essay on the development of sociology as a discipline

An Introduction to Sociology

Reading: the history of sociology.

• Explain why sociology emerged when it did
• Describe how sociology became a separate academic discipline

People have been thinking like sociologists long before sociology became a separate academic discipline: Plato and Aristotle, Confucius, Khaldun, and Voltaire all set the stage for modern sociology. (Photos (a),(b),(d) courtesy of Wikimedia Commons; Photo (c) courtesy of Moumou82/Wikimedia Commons)

Since ancient times, people have been fascinated by the relationship between individuals and the societies to which they belong. Many topics studied in modern sociology were also studied by ancient philosophers in their desire to describe an ideal society, including theories of social conflict, economics, social cohesion, and power (Hannoum 2003).

In the thirteenth century, Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized social dynamics as an underlying component of historical development in his seminal encyclopedia, General Study of Literary Remains . The next century saw the emergence of the historian some consider to be the world’s first sociologist: Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) of Tunisia. He wrote about many topics of interest today, setting a foundation for both modern sociology and economics, including a theory of social conflict, a comparison of nomadic and sedentary life, a description of political economy, and a study connecting a tribe’s social cohesion to its capacity for power (Hannoum 2003).

In the eighteenth century, Age of Enlightenment philosophers developed general principles that could be used to explain social life. Thinkers such as John Locke, Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, and Thomas Hobbes responded to what they saw as social ills by writing on topics that they hoped would lead to social reform. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) wrote about women’s conditions in society. Her works were long ignored by the male academic structure, but since the 1970s, Wollstonecraft has been widely considered the first feminist thinker of consequence.

The early nineteenth century saw great changes with the Industrial Revolution, increased mobility, and new kinds of employment. It was also a time of great social and political upheaval with the rise of empires that exposed many people—for the first time—to societies and cultures other than their own. Millions of people moved into cities and many people turned away from their traditional religious beliefs.

Creating a Discipline

Auguste comte (1798–1857)—the father of sociology.

Auguste Comte is considered by many to be the father of sociology. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

The term sociology was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836) in an unpublished manuscript (Fauré et al. 1999). In 1838, the term was reinvented by Auguste Comte (1798–1857). Comte originally studied to be an engineer, but later became a pupil of social philosopher Claude Henri de Rouvroy Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825). They both thought that social scientists could study society using the same scientific methods utilized in natural sciences. Comte also believed in the potential of social scientists to work toward the betterment of society. He held that once scholars identified the laws that governed society, sociologists could address problems such as poor education and poverty (Abercrombie et al. 2000).

Comte named the scientific study of social patterns positivism . He described his philosophy in a series of books called The Course in Positive Philosophy (1830–1842) and A General View of Positivism (1848). He believed that using scientific methods to reveal the laws by which societies and individuals interact would usher in a new “positivist” age of history. While the field and its terminology have grown, sociologists still believe in the positive impact of their work.

Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)—the First Woman Sociologist

Harriet Martineau was a writer who addressed a wide range of social science issues. She was an early observer of social practices, including economics, social class, religion, suicide, government, and women’s rights. Her writing career began in 1931 with a series of stories titled Illustrations of Political Economy , in which she tried to educate ordinary people about the principles of economics (Johnson 2003).

Martineau was the first to translate Comte’s writing from French to English and thereby introduced sociology to English-speaking scholars (Hill 1991). She is also credited with the first systematic methodological international comparisons of social institutions in two of her most famous sociological works: Society in America (1837) and Retrospect of Western Travel (1838). Martineau found the workings of capitalism at odds with the professed moral principles of people in the United States; she pointed out the faults with the free enterprise system in which workers were exploited and impoverished while business owners became wealthy. She further noted that the belief in all being created equal was inconsistent with the lack of women’s rights. Much like Mary Wollstonecraft, Martineau was often discounted in her own time by the male domination of academic sociology.

Karl Marx (1818–1883)

Karl Marx was one of the founders of sociology. His ideas about social conflict are still relevant today. (Photo courtesy of John Mayall/Wikimedia Commons)

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher and economist. In 1848 he and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) coauthored the Communist Manifesto . This book is one of the most influential political manuscripts in history. It also presents Marx’s theory of society, which differed from what Comte proposed.

Marx rejected Comte’s positivism. He believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of different social classes over the means of production. At the time he was developing his theories, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism led to great disparities in wealth between the owners of the factories and workers. Capitalism, an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of goods and the means to produce them, grew in many nations.

Marx predicted that inequalities of capitalism would become so extreme that workers would eventually revolt. This would lead to the collapse of capitalism, which would be replaced by communism. Communism is an economic system under which there is no private or corporate ownership: everything is owned communally and distributed as needed. Marx believed that communism was a more equitable system than capitalism.

While his economic predictions may not have come true in the time frame he predicted, Marx’s idea that social conflict leads to change in society is still one of the major theories used in modern sociology.

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)

In 1873, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer published The Study of Sociology , the first book with the term “sociology” in the title. Spencer rejected much of Comte’s philosophy as well as Marx’s theory of class struggle and his support of communism. Instead, he favored a form of government that allowed market forces to control capitalism. His work influenced many early sociologists including Émile Durkheim (1858–1917).

Georg Simmel (1858–1918)

Georg Simmel was a German art critic who wrote widely on social and political issues as well. Simmel took an anti-positivism stance and addressed topics such as social conflict, the function of money, individual identity in city life, and the European fear of outsiders (Stapley 2010). Much of his work focused on the micro-level theories, and it analyzed the dynamics of two-person and three-person groups. His work also emphasized individual culture as the creative capacities of individuals. Simmel’s contributions to sociology are not often included in academic histories of the discipline, perhaps overshadowed by his contemporaries Durkheim, Mead, and Weber (Ritzer and Goodman 2004).

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)

Durkheim helped establish sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895 and by publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method in 1895. In another important work, Division of Labour in Society (1893), Durkheim laid out his theory on how societies transformed from a primitive state into a capitalist, industrial society. According to Durkheim, people rise to their proper levels in society based on merit.

Durkheim believed that sociologists could study objective “social facts” (Poggi 2000). He also believed that through such studies it would be possible to determine if a society was “healthy” or “pathological.” He saw healthy societies as stable, while pathological societies experienced a breakdown in social norms between individuals and society.

In 1897, Durkheim attempted to demonstrate the effectiveness of his rules of social research when he published a work titled Suicide . Durkheim examined suicide statistics in different police districts to research differences between Catholic and Protestant communities. He attributed the differences to socioreligious forces rather than to individual or psychological causes.

George Herbert Mead (1863–1931)

George Herbert Mead was a philosopher and sociologist whose work focused on the ways in which the mind and the self were developed as a result of social processes (Cronk n.d.). He argued that how an individual comes to view himself or herself is based to a very large extent on interactions with others. Mead called specific individuals that impacted a person’s life significant others, and he also conceptualized “ generalized others ” as the organized and generalized attitude of a social group. Mead’s work is closely associated with the symbolic interactionist approach and emphasizes the micro-level of analysis.

Max Weber (1864–1920)

Prominent sociologist Max Weber established a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich in 1919. Weber wrote on many topics related to sociology including political change in Russia and social forces that affect factory workers. He is known best for his 1904 book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism . The theory that Weber sets forth in this book is still controversial. Some believe that Weber argued that the beliefs of many Protestants, especially Calvinists, led to the creation of capitalism. Others interpret it as simply claiming that the ideologies of capitalism and Protestantism are complementary.

Weber believed that it was difficult, if not impossible, to use standard scientific methods to accurately predict the behavior of groups as people hoped to do. They argued that the influence of culture on human behavior had to be taken into account. This even applied to the researchers themselves, who, they believed, should be aware of how their own cultural biases could influence their research. To deal with this problem, Weber and Dilthey introduced the concept of verstehen , a German word that means to understand in a deep way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a social world—an entire culture or a small setting—attempt to understand it from an insider’s point of view.

In his book The Nature of Social Action (1922), Weber described sociology as striving to “interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which action proceeds and the effects it produces.” He and other like-minded sociologists proposed a philosophy of antipositivism whereby social researchers would strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. This approach led to some research methods whose aim was not to generalize or predict (traditional in science), but to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds.

The different approaches to research based on positivism or antipositivism are often considered the foundation for the differences found today between quantitative sociology and qualitative sociology. Quantitative sociology uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants. Researchers analyze data using statistical techniques to see if they can uncover patterns of human behavior. Qualitative sociology seeks to understand human behavior by learning about it through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and analysis of content sources (like books, magazines, journals, and popular media).

Should We Raise the Minimum Wage?

In the 2014 State of the Union Address, President Obama called on Congress to raise the national minimum wage, and he signed an executive order putting this into effect for individuals working on new federal service contracts. Congress did not pass legislation to change the national minimum wage more broadly. The result has become a national controversy, with various economists taking different sides on the issue, and public protests being staged by several groups of minimum-wage workers.

Opponents of raising the minimum wage argue that some workers would get larger paychecks while others would lose their jobs, and companies would be less likely to hire new workers because of the increased cost of paying them (Bernstein 2014; cited in CNN).

Proponents of raising the minimum wage contend that some job loss would be greatly offset by the positive effects on the economy of low-wage workers having more income (Hassett 2014; cited in CNN).

Sociologists may consider the minimum wage issue from differing perspectives as well. How much of an impact would a minimum wage raise have for a single mother? Some might study the economic effects, such as her ability to pay bills and keep food on the table. Others might look at how reduced economic stress could improve family relationships. Some sociologists might research the impact on the status of small business owners. These could all be examples of public sociology, a branch of sociology that strives to bring sociological dialogue to public forums. The goals of public sociology are to increase understanding of the social factors that underlie social problems and assist in finding solutions. According to Michael Burawoy (2005), the challenge of public sociology is to engage multiple publics in multiple ways.

Sociology was developed as a way to study and try to understand the changes to society brought on by the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Some of the earliest sociologists thought that societies and individuals’ roles in society could be studied using the same scientific methodologies that were used in the natural sciences, while others believed that is was impossible to predict human behavior scientifically, and still others debated the value of such predictions. Those perspectives continue to be represented within sociology today.

Short Answer

What do you make of Karl Marx’s contributions to sociology? What perceptions of Marx have you been exposed to in your society, and how do those perceptions influence your views?

Do you tend to place more value on qualitative or quantitative research? Why? Does it matter what topic you are studying?

Further Research

Many sociologists helped shape the discipline. To learn more about prominent sociologists and how they changed sociology check out http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ferdinand-toennies .

