essay on national educational policy

Essay on New Education Policy 2020

500+ words essay on new education policy 2020.

Education is a fundamental need and right of everyone now. In order to achieve our goals and help develop a just society, we need education. Similarly, education plays a great role in the national development of a nation. As we are facing a major change in terms of knowledge globally, the Government of India approved the National Education Policy 2020. This essay on new education policy 2020 will help you learn how this new policy has replaced the National Education Policy 1986 that is 34 years old.

Aim of the New Education Policy 2020

This new policy has the aim of universalizing education from pre-school to secondary level. It plans to do that with a 100% GRE (Gross Enrollment Ratio) in schooling. The plan is to achieve it by 2030.

This essay on new education policy 2020 will highlight the changes brought in by this new policy. Firstly, the policy proposes to open Indian higher education in foreign universities.

It aims to introduce a four-year multidisciplinary undergraduate program with various exit options. Thus, this new policy will strive to make the country of India a global knowledge superpower.

Similarly, it also aims to make all universities and colleges multi-disciplinary by the year 2040. Finally, the policy aims to grow employment in India and also bring fundamental changes to the present educational system.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of New Education Policy 2020

The policy gives an advantage to students of classes 10 and 12 by making the board exams easier. In other words, it plans to test the core competencies instead of mere memorization of facts.

It will allow all the students to take the exam twice. Further, it proposes that an independent authority will be responsible for regulating both public and private schools . Similarly, the policy aims to diminish any severe separation between the educational streams and vocational streams in the schools.

There will also be no rigid division between extra-curriculum. Vocational education will begin at class sixth with an internship. Now, the essay on new education policy 2020 will tell you about the disadvantages of the policy.

Firstly, it can make the education system expensive. Meaning to say, admission to foreign universities will probably result in this. Further, it will create a lack of human resources.

If we look at the present elementary education, we notice that there is a lack of skilled teachers. Thus, keeping this in mind, the National Education Policy 2020 can give rise to practical problems in implementing the system that is for elementary education.

Finally, there is also the drawback of the exodus of teachers. In other words, admission to foreign universities will ultimately result in our skilled teachers migrating to those universities.

To conclude the essay on New Education Policy 2020, we can say that this policy is an essential initiative to help in the all-around development of our society and country as a whole. However, the implementation of this policy will greatly determine its success. Nonetheless, with a youth dominant population, India can truly achieve a better state with the proper implementation of this education policy.

FAQ of Essay on New Education Policy 2020

Question 1: What does the New Education Policy 2020 aim to achieve by 2030?

Answer 1: This new policy has the aim of universalizing education from pre-school to secondary level. It plans to do that with a 100% GRE (Gross Enrollment Ratio) in schooling. The plan is to achieve it by 2030.

Question 2: Give two challenges the New Education Policy 2020 may face?

Answer 2: Firstly, it can make the education system expensive. Meaning to say, admission to foreign universities will probably result in this. Further, it will create a lack of human resources.

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Essay on New Education Policy (NEP)

Education helps us discover and accomplish our aims and make a fair contribution to the society. In a similar vein, education contributes significantly to a country's national growth. The National Education Policy 2020 was authorised by the Government of India since there is a significant change taking place in the world. Here are some sample essays on New Education Policy 2023.

100 Words Essay on New Education Policy

200 words essay on new education policy, 500 words essay on new education policy 2023.

The goal of the New Education Policy is to make education available to everyone from preschool through high school. With a 100% GRE (Gross Enrollment Ratio) in academics, it intends to achieve that. It is intended to be accomplished by 2030. A four-year, interdisciplinary undergraduate curriculum with a range of exit choices is what it intends to introduce. As a result, this new strategy aims to transform India into a superpower in the field of knowledge.

In similar terms, it seeks to make all colleges and universities multidisciplinary by the year 2040. The initiative also intends to fundamentally alter the current educational system while increasing the availability of jobs in India.

The New National Education Policy has had a really revolutionary impact on the Indian educational system. After 34 years of our education policy following the same standards without change, the Ministry of Education (formerly known as MHRD) made some significant changes to it on July 29, 2020. The Indian government just adopted this New National Education Policy for 2023.

How It Will Affect Learning Outcomes

It's no secret that the new education policy is going to affect students in a big way. But what exactly does that mean for them?

