal article. It should begin with a literature review followed by a method section, a results section, and a discussion section.

Thesis Committee

Graduate students must select a thesis committee. The committee is composed of three members from the Department of Criminal Justice and an additional member who must come from an outside department. One faculty member from the Department of Criminal Justice will serve as chair of the committee. The chair will guide the student through the process of completing their thesis. Students should first select the Chair of their committee, who will advise the student on other appropriate members of the committee.

Thesis Proposal

Graduate students must submit a proposal that briefly describes the project they wish to conduct to all members of their committee. The proposal should address the following issues:

• What exactly do you want to study? Why?
• What is the theoretical and/or practical significance of your study?
• What other studies have been done that relate to your study? What are the basic findings of those studies?
• What theories address your research topic? What do they say about it?
• If relevant, specific hypotheses to be tested should be clearly stated.
• What are the independent, dependent, and control variables in your study?
• How will data be collected (e.g., survey, experiment, field research)?
• How will you measure the variables in your study?
• What type of sample will be used? What are your units of analysis?
• How will human subjects be protected?
• How will data sets be acquired if secondary data analysis is employed?
• What kind of statistical analysis do you expect to conduct (e.g., regression, ANOVA, chi-square, etc.)?
• A timetable for completing each section of the thesis must be included.
• If relevant, provide copies of proposed materials (e.g., questionnaires to be administered).

Proposal Meeting

After the graduate student submits a copy of the proposal to the committee members, the student will meet with the committee and discuss the proposed project.

All committee members must approve the proposal before the graduate student begins work on the project. Once consensus has been reached about the proposed research, committee members will sign your Appointment of Examination Committee form indicating acceptance of the study as outlined in the proposal.

Schedule for Completing Thesis Requirements

Students must follow the schedule for completion of requirements described below. If a student cannot meet the specified deadlines, they must obtain written approval to extend the deadlines from the Department of Criminal Justice graduate coordinator.

Students who do not complete the requirements by the deadlines (or who do not obtain deadline extension approval from the graduate coordinator) may be separated from the Criminal Justice Program and/or may have their graduate assistantship funding withdrawn.

Deadlines for Full-Time Graduate Students and Graduate Assistants

• Students must form the committee for their thesis by the mid-semester mark of their third semester.
• Students must have their thesis proposal meeting before the final day of their third semester.
• Students must submit their thesis to their committee 20 days before the official last day to defend their thesis of their fourth semester. This date changes every semester and is published in the official UNLV schedule.

Note: Summer sessions do not count as official semesters.

Deadlines for Part-Time Graduate Students

• Students must form the committee for their thesis by the mid-semester mark of the semester the student will earn their 24th credit.
• Students must have their thesis proposal meeting before the final day of the semester they will earn their 24th credit.
• Students must submit their thesis to their committee 20 days before the official last day to defend their thesis in their final semester (e.g., after completing 30 credits). This date changes every semester and is published in the official UNLV schedule.

Note: Part-time students must complete 30 credits of course work within 5 1/2 years of beginning the graduate program in criminal justice.

CRJU 3131: Research Methods in Criminal Justice

Idea to research question to thesis, brainstorming resources, formulate a research question using context, try concept mapping.

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1. Start with a general subject you think you want to explore

Example: Lone wolf terrorism, electronic surveillance, social media use in emergencies, unmanned systems, suicide bombers. These look more like headings in an Encyclopedia than topics for a paper.

2. Look for particular aspects of the general subject you might want to explore further.

• Look at the texts assigned in class or ones you have used for other classes.
• Read some background sources. You may not use these sources as evidence in your paper, but they can help you find and narrow a topic.
• Look at one or two basic books on the subject. Scan the Table of Contents; Index. Browse the Chapters.

3. Once you have picked an aspect, develop some research questions about the aspect you have selected. You will probably need to find some pre-research and find books or chapters in books on the particular aspect you have selected.

• Avoid questions that can be answered by a simple description
• Avoid yes/no questions
• Avoid questions that are too broad
• Avoid questions like What would have happened if…

4 . Now you may be ready to develop your thesis and start your real research. A research paper is not just a collection of facts or bits of information. It usually takes the form of an argument in support of a thesis. 

• A thesis is not a description of your paper, though it should be clear from your thesis what your paper is about. Example. This paper is about the use of non-violent tactics used to protest the War in Vietnam. This is a description . not a thesis 
• A thesis is not a question, though it comes from a question that a researcher asked. Example: Were non-violent tactics successful in bringing an early end to the war in Viet Nam? This is a question not a thesis
• A thesis is not a statement of fact Example: Many college students were involved in non-violent protests against the war in Viet Nam. - this is a statement not a thesis.
• A thesis is not a statement of personal opinion. Though it should reflect what you have concluded, a thesis is not a mere statement of your own personal beliefs or prejudices.

A thesis is a specific, possible, debatable answer to a question that can be supported by evidence. It makes an assertion that sets up an argument. It is then the writer’s job to supply evidence to prove their point in the rest of the paper.

Example of a Thesis:   The Vietnam War protest movement was more about white, middle-class young men being drafted and then sent into war than it was about stopping an unjust war.

Example of a Thesis:  Although the timber wolf is actually a timid and gentle animal, it is being systematically exterminated because people wrongfully believe it to be a fierce and cold-blooded killer.

Hint:   Use a formula to develop a working thesis statement (which you will need to revise later). Here are a few examples:

• Although  ______ have argued that ______, closer examination shows that ______.
• ______ uses ______ and ______ to prove that ______.
• Phenomenon X is a result of the combination of ______, ______, and ______.

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The table above illustrates how a research question develops from a broad topic to a focused research question . A concept map should help you identify a sub-topic and possible issues or problems . Preliminary research will provide some context to help you consider a possible research question.

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How to Think about Criminal Justice Reform: Conceptual and Practical Considerations

• Published: 20 December 2022
• Volume 47 , pages 1050–1070, ( 2022 )

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• Charis E. Kubrin 1 &
• Rebecca Tublitz 1  

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How can we improve the effectiveness of criminal justice reform efforts? Effective reform hinges on shared understandings of what the problem is and shared visions of what success looks like. But consensus is hard to come by, and there has long been a distinction between “policy talk” or how problems are defined and solutions are promoted, and “policy action” or the design and adoption of certain policies. In this essay, we seek to promote productive thinking and talking about, as well as designing of, effective and sustainable criminal justice reforms. To this end, we offer reflections on underlying conceptual and practical considerations relevant for both criminal justice policy talk and action.

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Across the political spectrum in the United States, there is agreement that incarceration and punitive sanctions cannot be the sole solution to crime. After decades of criminal justice expansion, incarceration rates peaked between 2006 and 2008 and have dropped modestly, but consistently, ever since then (Gramlich, 2021 ). Calls to ratchet up criminal penalties to control crime, with some exceptions, are increasingly rare. Rather, where bitter partisanship divides conservatives and progressives on virtually every other issue, bipartisan support for criminal justice reform is commonplace. This support has yielded many changes in recent years: scaling back of mandatory sentencing laws, limiting sentencing enhancements, expanding access to non-prison alternatives for low-level drug and property crimes, reducing revocations of community supervision, and increasing early release options (Subramanian & Delaney, 2014 ). New laws passed to reduce incarceration have outpaced punitive legislation three-to-one (Beckett et al., 2016 , 2018 ). Rather than the rigid “law and order” narrative that characterized the dominant approach to crime and punishment since the Nixon administration, policymakers and advocates have found common ground in reform conversations focused on cost savings, evidence-based practice, and being “smart on crime.” A “new sensibility” prevails (Phelps, 2016 ).

Transforming extensive support for criminal justice reform into substantial reductions in justice-involved populations has proven more difficult, and irregular. While the number of individuals incarcerated across the nation has declined, the U.S. continues to have the highest incarceration rate in the world, with nearly 1.9 million people held in state and federal prisons, local jails, and detention centers (Sawyer & Wagner, 2022 ; Widra & Herring, 2021 ). Another 3.9 million people remain on probation or parole (Kaeble, 2021 ). And, not all jurisdictions have bought into this new sensibility: rural and suburban reliance on prisons has increased during this new era of justice reform (Kang-Brown & Subramanian, 2017 ). Despite extensive talk of reform, achieving actual results “is about as easy as bending granite” (Petersilia, 2016 :9).