Abercrombie, Nicholas, Stephen Hill, and Bryan S. Turner. 2000. The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology . London: Penguin.

Buroway, Michael. 2005. “2004 Presidential Address: For Public Sociology.” American Sociological Review 70 (February): 4–28. Retrieved December 30, 2014 (http://burawoy.berkeley.edu/Public%20Sociology,%20Live/Burawoy.pdf).

Cable Network News (CNN). 2014. “Should the minimum wage be raised?” CNN Money. Retrieved December 30, 2014 (http://money.cnn.com/infographic/pf/low-wage-worker/).

Cronk, George. n.d. “George Herbert Mead.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource . Retrieved October 14, 2014 (http://www.iep.utm.edu/mead/).

Durkheim, Émile. 1964 [1895]. The Rules of Sociological Method , edited by J. Mueller, E. George and E. Caitlin. 8th ed. Translated by S. Solovay. New York: Free Press.

Fauré, Christine, Jacques Guilhaumou, Jacques Vallier, and Françoise Weil. 2007 [1999]. Des Manuscrits de Sieyès, 1773–1799 , Volumes I and II. Paris: Champion.

Hannoum, Abdelmajid. 2003. Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldun Orientalist . Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University. Retrieved January 19, 2012 ( http://www.jstor.org/pss/3590803 ).

Hill, Michael. 1991. “Harriet Martineau.” Women in Sociology: A Bio-Bibliographic Sourcebook , edited by Mary Jo Deegan. New York: Greenwood Press.

Johnson, Bethany. 2003. “Harriet Martineau: Theories and Contributions to Sociology.” Education Portal . Retrieved October 14, 2014 (http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/harriet-martineau-theories-and-contributions-to-sociology.html#lesson).

Poggi, Gianfranco. 2000. Durkheim . Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Ritzer, George, and Goodman, Douglas. 2004. Sociological Theory, 6th Edition . New York: McGraw Hill Education.

Stapley, Pierre. 2010. “Georg Simmel.” Cardiff University School of Social Sciences. Retrieved October 21, 2014 (http://www.cf.ac.uk/socsi/undergraduate/introsoc/simmel.html).

U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee. 2010. Women and the Economy, 2010: 25 Years of Progress But Challenges Remain . August. Washington, DC: Congressional Printing Office. Retrieved January 19, 2012 ( http://jec.senate.gov/public/?a=Files.Serve&File_id=8be22cb0-8ed0-4a1a-841b-aa91dc55fa81 ).

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1.2I: The Development of Sociology in the U.S.

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Learning Objectives

• Discuss Lester Ward’s views on sociology’s role in society

Lester Ward is generally thought of as the founder of American sociological study. He served as the first president of the American Sociological Society, which was founded in 1905 (and which later changed its name to its current form, the American Sociological Association ), and was appointed Chair of Sociology at Brown University in 1906.

Works and ideas

Like Comte and the positivist founders of sociology, Ward embraced the scientific ethos. In 1883, Ward published his two-volume,1,200 page Dynamic Sociology, Or Applied Social Science as Based Upon Statistical Sociology and the Less Complex Sciences , with which he hoped to establish the central importance of experimentation and the scientific method to the field of sociology.

But for Ward, science was not objective and removed, but human-centered and results-oriented. As he put it in the preface to Dynamic Sociology :

“The real object of science is to benefit man. A science which fails to do this, however agreeable its study, is lifeless. Sociology, which of all sciences should benefit man most, is in danger of falling into the class of polite amusements, or dead sciences. It is the object of this work to point out a method by which the breath of life may be breathed into its nostrils. “

Thus, Ward embodied what would become a distinctive characteristic of American sociology. Though devoted to developing sociology as a rigorous science, he also believed sociology had unique potential as a tool to better society. He believed that the scientific methodology of sociology should be deployed in the interest of resolving practical, real-world problems, such as poverty, which he theorized could be minimized or eliminated by systematic intervention in society.

Criticism of laissez-faire

Ward is most often remembered for his criticism of the laissez-faire theories advanced by Herbert Spencer and popular among his contemporaries. Spencer had argued that society would naturally evolve and progress while allowing the survival of the fittest and weeding out the socially unfit. Thus, social ills such as poverty would be naturally alleviated as the unfit poor were selected against; no intervention was necessary. Though originated by Spencer, these ideas were advanced in the United States by William Graham Sumner, an economist and sociologist at Yale. Ward disagreed with Spencer and Sumner and, in contrast to their laissez-faire approach, promoted active intervention.

As a political approach, Ward’s system became known as “social liberalism,” as distinguished from the classical liberalism of the 18th and 19th centuries. While classical liberalism (featuring such thinkers as Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill) had sought prosperity and progress through laissez-faire policies, Ward’s “American social liberalism” sought to enhance social progress through direct government intervention. Ward believed that in large, complex, and rapidly growing societies, human freedom could only be achieved with the assistance of a strong democratic government acting in the interest of the individual. The characteristic element of Ward’s thinking was his faith that government, acting on the empirical and scientifically based findings of the science of sociology, could be harnessed to create a near Utopian social order.

Ward had a strong influence on a rising generation of progressive political leaders, including on the administrations of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin D. Roosevelt and on the modern Democratic Party. He has, in fact, been called “the father of the modern welfare state. ” The liberalism of the Democrats today is not that of Smith and Mill, which stressed non-interference from the government in economic issues, but of Ward, which stressed the unique position of government to effect positive change. While Roosevelt’s experiments in social engineering were popular and effective, the full effect of the forces Ward set in motion came to bear half a century after his death, in the Great Society programs of President Lyndon B. Johnson and the Vietnam war.

Influence on academic sociology

Despite Ward’s impressive political legacy, he has been largely written out of the history of sociology. The thing that made Ward most attractive in the 19th century, his criticism of laissez faire, made him seem dangerously radical to the ever-cautious academic community in early 20th century America. This perception was strengthened by the growing socialist movement in the United States, led by the Marxist Russian Revolution and the rise of Nazism in Europe. Ward was basically replaced by Durkheim in the history books, which was easily accomplished because Durkheim’s views were similar to Ward’s but without the relentless criticism of lassiez faire and without Ward’s calls for a strong, central government and “social engineering”. In 1937, Talcott Parsons, the Harvard sociologist and functionalist who almost single-handedly set American sociology’s academic curriculum in the mid-20th century, wrote that “Spencer is dead,” thereby dismissing not only Spencer but also Spencer’s most powerful critic.

• Ward was a positivist who saw sociology as a scientific tool to improve life.
• He criticized laissez-faire theories and Spencer’s survival of the fittest theory and developed his own theory of social liberalism.
• Ward believed that in large, complex, and rapidly growing societies, human freedom could only be achieved with the assistance of a strong, democratic government acting in the interest of the individual.
• Ward had a strong influence on a rising generation of progressive political leaders, including on the administrations of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Franklin D. Roosevelt and on the modern Democratic Party.
• American Sociological Association : The American Sociological Association (ASA), founded in 1905 as the American Sociological Society, is a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the discipline and profession of sociology.
• laissez-faire : a policy of governmental non-interference in economic or competitive affairs; pertaining to free-market capitalism
• Social liberalism : The belief that the legitimate role of the state includes addressing economic and social issues, such as unemployment, health care, and education while simultaneously expanding civil rights; this belief supports capitalism but rejects unchecked laissez-faire economics.

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The Future of Sociology’s History: New Voices in the History of Sociology

• Published: 01 July 2021
• Volume 52 , pages 247–253, ( 2021 )

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This special issue of The American Sociologist brings to fruition a plan that was first formulated and discussed during the 2019 ASA Annual Meeting in New York. As the incoming chair for the ASA’s History of Sociology (HoS) Section, Jill Niebrugge-Brantley issued an invitation and challenge. At the most practical level, the invitation and challenge were to find ways of drawing new members into the Section. But, at a more conceptual level, the invitation and challenge were to lend greater dynamism and relevance to the history of sociology among U.S. sociologists.

As recent movements to “decolonize” sociology provocatively attest, the history of the discipline remains of vital relevance to academic sociology. And yet, unfortunately, the history of sociology is rarely presented to undergraduate and graduate students as a vital field of study. To the extent that history of sociology is taught, this is often in theory courses, which are today especially stretched by pressing calls to diversify the canon. Some prominent U.S. sociologists have successfully established their careers on the basis of history of sociology research, but, without additional encouragement, it is likely that early career scholars will see history of sociology as a risky proposition for significant intellectual investment.

The papers published in this special issue of The American Sociologist accordingly represent the fruits of a concerted effort to encourage “new voices” in the history of sociology. Nearly all of these papers were first presented as part of a New Voices Symposium, held on August 11, 2020, in pursuance of the plan hatched in August 2019. In our view, these now-published articles amply attest to the intellectual enrichment that U.S. sociology will glean by supporting and encouraging history of sociology scholarship on the part of graduate students and early career scholars, as well as from established scholars who are willing to take new turns in their scholarly endeavors.

In the remainder of this brief introductory essay, we retrospectively review the steps leading to development of what is now a flourishing New Voices Initiative for the history of sociology, an Initiative that is being actively carried forward by graduate students and early career scholars in the ASA HoS Section (which is now the History of Sociology and Social Thought (HoSST) Section). We also offer a survey of opportunities and needs for history of sociology scholarship, with examples and illustrations drawn from a widening terrain of developing research in this vibrant field.

The New Voices Initiative – A Retrospective Sketch

A vague conception of what would become the New Voices Initiative was floated by Laura, at the 2019 HoS Section Council meeting, held in the early morning of August 10, in a tiny basement conference room of the Sheraton Hotel. The plan drew on experience from the ASA’s 2013 Annual Meeting, which was also held in New York City. Inspired by the Theory Section’s now multi-year Junior Theorists Symposium, the HoS Section had hosted a mini-conference, aided by the generous support of The New School for Social Research and The American Sociologist , which offered a strong incentive for participation by holding out the opportunity for publication. Volume 46, Issue 2 of The American Sociologist (June 2015) showcases the results of that 2013 HoS conference, including the lessons learned by the conference organizers.

In early 2020, amid news reports of a coronavirus outbreak in China, the plans started to crystallize. A working group was formed to organize what was then being called a Junior Historians of Sociology Symposium. In addition to Jill and Laura, the working group included Anne Eisenberg, Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Gary Jaworski, and Larry Nichols, in an advisory capacity. Jill was in close contact with ASA Annual Meeting organizers, and, mindful of HoS’s limited budget, proposed a roundtable structure, to be hosted as part of an ASA opportunity for pre-conference meetings. A Call for Proposals was finalized in February, with a deadline for proposals set in June.