Well, for one, the new policy is going to impact learning outcomes. Students will no longer be able to coast through school by memorising facts and figures. Instead, they'll be required to apply what they learn in a hands-on way, in order to demonstrate their understanding of the material. This is a big change, and it'll take some time for students and educators to adjust. But in the long run, it's going to result in better-educated students who are prepared for the challenges of the real world.

The new education policy also includes a number of changes that will impact educators directly. For example, the policy stipulates that all educators must have a bachelor's degree in order to teach in public schools. Additionally, educators will be required to complete professional development courses on a regular basis.

When the new education policy is implemented, there will be some big changes for the teaching community.

Change for Teachers and Educators

First and foremost, the policy shifts the focus from teacher-centred instruction to student-centred instruction. This means that the teacher's role will change from delivering information to facilitating learning.

In order to facilitate learning, teachers will need to develop new skills. They will need to be able to create a safe and welcoming environment where all students feel comfortable participating, and they will need to be able to adapt their lessons to meet the needs of each individual student.

Benefits for Students Under New National Education Policy 2023

The new education policy is, in essence, a shift from memorization to learning. The main focus of the policy is to provide a holistic education that focuses on the development of the student's mind and body. Here are some of the ways this could benefit students:

More opportunity for students to pursue their interests outside of school - whether that be an extracurricular activity such as art or music, or receiving extra tutoring to help them excel in academics. A wider range of learning options that can provide students with tailored instruction and help them develop their individual skills.

More emphasis placed on experiential learning, where students are encouraged to apply what they've learned in school through projects and real-world activities. Increased access to technology including an increased use of digital classrooms and online resources such as eBooks, which can make studying more efficient and convenient.

These changes will make the education system more dynamic and create an environment where students can better prepare themselves for their future endeavours.

What Parents Need to Know About the New Education Policy

The new education policy is going to bring about a lot of change, and it's important for parents to be aware of how it will affect their children. First and foremost, the new policy puts more emphasis on technology and digital learning resources, so it's important for parents to ensure that their children have access to a reliable internet connection. Parents should also look into resources like online tutoring or additional support services that may be available to help their child stay on top of their studies.

It's also important for parents to be mindful of the potential stress and anxiety that students may experience while adjusting to the new system. Parents should make sure they provide emotional and moral support as needed, check in with their kids regularly, and encourage them to take breaks when needed

Finally, it's important for parents to educate themselves on the new policy so they can better understand what changes are taking place and how they can best support their children through the transition period. Changes in education policy can be difficult to navigate and often cause a lot of uncertainty. However, with the right preparation and support, you can make the most of the new policy and continue to achieve your academic goals.

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National Education Policy 2020: Key Highlights

Last updated on February 11, 2024 by Alex Andrews George

The National Education Policy 2020 aims to bring transformational reforms in school and higher education and thus shape India into a global knowledge superpower.

The Union Cabinet chaired by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi approved the National Education Policy 2020 on July 29, 2020. This policy replaced the 34-year-old National Policy on Education (NPE), in 1986.

Built on the foundational pillars of Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability, and Accountability, this policy is aligned with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The National Education Policy (NEP) aims to transform India into a vibrant knowledge society and global knowledge superpower by making both school and college education more holistic, flexible, and multidisciplinary, suited to 21st-century needs, and aimed at bringing out the unique capabilities of each student.

Table of Contents

Important Highlights of National Education Policy 2020

New Policy aims for Universalization of Education from preschool to secondary level with 100 % GER in school education by 2030.
NEP 2020 will bring 2 crore out-of-school children back into the mainstream.
New 5+3+3+4 school curriculum with 12 years of schooling and 3 years of Anganwadi/ Pre-schooling.
Emphasis on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy, no rigid separation between academic streams, extracurricular, and vocational streams in schools; Vocational Education to start from Class 6 with Internships.
Teaching up to at least Grade 5 to be in mother tongue/ regional language.
Assessment reforms with a 360-degree Holistic Progress Card, tracking Student Progress for achieving Learning Outcomes.
GER in higher education to be raised to 50 % by 2035; 3.5 crore seats to be added in higher education.
Higher Education curriculum to have Flexibility of Subjects.
Multiple Entries / Exit to be allowed with appropriate certification.
Academic Bank of Credits to be established to facilitate the Transfer of Credits.
National Research Foundation to be established to foster a strong research culture.
Light but Tight Regulation of Higher Education, single regulator with four separate verticals for different functions.
Affiliation System to be phased out in 15 years with graded autonomy to colleges.
NEP 2020 advocates increased use of technology with equity; National Educational Technology Forum to be created.
NEP 2020 emphasizes setting up of Gender Inclusion Fund and Special Education Zones for disadvantaged regions and groups.
New Policy promotes Multilingualism in both schools and HEs; the National Institute for Pali, Persian, and Prakrit, Indian Institute of Translation and Interpretation to be set up.