How can we improve the effectiveness of criminal justice reform? At its core, a reform is an effort to ameliorate an undesirable condition, eliminate an identified problem, achieve a goal, or strengthen an existing (successful) policy. Scholarship yields real insights into effective programming and practice in response to a range of issues in criminal justice. Equally apparent, however, is the lack of criminological knowledge incorporated into the policymaking process. Thoughtful are proposals to improve the policy-relevance of criminological knowledge and increase communication between research and policy communities (e.g., Blomberg et al., 2016 ; Mears, 2022 ). But identifying what drives effective criminal justice reform is not so straightforward. For one, the goals of reform vary across stakeholders: Should reform reduce crime and victimization? Focus on recidivism? Increase community health and wellbeing? Ensure fairness in criminal justice procedure? Depending upon who is asked, the answer differs. Consensus on effective reform hinges on shared understandings of what the problem is and shared visions of what success looks like. Scholars of the policy process often distinguish “policy talk,” or how problems are defined and solutions are promoted, from “policy action,” or the design and adoption of policy solutions, to better understand the drivers of reform and its consequences. This distinction is relevant to criminal justice reform (Bartos & Kubrin, 2018 :2; Tyack & Cuban, 1995 ).

We argue that an effective approach to criminal justice reform—one that results in policy action that matches policy talk—requires clarity regarding normative views about the purpose of punishment, appreciation of practical realities involved in policymaking, and insight into how the two intersect. To this end, in this essay we offer critical reflections on underlying conceptual and practical considerations that bear on criminal justice policy talk and action.

Part I. Conceptual Considerations: Narratives of Crime and Criminal Justice

According to social constructionist theory, the creation of knowledge is rooted in interactions between individuals through common language and shared meanings in social contexts (Berger & Luckmann, 1966 ). Common language and shared meanings create ways of thinking, or narratives, that socially construct our reality and profoundly influence public definitions of groups, events, and social phenomena, including crime and criminal justice. As such, any productive conversation about reform must engage with society’s foundational narratives about crime and criminal justice, including views about the rationales for punishment.

I. Rationales of Punishment

What is criminal justice? What purpose does our criminal justice system serve? Answers to these questions are found in the theories, organization, and practices of criminal justice. A starting point for discovery is the fact that criminal justice is a system for the implementation of punishment (Cullen & Gilbert, 1982 ). This has not always been the case but today, punishment is largely meted out in our correctional system, or prisons and jails, which embody rationales for punishment including retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, and restoration. These rationales offer competing purposes and goals, and provide varying blueprints for how our criminal justice system should operate.

Where do these rationales come from? They derive, in part, from diverse understandings and explanations about the causes of crime. While many theories exist, a useful approach for thinking about crime and its causes is found in the two schools of criminological thought, the Classical and Positivist Schools of Criminology. These Schools reflect distinct ideological assumptions, identify competing rationales for punishment, and suggest unique social policies to address crime—all central to any discussion of criminal justice reform.

At its core, the Classical School sought to bring about reform of the criminal justice systems of eighteenth century Europe, which were characterized by such abuses as torture, presumption of guilt before trial, and arbitrary court procedures. Reformers of the Classical School, most notably Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, were influenced by social contract theorists of the Enlightenment, a cultural movement of intellectuals in late seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe that emphasized reason and individualism rather than tradition, along with equality. Central assumptions of the Classical School include that people are rational and possessed of free will, and thus can be held responsible for their actions; that humans are governed by the principle of utility and, as such, seek pleasure or happiness and avoid pain; and that, to prevent crime, punishments should be just severe enough such that the pain or unhappiness created by the punishment outweighs any pleasure or happiness derived from crime, thereby deterring would-be-offenders who will see that “crime does not pay.”

The guiding concept of the Positivist School was the application of the scientific method to study crime and criminals. In contrast to the Classical School’s focus on rational decision-making, the Positivist School adopted a deterministic viewpoint, which suggests that crime is determined by factors largely outside the control of individuals, be they biological (such as genetics), psychological (such as personality disorder), or sociological (such as poverty). Positivists also promote the idea of multiple-factor causation, or that crime is caused by a constellation of complex forces.

When it comes to how we might productively think about reform, a solid understanding of these schools is necessary because “…the unique sets of assumptions of two predominant schools of criminological thought give rise to vastly different explanations of and prescriptions for the problem of crime” (Cullen & Gilbert, 1982 :36). In other words, the two schools of thought translate into different strategies for policy. They generate rationales for punishment that offer competing narratives regarding how society should handle those who violate the law. These rationales for punishment motivate reformers, whether the aim is to “rehabilitate offenders” or “get tough on crime,” influencing policy and practice.

The earliest rationale for punishment is retribution. Consistent with an individual’s desire for revenge, the aim is that offenders experience an unpleasant consequence for violating the law. Essentially, criminals should get what they deserve. While other rationales focus on changing future behavior, retribution focuses on an individual’s past actions and implies they have rightfully “earned” their punishment. Punishment, then, expresses moral disapproval for the criminal act committed. Advocates of retribution are not concerned with controlling crime; rather, they are in the business of “doing justice.” The death penalty and sentencing guidelines, a system of recommended sentences based upon offense (e.g., level of seriousness) and offender (e.g., number and type of prior offenses) characteristics, reflect basic principles of retribution.

Among the most popular rationales for punishment is deterrence, which refers to the idea that those considering crime will refrain from doing so out of a fear of punishment, consistent with the Classical School. Deterrence emphasizes that punishing a person also sends a message to others about what they can expect if they, too, violate the law. Deterrence theory provides the basis for a particular kind of correctional system that punishes the crime, not the criminal. Punishments are to be fixed tightly to specific crimes so that offenders will soon learn that the state means business. The death penalty is an example of a policy based on deterrence (as is obvious, these rationales are not mutually exclusive) as are three-strikes laws, which significantly increase prison sentences of those convicted of a felony who have been previously convicted of two or more violent crimes or serious felonies.

Another rationale for punishment, incapacitation, has the goal of reducing crime by incarcerating offenders or otherwise restricting their liberty (e.g., community supervision reflected in probation, parole, electronic monitoring). Uninterested in why individuals commit crime in the first place, and with no illusion they can be reformed, the goal is to remove individuals from society during a period in which they are expected to reoffend. Habitual offender laws, which target repeat offenders or career criminals and provide for enhanced or exemplary punishments or other sanctions, reflect this rationale.

Embodied in the term “corrections” is the notion that those who commit crime can be reformed, that their behavior can be “corrected.” Rehabilitation refers to when individuals refrain from crime—not out of a fear of punishment—but because they are committed to law-abiding behavior. The goal, from this perspective, is to change the factors that lead individuals to commit crime in the first place, consistent with Positivist School arguments. Unless criminogenic risks are targeted for change, crime will continue. The correctional system should thus be arranged to deliver effective treatment; in other words, prisons must be therapeutic. Reflective of this rationale is the risk-need-responsibility (RNR) model, used to assess and rehabilitate offenders. Based on three principles, the risk principle asserts that criminal behavior can be reliably predicted and that treatment should focus on higher risk offenders, the need principle emphasizes the importance of criminogenic needs in the design and delivery of treatment and, the responsivity principle describes how the treatment should be provided.

When a crime takes place, harm occurs—to the victim, to the community, and even to the offender. Traditional rationales of punishment do not make rectifying this harm in a systematic way an important goal. Restoration, or restorative justice, a relatively newer rationale, aims to rectify harms and restore injured parties, perhaps by apologizing and providing restitution to the victim or by doing service for the community. In exchange, the person who violated the law is (ideally) forgiven and accepted back into the community as a full-fledged member. Programs associated with restorative justice are mediation and conflict-resolution programs, family group conferences, victim-impact panels, victim–offender mediation, circle sentencing, and community reparative boards.

II. Narratives of Criminal Justice

Rationales for punishment, thus, are many. But from where do they arise? They reflect and reinforce narratives of crime and criminal justice (Garland, 1991 ). Penological and philosophical narratives constitute two traditional ways of thinking about criminal justice. In the former, punishment is viewed essentially as a technique of crime control. This narrative views the criminal justice system in instrumental terms, as an institution whose overriding purpose is the management and control of crime. The focal question of interest is a technical one: What works to control crime? The latter, and second, narrative considers the philosophy of punishment. It examines the normative foundations on which the corrections system rests. Here, punishment is set up as a distinctively moral problem, asking how penal sanctions can be justified, what their proper objectives should be, and under what circumstances they can be reasonably imposed. The central question here is “What is just?”.