In the meantime, COVID-19 was spreading around the world, and it soon became clear that the August meeting in San Francisco would be transformed into a virtual event. The possibilities for a video conference alternative to the in-person Symposium began to present themselves, as we all were rapidly acquiring new facilities with video-conference technologies, like Zoom.

It was at this point that graduate student organizers, Hannah Waight and Taylor Winfield, stepped in to assume increasing responsibilities for hosting what was to be a Zoom-based Symposium. The New Voices Symposium, held in August 2020, represents the fruits of their labors, together with those of the Working Group, and it led into monthly Zoom meetings extending throughout the fall semester, in which history of sociology research by rising scholars received commentary and encouragement from more established scholars. The momentum generated by this New Voices Initiative is today being carried forward by Kerby Goff, Hannah Waight and Taylor Winfield, with support from Kevin Anderson and the HoSST Section, in the planning for a second New Voices Symposium, to be held on August 5, 2021.

In all these efforts, Larry Nichols and The American Sociologist have played a crucially important role of encouragement and support. While additional institutional supports are needed to enable generative scholarship in the history of sociology to move forward, journals like The American Sociologist and associations like the ASA are clearly vital in providing the publication opportunities and social capital that enable history of sociology scholarship to flourish.

The Future of Sociology’s History – Assessments of Ongoing Opportunities and Needs

Both historical record and current dynamics suggest that the twenty-first century may prove to be the history of sociology’s moment. In 2000, the HoS Section attained full section- status in the ASA—the first time there had been such a section in the association. Section status has offered scholars interested in the history of sociology a base from which to launch significant initiatives, including the New Voices project described above, which, begun as an activity to mark the Section’s 20th anniversary, has grown in a year to become a vehicle for both scholarly dialogue among members and outreach for new members.

This volume of The American Sociologist, under the leadership of long-time Editor Larry Nichols, reaffirms the journal’s position as “the go-to” site for scholars in the history of sociology. In 2005 Section members were significant participants in ASA’s activities marking the one hundredth anniversary of its founding, with Section member Craig Calhoun (later Section Chair) editing the key centennial publication, Sociology in America—a History (2007) , to which many HoS members contributed, and which served to confirm to a wide range of audiences the significance of the subfield, history of sociology. Twenty-first century ASA Presidents’ Presidential Addresses have drawn on and celebrated the work of scholarship in the history of sociology, including Joe Feagin’s 2000 Address “Social Justice and Sociology in the 21 st Century” and Mary Romero’s 2019 Address “Sociology Engaged in Social Justice,” (both of which pointed to the long history of sociology’s social justice tradition), to current President Aldon Morris’s theme for the 2021 annual meeting “Emancipatory Sociology: Rising to the Du Boisian Challenge.” In part because of the work of scholars in the history of sociology, Du Bois and Jane Addams are being increasingly incorporated into the teaching of sociology and sociology’s understanding of itself. In 2020, the Section answered a call from ASA leadership to supervise the revision of the online ASA Presidential biographies—a project now underway and seeking authors.

The dynamics surrounding the field also suggest prospects for vitality. Sociology now has a history of nearly 200 years—sociology keeps happening and there is more of it at this moment than there has ever been. That very increase brings challenges to the HoSST Section, the New Voices initiative, and the ASA itself, and rising to meet these will create new opportunities. The writing of this history continues to be important because the story it tells helps recruit new members to sociology by suggesting the kinds of work that can be done and successes that can be won within the boundaries of the discipline. The field is being energized by new insights and methods for doing “history of sociology.” One of the most exciting developments is the possibility of new ways to communicate about the history of sociology—notably, virtual conferences using technologies like Zoom can cast a wider net for scholars, moving beyond “the brown bag department symposium” to convene a global conversation. This is especially important to a field like history of sociology which as yet has no institutionalized base in departmental curricula. Equally important is an openness to thinking about and allowing for a variety of answers to the question of what it means to produce “a history of sociology.”

In a personal effort at history of sociology, the late National Institute of Mental Health and Johns Hopkins sociologist Mel Kohn (who died while this volume was in press) wrote the memoir Adventures in Sociology: My Life as a Cross-National Scholar, which offered the provocative disclaimer, “the true hero of this tale is not Mel Kohn, but an academic field, Sociology” (Kohn, 2016 : 7). Footnote 1 What follows here both rejoices in Mel’s statement and attempts to unpack it—for the future of the history of sociology lies in part in our ability to capitalize on the nuances buried in that seemingly straightforward name “the history of sociology.”

Sociology is not only an academic discipline, as Kohn experienced it, that is, an organized body of ideas and practices; it is also a profession, “a system of relational ties that give body and form to and come to represent the interests of practitioners of the discipline, which shapes sociology’s place in the society it seeks to study” (Niebrugge-Brantley, 2020 : 2). And the combination of those two elements—discipline and profession—gives sociology its third important character for the historian, that of an institutional actor in the world it seeks to study. In any individual history, these three qualities can be treated separately or as intertwined factors. Typically, “the history of sociology is . . . told as the history of its theorists and their theories. This is a choice . . . and there are sound reasons for choosing to study sociology as a history of its theories, as long as we remember we are making a choice” (Lengermann & Niebrugge-Brantley, 1998/2007 : 2). That sociology is most frequently conceived as an academic discipline—that is a set of ideas and practices, usually embedded in texts--is attested to by the recent name change the HoS Section effected in 2021 to “The Section on the History of Sociology and Social Thought.” It is also shown in the number of papers in this volume that share this focus on the history and effects of disciplinary ideas Footnote 2 (e.g., Stefan Bargheer looks at how C. Wright Mills’ promotion of the 2 × 2 table as a method for practicing “the sociological imagination” affected thinking across disciplines in social science; Ryan Parsons traces the rise, fall and reconsideration of caste as a concept in the sociology of race and race relations; Alec McGail applies a demographic interpretation to citation practices to arrive at generalizations about sociologists’ relationship to their past; Hannah Waight argues for the recovery of John Dewey’s original vision for social science by comparing it to the way his pragmatist philosophy is being used by contemporary sociologists; Taylor Winfield builds on her earlier study of Durkheim to think about the tracing of a theorist’s thought model as a general method for the history of sociology, showing how features of the thought model survive in the theoretical text).

And opportunities still await scholars who find alternative ways for patterning the history of the discipline--as, for instance, a history of major empirical works [e.g., Kalasia Daniels and Earl Wright II “‘An Earnest Desire for the Truth despite Its Possible Unpleasantness’: A Comparative Analysis of the Atlanta University Publications and American Journal of Sociology , 1895 to 1917” (Daniels & Earl Wright, 2018 ); Jennifer Platt, A History of Sociology Research Methods in America, 1920–1960 (Platt, 1996 ); Shulamit Reinharz Feminist Methods in Social Research (Reinharz, 1992 )]; or the development of specialized fields [e.g. Pamela Barnhouse Walters, “Betwixt and Between Discipline and Profession: A History of Sociology of Education” (Walters, 2007 ); Howard Winant, “The Dark Side of the Force: One Hundred Years of the Sociology of Race” (Winant, 2007 )] or because sociology is, for reasons explainable by its history, primarily a teaching discipline, that history could also be told in terms of the alumni produced by sociology departments.

While the history of sociology as a profession has received less attention than the history of the discipline and is an area ripe for more work, it produces studies that direct the reader to think about how the operations of the profession may ultimately affect the content of the discipline. Histories of the professional workings of sociology may focus on ways the profession operates [e.g., John Pease and Barbara Hetrick “Association for Whom—The Regionals and the American Sociological Association” (Pease & Hetrick, 1977 ); Lawrence J. Rhoades, A History of the American Sociological Association, 1905–1980 (Rhoades, 1981 )]; or on moments of crisis in these operations [e.g., the rebellion at the 1935 meeting of the American Sociological Society—Patricia Lengermann “The Founding of the American Sociological Review: The Anatomy of a Rebellion” (Lengermann, 1979 ); Don Martindale The Romance of a Profession: A Case History in the Sociology of Sociology (Martindale, 1976 )] .

Study of the history of sociology as a combination of discipline and profession may lead to issues of sociology as an institutional actor on the world stage— [e.g., Charles Camic “On the Edge: Sociology-- During the Great Depression and the New Deal,” (Camic, 2007 ) and “Everywhere and Nowhere Remarks for History of Sociology Session on American Sociology in the 1930s” (Camic, 2020 ); Mike Forrest Keen Stalking the Sociological Imagination—J. Edgar Hoover’s FBI Surveillance of American Sociology (Keen, 1999 ); Patricia Lengermann “On the Edge” and at the Margins—An Appreciation of and Response to Charles Camic’s Study of Sociology in the 1930s” (Lengermann, 2020 ); Anne Rawls “The wartime narrative in US sociology, 1940–1947: stigmatizing qualitative sociology in the name of ‘science’” (Rawls, 2018 ); Stephen Turner and Dirk Käsler S ociology Responds to Fascism (Turner & Käsler, 1992 )]. These works treating sociology as an institutional actor, the product of discipline and profession, may also make a different argument, showing how sociology is affected by conditions in the world it studies. Mary Jo Deegan’s Jane Addams and the Men of the Chicago School (Deegan, 1988 ) and Aldon Morris’s The Scholar Denied: W. E. B. DuBois and the Birth of Modern Sociology (Morris, 2017 ) both show the ways sociology was shaped by stratificational practices in the society it sought to study. Current calls (e.g., in this volume, Angela Fillingim and Zawadi Rucks-Ahidiana’s proposal for a for a reconsideration of the ways the classical canon has been patterned) may have the same effect of making sociology a more inclusive discipline, not only in its study of society but in its own understanding of itself.

Within the history of sociology, biography has been a rich form for capturing this combination of discipline, profession, and institutional actor—from full life histories [e.g. Steven Lukes’s Emile Durkheim: His Life and Work: A Historical and Critical Study ( 1973 ), Marcel Fournier’s Emile Durkheim—A Biography (Fournier, 2012 )], to a specific moment in the life of a major thinker, [e.g., Lawrence Scaff’s Max Weber in America (Scaff, 2011 ),] to comparisons of biographies of a subject written at different times [e.g., Randall Collins’s “Durkheim: via Fournier, via Lukes” (August 2014)]. By extension, biography may also take a collective actor as its subject, as in the case of a school of thought [e.g. Andrew Abbott Department and Discipline—Chicago Sociology at One Hundred (Abbott, 1999 ); Thomas Wheatland The Frankfurt School in Exile (Wheatland, 2009 ); Joyce Williams and Vicky McLean Settlement Sociology in the Progressive Years (Williams & McLean, 2015 )]. In this volume, Francesco Ranci argues that the biographical focus has been overused in current interpretations of Erving Goffman.