National Education Policy 2020: School Education

With respect to school education, universal access is the key vision. Also, major reforms are brought in curriculum and pedagogy.

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Ensuring Universal Access at all levels of school education

NEP 2020 emphasizes on ensuring universal access to school education at all levels- preschool to secondary.

Infrastructure support, innovative education centers to bring back dropouts into the mainstream, tracking of students and their learning levels, facilitating multiple pathways to learning involving both formal and non-formal education modes, an association of counselors or well-trained social workers with schools, open learning for classes 3,5 and 8 through NIOS and State Open Schools, secondary education programs equivalent to Grades 10 and 12, vocational courses, adult literacy, and life-enrichment programs are some of the proposed ways for achieving this.

About 2 crore out-of-school children will be brought back into the mainstream under NEP 2020.

Early Childhood Care & Education with New Curricular and Pedagogical Structure

With an emphasis on Early Childhood Care and Education, the 10+2 structure of school curricula is to be replaced by a 5+3+3+4 curricular structure corresponding to ages 3-8, 8-11, 11-14, and 14-18 years respectively. This will bring the hitherto uncovered age group of 3-6 years under the school curriculum, which has been recognized globally as the crucial stage for the development of the mental faculties of a child. The new system will have 12 years of schooling with three years of Anganwadi/ pre-schooling.

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NCERT will develop a National Curricular and Pedagogical Framework for Early Childhood Care and Education (NCPFECCE) for children up to the age of 8. ECCE will be delivered through a significantly expanded and strengthened system of institutions including Anganwadis and pre-schools that will have teachers and Anganwadi workers trained in the ECCE pedagogy and curriculum. The planning and implementation of ECCE will be carried out jointly by the Ministries of HRD, Women and Child Development (WCD), Health and Family Welfare (HFW), and Tribal Affairs.

Attaining Foundational Literacy and Numeracy

Recognizing Foundational Literacy and Numeracy as an urgent and necessary prerequisite to learning, NEP 2020 calls for the setting up of a National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy by MHRD.

States will prepare an implementation plan for attaining universal foundational literacy and numeracy in all primary schools for all learners by grade 3 by 2025. A National Book Promotion Policy is to be formulated.

Reforms in school curricula and pedagogy

The school curricula and pedagogy will aim for the holistic development of learners by equipping them with key 21st-century skills, reduction in curricular content to enhance essential learning and critical thinking, and a greater focus on experiential learning.

Students will have increased flexibility and choice of subjects. There will be no rigid separations between arts and sciences, between curricular and extra-curricular activities, and between vocational and academic streams.

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Vocational education will start in schools from the 6th grade and will include internships.

A new and comprehensive National Curricular Framework for School Education, NCFSE 2020-21, will be developed by the NCERT.

Multilingualism and the power of language

The policy has emphasized mother tongue /local language/regional language as the medium of instruction at least till Grade 5, but preferably till Grade 8 and beyond. Sanskrit to be offered at all levels of school and higher education as an option for students, including in the three-language formula. Other classical languages and literature of India also to be available as options. No language will be imposed on any student.

Students to participate in a fun project/activity on ‘The Languages of India’, sometime in Grades 6-8, such as, under the ‘Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat’ initiative. Several foreign languages will also be offered at the secondary level. Indian Sign Language (ISL) will be standardized across the country, and National and State curriculum materials developed, for use by students with hearing impairment.

Assessment Reforms

NEP 2020 envisages a shift from summative assessment to regular and formative assessment, which is more competency-based, promotes learning and development, and tests higher-order skills, such as analysis, critical thinking, and conceptual clarity. All students will take school examinations in Grades 3, 5, and 8 which will be conducted by the appropriate authority.

Board exams for Grades 10 and 12 will be continued, but redesigned with holistic development as the aim. A new National Assessment Centre, PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development), will be set up as a standard-setting body.