A third narrative, “the sociology of punishment,” conceptualizes punishment as a social institution—one that is distinctively focused on punishment’s social forms, functions, and significance in society (Garland, 1991 ). In this narrative, punishment, and the criminal justice system more broadly, is understood as a cultural and historical artifact that is concerned with the control of crime, but that is shaped by an ensemble of social forces and has significance and impacts that reach well beyond the population of criminals (pg. 119). A sociology of punishment narrative raises important questions: How do specific penal measures come into existence?; What social functions does punishment perform?; How do correctional institutions relate to other institutions?; How do they contribute to social order or to state power or to class domination or to cultural reproduction of society?; What are punishment’s unintended social effects, its functional failures, and its wider social costs? (pg. 119). Answers to these questions are found in the sociological perspectives on punishment, most notably those by Durkheim (punishment is a moral process, functioning to preserve shared values and normative conventions on which social life is based), Marx (punishment is a repressive instrument of class domination), Foucault (punishment is one part of an extensive network of “normalizing” practices in society that also includes school, family, and work), and Elias (punishment reflects a civilizing process that brings with it a move toward the privatization of disturbing events), among others.

Consistent with the sociology of punishment, Kraska and Brent ( 2011 ) offer additional narratives, which they call theoretical orientations, for organizing thoughts on the criminal justice system generally, and the control of crime specifically. They argue a useful way to think about theorizing is through the use of metaphors. Adopting this approach, they identify eight ways of thinking based on different metaphors: criminal justice as rational/legalism, as a system, as crime control vs. due process, as politics, as the social construction of reality, as a growth complex, as oppression, and as modernity. Several overlap with concepts and frameworks discussed earlier, while others, such as oppression, are increasingly applicable in current conversations about racial justice—something we take up in greater detail below. Consistent with Garland ( 1991 ), Kraska and Brent ( 2011 ) emphasize that each narrative tells a unique story about the history, growth, behaviors, motivations, functioning, and possible future of the criminal justice system. What unites these approaches is their shared interest in understanding punishment’s broader role in society.

There are still other narratives of crime and criminal justice, with implications for thinking about and conceptualizing reform. Packer ( 1964 ) identifies two theoretical models, each offering a different narrative, which reflect value systems competing for priority in the operation of the criminal process: the Crime Control Model and the Due Process Model. The Crime Control Model is based on the view that the most important function of the criminal process is the repression of criminal conduct. The failure of law enforcement to bring criminal conduct under tight control is seen as leading to a breakdown of public order and hence, to the disappearance of freedom. If laws go unenforced and offenders perceive there is a low chance of being apprehended and convicted, a disregard for legal controls will develop and law-abiding citizens are likely to experience increased victimization. In this way, the criminal justice process is a guarantor of social freedom.

To achieve this high purpose, the Crime Control Model requires attention be paid to the efficiency with which the system operates to screen suspects, determine guilt, and secure dispositions of individuals convicted of crime. There is thus a premium on speed and finality. Speed, in turn, depends on informality, while finality depends on minimizing occasions for challenge. As such, the process cannot be “cluttered up” with ceremonious rituals. In this way, informal operations are preferred to formal ones, and routine, stereotyped procedures are essential to handle large caseloads. Packer likens the Crime Control Model to an “assembly line or a conveyor belt down which moves an endless stream of cases, never stopping, carrying the cases to workers who stand at fixed stations and who perform on each case as it comes by the same small but essential operation that brings it one step closer to being a finished product, or, to exchange the metaphor for the reality, a closed file” (pg. 11). Evidence of this model today is witnessed in the extremely high rate of criminal cases disposed of via plea bargaining.

In contrast, the Due Process model calls for strict adherence to the Constitution and a focus on the accused and their Constitutional rights. Stressing the possibility of error, this model emphasizes the need to protect procedural rights even if this prevents the system from operating with maximum efficiency. There is thus a rejection of informal fact-finding processes and insistence on formal, adjudicative, adversary fact-finding processes. Packer likens the Due Process model to an obstacle course: “Each of its successive stages is designed to present formidable impediments to carrying the accused any further along in the process” (pg. 13). That all death penalty cases are subject to appeal, even when not desired by the offender, is evidence of the Due Process model in action.

Like the frameworks described earlier, the Crime Control and Due Process models offer a useful framework for discussing and debating the operation of a system whose day-to-day functioning involves a constant tension between competing demands of different sets of values. In the context of reform, these models encourage us to consider critical questions: On a spectrum between the extremes represented by the two models, where do our present practices fall? What appears to be the direction of foreseeable trends along this spectrum? Where on the spectrum should we aim to be? In essence, which value system is reflected most in criminal justice practices today, in which direction is the system headed, and where should it aim go in the future? Of course this framework, as all others reviewed here, assumes a tight fit between structure and function in the criminal courts yet some challenge this assumption arguing, instead, that criminal justice is best conceived of as a “loosely coupled system” (Hagan et al., 1979 :508; see also Bernard et al., 2005 ).

III. The Relevance of Crime and Criminal Justice Narratives for Thinking about Reform

When it comes to guiding researchers and policymakers to think productively about criminal justice reform, at first glance the discussion above may appear too academic and intellectual. But these narratives are more than simply fodder for discussion or topics of debate in the classroom or among academics. They govern how we think and talk about criminal justice and, by extension, how the system should be structured—and reformed.

An illustrative example of this is offered in Haney’s ( 1982 ) essay on psychological individualism. Adopting the premise that legal rules, doctrines, and procedures, including those of the criminal justice system, reflect basic assumptions about human nature, Haney’s thesis is that in nineteenth century America, an overarching narrative dominated legal and social conceptions of human behavior—that of psychological individualism. Psychological individualism incorporates three basic “facts” about human behavior: 1) individuals are the causal locus of behavior; 2) socially problematic and illegal behavior therefore arises from some defect in the individual persons who perform it; and, 3) such behavior can be changed or eliminated only by effecting changes in the nature or characteristics of those persons. Here, crime is rooted in the nature of criminals themselves be the source genetic, biological, or instinctual, ideas consistent with the Classical School of Criminology.

Haney reviews the rise and supremacy of psychological individualism in American society, discusses its entrenchment in legal responses to crime, and describes the implications of adopting such a viewpoint. Psychological individualism, he claims, diverted attention away from the structural and situational causes of crime (e.g., poverty, inequality, capitalism) and suggested the futility of social reforms that sought solutions to human problems through changes in larger social conditions: “The legal system, in harmony with widely held psychological theories about the causal primacy of individuals, acted to transform all structural problems into matters of moral depravity and personal shortcoming” (pg. 226–27). This process of transformation is nowhere clearer than in our historical commitment to prisons as the solution to the problem of crime, a commitment that continues today. Psychological individualism continues to underpin contemporary reform efforts. For example, approaches to reducing racial disparities in policing by eliminating officers’ unconscious racial bias through implicit-bias trainings shifts the focus away from organizational and institutional sources of disparate treatment.

In sum, the various narratives of crime and criminal justice constitute an essential starting point for any discussion of reform. They reflect vastly differing assumptions and, in many instances, value orientations or ideologies. The diversity of ways of thinking arguably contribute to conflict in society over contemporary criminal justice policy and proposed reforms. Appreciating that point is critical for identifying ways to create effective and sustainable reforms.

At the same time, these different ways of thinking do not exist in a vacuum. Rather, they collide with practical realities and constraints, which can and do shape how the criminal justice system functions, as well as determine the ability to reform it moving forward. For that reason, we turn to a discussion of how narratives about crime and criminal justice intersect with practical realities in the policy sphere, and suggest considerations that policymakers, researchers, and larger audiences should attend to when thinking about the future of reform.

Part II. Practical Considerations: Criminal Justice Reform through a Policy Lens

Criminal justice reform is no simple matter. Unsurprisingly, crime has long been considered an example of a “wicked” problem in public policy: ill-defined; with uncertainty about its causes and incomplete knowledge of effective solutions; complex arrangements of institutions responsible for addressing the problem; and, disagreement on foundational values (Head & Alford, 2015 ; Rittel & Webber, 1973 )—the latter apparent from the discussion above. Many note a large gap between criminological knowledge and policy (Mears, 2010 , 2022 ; Currie, 2007 ). While a movement to incorporate research evidence into the policy-making process has made some in-roads, we know less about how policymakers use this information to adopt and enact reforms. Put differently, more attention is paid to understanding the outcomes of crime-related policy while less is known about the contexts of, and inputs into, the process itself (Ismaili, 2006 ).

We identify practical considerations for policy-oriented researchers and policymakers in thinking through how to make criminal justice reform more effective. Specifically, we discuss practical considerations that reformers are likely to encounter related to problem formulation and framing (policy talk) and policy adoption (policy action), including issues of 1) variation and complexity in the criminal justice policy environment, 2) problem framing and policy content, 3) policy aims and outcomes, 4) equity considerations in policy design and evaluation; and, 5) policy process and policy change. These considerations are by no means exhaustive nor are they mutually exclusive. We offer these thoughts as starting points for discussion.