The future of sociology will depend on the ability of emerging historians both to encourage action by sociology as a profession and to refine and enlarge the tools and concepts available for the practice of the history of sociology as a discipline. Professionally, two goals seem especially important, both of which require arguing with vigor for allocation of resources: one, to preserve the records of the profession’s history and two, to act creatively to inject history of sociology into the standard curriculum. Alan Sica and Roberta Spalter Roth have worked to preserve records of the reviewing process for ASA journals and many scholars have worked to preserve the history of specific sociology departments [e.g., Andrew Abbott, 1999 ; Anthony Blasi and Bernard F. Donohoe A History of Sociological Research and Teaching at Catholic Notre Dame University, Indiana (Blasi & Donohoe, 2002 ); Michael Hill The Bureau of Sociological Research at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (Hill, 2016 ) among others] but in this area there is so much more to be done. Right at this moment that history is both being made and lost—lost through the destruction of departmental records because of lack of storage space; there is an opportunity here right now to join with HoSST in its Departmental History Project. The advent of digital recordkeeping makes the possibility of preservation realizable if we can find ways to leverage the necessary resources.

The last word here belongs to Larry Nichols, though he has not asked for it to be so.

Larry, an invaluably astute student of the sociology of sociology, ruminated, in an email to Laura and Jill, “I wonder if the authors, and other participants in the 2020 HoS event, feel they have developed as historical scholars as a result of the process. In other words, do they now have a clearer idea of what it means to be a “working historian,“ to apply some historical method and gather data and illumine events, perhaps by discovering surprises or by grappling with contradictory evidence or by learning that some of their initial assumptions need to be adjusted.. .. There are no perfect journal articles; it’s enough to make some significant contribution, which might mean simply advancing a particular scholarly conversation.”

A fitting conclusion, by way of a question, which directs our attention to the ongoing project of scholarly research. We are honored and proud to introduce the articles published in this special issue, articles which advance the conversation, and offer significant contributions, to the dynamic scholarly conversation that is the history of sociology and social thought.

Change history

07 july 2021.

The original version of this paper was updated to present the correct author name of Alec McGail mentioned in the text.

Mel Kohn’s memoir, Adventures in Sociology: My Life as a Cross-National Scholar, is available for a limited time from the DC bookstore Politics and Prose https://www.politics-prose.com/book/9781624290749

In the survey of opportunities below, we use full titles of many exemplar publications as the shortest way to give the reader a beginning sense of the breadth of possibilities that exist for meaningful work in the history of sociology.

Abbott, A. (1999). Department and discipline—Chicago sociology at one hundred . University of Chicago Press.

Blasi, A., & Donohoe, B. F. (2002). A history of sociological research and teaching at Catholic Notre Dame University, Indiana . Edwin Mellen Press.

Camic, C. (2007). On the edge: Sociology during the great depression and the new Deal. In C. Calhoun (Ed.), Sociology in America: A History, pp 225–280 . University of Chicago Press.

Camic, C. (2020). Everywhere and nowhere--remarks for history of sociology session on American sociology in the 1930s. Timelines Issue 31 pp. 5–13.

Daniels, K., & Earl Wright, I. I. (2018). “An Earnest desire for the truth despite its possible unpleasantness”: A comparative analysis of the Atlanta University publications and American Journal of Sociology , 1895 to 1917. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity., 4 (1), 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649217706519 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Deegan, M. J. D. (1988). Jane Addams and the men of the Chicago school, 1892–1918 . Transaction Publishers.

Fournier, Marcel. (2012). Emile Durkheim—A biography. Trans. David Macey. Wiley.

Hill, Michael R. (2016). The Bureau of Sociological Research at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln—A brief history 1964–2014, Zea Publishers.

Keen, Mike F. (1999). FBI. Stalking the Sociological Imagination: J. Edgar Hoover’s FBI Surveillance of American Sociology. Praeger.

Kohn, M. L. (2016). Adventures in sociology: My life as a cross-national scholar . Politics and Prose.

Lengermann, P. (1979). The founding of the American Sociological Review: the anatomy of a rebellion. American Sociological Review, 44 , 185–198.

Lengermann, Patricia (2020). “On the Edge” and at the margins—an appreciation of and response to Charles Camic’s study of sociology in the 1930s.” Timelines Issue 31 September pp. 14–26. https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/history_-_issue_31_september_2020.pdf

Lengermann, Patricia and Gillian Niebrugge-Brantley. (1998/2007). The women founders: Sociology and social theory, 1830–1930 . Waveland.

Lukes, S. (1973). Emile Durkheim: His life and work: A historical and critical study . Stanford University Press.

Martindale, D. (1976). The romance of a profession: A case history in the sociology of sociology . Windflower Publishing Co..

Morris, Aldon. (2017). The scholar denied: W. E. B. Dubois and the Birth of Modern Sociology. University of California Press.

Niebrugge-Brantley, Gillian. (2020). The history of sociology as discipline and profession. Timelines issue 31 September 1-4. https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/history_-_issue_31_september_2020.pdf

Pease, J., & Hetrick, B. (1977). Association for whom: The regionals and the american sociological association. The American Sociologist, 12 , 42–47.

Google Scholar  

Platt, J. (1996). A history of sociology research methods in America, 1920–1960 . Cambridge University Press.

Rawls, A. (2018). The wartime narrative in US sociology, 1940–1947: stigmatizing qualitative sociology in the name of ‘science’. European Journal of Social Theory, 21 (4), 526–546. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431018754499 .

Reinharz, S. (1992). Feminist methods in social research . Oxford University Press.

Rhoades, Lawrence J. (1981) A History of the American Sociological Association, 1905–1980. https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/rhoades_history_foreward_thru_chap_3.pdf

Scaff, L. (2011). Max weber in America . Princeton University Press.

Turner, S., & Käsler, D. (Eds.). (1992). Sociology Responds to Fascism . Routledge.

Walters, P. B. (2007). Betwixt and between discipline and profession: A history of sociology of education. In C. Calhoun (Ed.), Sociology in America—A History (pp. 639–665) . The University of Chicago Press.

Wheatland, T. (2009). The Frankfurt School in Exile . University of Minnesota Press.

Williams, J., & McLean, V. (2015). McLean settlement sociology in the progressive years—Faith, science, and reform . Brill Publishers.

Winant, H. (2007). The dark side of the force: One hundred years of the sociology of race. In C. Calhoun (Ed.), Sociology in America—A History (pp.535–571) . The University of Chicago Press.

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Ford, L., Niebrugge-Brantley, G. The Future of Sociology’s History: New Voices in the History of Sociology. Am Soc 52 , 247–253 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12108-021-09503-2

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Development of Sociology, Essay Example

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The article entitled “Development of Sociology” speaks to the distinct age of sociology. As it immediately proclaims at the beginning, “Sociology is the youngest of the recognized social sciences.” Along with characterizations on the science itself, the article takes a look at its initial foundations to its status as a well-regarded science, today. The present analysis will examine the points made by the article, looking at overall impact and perspective on these monumental developments in the field of sociology.

The Youngest of Social Sciences

This paraphrased quote from the article is quite revealing. Looking at sociology in a historical manner, it is interesting to see sociology stack up against other social sciences. Others were notably developed later than sociology, which was developed in the early 19 th century: archaeology in the late 19 th century, political science much later as a distinct science (apart from early analysis on general politics), psychology in the late 19 th century, and added disciplines that could be mentioned.

It is particularly interesting that sociology predated psychology. As the idea of sociology stemmed from a philosopher (Auguste Comte), it seems counterintuitive that a science founded in the initially-proposed manner be regarding others. It would seem “easier,” in a manner of speaking, for a science to “systematically observe and classify” behaviors of one. Of course, Comte’s recommendations on sociology stemmed from the social events of the French revolution. Thus, the ideas of sociology as a science were born from the onset, as opposed to other social sciences that were formulated then later approach as a “true” science (such as political science).

Arguably, it was exactly with this view that sociology could be founded. In other words, if a pseudo-science arose of sociology that was founded on authority and speculation, as it is easy to imagine, it is only natural that it would fail. As a natural result of Comte’s approach to sociology – and science – he is now regarded as the first philosopher of science.

As the article describes, the first sociologists were truly all social philosophers. Or, in other words, they were all responsible for helping shape the scientific explorations of sociological. Providing the foundations for the science of sociology were Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Lester Ward. And as the article notes, they “did little of it themselves,” in reference to carrying out what they recommended for the science.

Of course, the first major step was seen with Emile Durkheim’s demonstration of scientific methodology in sociology. By collecting data and forming a theory for suicide, Durkheim arguably gave the first major breakthrough for the science since its foundation. Or, to make a comparison to philosophy, Durkheim was the “Plato of philosophy,” as Plato gave the humanity much-needed synthesis and analysis following the pre-Socratic philosophers of the West.

The Next Big Step

Following Durkheim’s monumental study in 1897, the next 20 years in the field of sociology would be incredibly important. The 1890s saw courses in sociology appearing and the beginning of The American Journal of Sociology. And then, in 1905, the American Sociological Society was organized. Coupling the growing problems in the United States with the scientific basis that sociology was instilled with from earlier figures, it was only natural for sociology to take on a higher importance. Sociology soon found a home with important sociological topics such as gender roles, “economic sociology,” family, and many other areas where the scientific prowess of sociology would come into play.

Thus, in approximately 100 years, the framework of the current social science of sociology encountered its first and final major breakthroughs. Of course, this is quite the generalization; however, the term sociology was first coined in 1838, and well in its prime. As the article mentions, sociological journals were filled with articles by the 1930s.

It is this point that is particularly fascinating. While it bodes for other social sciences such as psychology, the fast-paced development of sociology from its inception to its modern state has been quite amazing. It will certainly be interesting to view any major upcoming breakthroughs in this relatively young social science, as it is not even 200 years old.

Sociology Today

Gauging the impact of sociology would be a difficult, if not impossible process. However, as the present analysis has demonstrated, it is the scientific approach that the article characterizes that has allowed it to be what it is today. Sociology is certainly a major entity in the modern world.

The article ends with a comment on the sociological journals of the 1930s: “Sociology was becoming a body of scientific knowledge with its theories based upon scientific observation rather than upon impressionistic observation.” This truth has allowed sociology to become a major difference-maker.