Equitable and Inclusive Education

NEP 2020 aims to ensure that no child loses any opportunity to learn and excel because of the circumstances of birth or background. Special emphasis will be given to Socially and Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SDGs), including gender, sociocultural, and geographical identities and disabilities. This includes setting up of Gender Inclusion Fund and also Special Education Zones for disadvantaged regions and groups.

Children with disabilities will be enabled to fully participate in the regular schooling process from the foundational stage to higher education, with the support of educators with cross-disability training, resource centers, accommodations, assistive devices, appropriate technology-based tools, and other support mechanisms tailored to suit their needs.

Every state/district will be encouraged to establish “Bal Bhavans” as a special daytime boarding school, to participate in art-related, career-related, and play-related activities. Free school infrastructure can be used as Samajik Chetna Kendras

Also read: Education in India – A Detailed Analysis

Robust Teacher Recruitment and Career Path

Teachers will be recruited through robust, transparent processes. Promotions will be merit-based, with a mechanism for multi-source periodic performance appraisals and available progression paths to becoming educational administrators or teacher educators. A common National Professional Standard for Teachers (NPST) will be developed by the National Council for Teacher Education by 2022, in consultation with NCERT , SCERTs, teachers, and expert organizations from across levels and regions.

School Governance

Schools can be organized into complexes or clusters which will be the basic unit of governance and ensure the availability of all resources including infrastructure, academic libraries, and a strong professional teacher community.

Standard-setting and Accreditation for School Education

NEP 2020 envisages clear, separate systems for policymaking, regulation, operations, and academic matters. States/UTs will set up an independent State School Standards Authority (SSSA). Transparent public self-disclosure of all the basic regulatory information, as laid down by the SSSA, will be used extensively for public oversight and accountability. The SCERT will develop a School Quality Assessment and Accreditation Framework (SQAAF) through consultations with all stakeholders.

National Education Policy: Higher Education

The New Education Policy has a great vision for the Higher Education sector as well.

Increase GER to 50 % by 2035

NEP 2020 aims to increase the Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education including vocational education from 26.3% (2018) to 50% by 2035. 3.5 Crore new seats will be added to Higher education institutions.

Holistic Multidisciplinary Education

The policy envisages broad-based, multi-disciplinary, holistic Undergraduate education with flexible curricula, creative combinations of subjects, integration of vocational education, and multiple entries and exit points with appropriate certification. UG education can be of 3 or 4 years with multiple exit options and appropriate certification within this period. For example, a Certificate after 1 year, Advanced Diploma after 2 years, a Bachelor’s Degree after 3 years, and a Bachelor’s with Research after 4 years.

An Academic Bank of Credit is to be established for digitally storing academic credits earned from different HEIs so that these can be transferred and counted towards the final degree made.

Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (MERUs), at par with IITs, and IIMs, to be set up as models of the best multidisciplinary education of global standards in the country.

The National Research Foundation will be created as an apex body for fostering a strong research culture and building research capacity across higher education.

The Higher Education Commission of India(HECI) will be set up as a single overarching umbrella body for the entire higher education, excluding medical and legal education . HECI to have four independent verticals – the National Higher Education Regulatory Council (NHERC) for regulation, the General Education Council (GEC ) for standard-setting, the Higher Education Grants Council (HEGC) for funding, and the National Accreditation Council( NAC) for accreditation.

HECI will function through faceless intervention through technology, & will have powers to penalize HEIs not conforming to norms and standards. Public and private higher education institutions will be governed by the same set of norms for regulation, accreditation, and academic standards.

Rationalized Institutional Architecture

Higher education institutions will be transformed into large, well-resourced, vibrant multidisciplinary institutions providing high-quality teaching, research, and community engagement. The definition of the university will allow a spectrum of institutions that range from research-intensive Universities to Teaching-intensive Universities and Autonomous degree-granting Colleges.

Affiliation of colleges is to be phased out in 15 years and a stage-wise mechanism is to be established for granting graded autonomy to colleges. Over a period of time, it is envisaged that every college would develop into either an Autonomous degree-granting College or a constituent college of a university.

Motivated, Energized, and Capable Faculty

NEP makes recommendations for motivating, energizing, and building the capacity of faculty through clearly defined, independent, transparent recruitment, freedom to design curricula/pedagogy, incentivizing excellence, and movement into institutional leadership. Faculty not delivering on basic norms will be held accountable

Teacher Education

A new and comprehensive National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education, NCFTE 2021, will be formulated by the NCTE in consultation with NCERT. By 2030, the minimum degree qualification for teaching will be a 4-year integrated B.Ed. degree. Stringent action will be taken against substandard stand-alone Teacher Education Institutions (TEIs).