I. The Criminal Justice Policy Environment: Many Systems, Many Players

The criminal justice “system” in the United States is something of a misnomer. There is no single, centralized system. Instead, there are at least 51 separate systems—one for each of the 50 states, and the federal criminal justice system—each with different laws, policies, and administrative arrangements. Multiple agencies are responsible for various aspects of enforcing the law and administering justice. These agencies operate across multiple, overlapping jurisdictions. Some are at the municipal level (police), others are governed by counties (courts, prosecution, jails), and still others by state and federal agencies (prisons, probation, parole). Across these systems is an enormous amount of discretion regarding what crimes to prioritize for enforcement, whether and what charges to file, which sentences to mete out, what types of conditions, treatment, and programming to impose, and how to manage those under correctional authority. Scholars note the intrinsic problem with this wide-ranging independence: “criminal justice policy is made and put into action at the municipal, county, state, and national levels, and the thousands of organizations that comprise this criminal justice network are, for the most part, relatively autonomous both horizontally and vertically” (Lynch, 2011 :682; see also Bernard et al., 2005 ; Mears, 2017 ).

Criminal justice officials are not the only players. The “policy community” is made up of other governmental actors, including elected and appointed officials in the executive branches (governors and mayors) and legislative actors (council members, state, and federal representatives), responsible for formulating and executing legislation. Non-governmental actors play a role in the policy community as well, including private institutions and non-profit organizations, the media, interest and advocacy groups, academics and research institutions, impacted communities, along with the public at large (Ismaili, 2006 ).

Any consideration of criminal justice reform must attend to the structural features of the policy environment, including its institutional fragmentation. This feature creates both obstacles and opportunities for reform. Policy environments vary tremendously across states and local communities. Policies championed in Washington State are likely different than those championed in Georgia. But the policy community in Atlanta may be decidedly different than that of Macon, and policy changes can happen at hyper-local levels (Ouss & Stevenson, 2022 ). Differences between local jurisdictions can have national impacts: while urban jurisdictions have reduced their reliance on jails and prisons, rural and suburban incarceration rates continue to increase (Kang-Brown & Subramanian, 2017 ). Understanding key stakeholders, their political and policy interests, and their administrative authority to act is critical for determining how effective policy reforms can be pursued (Miller, 2008 ; Page, 2011 ). Prospects for, and possible targets of, reform thus necessitate a wide view of what constitutes “policy,” Footnote 1 looking not only to federal and state law but also to state and local administrative policies and practices (Reiter & Chesnut, 2018 ).

II. Policy Talk: Framing Problems, Shaping Possible Solutions

While agreement exists around the need for reform in the criminal justice system, this apparent unanimity belies disagreements over the proposed causes of the problem and feasible solutions (Gottschalk, 2015 ; Levin, 2018 ). This is evident in how reform is talked about in political and policy spheres, the types of reforms pursued, and which groups are its beneficiaries. Since the Great Recession of 2008, bipartisan reforms have often been couched in the language of fiscal conservatism, “right-sizing” the system, and being “smart on crime” (Beckett et al., 2016 ). These economic frames, focused on cost-efficiency, are effectively used to defend non-punitive policies including changes to the death penalty, marijuana legalization, and prison down-sizing (Aviram, 2015 ). However, cost-saving rationales are also used to advance punitive policies that shift the costs of punishment onto those who are being sanctioned, such as “pay-to-stay” jails and the multitude of fines and fees levied on justice-involved people for the cost of criminal justice administration. Economic justifications are not the only arguments that support the very same policy changes; fairness and proportionality, reducing prison overcrowding, enhancing public safety, and increasing rehabilitation are all deployed to defend various reforms (Beckett et al., 2016 ). Similarity in rhetorical justifications—cost-efficiency and fiscal responsibility, for example—can obscure deep divisions over how, and whom, to punish, divisions which stem from different narratives on the causes and consequences of crime.

The content of enacted policies also reveals underlying disagreements within justice reform. Clear distinctions are seen in how cases and people are categorized, and in who benefits from, or is burdened by, reform. For example, many states have lowered penalties and expanded rehabilitation alternatives for non-violent drug and other low-level offenses and technical violations on parole. Substantially fewer reforms target violent offenses. Decarceration efforts for non-violent offenders are often coupled with increasing penalties for others, including expansions of life imprisonment without parole for violent offenses (Beckett, 2018 ; Seeds, 2017 ). Reforms aimed only at individuals characterized as “non-violent, non-serious, and non-sexual” can reinforce social distinctions between people (and offenses) seen as deserving of lenient treatment from those who aren’t (Beckett et al., 2016 ).

The framing of social problems can shape the nature of solutions, although the impact of “framing” deserves greater attention in the criminal justice policy process (Rein & Schön, 1977 ; Schneider & Ingram,  1993 ). Policies can be understood in rational terms—for their application of technical solutions to resolve pre-defined problems—but also through “value-laden components, such as social constructions, rationales, and underlying assumptions” (Schneider & Sidney, 2006 :105). Specific frames (e.g., “crime doesn’t pay” or “don’t do the crime if you can’t do the time”) derive from underlying narratives (e.g., classical school, rational-actor models of behavior, and deterrence) that shape how crime and criminal justice are understood, as discussed in Part I. Framing involves how issues are portrayed and categorized, and even small changes to language or images used to frame an issue can impact policy preferences (Chong & Druckman, 2007 ). Public sentiments play an important role in the policy process, as policymakers and elected officials are responsive to public opinion about punishments (Pickett, 2019 ). Actors in the policy community—criminal justice bureaucrats, elected officials, interest groups, activists—compete to influence how a problem is framed, and thus addressed, by policymakers (Baumgartner & Jones, 2009 ; Benford & Snow, 2000 ). Policymakers, particularly elected officials, commonly work to frame issues in ways that support their political goals and resonate with their constituents (Gamson, 1992 ).

As noted at the outset, public support for harsh punishments has declined since the 1990’s and the salience of punitive “law and order” and “tough-on-crime” politics has fallen as well, as public support for rehabilitative approaches has increased (Thielo et al., 2016 ). How can researchers and policymakers capitalize on this shift in public sentiments? Research suggests that different issue frames, such as fairness, cost to taxpayers, ineffectiveness, and racial disparities, can increase (or reduce) public support for policies for nonviolent offenders (e.g., Dunbar, 2022 ; Gottlieb, 2017 ) and even for policies that target violent offenders (Pickett et al., 2022 ). Public sentiment and framing clearly matter for what problems gain attention, the types of policies that exist, and who ultimately benefits. These themes raise orienting questions: In a specific locale, what are the dominant understandings of the policy problem? How do these understandings map to sets of foundational assumptions about the purpose of intervention (e.g., deterrence, retribution, rehabilitation, restoration) and understandings of why people commit crime (e.g., Classical and Positivist approaches)? What types of issue frames are effective in garnering support for reforms? How does this support vary by policy context (urban, suburban, rural; federal, statewide, and local) and audience (elected officials, agency leadership, frontline workers, political constituents)?

III. Proposed Solutions and Expected Outcomes: Instrumental or Symbolic?

There are a variety of motivations in pursuing various policy solutions, along with different kinds of goals. Some reflect a desire to create tangible change for a specific problem while others are meant to mollify a growing concern. As such, one practical consideration related to policymaking and reform that bears discussion is the symbolic and instrumental nature of criminal justice policies.

Policies are considered to have an instrumental nature when they propose or result in changes to behaviors related to a public problem such as crime—that is, when they change behavior through direct influence on individuals’ actions (Sample et al., 2011 :29; see also Grattet & Jenness, 2008 ; Gusfield, 1963 ; Oliver & Marion, 2008 ). Symbolic policies, by contrast, are those that policymakers pass in order to be seen in a favorable light by the public (Jenness, 2004 ), particularly in the context of a “moral panic” (Barak, 1994 ; Ben-Yehuda, 1990 ). As Sample et al., ( 2011 :28) explain, symbolic policies provide three basic functions to society: 1) reassuring the public by helping reduce angst and demonstrate that something is being done about a problem; 2) solidifying moral boundaries by codifying public consensus of right and wrong; and 3) becoming a model for the diffusion of law to other states and the federal government. Symbolic policies are thus meant to demonstrate that policymakers understand, and are willing to address, a perceived problem, even when there is little expectation such policies will make a difference. In this way, symbolic policies are “values statements” and function largely ceremonially.

This distinction has a long history in criminological work, dating back to Gusfield’s ( 1963 ) analysis of the temperance movement. Suggesting that policymaking is often dramatic in nature and intended to shift ways of thinking, Gusfield ( 1963 ) argues that Prohibition and temperance were intended as symbolic, rather than instrumental, goals in that their impacts were felt in the action of prohibition itself rather than in its effect on citizens’ consumptive behaviors.