The scientific prowess of sociology has allowed it to extend to many different fronts in the modern world. It has aided in the awareness and breakdown of many, many different topics: race, environment, health, culture, law and punishment, media, knowledge, political sociology, religion, and others. It has also become a major player in many applied topics, such as those devoted to young individuals (with education) and those based on older individuals.

Sociology can also keep up with the rapid pace of cultural elements. For instance, sociological topics stemming from the Internet is a wide and diverse field, such as that that looks at the social media sites and how they interact with modern life, or dynamics of online communities. This can certainly be an interesting topic that allows sociology to remain up to speed with very recent items.

However, getting back to overall impact, the force of sociology can be seen. Today sociology is part of policy levels, where it monitors and controls mechanisms in communities. It becomes essential for individuals to monitor sociological analyses, as they essentially (and literally) cover how society is changing. To ignore values, race, religion, and other mainstays of sociology is to essentially ignore society as a whole.

The development of sociology from an idea to a full-fledged respected and impactful science is certainly interesting. With particular note to the speed in which the social science has developed, sociology remains a very young discipline that continues to extend its reach. After all, it is difficult to imagine a topic that has not been touched by sociology. That may even, arguably, go against the very grain of sociology.

Today sociology remains impactful on so many different levels. However, when one really considers the development of the science, it is its commitment to scientific observation that has allowed it to flourish. It turns out that Auguste Comte’s idea was certainly a breakthrough.

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Sociology as a Discipline

The groups within which we spend our lives—in our families, schools, communities, workplaces, and societies—help to define us in the eyes of others, while defining us to ourselves as well.

Sociologists possess a quality of mind that helps them to use scientific knowledge and logical reasoning in order to develop understandings of what is going on in the world.

Sociology is a discipline that makes it possible to see how individual experiences—how we act, think, feel, and remember—are connected to the wider society.

To understand human experience better, we must understand all that we can about groups and social relationships.

Sociologists examine the shared meanings that humans attach to their interactions with one another, and they study human experience as it unfolds within societies over time. They study social patterns that are stable and also those that are changing.

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The sociology program provides students with critical thinking skills and a knowledge of society, groups, and social relationships to prepare them to be better informed individuals and to take advantage of employment opportunities where analytic knowledge of the social world is valued. The Sociology Program’s course of study gives students insight into sociology as a scientific discipline and as a quality of mind, aiding in their intellectual growth, and providing opportunities for civic engagement and for making contributions to community wellbeing. Because sociologists must be able to recognize social trends and patterns, while being skillful writers, speakers, and researchers, members of the sociology faculty are strongly committed to teaching students how to do sociology and how to think sociologically about the world. Sociology majors are given the opportunity and encouragement to develop their own ideas about society and to express them verbally and in writing.

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IS “SOCIOLOGY A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE.” IS THERE A PLACE FOR COMMON SENSE KNOWLEDGE IN THE SOCIOLOGICAL DISCOURSE?

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Sociology and More

Social forces in the development of sociological theory.

All intellectual fields are profoundly shaped by their social settings. This is particularly true of sociology, which is not only derived from that setting but takes the social setting as its basic subject matter.

Following are few of the most important social conditions of the 19th and early 20th centuries, conditions that were of the utmost significance in the development of sociology.

1. Political Revolutions-

• Long series of political revolutions ushered in by the French Revolution in 1789 and carrying over through the 19th century was the immediate factor in the rise of sociological theorizing.
• Impact- enormous, and many positive changes resulted.
• But, the negative effects of such changes attracted the attention of many early theorists (who were disturbed by the resulting chaos and disorder, especially in France).
• United in a desire to restore order to society. Some of the more extreme thinkers of this period literally wanted a return to the peaceful and relatively orderly days of the Middle Ages. The more sophisticated thinkers recognized that social change had made such a return impossible. Thus they sought instead to find new bases of order in societies that had been overturned by the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries.
• The interest in the issue of social order was one of the major concerns of classical sociological theorists, especially Comte and Durkheim.

2. The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Capitalism-

• (as important as political revolution)
• (swept through many Western societies, mainly in the 19th and early 20th centuries).
• The Industrial Revolution was not a single event but many interrelated developments that culminated in the transformation of the Western world from a largely agricultural to an overwhelmingly industrial system.
• Large numbers of people left farms and agricultural work for the industrial occupations offered in the burgeoning factories.
• The factories themselves were transformed by a long series of technological improvements.
• Large economic bureaucracies arose to provide the many services needed by industry and the emerging capitalist economic system.
• In this economy, the ideal was a free marketplace where the many products of an industrial system could be exchanged. Within this system, a few profited greatly while the majority worked long hours for low wages. A reaction against the industrial system and against capitalism in general followed and led to the labor movement as well as to various radical movements aimed at overthrowing the capitalist system.
• The Industrial Revolution, capitalism, and the reaction against them all involved an enormous upheaval in Western society, an upheaval that affected sociologists greatly.
• Four major figures in the early history of sociological theory- Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and Georg Simmel- were preoccupied, as were many lesser thinkers, with these changes and the problems they created for society as a whole. They spent their lives studying these problems, and in many cases they endeavored to develop programs that would help solve them.

3. The Rise of Socialism-

• One set of changes aimed at coping with the excesses of the industrial system and capitalism can be combined under the heading “socialism.”
• Although some sociologists favored socialism as a solution to industrial problems, most were personally and intellectually opposed to it.
• On the one side, Karl Marx was an active supporter of the overthrow of the capitalist system and its replacement by a socialist system. Although he did not develop a theory of socialism per se, he spent a great deal of time criticizing various aspects of capitalist society. In addition, he engaged in a variety of political activities that he hoped would help bring about the rise of socialist societies. However, Marx was atypical in the early years of sociological theory.
• Most of the early theorists, such as Weber and Durkheim, were opposed to socialism (at least as it was envisioned by Marx). Although they recognized the problems within capitalist society, they sought social reform within capitalism rather than the social revolution argued for by Marx. They feared socialism more than they did capitalism . This fear played a greater role in shaping sociological theory than did Marx’s support of the socialist alternative to capitalism. In fact, as we will see, in many cases sociological theory developed in reaction against Marxian, and, more generally, socialist theory.

4. Feminism –

• While precursors of feminism can be traced to the 1630s, high points of feminist activity and writing occurred in the liberationist moments of modern Western history:-
• A first flurry of productivity in the 1780s and 1790s with the debates surrounding the American and French revolutions;
• A far more organized, focused effort in the 1850s as part of the mobilization against slavery and for political rights for the middle class;
• And the massive mobilization for women’s suffrage and for industrial and civic reform legislation in the early 20th century, especially the Progressive Era in the United States.
• All of the abovd had an impact on the development of sociology, in particular on the work of a number of women in or associated with the field- Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Jane Addams, Florence Kelley, Anna Julia Cooper, Ida Wells-Barnett, Marianne Weber, and Beatrice Potter Webb, to name just a few. But their creations were, over time, pushed to the periphery of the profession, annexed or discounted or written out of sociology’s public record by the men who were organizing sociology as a professional power base. Feminist concerns filtered into sociology only on the margins, in the work of marginal male theorists or of the increasingly marginalized female theorists.
• The men who assumed centrality in the profession- from Spencer, through Weber and Durkheim- made basically conservative responses to the feminist arguments going around them, making issues of gender an inconsequential topic to which they responded conventionally rather than critically in what they identified and publicly promoted as sociology. They responded in this way even as women were writing a significant body of sociological theory. The history of this gender politics in the profession was also part of the history of male response to feminist claims, is only now being written.

5. Urbanization –

• Partly as a result of the Industrial Revolution, large numbers of people in the 19th and 20th centuries were uprooted from their rural homes and moved to urban settings. This massive migration was caused, in large part, by the jobs created by the industrial system in the urban areas.
• But it presented many difficulties for those people who had to adjust to urban life. In addition, the expansion of the cities produced a seemingly endless list of problems- overcrowding, pollution, noise, traffic, and so forth.
• The nature of urban life and its problems attracted the attention of many early sociologists, especially Max Weber and Georg Simmel. In fact, the first major school of American sociology, the Chicago school, was in large part defined by its concern for the city and its interest in using Chicago as a laboratory in which to study urbanizatiob and its problems.

6. Religious change-

• Social changes brought on by political revolutions, the Industrial Revolution, and urbanization had a profound effect on religiosity.
• Many early sociologists came from religious backgrounds and were actively, and in some cases professionally, involved in religion. They brought to sociology the same objectives as they had in their religious lives. They wished to improve people’s lives.
• For some (such as Comte), sociology was transformed into a religion.
• For others, their sociological theories bore an unmistakable religious imprint.
• Durkheim wrote one of his major works on religion.
• A large portion of Weber’s work also was devoted to the religions of the world.
• Marx, too, had an interest in religiosity, but his orientation was far more critical .

6. The Growth of Science-

• As sociological theory was being developed, there was an increasing emphasis on science, not only in colleges and universities but in society as a whole . The technological products of science were permeating every sector of life, and science was acquiring enormous prestige. Those associated with the most successful sciences (Physics, Biology, and Chemistry) were accorded honored places in society.
• Sociologists (especially Comte and Durkheim) from the beginning were preoccupied with science , and many wanted to model sociology after the successful physical and biological sciences.
• However, a debate soon developed between those who thought that distinctive characteristics of social life made a wholesale adoption of a scientific model difficult and unwise.
• The issue of the relationship between sociology and science is debated to this day, although even a glance at the major journals in the field indicates the predominance of those who favor sociology as a science .

Ritzer, G. (2011).  Sociological theory  (5th ed.). New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

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The Emergence of Sociology

Table of Contents

Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behavior. But how did this discipline come into being? What were the historical and intellectual factors that contributed to its development? In this article, we will explore the emergence of sociology as a distinct field of inquiry in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Sociology as a Separate Branch of Study

The birth of sociology as a discipline can be traced back to the dynamic landscape of European societies. Just as any idea is shaped by its social context, sociology emerged as a product of the profound transformations witnessed in Europe, eventually finding its intellectual home in the United States. This journey towards the establishment of sociology was deeply rooted in both social and intellectual upheavals, making it a fascinating study of human evolution.

Sociology is the scientific study of human society, social interactions, and social change. It aims to understand the patterns, causes, and consequences of social phenomena at various levels, such as individual, group, institution, culture, and society. Sociology also explores the diversity and complexity of human societies across time and space.