Mentoring Mission

A National Mission for Mentoring will be established, with a large pool of outstanding senior/retired faculty – including those with the ability to teach in Indian languages – who would be willing to provide short and long-term mentoring/professional support to university/college teachers.

Financial support for students

Efforts will be made to incentivize the merit of students belonging to SC, ST, OBC, and other SEDGs. The National Scholarship Portal will be expanded to support, foster, and track the progress of students receiving scholarships. Private HEIs will be encouraged to offer larger numbers of free ships and scholarships to their students.

Open and Distance Learning

This will be expanded to play a significant role in increasing GER. Measures such as online courses and digital repositories, funding for research, improved student services, credit-based recognition of MOOCs, etc., will be taken to ensure it is at par with the highest quality in-class programs.

Online Education and Digital Education:

A comprehensive set of recommendations for promoting online education consequent to the recent rise in epidemics and pandemics in order to ensure preparedness with alternative modes of quality education whenever and wherever traditional and in-person modes of education are not possible has been covered.

A dedicated unit for the purpose of orchestrating the building of digital infrastructure, digital content, and capacity building will be created in the MHRD to look after the e-education needs of both school and higher education.

Technology in education

An autonomous body, the National Educational Technology Forum (NETF), will be created to provide a platform for the free exchange of ideas on the use of technology to enhance learning, assessment, planning, and administration. Appropriate integration of technology into all levels of education will be done to improve classroom processes, support teacher professional development, enhance educational access for disadvantaged groups, and streamline educational planning, administration, and management

Promotion of Indian languages

To ensure the preservation, growth, and vibrancy of all Indian languages, NEP recommends setting up an Indian Institute of Translation and Interpretation (IITI), National Institute (or Institutes) for Pali, Persian, and Prakrit, strengthening Sanskrit and all language departments in HEIs, and use mother tongue/local language as a medium of instruction in more HEI programs.

Internationalization of education will be facilitated through both institutional collaborations and student and faculty mobility allowing entry of top world-ranked Universities to open campuses in our country.

Professional Education

All professional education will be an integral part of the higher education system. Stand-alone technical universities, health science universities, legal and agricultural universities, etc. will aim to become multi-disciplinary institutions.

Adult Education

The policy aims to achieve 100% youth and adult literacy.

Financing Education

The Centre and the States will work together to increase public investment in the Education sector to reach 6% of GDP at the earliest.

NEP: Consultation Process

NEP 2020 has been formulated after an unprecedented process of consultation that involved nearly over 2 lakh suggestions from 2.5 lakh Gram Panchayats, 6600 Blocks, 6000 ULBs, and 676 Districts.

The MHRD initiated an unprecedented collaborative, inclusive, and highly participatory consultation process in January 2015. In May 2016, ‘The Committee for Evolution of the New Education Policy’ under the Chairmanship of Late Shri T.S.R. Subramanian, Former Cabinet Secretary, submitted its report.

Based on this, the Ministry prepared ‘Some Inputs for the Draft National Education Policy, 2016’. In June 2017 a ‘Committee for the Draft National Education Policy’ was constituted under the Chairmanship of eminent Scientist Padma Vibhushan, Dr. K. Kasturirangan, which submitted the Draft National Education Policy, 2019 to the Hon’ble Human Resource Development Minister on 31st May 2019.

The Draft National Education Policy 2019 was uploaded on MHRD’s website and at the ‘MyGov Innovate’ portal eliciting views/suggestions/comments from stakeholders, including the public.

In conclusion, the National Education Policy (NEP) is a crucial document that outlines the roadmap for the development of education in India. It is a significant step towards building a knowledge-based society that is equipped to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The NEP aims to transform the education system by providing equitable access to quality education, promoting innovation, and fostering holistic development.

The policy emphasizes the need for a learner-centered approach that focuses on critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving. It also seeks to promote interdisciplinary learning, multilingualism, and the integration of vocational education into the mainstream curriculum.

The NEP’s vision of a flexible and inclusive education system that enables lifelong learning is laudable. However, the success of the policy will depend on its effective implementation, which will require adequate funding, infrastructure, and skilled educators.