A modern-day example of symbolic policy is found in the sanctuary status movement as it relates to the policing of immigrants. Historically, immigration enforcement was left to the federal government however state and local law enforcement have faced increasing demands to become more involved in enforcing immigration laws in their communities. Policies enacted to create closer ties between local police departments and federal immigration officials reflect this new pattern of “devolution of immigration enforcement” (Provine et al., 2016 ). The Secure Communities Program, the Criminal Alien Program, and 287g agreements, in different but complementary ways, provide resources and training to help local officials enforce immigration statutes.

The devolution of immigration enforcement has faced widespread scrutiny (Kubrin, 2014 ). Many local jurisdictions have rejected devolution efforts by passing sanctuary policies, which expressly limit local officials’ involvement in the enforcement of federal immigration law. Among the most comprehensive is California’s SB54, passed in 2017, which made California a sanctuary state. The law prohibits local authorities from cooperating with federal immigration detainer requests, limits immigration agents’ access to local jails, and ends the use of jails to hold immigration detainees. At first glance, SB54 appears instrumental—its aim is to change the behavior of criminal justice officials in policing immigration. In practice, however, it appears that little behavioral change has taken place. Local police in California had already minimized their cooperation with Federal officials, well before SB54 was passed. In a broader sense then, “…the ‘sanctuary city’ name is largely a symbolic message of political support for immigrants without legal residency” and with SB54 specifically, “California [helped build] a wall of justice against President Trump’s xenophobic, racist and ignorant immigration policies,” (Ulloa, 2017 ).

Instrumental and symbolic goals are not an either-or proposition. Policies can be both, simultaneously easing public fears, demonstrating legislators’ desire to act, and having direct appreciable effects on people’s behaviors (Sample et al., 2011 ). This may occur even when not intended. At the same time, a policy’s effects or outcomes can turn out to be different from the original aim, creating a gap between “policy talk” and “policy action.” In their analysis of law enforcement action in response to the passage of hate crime legislation, Grattet and Jenness ( 2008 ) find that legislation thought to be largely symbolic in nature, in fact, ended up having instrumental effects through changes in enforcement practices, even as these effects were conditioned by the organizational context of enforcement agencies. Symbolic law can be rendered instrumental (under certain organizational and social conditions) and symbolic policies may evolve to have instrumental effects.

As another example, consider aims and outcomes of sex offender registration laws, which provide information about people convicted of sex offenses to local and federal authorities and the public, including the person’s name, current location, and past offenses. As Sample et al. ( 2011 ) suggest, these laws, often passed immediately following a highly publicized sex crime or in the midst of a moral panic, are largely cast as symbolic policy, serving to reassure the public through notification of sex offenders’ whereabouts so their behaviors can be monitored (Jenkins, 1998 ; Sample & Kadleck, 2008 ). While notification laws do not yield a discernable instrumental effect on offenders’ behavior (Tewksbury, 2002 ), this is not the sole goal of such policies. Rather, they are intended to encourage behavioral change among citizens (Sample et al., 2011 ), encouraging the public’s participation in their own safety by providing access to information. Do sex offender notification laws, in fact, alter citizen behavior, thereby boosting public safety?

To answer this question, Sample and her colleagues ( 2011 ) surveyed a random sample of Nebraska residents to determine whether they access sex offender information and to explore the reasons behind their desire, or reluctance, to do so. They find largely symbolic effects of registry legislation, with a majority of residents (over 69%) indicating they had never accessed the registry. These findings raise important questions about the symbolic vs. instrumental nature of criminal justice policies more broadly: “Should American citizens be content with largely symbolic crime policies and laws that demonstrate policy makers’ willingness to address problems, ease public fear, solidify public consensus of appropriate and inappropriate behavior, and provide a model of policies and laws for other states, or should they want more from crime control efforts? Is there a tipping point at which time the resources expended to adhere to symbolic laws and a point where the financial and human costs of the law become too high to continue to support legislation that is largely symbolic in nature? Who should make this judgment?” (pg. 46). These two examples, immigration-focused laws and sex offender laws, illustrate the dynamics involved in policymaking, particularly the relationship between proposed solutions and their expected outcomes. They reveal that instrumental and symbolic goals often compete for priority in the policy-making arena.

IV. Equity-Consciousness in Policy Formulation

As the criminal justice system exploded in size in the latter half of the twentieth century, its impacts have not spread equally across the population. Black, Latino, and Indigenous communities are disproportionately affected by policing, mass incarceration, and surveillance practices. At a moment of political momentum seeking to curb the excesses of the criminal justice system, careful attention must be paid not only to its overreach, but also to its racialized nature and inequitable impacts. Many evaluative criteria are used to weigh policies including efficiency, effectiveness, cost, political acceptability, and administrative feasibility, among others. One critical dimension is the extent to which a policy incorporates equity considerations into its design, or is ignorant about potential inequitable outcomes. While reducing racial disparities characterizes reform efforts of the past, these efforts often fail to yield meaningful impacts, and sometimes unintentionally exacerbate disparities. Equity analyses should be more formally centered in criminal justice policymaking.

Racial and ethnic disparities are a central feature of the U.S. criminal justice system. Decades of research reveals Black people, and to a lesser degree Latinos and Native Americans, are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system at all stages (Bales & Piquero, 2012 ; Hinton et al., 2018 ; Kutateladze et al., 2014 ; Menefee, 2018 ; Mitchell, 2005 ; Warren et al., 2012 ). These disparities have many sources: associations between blackness and criminality, and stereotypes of dangerousness (Muhammad, 2010 ); implicit racial bias (Spencer et al., 2016 ); residential and economic segregation that expose communities of color to environments that encourage criminal offending and greater police presence (Peterson & Krivo, 2010 ; Sharkey, 2013 ); and, punitive criminal justice policies that increase the certainty and severity of punishments, such as mandatory minimum sentences, life imprisonment, and habitual offender laws, for which people of color are disproportionately arrested and convicted (Raphael & Stoll, 2013 ; Schlesinger, 2011 ). Disparities in initial stages of criminal justice contact, at arrest or prosecution, can compound to generate disparate outcomes at later stages, such as conviction and sentencing, even where legal actors are committed to racial equality (Kutateladze et al., 2014 ). Disparities compound over time, too; having prior contact with the justice system may increase surveillance and the likelihood of being arrested, charged, detained pretrial, and sentenced to incarceration (Ahrens, 2020 ; Kurlychek & Johnson, 2019 ).

Perspectives on how to reduce disparities vary widely, and understanding how the benefits or burdens of a given policy change will be distributed across racial and ethnic groups is not always clear. Even well-intentioned reforms intended to increase fairness and alleviate disparities can fail to achieve intended impacts or unintentionally encourage inequity. For example, sentencing guidelines adopted in the 1970s to increase consistency and reduce inequitable outcomes across groups at sentencing alleviated, but did not eliminate, racial disparities (Johnson & Lee, 2013 ); popular “Ban the Box” legislation, aimed at reducing the stigma of a criminal record, may increase racial disparities in callbacks for job seekers of color (Agan & Starr, 2018 ; Raphael, 2021 ); and “risk assessments,” used widely in criminal justice decision-making, may unintentionally reproduce existing disparities by relying on information that is itself a product of racialized policing, prosecution, and sentencing (Eckhouse et al., 2019 ). Conversely, policies enacted without explicit consideration of equity effects may result in reductions of disparities: California’s Proposition 47, which reclassifies certain felony offenses to misdemeanors, reduced Black and Latino disparities in drug arrests, likelihood of conviction, and rates of jail incarceration relative to Whites (Mooney et al., 2018 ; Lofstrom et al., 2019 ; MacDonald & Raphael, 2020 ).

Understanding the potential equity implications of criminal justice reforms should be a key consideration for policymakers and applied researchers alike. However, an explicit focus on reducing racial disparities is often excluded from the policymaking process, seen as a secondary concern to other policy goals, or framed in ways that focus on race-neutral processes rather than race-equitable outcomes (Chouhy et al., 2021 ; Donnelly, 2017 ). But this need not be the case; examinations of how elements of a given policy (e.g., goals, target population, eligibility criteria) and proposed changes to procedure or practice might impact different groups can be incorporated into policy design and evaluation. As one example, racial equity impact statements (REIS), a policy tool that incorporates an empirical analysis of the projected impacts of a change in law, policy, or practice on racial and ethnic groups (Porter, 2021 ), are used in some states. Modeled after the now-routine environmental impact and fiscal impact statements, racial impact statements may be conducted in advance of a hearing or vote on any proposed change to policy, or can even be incorporated in the policy formulation stages (Chouhy et al., 2021 ; Mauer, 2007 ). Researchers, analysts, and policymakers should also examine potential differential effects of existing policies and pay special attention to how structural inequalities intersect with policy features to contribute to—and potentially mitigate—disparate impacts of justice reforms (Anderson et al., 2022 ; Mooney et al., 2022 ).