Sociology is different from other branches of study be it humanistic or natural sciences. It aims the study only the social phenomenon and social institutions. We will discuss about the definitions, characteristics, objectives and other related topics in separate articles. In this article, we will solely focus on the emergence of sociology- how did sociology emerge a separate branch of study, what were the factors that shaped the sociology as a separate subject, founding fathers of sociology, relevance of sociology and different streams of enquiry in sociology.

Historical Background of Sociology as a separate Branch of Study

To understand the emergence of sociology, it’s crucial to delve into the religious fabric of European society. In the early stages, Europe was characterized by a deeply religious nature, where the Church held the highest authority. Social life and interpersonal relations were profoundly influenced by religious worldviews, and questioning the established beliefs was virtually unheard of.

Sociology emerged as a distinct discipline in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Europe, during a period of rapid social, economic, and political transformation. During 18th and 19th century, European society was undergoing rapid changes. Old social structures were breaking while giving way to new social structures and institutions. The Europe was undergoing through the phase of rapid industrialization and urbanization. New banking and finance institutions were emerging. In these changing scenarios, many thinkers and intellectuals started studying and analyzing the social institutions and ongoing social change. And thus, emerged the sociology as a separate field of inquiry.

Later, many intellectuals expanded the scope of study to other societies throughout the world and the societies and their institutions were studied by a number of sociologists. New methods and new perspectives to look into social institutions and social changes were applied. And thus, different branches of sociology emerged.

Factors responsible for the emergence of Sociology

Social, political, and scientific changes in Europe and the resulted in the emergence of Sociology . Three pivotal events reshaped the European society and sowed the seeds of sociology were Renaissance and Enlightenment, French Revolution and Industrial Revolution.

Let’s discuss these events in detail:

Social, political, and scientific changes in Europe and the resulting emergence of Sociology

Enlightenment and the emergence of sociology

Renaissance was not a mere event; it was an intellectual awakening, a phase marked by the emergence of scientific ideas. People began thinking abstractly, challenging the religious authority, and seeking the causes and effects of phenomena. The society gradually transitioned into a more rational and critical mode of thinking, although not without encountering resistance and unrest.

The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that challenged the traditional authority of religion, monarchy, and aristocracy. It emphasized reason, rationality, and individualism as the sources of knowledge and progress. It also fostered a spirit of curiosity, inquiry, and criticism among the intellectuals and thinkers. Enlightenment and sociology were both products of the modern era that marked a radical change from the traditional thinking of feudal Europe. They both contributed to the development of human knowledge, culture, and society.

The role of Industrial Revolution on emergence of sociology

The Industrial Revolution was a technological revolution that transformed the modes of production, transportation, and communication. It shifted the economy from agriculture to industry and commerce. It also created new social classes, such as capitalists, workers, and consumers.

The industrial revolution was a period of rapid and profound transformation in the modes of production, transportation, and communication that occurred in Europe and America from the late 18th to the early 19th centuries. It involved the shift from an agrarian and handicraft economy to an industrial and machine-based economy, which resulted in the creation of new social classes, such as capitalists, workers, and consumers. It also led to the growth of urbanization, which increased the population and size of cities, where people lived and worked in close proximity and faced new social problems, such as poverty, crime, pollution, etc.

The Urbanization: Urbanization was a demographic process that increased the population and size of cities. It resulted from the migration of people from rural to urban areas in search of better opportunities and living conditions. It also created new social problems, such as poverty, crime, pollution, etc.

The industrial revolution had a significant impact on the emergence of sociology as a distinct discipline that aimed to study and explain the social phenomena that resulted from these changes. Some of the ways in which the industrial revolution influenced the development of sociology are:

• It stimulated the intellectual curiosity and critical thinking among the thinkers and philosophers who witnessed the changes and challenges brought by the industrial revolution. They sought to apply the scientific method and rationality to understand the nature, origin, and destiny of human society. They also questioned the traditional authority and legitimacy of religion, monarchy, and aristocracy that were challenged by the new social forces and movements.
• It created a demand for new knowledge and information about the social conditions and problems that emerged from the industrial revolution. The governments, businesses, reformers, and activists needed reliable data and statistics to monitor and regulate the social affairs and policies. The sociologists provided such data and statistics by conducting surveys, censuses, experiments, etc., using various methods and techniques.
• It generated new concepts and theories that explained the social structure, culture, values, and beliefs that were shaped by the industrial revolution. The sociologists developed various perspectives and paradigms that analyzed the social phenomena such as class, division of labor, social order, social change, etc., using various concepts such as social facts, historical materialism, rationalization, etc.
• It inspired new forms of social action and intervention that aimed to improve or reform the social conditions and problems that resulted from the industrial revolution. The sociologists participated in or influenced various social movements and organizations that advocated for democracy, human rights, social justice, etc., using various strategies such as education, propaganda, agitation, etc

The French Revolution and development of Sociology

The French Revolution was a political revolution that overthrew the feudal system and established a republic based on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. It also inspired other movements for democracy, nationalism, and human rights in Europe and beyond. The French Revolution, commencing in 1789, brought about substantial changes in the societal mindset. It questioned the stratification system that had prevailed throughout Europe, introducing modern ideals of equality, liberty, and fraternity. As people became aware of their rights, demands for these rights surged, further stirring unrest in society.

The French Revolution was a major historical event that influenced the emergence of sociology as a scientific study of society. The French Revolution, which took place from 1789 to 1799, was a political and social upheaval that challenged the existing order of feudalism, monarchy, and religion. It also inspired other movements for democracy, nationalism, and human rights in Europe and beyond.

Some of the founding fathers of sociology, such as Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and Karl Marx , were influenced by the French Revolution in their sociological theories and concepts. For example, Comte coined the term “sociology” and defined it as the science of society . He proposed a positivist approach to sociology that aimed to discover the laws governing social order and progress. He also classified the stages of human history into theological (based on supernatural explanations), metaphysical (based on abstract principles), and positive (based on empirical observations) stages, corresponding to the pre-revolutionary, revolutionary, and post-revolutionary periods.

The French Revolution was also influenced by the ideas and writings of some prominent French thinkers who preceded or participated in it. These thinkers contributed to the development of sociology by providing new insights and perspectives on society. Some of these thinkers are:

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau was a philosopher who advocated for natural rights, popular sovereignty, and social contract. He argued that human beings are born free and equal but are corrupted by society. He proposed that people should form a democratic society based on a social contract that ensures their freedom and happiness. He advocated his ideas in his books- The Social Contract, The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality , etc.
• Voltaire: Voltaire was a writer who championed for civil liberties, religious tolerance, and rationalism. He criticized the abuses of power by the church and the state. He also advocated for free trade, free speech, and free thought. H
• Montesquieu: Montesquieu was a political philosopher who proposed the separation of powers as a way to prevent tyranny and ensure liberty.In his book- The Spirit of Laws , he divided the government into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. He also compared different forms of government such as monarchy, republic, and despotism.
• Condorcet: Condorcet was a mathematician who applied probability theory to social sciences. He also supported human rights, democracy, education, and progress. He envisioned a future society where reason would prevail over superstition and ignorance.

Founding Fathers of Sociology

Sociology was founded by several thinkers who tried to apply the scientific method to the study of society. They also developed various concepts, theories, and methods to analyze and explain social phenomena. Some of the founding fathers of sociology are:

• Auguste Comte: Auguste Comte was a French philosopher who c oined the term “sociology” and defined it as the science of society . He proposed a positivist approach to sociology that aimed to discover the laws governing social order and progress. He also classified the stages of human history into theological, metaphysical, and positive stages.
• Emile Durkheim: Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist who established sociology as an academic discipline. He focused on the study of social facts , which are external and coercive forces that shape human behavior. He also studied the causes and consequences of social phenomena such as division of labor, religion, suicide, etc . Durkheim focused on the study of social facts, which are external and coercive forces that shape human behavior. He also studied the causes and consequences of social phenomena such as division of labor (the specialization of tasks in society), religion (the system of beliefs and practices that bind people together), suicide (the act of killing oneself), etc. He was interested in how society maintained its cohesion and stability after the revolution.
• Karl Marx : Karl Marx was a German philosopher who developed a critical perspective on society based on historical materialism. He argued that society is divided into classes that have conflicting interests due to the mode of production. He also predicted that capitalism would lead to class struggle and eventually be replaced by communism. Marx developed a critical perspective on society based on historical materialism (the view that material conditions determine social relations). He argued that society is divided into classes that have conflicting interests due to the mode of production (the way goods are produced and distributed). He also predicted that capitalism (the economic system based on private ownership and profit) would lead to class struggle (the conflict between the bourgeoisie or owners and the proletariat or workers) and eventually be replaced by communism (the economic system based on common ownership and equality). He was concerned with how society changed through conflict and revolution.
• Max Weber : Max Weber was a German sociologist who introduced a verstehen approach to sociology that aimed to understand the meanings and motives behind human actions. He also studied the effects of rationalization, bureaucratization, and religion on society. He also compared different types of authority , such as traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority.

Development of Sociology

Sociology developed further in the 20th and 21st centuries with the contributions of various schools, theories, and methods. Some of the major developments in sociology are:

• Functionalism: Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that views society as a system of interrelated parts that work together to maintain stability and harmony. It focuses on the functions and dysfunctions of social institutions, such as family, education, religion, etc.
• Conflict Theory: Conflict Theory is a theoretical perspective that views society as a system of groups that compete for scarce resources and power. It focuses on the conflicts and inequalities among social classes, races, genders, etc.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Symbolic Interactionism is a theoretical perspective that views society as a product of social interactions based on symbols and meanings. It focuses on how people construct their identities, roles, and realities through communication and interaction.
• Feminist Sociology: Feminist Sociology is an approach that applies feminist principles and perspectives to the study of society. It focuses on the issues and experiences of women and other marginalized groups in society. It also challenges the male-dominated assumptions and biases in sociology.
• Postmodern Sociology: Postmodern Sociology is an approach that questions the validity and objectivity of sociology in the context of contemporary society. It focuses on the diversity, complexity, and uncertainty of social reality. It also criticizes the grand narratives and metatheories of sociology.

Relevance of Sociology

Sociology is relevant for understanding and addressing various issues and challenges facing human society in the present times. Some of the areas where sociology can contribute are:

• Social Change: Sociology can help to explain the causes and consequences of social change, such as globalization, urbanization, migration, etc. It can also help to evaluate the impact of social change on different groups and sectors of society.
• Social Problems: Sociology can help to identify and analyze the social problems, such as poverty, crime, violence, etc. It can also help to suggest and implement solutions to these problems.
• Social Policy: Sociology can help to inform and influence the social policies and programs of the government and other agencies. It can also help to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness and outcomes of these policies and programs.
• Social Action: Sociology can help to empower and mobilize the people for social action and movements. It can also help to foster social awareness, participation, and solidarity among the people.