V. Putting It Together: Modeling the Policy Change Process

Approaches to crime and punishment do not change overnight. Policy change can be incremental or haphazard, and new innovations adopted by criminal justice systems often bear markers of earlier approaches. There exist multiple frameworks for understanding change and continuity in approaches to crime and punishment. The metaphor of a pendulum is often used to characterize changes to criminal justice policy, where policy regimes swing back and forth between punishment and leniency (Goodman et al., 2017 ). These changes are ushered along by macro-level shifts of economic, political, demographics, and cultural sensibilities (Garland, 2001 ).

Policy change is rarely predictable or mechanical (Smith & Larimer, 2017 ). Actors struggle over whom to punish and how, and changes in the relative resources, political position, and power among actors drive changes to policy and practice (Goodman et al., 2017 ). This conflict, which plays out at the level of politics and policymaking and is sometimes subsumed within agencies and day-to-day practices in the justice system, creates a landscape of contradictory policies, logics, and discourses. New policies and practices are “tinted” by (Dabney et al., 2017 ) or “braided” with older logics (Hutchinson, 2006 ), or “layered” onto existing practices (Rubin, 2016 ).

Public policy theory offers different, but complementary, insights into how policies come to be, particularly under complex conditions. One widely used framework in policy studies is the “multiple streams” framework (Kingdon, 1995 ). This model of the policymaking process focuses on policy choice and agenda setting, or the question of what leads policymakers to pay attention to one issue over others, and pursue one policy in lieu of others.

The policy process is heuristically outlined as a sequential set of steps or stages: problem identification, agenda setting, policy formulation, adoption or decision-making, implementation, and evaluation. However, real-world policymaking rarely conforms to this process (Smith & Larimer, 2017 ). In the multiple streams lens, the process is neither rational nor linear but is seen as “organized anarchy,” described by several features: 1) ambiguity over the definition of the problem, creating many possible solutions for the same circumstances and conditions; 2) limited time to make decisions and multiple issues vying for policymakers’ attention, leading to uncertain policy preferences; 3) a crowded policy community with shifting participation; and, 4) multiple agencies and organizations in the policy environment working on similar problems with little coordination or transparency (Herweg et al., 2018 ).

In this context, opportunity for change emerges when three, largely separate, “streams” of interactions intersect: problems , politics , and policies . First, in the “problem stream,” problems are defined as conditions that deviate from expectations and are seen by the public as requiring government intervention. Many such “problems” exist, but not all rise to the level of attention from policymakers. Conditions must be re-framed into problems requiring government attention. Several factors can usher this transformation. Changes in the scale of problem, such as increases or decreases in crime, can raise the attention of government actors. So-called “focusing events” (Birkland, 1997 ), or rare and unexpected events, such as shocking violent crime or a natural disaster (e.g., COVID-19 pandemic), can also serve this purpose. The murder of George Floyd by police officers in Minneapolis, for instance, was a focusing event for changing the national conversation around police use of force into a problem requiring government intervention. Finally, feedback from existing programs or policies, particularly those that fail to achieve their goals or have unwanted effects, can reframe existing conditions as problems worthy of attention.

The “policy stream” is where solutions, or policy alternatives, are developed to address emerging problems. Solutions are generated both by “visible” participants in the stream, such as prominent elected officials, or by “hidden” actors, such as criminal justice bureaucrats, interest groups, academics, or consultants. Policy ideas float around in this stream until they are “coupled,” or linked, with specific problems. At any given time, policy ideas based in deterrence or incapacitation rationales, including increasing the harshness of penalties or the certainty of sanctions, and solutions based in rehabilitative rationales, such as providing treatment-oriented diversion or restorative justice programs, all co-exist in the policy stream. Not all policy alternatives are seen as viable and likely to reach the agenda; viable solutions are marked by concerns of feasibility, value acceptability, public support or tolerance, and financial viability.

Lastly, the “political stream” is governed by several elements, including changes to the national mood and changing composition of governments and legislatures as new politicians are elected and new government administrators appointed. This stream helps determine whether a problem will find a receptive venue (Smith & Larimer, 2017 ). For example, the election of a progressive prosecutor intent on changing status quo processing of cases through the justice system creates a viable political environment for new policies to be linked with problems. When the three streams converge, that is, when conditions become problems, a viable solution is identified, and a receptive political venue exists, a “policy window” opens and change is most likely. For Kingdon ( 2011 ), this is a moment of “opportunity for advocates of proposals to push their pet solutions, or to push attention to their special problems” (pg. 165).

Models of the policy change process, of which the multiple streams framework is just one, may be effectively applied to crime and justice policy spheres. Prior discussions on the ways of thinking about crime and criminal justice can be usefully integrated with models of the policy change process; narratives shape how various conditions are constructed as problems worthy of collective action and influence policy ideas and proposals available among policy communities. We encourage policymakers and policy-oriented researchers to examine criminal justice reform through policy process frameworks in order to better understand why some reforms succeed, and why others fail.

When it comes to the criminal justice system, one of the most commonly asked questions today is: How can we improve the effectiveness of reform efforts? Effective reform hinges on shared understandings of what the problem is as well as shared visions of what success looks like. Yet consensus is hard to come by, and scholars have long differentiated between “policy talk” and “policy action.” The aim of this essay has been to identify conceptual and practical considerations related to both policy talk and policy action in the context of criminal justice reform today.

On the conceptual side, we reviewed narratives that create society’s fundamental ways of thinking about or conceptualizing crime and criminal justice. These narratives reflect value orientations that underlie our criminal justice system and determine how it functions. On the practical side, we identified considerations for both policy-oriented researchers and policymakers in thinking through how to make criminal justice reform more effective. These practical considerations included variation and complexity in the criminal justice policy environment, problem framing and policy content, policy aims and outcomes, equity considerations in policy design and evaluation, and models of the policy change process.

These conceptual and practical considerations are by no means exhaustive, nor are they mutually-exclusive. Rather, they serve as starting points for productively thinking and talking about, as well as designing, effective and sustainable criminal justice reform. At the same time, they point to the need for continuous policy evaluation and monitoring—at all levels—as a way to increase accountability and effectiveness. Indeed, policy talk and policy action do not stop at the problem formation, agenda setting, or adoption stages of policymaking. Critical to understanding effective policy is implementation and evaluation, which create feedback into policy processes, and is something that should be addressed in future work on criminal justice reform.

No single definition of public policy exists. Here we follow Smith and Larimer ( 2017 ) and define policy as any action by the government in response to a problem, including laws, rules, agency policies, programs, and day-to-day practices.

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Kubrin, C.E., Tublitz, R. How to Think about Criminal Justice Reform: Conceptual and Practical Considerations. Am J Crim Just 47 , 1050–1070 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-022-09712-6

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Home > USC Columbia > Arts and Sciences > Criminology and Criminal Justice > Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses and Dissertations

Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

The Risk of Protection: Examining the Contextual Effects of Child Protective Services on Child Maltreatment Fatalities in the U.S. , Cosette Morgan McCullough

Family Mass Murder: An Exploratory Study Of The Role Of Arson , Rachel Rori Rodriguez Spradley

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Too Feminine for Execution?: Gender Stereotypes and the Media’s Portrayal of Women Sentenced to Death , Kelsey M. Collins

Juveniles, Transferred Juveniles, and the Impact of a Criminal Record on Employment Prospects in Adulthood: An Experimental Study , Joanna Daou

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Why So Long? Examining the Nexus Between Case Complexity and Delay in Florida’s Death Penalty System , Corey Daniel Burton

The Criminalization of HIV and HIV Stigma , Deanna Cann

Views of Substance Use During Pregnancy: Social Responses to the Issue , Taylor Ruddy

The Spatial Variability of Crime: A Review of Methodological Choice, Proposed Models, and Methods for Illustrating the Phenomenon , Matthew D. Spencer

Community Corrections Officer Decision-Making: An Intersectional Analysis , Amber Leigh Williams Wilson

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

The Utility of Using Virtue Locales to Explain Criminogenic Environments , Hunter Max Boehme

Fostering Resilience in Correctional Officers , Jon Thomas Arthur Gist

The Impact of Race/Ethnicity on Sentencing: A Matching Approach , Travis Jones

Unraveling the Temporal Aspects of Victimization: The Reciprocal, Additive, and Cumulative Effects of Direct/Vicarious Victimization on Crime , Yeoju Park

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Media Influence on College Students' Perceptions of the Police , Matilda Foster

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Ohio's Certificate of Relief , Peter Leasure

Trends in the Prevalence of Arrest for Intimate Partner Violence Using the National Crime Victimization Survey , Tara E. Martin

Reading Between the Lines: An Intersectional Media Analysis of Female Sex Offenders in Florida Newspapers , Toniqua C. Mikell

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Short-Term Self-Control Stability of College Students , Nicholas James Blasco

Developmental Patterns of Religiosity in Relation to Criminal Trajectories among Serious Offenders across Adolescence and Young Adulthood , Siying Guo

Local Incarceration As Social Control: A National Analysis Of Social, Economic, And Political Determinants Of Jail Use In The United States , Heather M. Ouellette

Association Between Perception Of Police Prejudice Against Minorities And Juvenile Delinquency , Kwang Hyun Ra

A Quasi-Experimental Analysis Of School-Based Situational Crime Prevention Measures , Gary Zhang

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Sex Offender Policies that Spin the Revolving Door: An Exploration of the Relationships Between Residence Restrictions, Homelessness, and Recidivism , Deanna Cann

Untangling the Interconnected Relationships between Alcohol Use, Employment, and Offending , Margaret M. Chrusciel

Inmate Time Utilization And Well-Being , Mateja Vuk

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Socio-Legal Construction Of Adolescent Criminality: Examining Race, Community, And Contextual Factors Through The Lens Of Focal Concerns , Patrick Glen Lowery

The Impact Of Deinstitutionalization On Murders Of Law Enforcement Officers , Xueyi Xing

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Relationships Between Law Enforcement Officer-Involved Vehicle Collisions And Other Police Behaviors , John Andrew Hansen

In the Eye of the Beholder: Exploring the Dialogic Approach to Police Legitimacy , Justin Nix

Criminology on Crimes Against Humanity: A North Korean Case Study , Megan Alyssa Novak

General Strain Theory and Bullying Victimization: Do Parental Support and Control Alleviate the Negative Effects of Bullying , Jonathon Thompson

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Adultification in Juvenile Corrections: A Comparison of Juvenile and Adult Officers , Riane Miller Bolin

Perception of Police in Public Housing Communities , Taylor Brickley

Neighborhood Disorganization and Police Decision-Making in the New York City Police Department , Allison Carter

The Impact of Race on Strickland Claims in Federal Courts in the South , Wyatt Gibson

Lead Exposure and Crime , Tara Elaine Martin

GETTING AWAY WITH MURDER: HAZING, HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY, AND VICTIMIZATION , Toniqua Charee Mikell

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Policing Alcohol and Related Crimes On Campus , Andrea Nicole Allen

Gender and Programming: A Comparison of Program Availability and Participation in U.S. Prisons for Men and Women , Courtney A. Crittenden

Assessing the Impact of the Court Response to Domestic Violence in Two Neighboring Counties , Gillian Mira Pinchevsky

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Criminal Sentencing In the Court Communities of South Carolina: An Examination of offender, Judge, and County Characteristics , Rhys Hester

Examining the Effects of Religiosity and Religious Environments On Inmate Misconduct , Benjamin Dane Meade

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Criminologists' Opinions On Correctional Rehabilitation , Heather M. Ouellette

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

A Qualitative Analysis of the Etiology, Manifestation, and Institutional Responses to Self-Injurious Behaviors in Prison , Steven Doty

Theses/Dissertations from 2002 2002

The Effects of Administrative Factors on Police Officer Job Performance , Irick Anthony Geary Jr.

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Home > School, College, or Department > CUPA > Criminology and Criminal Justice > Theses

Criminology and Criminal Justice Masters Theses

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

Cleaning the Dirty Pool: Testing Interaction Effects Using Different Panel Model Specifications , Rhiannon Berry

Exploring Evidentiary Approaches and Reform Potential in the Allies in Change Program for Abusive Intimate Partners , Julie Melissa Conner

An Examination of the Impact of Court-Appointed Fines and Fees: How Governmental Reliance on These Expenses is Harming Vulnerable Communities , Rachel Elizabeth Couche

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Do Frameworks Matter? Testing the Framing Effect on Public Support for Prison Pell Grants , Natalie Miles Burke

Community Supervision: Perspectives of Probation and Parole Officers and Supervisors on Key Supervision Approaches and Policy Changes , Asianna Nelson

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Examining Probation Lengths in Philadelphia, PA , Madeline Grace Davis

A Walk in the Park: A Spatial Analysis of Crime and Portland Parks , Cheyenne Pamela Hodgen

Testing the LS/CMI for Predictive Accuracy: Does Age Matter? , Sandra Stephanie Lawlor

A Day Late and a Dollar Short: Examining Perceptions of Which Exonerees Deserve Compensation , Alexandra Pauline Olson

The Effect of Peer Relationships and Cyberbullying Victimization on Young Adults' Propensity to Cyberbully , Taaj Weraphorn Orr

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Identifying the Cost of Preventable Chronic Disease in Prison: Can Illness Prevention of Adults in Custody Save Money? , Molly Bineham

Is More Always Better? A Look at Visitation and Recidivism , Teriin Lee

Open Crime Maps: How Are Police Departments Doing So Far? , Khaing Sandee Lynn

Incarceration and Suicide: Do the Risk Factors Differ for Civilians and Veterans? , Rheannon Gail Ramsey

Marijuana-related Crime in Oregon Following Legalization of Recreational Use , Ana Alicia Soto

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

A Systematic Content Analysis of the Justice Reinvestment Programs Across Oregon Counties , Lorena Ambriz

Juveniles in the Interrogation Room: Defense Attorneys as a Protective Factor , Caitlin Noelle August

Time Series Analysis Evaluating Mortality Rates and the Differences of How States Investigate Deaths , Jordan M. Bruhn

Intimate Partner Violence Risk Assessment: the Additive Value of Victim Reported Risk , Jennifer Joanne Johnson

Correctional Quackery: a Study of Program Availability and Inmate Assaults in Adult Correctional Facilities , Casey Jay Legere

Identifying Typologies of Failure to Appear , Ciara McGlynn

Understanding Fare Evasion Defendant Compliance: an Assessment of Criminal Records , Nataly Nunez Vasquez

Crime Risk near Reported Homeless Encampments: a Spatial Analysis , Kortney Lynn Russell

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Spatial Analysis of Burglary and Robbery Crime Concentration Near Mass-Transit in Portland , Bryce Edward Barthuly

An Evaluation of Clackamas County's Transition Center Using Propensity Score Modeling , Alicia de Jong McKay

Situational Context of Police Use of Deadly Force: a Comparison of Black and White Subjects of Fatal Police Shootings , Shana Lynn Meaney Ruess

Effects of Regulation Intensity on Marijuana Black Market After Legalization , Sikang Song

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

An Assessment of Sentencing Disparities among American Indians within the Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Federal Circuit Courts , Makenzie Laron Aaby

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Justice Reinvestment Legislation in Oregon: Analyses of State and County Implementation , Christopher Wade Dollar

The Influence of Information on Public Support for Solitary Confinement: a Test of Belief Updating and Confirmation Bias , Kayla J. LaBranche

An Experimental Study on the Impact of Informal Rape Myth Education to Alter Rape Myth Acceptance Scores in a Non-Student Sample , Leah Noelle Reddy

Anti-LGB Hate Crimes: Political Threat or Political Legitimization? , Johanna R. Shreve

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Policing in an Era of Sousveillance: the Influence of Video Footage on Perceptions of Legitimacy , Megan Elizabeth Mohler

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Beyond Black and White: An Examination of Afrocentric Facial Features and Sex in Criminal Sentencing , Amanda Mae Petersen

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Bringing Functional Family Probation Services to the Community: A Qualitative Case Study , Denise Lynmarie Austin

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Drowning In It: State Crime and Refugee Deaths in the Borderlands , Brandy Marie Cochrane

The Influence of Parental Gender on the Type of Communication between Incarcerated Parents and Their Children , Sarah Renee Lazzari

Child Welfare and Delinquency: Examining Differences in First-Time Referrals of Crossover Youth within the Juvenile Justice System , Courtney Nicole Shrifter

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Identifying Victims of Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking in a Juvenile Custody Setting , Jonathan Dickinson Dabney

Campus Sexual Assault: How Oregon University System Schools Respond , Michael William Murphy

The Prevalence and Predictive Nature of Victimization, Substance Abuse & Mental Health on Recidivism: A Comparative Longitudinal Examination of Male and Female Oregon Department of Corrections Inmates , Anastacia Konstantinos Papadopulos