Recommended Books/ Sources for UPSC/ State PSC Mains Sociology Syllabus:

• Srishti IAS Sociology Notes
• Sociology NCERT of 11th and 12th for Beginners
• IGNOU BA- Sociology Material
• IGNOU MA- Sociology Material (Selected Topics)
• Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, Harlambos and Holborn (Selected Topics)
• Sociology of Indian Society, C N Shankar Rao
• Sociology, C N Shankar Rao
• Census Data, recent International and National Reports
• Newspaper Articles

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Environmental Sociology: Emergence, Theories, Scope, Contributions

Environmental sociology can be defined as the field of sociology that deals with the interactions of societies and their natural and built environments.

Emergence of Environmental Sociology

By the mid-1970s, sociologists had become aware and sensitized towards the reality of environmental issues. But this required a reappraisal of previously held sociological assumptions such as the fact that the physical environment was irrelevant to the study of social behavior. Hence, the label Human Exemptionalism Paradigm (HEP) was applied to the worldview of classical sociology (Dunlap & Catton 1979).

In contrast, the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) drew from the ideas of early conservationists such as Aldo Leopold, John Muir, George Perkins Marsh and even Rachel Carson. This framework stressed the dependence on ecosystems of human societies (Pellow & Brehm 2013).

Organizational Recognition of Environmental Sociology

There were three major organizational developments that contributed to the emergence of environmental sociology and more importantly the transition from ‘sociology of environmental issues’ to ‘environmental issues’. The first development occurred in 1964 when several members of the Rural Sociological Society (RSS) formed the ‘Sociological Aspects of Forestry Research Committee’. The committee has now evolved into one of the foremost quasi-formal research groups of the RSS and has been renamed the ‘Natural Resources Research Group’. Second, in 1972, the Society for the Study of Social Problems (SSSP) added an ‘Environmental Problems Division’. The division’ membership was crucial to environmental sociology since environmentalism and the environment as a social problem were topics of strong interest. Third , in early 1974, the council of the American Sociological Association appointed the ‘Ad Hoc Committee on Environmental Sociology’. The committee was succeeded by the ‘Section on Environmental Sociology’ in 1976. This section exists to represent all interests pursued by environmental sociologists (Dunlap & Catton 1979).

Theoretical Contributions To Environmental Sociology

Riley Dunlap and William Catton’s environmental sociology is situated on several interrelated notions. The first is that environmental issues and classical sociology’s inability to address them stems from worldviews that are incapable of acknowledging the fact social life has a biophysical basis. Second, modern society is unsustainable since they are living off a finite supply of fossil fuels. Third, societies must prepare themselves to face an inevitable ecological crash due to the exacerbation of environmental problems. Fourth, adaptations and adjustments must be made if environmental crises are to be averted. Fifth, the fact that environmental crises are contributing to a paradigm shift in society must be recognized. Sixth, environmental reform will be catalyzed by paradigm shifts among social scientists (Catton & Dunlap 1978).

Frederick Buttel critiqued Dunlap and Catton’s work by arguing that environmental sociology did, in fact, have classical sociological foundations. These could be found in Weber’s work on ancient agrarian civilizations and also in Durkheim’s view that the division of labor was built on the material premise of specialization in response to environmental scarcity.

Political Economy

Within the field on environmental sociology, political economy perspectives are concerned with the ill effects of capitalism and modernity on socio-ecological well-being. A Marxist viewpoint is displayed since political economy perspectives reveal the fact that when the means of production favor the bourgeoisie, they produce greater ecological damage. There are two competing theoretical perspectives within this tradition: ecological modernization and the treadmill of production (Pellow & Brehm 2013).

The ecological modernization theory proposes that while forces of modernization and globalization result in environmental degradation, they also contribute towards improving environmental quality through state policies and corporate practices. The argument suggests that in order for societies to achieve ecological sustainability, modernization, including new technologies and innovative entrepreneurs must continue (Pellow & Brehm 2013).

On the other hand, the theory of treadmill production proposes that both modern capitalism and the modern state promote economic growth and private capital accumulation and that this process is self-reproducing and hence similar to the character of a treadmill (Schnaiberg 1980). According to this mode, the capitalist state uses accumulated funds to address social upheavals such as falling wages and environmental harm. This logic dictates that investments in economic growth would further finance solutions to the ecological crises caused by them (Pellow & Brehm 2013).

Who are Environmental Sociologists?

An environmental sociologist is a researcher who studies issues such as environmentalism, the relationships between population, health, and the environment, and environmental inequality. Sociologists use research methods like surveys and interviews to collect data about environmental attitudes and behaviours. Alternatively, they may also collate data through observation and reviewing pre-existing documents (“Environmental Sociologist” n.d.).

Environmental sociologists are frequently seen collaborating with climate scientists, economists, anthropologists, geographers, urban planners and legal scholars in an effort to produce defensible accounts of socio-ecological reality (Pellow & Brehm 2013).

Also Read: Gendering Climate Change

Key Figures In Environmental Sociology

There have been many contributors to the field of environmental sociology since the discipline emerged. A few notable environmental sociologists include:

Professor Kari Marie Norgaard is currently an associate professor of Sociology and Environmental Studies at the Univeristy of Oregon. Over the last fifteen years, she has taught in the fields of environmental sociology and climate change. Dr. Norgaard is a previous chair of the Environmental Sociology Section at the American Sociological Association. She has also authored the novel, ‘Living in Denial: Climate Change, Emotions and Everyday Life’ (“Kari Marie Norgaard” 2019).

Professor John Bellamy Foster is another sociology faculty at the University of Oregon. His teaching areas include environmental sociology, Marxism and political economy. He has made many contributions to the field of environmental sociology through publications in the American Journal of Sociology such as, ‘Marx’s Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology’ (“John Bellamy Foster” 2020).

The late Dr. William Freudenburg held many prestigious positions at the American Sociological Association and the Rural Sociological Society. He taught at multiple universities in the United States of America, an example being University of California, Santa Barbara where he was an Environmental Studies faculty and specialized in environmental sociology. He published many articles on the contributions of Riley Dunlap and William Catton to environmental sociology (“William R. Freudenburg” 2020).

Environmental sociology is known as comprising of four major areas of research.

First, environmental sociologists study the societal causes of environmental problems. Scholars have developed many theoretical frameworks to describe how social factors like demographical, political, cultural and economic factors generate environmental problems. Many empirical studies have also been conducted to support the hypotheses derived from such theoretical frameworks (Knight 2018).

Second, environmental sociology is concerned with the natural environment’s impact on society. Early sociologists emphasized that the field required the study of how environment shapes society in addition to how society impacts its environment. This area includes investigation of the consequences of natural disasters especially in terms of environmental justice (Knight 2018).

Third, environmental sociology examines the response of society to environmental issues. Researchers focus on identifying patterns and trends in environmental attitudes such as varied attitudes towards global climate change (Knight 2018).

Fourth , environmental sociologists are especially concerned with learning social processes that could help advance environmental sustainability. Scholarly activity in this area revolves around finding solutions to environmental crises and assessing theories of environmental reform (Knight 2018).

Contemporary Issues

The 21 st century brings with it a host of environmental issues. Global climate change is the most pressing issue faced by human society. Environmental sociologists research the anthropogenic factors of climate change such as political and economic causes. They also investigate sociological issues caused by climate change. For example, unusual weather events such as drought and floods are more likely to cause interpersonal violence and armed conflict. According to an Oxford University economist, African nations are 50% more likely to have a civil war in the year succeeding a drought (McLean 2016).

Another important issue related to climate change is that of energy. The consumption of fossil fuels is recognized as the central driver of climate change. Hence, environmental sociologists also study the relationship between energy and the environment. For example, nuclear power has been a major environmental controversy since the 1970s. It has led to many disasters that had drastic effects on human populations. The Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear plant explosions are crucial examples of the effect that anthropogenic disasters can have on societies (McLean 2016).

Lastly, there exists a strong relationship between inequality and the environment. Environmental inequality or environmental injustice refers to the fact that factors like income, race and gender make some populations more vulnerable to the outcomes of environmental problems than others. The American Sociological Association suggests that the emphasis of environmental sociology on environmental inequality reflects the emphasis of sociology as a discipline places on social inequality. There are many examples of environmental inequality. All over the world, developing countries are more likely to be affected by climate change than developed countries. Even within poor nations, people belonging to lower socioeconomic classes and women are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change (McLean 2016).

Also Read: Best Environmental Sociology books for Students

Glossary Of Terms

• Human Exemptionalism Paradigm (HEP) : The HEP was based on the assumption that modern society was not linked to the physical environment since human beings are uniquely superior to every other race. This paradigm dismissed environmental change as a topic worthy of sociological enquiry (Dunlap & Catton 1994). The HEP was the leading Western worldview from the industrial revolution till the 1950s (“Environmental Sociology” n.d.).
• New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) : The NEP arose in opposition to the HEP. The NEP called for a healthy balance between human activities and the needs of the ecosystems they exploited. The paradigm highlighted the biosphere’s fragility and reflected the perspective of multiple environmental movements in the United States in the 1970s (Pellow & Brehm 2013).
• Treadmill of Production : This conflict theory was developed by Allan Schnaiberg in 1980. It proposed that capitalism drives economic growth and that continued consumption is an imperative of the process. This theory contains a paradox; while economic growth is socially desired, it results in environmental degradation which in turn disrupts long term economic expansion (“Environmental Sociology” n.d.)

Catton, W.R., Jr. & Dunlap, R.E. (1978). Enviromental Sociology: A New Paradigm. The American Sociologist 13:41-49.

Decline and Revitalization of Enviromental Sociology. The American Sociologist,   25 (1), 5-30. Retrieved May 15, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/27698675

Dunlap, R., & Catton, W. (1979). Enviromental Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology,   5 , 243-273. Retrieved May 15, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/2945955

Dunlap, R., & Catton, W. (1994). Struggling with Human Exemptionalism: The Rise,

Envirnmental Sociology. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://environment-ecology.com/environment-writings/114-environmental-sociology.html#Human_Exemptionalism_Paradigm_.28HEP.29

John Bellamy Foster. (2020). Retrieved from https://sociology.uoregon.edu/profile/jfoster/

Kari Marie Norgaard. (2019). Retrieved from https://pages.uoregon.edu/norgaard/index.html

Knight, K.W. (2018). Envirnmental Sociology. Oxford Bibliographies. 10.1093/OBO/9780199363445-0100

McLean, T. (2016). The Environment. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-socialproblems/

Pellow, D., & Brehm, H. (2013). An Environmental Sociology for the Twenty-First Century.  Annual Review of Sociology,   39 , 229-250. Retrieved May 14, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/43049634

Schnaiberg, A. (1980). The Environment: From Surplus to Scarcity. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

What is an Environmental Sociologist? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.environmentalscience.org/career/environmental-sociologist

William R. Freudenburg. (2020). Retrieved from https://www.es.ucsb.edu/william-r-freudenburg

Arushi is a sociology and environmental studies. She is passionate about writing and researching about these two fields. She has a keen interest in social work and has collaborated with many volunteering programs in the past. Her hobbies include horse riding, trekking and painting.

The Development of Sociology as a Discipline

Throughout history, sociological theory arose out of attempts to make sense of times of dramatic social change.

Discuss the development of Sociology as a discipline in the 19th century in light of the above statement.

Sociology is the study of the lives of humans, groups and societies and how we interact. Dramatic social times occurred because of the massive changes in society that took place leading up to the modern world. The development of sociology as a discipline emerged in the 19th century in response to modernity. Problems that arose from modernity include industrialisation, urbanisation, rationalisation and bureaucratisation (Montagna, 2010). The difference between traditional and modern led to the term modernity and the modern world of the 19th century was shaped by the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution brought about massive changes in areas such as culture, industry, politics, technology, science and communication (Marshall, 1998). A new world had formed and theorists needed to understand and explain how the effects of these changes impacted on society. The Industrial Revolution saw aristocratic and religious societies change to liberal and more science based societies (Marshall, 1998). The Industrial Revolution created dramatic changes in every part of social life. Machines were created which overtook manual labour. Factories and industrial towns were built and people left rural areas and their way of life to go to the cities for work. Canals and roads were built which made transportation easier and increased production of goods (The Industrial Economy, 2010). Capitalism grew with technological change as factory owners who controlled the means of production became wealthy. Changes in the political structure occurred due to the capitalists replacing agrarian land owners as leaders of the nations economy and power structure (The Industrial Economy, 2010). Technological advances were seen with the invention of electricity, which improved the production in factories and made life easier, and the railways and steam ships, which helped improve travel . All these changes would have been overwhelming as people went from their old world of working the land and having satisfaction for the work they did to the new world of mass populated, industrial areas where they sold their labour.

In the wake of industrialisation, some sociologists that argued for a system of understanding sociological change were; Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber. All had different theories but all contributed significantly to sociology as a discipline.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution refers to the rapid changes in areas such as culture, industry, politics, technology, science and communication which took place in the latter half of the eighteenth century to the first half of the nineteenth century (Marshall, 1998). It defines the transformation from a predominantly rural and agrarian society to an increasingly urban one based on manufacturing and industries.

With the rise of factories and industrial areas, people were forced out of their rural surroundings and into factories to work for small wages just to survive. These people who came to the rapidly expanding urban areas provided much of the labour-force for the new manufacturing industries, and formed the basis of a new industrial working class. Women and children were also forced to work long hours, under harsh conditions and for small wages. There were little or no upon factory policies which allowed the wealthy, to pursue whatever path was most profitable, regardless of the safety and wellbeing of their workers (The Industrial Economy, 2010). Birth rates went up during this period and it was quite common for women to have several children. This increased the burden of providing for the family and the mothers were often forced back to work after giving birth. Population increases, due to urbanisation, resulted in overcrowding which led to poor health, disease and a low standard of living. People had many things to adjust to not just a new way of living but also new technologies and innovations. These new innovations saw the decline of tradespeople as machines could produce goods at a much faster rate (The Industrial Economy, 2010).

Agriculture improved with , which increased production and growth for the farmers. This resulted in rising demand for goods, which stimulated urban industry and distribution. Large investments of capital, particularly in textiles, coal mining, and metal industries, enabled the growth of powerful manufacturing industries which in turn relied on, and were strengthened by, internal markets and overseas exports (Montagna, 2010).

There was also a boom in transportation. Roads were built, canals were constructed and there was the development of the railway system. These transport systems radically improved the ease and speed with which goods could be transported. Transportation became very important for the distribution of raw materials and industrial products. Technological inventions, including steam power, were crucial to the operation of trains, ships, and the larger factories (The Industrial Economy, 2010).

These radical changes were revolutionary because of the speed at which many of them occurred. The desire to understand and analyse such a catalyst for early sociologists to develop theories relating to the division of labour, capitalism, and bureaucracy and their effects on social change in society (Marshall, 1998).

Classical sociologists

Classical sociologists who helped develop sociology as a discipline were Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber. They all witnessed the transforming effects of the revolution and they offered lasting conceptual framework for analysing the ongoing upheavals.

Auguste Comte

Auguste Comte is known as the founder of sociology. His work consisted of studies and the analysis of social order and structure. Comte was interested in social order so he set out to understand what creates it and what causes it to change. He identified three stages of human society: theological (various phenomena explained in religious terms), metaphysical (explanations were philosophical) and positivism (phenomena explained in terms of the scientific approach to the social world) (Ritzer, 2011). Comte also termed the word positivism, which is the idea that the scientific method should be implemented to the social world when conducting sociological studies (Ritzer, 2011). the usage of the scientific method when studying society and he believed that sociological studies should lead to social reform.

Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer believed that no one should guide social reform. He believed that society should simply evolve from lower or barbarian forms to a higher and civilized form. As society evolves in this fashion, the most capable individuals rise to the top and the least capable die out. Spencer termed this idea survival of the fittest, and his theories on social order became known as social Darwinism (Gates, 2010).

Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim developed sociology as an independent discipline and science. Durkheim developed the concept of functionalism which maintains cultural and social unity through interactions (Ferrante, 2007). His most famous work is The Division of Labour in Society, which described how social order was to be maintained in a society by economic regulation. Durkheim held the belief that sociology was the study of social facts. He felt that peoples ideas, feelings and behaviours occurred outside the consciousness of the individual. This belief led Durkheim to create a social fact which refers to the ties that bind people together this is known as solidarity. He noticed the ties that bound people changed significantly with the increase of industrialisation. He believed the mechanism that shaped solidarity need to be analysed and explained. In his writings he is preoccupied with the ties that bind and it is shown in his popular writing Suicide.

In Suicide, Durkheim believed it was not feasible to study the immediate circumstances in to why people kill themselves because any personal circumstance can serve as a pretext for suicide (Ferrante, 2007). Durkheim believed it was the ties that bind, or fail to bind, people to others in society that lead people to kill themselves and by committing this act they are severing relationship. Durkheim introduced four types of social ties: egoistic, altruistic, anomic and fatalistic (Ferrante, 2007). Egoistic suicide occurs when the ties that bind the person to society are weak. Altruistic suicide occurs when the persons ties are so strong that they have no life apart from the group. Anomic suicide occurs when the social ties are disrupted caused by a dramatic change in economic circumstances. Fatalistic suicide occurs when the ties to the group are so oppressive that there is no chance of escape (Ferrant, 2007).

Karl Marx was a German philosopher, political theorist, sociologist and a revolutionist. Marx thought that social change was driven by conflict and that it shaped the means of production (lands, tools, equipment, factories, transportation and labour) (Ritzer, 2011). He believed this system created a confrontation between an exploiting class and an exploited class. The Industrial Revolution created this divide of classes known as the bourgeoisie (they own the means of production) and the proletariat (who sell their labour to the bourgeoisie) (Ferrante, 2007). Marx devoted his life to understanding the causes and consequences of this inequality which he connected to a fatal flaw in in the organisation of production (Ferrante, 2007).

The technological changes that occurred as a result of the Industrial Revolution, Marx believed, increased goods and services and created a hunger for more profit. He believed capitalism ignored human needs and forced people to sell their labour to make products that they themselves could not afford to buy (Ritzer, 2011). Marx believed that if the economic system was governed by people who had societys best interest at heart instead of the people who had were motivated by profit, that there would be more public wealth and it could be distributed amongst society according to need (Ferrante, 2007). Marxs solution was to create a revolution where capitalism would be destroyed and replaced with communism.

Max Weber was a German sociologist and political economist, who influenced the discipline of sociology. He had influences in areas not only in sociology but also in history, philosophy, anthropology, economics and political science (Ferrant, 2007). In Webers work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism he writes that the Protestant (particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced people to work in the secular world (Ritzer, 2011).They developed their own businesses, engaged in trade and accumulated wealth for investment purposes. This was what Weber believed led to capitalism. His belief on idealism led him to develop an interest in power and authority especially in bureaucracy and rationalisation (Ferrant, 2007).

Weber became concerned with social actions and the subjective meaning that humans attach to their actions within certain social contexts. Weber thought there were four types of social action: traditional, affectional, value-rational and instrumental (Ferrant, 2007). Weber was most concerned with the value-rational type as he thought it could lead to disenchantment. Weber thought (Jacoby, 1976) disenchantment occurred when scientific understanding became more valued than belief and where processes are oriented toward rational goals.

Weber also thought (Jacoby, 1976) that bureaucracy was the problem of the industrial society as he seen it shift from a value-oriented organization and action to a goal-oriented organization and action. Weber believed under the control of rationalisation and bureaucratisation that society would be trapped in an iron cage under strict rules from which there would be no escape (Jacoby, 1976).

Sociology as a discipline was born out of the attempt to understand the transformations that seemed to threaten the stability of society. Social thinkers argued that there was an urgent need to establish a separate science of society. They believed that such a science would be of great help in understanding the nature of society. The amount of changes that occurred during the Industrial Revolution heavily impacted on society and it was necessary to gain an understanding of these changes and how they were influencing society. People were faced with a new world and it had created disorder, misery, poverty, disease, unemployment and conflicts (Marshall, 1998). People felt despair, lacked traditional beliefs, lacked confidence and felt inferior.

Theories were developed to try and gain an insight into society and improve social life. The classical theorists Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber were seeking to explain the radical changes that occurred due to modernity and create social ideas to improve society.

Marshall G, (1998). A Dictionary of Sociology

Montagna J A (2010). The Industrial Revolution

Gates G (2010). Overview of Sociology

Ferrante J, (2007) Sociology: A Global Perspective

The Industrial Economy (2010) Available: http://www.ehs.org.uk/industrialrevolution/PH_indexb.htm (accessed 9/10/10)

Jacoby H (1976). The Bureaucratization of the World

Ritzer G (2011) Sociological Theory

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