Social and Human Capital: Contributing Effects of Incarceration on Neighborhoods , Jacqueline Victoria Swofford

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

An Empirical Assessment of the CAN SPAM Act , Alex Conrad Kigerl

Theses/Dissertations from 2002 2002

Discrimination and Nepotism within Police Specialty Units , Robert Norvell Hollins III

Theses/Dissertations from 2000 2000

An Evaluation of Recidivism Rates for Resolutions Northwest's Victim-Offender Mediation Program , Karin Jewel Stone

Theses/Dissertations from 1997 1997

An Historical Perspective of Oregon's and Portland's Political and Social Atmosphere in Relation to the Legal Justice System as it Pertained to Minorities: With Specific Reference to State Laws, City Ordinances, and Arrest and Court Records During the Period -- 1840-1895 , Clarinèr Freeman Boston

Law Enforcement Attitudes toward the 1989 Oregon Firearms Law and Gun Control , Andrew Schneiderman

Theses/Dissertations from 1996 1996

An Exploratory Inquiry into Community Policing Using Focus Groups: Perspectives from Social Service Providers , Tanya Leigh Ostrogorsky

Theses/Dissertations from 1995 1995

An Assessment of the Impact of Intimate Victim-Offender Relationship on Sentencing in Serious Assault Cases , Laura J. Hickman

Indigent v. Non-Indigent Sex Offenders: An Analysis of Sentencing in Clackamas, Multnomah and Washington Counties, Oregon , Dorelei Victoria Linder

The Portland Public School Police: Formative Years - 1937 to 1953 , Natalie Anne Woods

Theses/Dissertations from 1993 1993

Police Stress: A Literature Study on Police Occupational Stressors and the Responses in Police Officers to Stressful Job Events , Katarina Ahlstrom Mannheimer

Theses/Dissertations from 1992 1992

Race, aggravated murder, and the death sentence in Multnomah County, Oregon, 1984-1990 : a descriptive analysis and review , Patrick Arthur Jolley

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Home > College of Health & Human Sciences > CCJ > CCJ_THESES

Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses

Theses from 2023 2023.

Evaluating the Impact of Registry Status on Employment and Housing Outcomes , Lauryn T. Lockett

EXPLAINING YOUTH GUN VIOLENCE WITH THEORY INTERGRATION , Kamryn Kamryn Wade

Theses from 2022 2022

The Police and Residents at Hot Spots: Implications of Hot Spots Policing and Police-Resident Familiarity for Residents' Trust in, and Fear of, the Police , Rasheed Babatunde Ibrahim

MEDIA PORTRAYAL OF FILICIDE OFFENDERS , Rachel Rearden

Theses from 2021 2021

Exploring Factors Affecting Prison Misconduct in Japan , Hiroyuki Okado

OFFICER’S AWARENESS OF CAMERA DURING ENCOUNTERS WITH CITIZENS , OLOLADE OKANLAWON

TREATMENT GAINS IN ANTISOCIAL ATTITUDES AND MENTAL HEALTH IN RELATION TO CLIENT SATISFACTION , Syazana Binti Tajudeen

Theses from 2020 2020

THE GENDER TRENDS OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY DROP IN JAPAN , Mayumi Hando

Police Officer Coping: The Effect of Police Culture, Management, and Family , Megan Heflin-Brand

SUPPORT SERVICES WITH COMMUNITY MEMBER FOR CRIME REHABILITATION AND PREVENTION BY JAPANESE CLASSIFIATION HOMES , Ayuchi Yamaoka

Theses from 2019 2019

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL PREPAREDNESS IN POLICING , Olasubomi David Ayeni

CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT: GENERAL STRAIN AND PROSOCIAL COPING THROUGH EMPLOYMENT , Rachel S. Berner

USING ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS TO PREDICT RECIDIVISM FOLLOWING A LIFESTYLE CHANGE PROGRAM , Emily Jane Cripps

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design and Burglary Prevention: A Systematic Social Observation Approach , Kevin James Dobbins

OFFICER DE-ESCALATION AND USE OF FORCE: HOW POLICE DE-ESCALATE AN OFFICER-CITZEN INTERACTION , Conrad McLaughlin

Examining Factors of Prolonged Pretrial Detention in a Philippine Jail , Nicholas R. Murphy

INCREASED TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT: A PLACE-BASED PREVENTIVE APPROACH TO MOTOR VEHICLE RELATED HARMS , Bradley Joseph O'Guinn

Desistance Typologies: An Examination of Desistance Strategies Used Between Offender Groups , Matthew J. Riordan

Theses from 2018 2018

Examination of the Relationship Between Transformational Leadership and Organizational Justice Among Police Officers , Allison Osborn

IS A POLICE OFFICER’S SENSE OF SELF-LEGITIMACY PREDICTIVE OF JOB SATISFACTION? , Molly Elizabeth Pyatt

CHANGES IN ANTISOCIAL ATTITUDES AND RECIDIVIST OUTCOMES , Maranda Rose Quillen

Police Legitimacy Across High-Crime Contexts: An Examination of Neighborhood-Level Expressive Concerns and Accumulated Experiences , Tyrell Spencer

Theses from 2017 2017

Using Expectancy Theory to Examine Barriers to Correctional Mental Health Treatment , Miranda Danielle Gibson

Theses from 2016 2016

AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE AND SIMPLE AND AGGRAVATED ASSAULTS IN CHARLOTTE-MECKLENBERG COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA , Stephanie Dawn Box

Afraid to lose: The fear of falling's effect on white-collar crime , Zachary Hayes Kodatt

Asian Gangs in the United States: A Meta-Synthesis , Sou Lee

THE DETERRENT EFFECTS OF THE REVISED JUVENILE OFFENDER LAWS IN JAPAN , Kanu Maeda

The Relationship between Suicidal Ideation and Psychache among Incarcerated Female Offenders , Minori Maeda

The Inter-rater Reliability of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in Practical Field Settings , Yuko Matsushima

Does Social Learning Theory Predict Delinquency Differently Across Urban, Rural, and Suburban Areas? , Charles A. Payne

Theses from 2015 2015

Concealed Carry on a Midwestern College Campus , Joshua Aaron Abrams

A Qualitative Analysis of Substance Use and the Commission of Burglary , Geoffrey Loren Boise

Exploring Factors Affecting Crime Rates in Japan (1955-2012) , Dai Tanaka

Theses from 2014 2014

Procedural Justice and Domestic Violence: Victims' Satisfaction With Police and Willingness to Seek Help , Karla Keller Avelar

JUDAS KISS: HOW NEVER RATTING ON YOUR FRIENDS & ALWAYS KEEPING YOUR MOUTH SHUT DOES NOT APPLY TO STREET SNITCHES , Joseph John Pashea, Jr.

Theses from 2013 2013

Assessing Foreclosure and Crime at Street Segments in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina , Blake Richard Christenson

"Because I Like It? No, They Made Me Do It!!" Why Juveniles Engage In Sexting , Jennifer Ann Haegele

Deviant Peers, Opportunity, and Cyberbullying: A Theoretical Examination of a New Deviance , Charern Lee

An assessment of officer safety: Does departmental authorization of tasers reduce officer assault rates? , Daniel Carson Presley

Explaining the rising female incarceration trends in Japan (1970-2011) , Ayako Sasaki

Theses from 2012 2012

Perceived risk of homeland security incidents: The insignificance of actual risk factors , Melissa R. Haynes

Interactionist Labeling: Formal and Informal Labeling's Effects on Juvenile Delinquency , Daniel Ryan Kavish

Theses from 2011 2011

GEOSPATIAL ANALYSIS OF REPEAT & NEAR REPEAT RESIDENTIAL BURGLARIES , Grant Drawve

The Origins of Parochial Informal Social Control: Examining the Different Effects Among Individual and Neighborhood Influences of Crime Control , Christina Marie Oldham

POLICE PROGRAMS, CANINES, AND CONTINGENCY THEORY: AN EXPLANATION OF CANINE NUMBERS AMONG LARGE POLICE DEPARTMENTS , David Wayne Welker

Theses from 2010 2010

The Declining Health of Prisoners: Pains of Long-Term Incarceration vs. The Natural Aging Process , Brieanne F. Lonergan

PREDICTIVE VALIDITY OF THE YOUTH LEVEL OF SERVICE/CASE MANAGEMENT INVENTORY AMONG JAPANESE JUVENILE OFFENDERS , Masaru Takahashi

Theses from 2009 2009

Evaluating Residential Burglaries in a Small Midwestern City using Social Disorganization and Routine Activity Frameworks , Stanley James Howard

Theses from 2008 2008

The efficacy of community supervision , Takashi Seimiya

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