Overall, the NEP has the potential to revolutionize the education sector in India and make it more relevant and responsive to the needs of the changing world. It is a bold and visionary document that seeks to transform education from being a means of social mobility to a tool for building a better and more just society.

Also Read: Institutions of Eminence Scheme

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Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses Essay

Briefly discuss the term ‘educational policy’; identity and briefly explain five characteristics of a good educational policy within a given context. (5 marks)

The term ‘policy’ can be defined in multiple ways, but here, we will consider one of them. According to UNESCO (2013), educational policy is the set of key goals and priorities that the government intends to achieve or pursue education. It is apparent that this definition presupposes the creation of a plan to achieve the goal; also, the priorities can be viewed as the values to be maintained, and UNESCO (2013) states that policy is aimed at resolving an issue.

UNESCO (2013) considers the national policy, therefore, the national government is meant in their paper, but the international UNESCO educational policy can be described with the same words. Also, UNESCO (2013) defines the key characteristics of a ‘good’ policy, and they include being evidence-based (that is, based on research that is carried out before the decision-making), feasible politically (concerning the national and international realia) and financially (concerning naturally limited resources), agreed on by the relevant stakeholders (including politicians), and goal-appropriate (that is, capable of facilitating their achievement).

List six (6) main activities in policy development in education and discuss how two of these can be carried out in a given context. (5 marks)

The main activities of policy development can be illustrated by Fig. 1.

UNESCO (2013) states the need for the consideration of the context of the policy developed or implemented since the environment tends to have multiple impacts on it. For example, the process of evaluation can be carried out in numerous ways that may or may not be suitable for a particular context. A SWOT analysis can be used for the policy of an educational institution, especially if it competes with other ones, which is common for universities (Chang 2013, pp. 24-25). Also, SWOT can be used as a complementary tool for other instruments of analysis, including the problem analysis that will be employed if the policy-makers are resolving an issue (Chang 2013, pp. 23). To sum up, the evaluation stage can be carried out with the help of different tools that are defined by the context.

The planning stages are very context-dependent, and it is especially true for the evaluation of the options. The criteria of ‘good’ policy enumerate several context considerations. For example, a national education policy-makers need to consider the legislation of the country, its specific needs, resources, and culture. An option that is incompatible with Islam will never be accepted in the UAE. Similarly, the Middle East may still be somewhat behind the expectations concerning the equipment of institutions (including universities), which poses restrictions for current options evaluation and also can be regarded as another issue for the legislators to resolve.

Identify three (3) approaches to policy development and briefly explain how one of these can be (is) applied in educational policy development, highlighting the key strengths and weaknesses in each. (5 marks)

The models of policy development can be united into three sets that include stage, fluid, and mixed approaches. An example of the first approach is the linear model that describes the process as a set of stages that follow one another. They involve identifying the need for policy, defining and evaluating alternatives, determining and applying the policy, and (optional) deciding if the goal was achieved and if the policy was successful (Bell & Stevenson 2006, p. 16).

It is a valid problem-solving model that is legitimately popular, but it appears to be an ‘ideal’ version of policy-making while the process might be less linear. The models that took this aspect into account belong to the fluid approach (garbage can model and incrementalism). These models highlight the fact that it is typically complicated and intricate; incrementalism also insists that most policy changes are gradual (Bell & Stevenson 2006; Cohen, March, & Olsen 1972).

However, it is apparent that this approach is also devoted to an extreme; in this case, the sheer possibility of a simple aim and simple decision (as well as a radical one) is being rejected. The third approach attempts to mix the previous two, and does so by suggesting that there are micro- and macro-levels that correspond to linear and fluid decision-making. The third approach combines the advantages of the two other ones, which implies that it is the most comprehensive. However, in respective contexts, other approaches can be a more suitable suggestion.

Reference List

Bell, L & Stevenson, H 2006, Education Policy , Routledge, New York.

Chang, GC 2013, National Education Sector Development Plan: A result-based planning handbook , UNESCO, Paris.

Cohen, MJ, March, P, & Olsen, J 1972, ‘A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1-25.

UNESCO 2013, UNESCO Handbook on Education Policy Analysis and Programming , UNESCO Bangkok, Bangkok.

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IvyPanda. (2020, August 30). Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses. https://ivypanda.com/essays/educational-policy-its-strengths-and-weaknesses/

"Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses." IvyPanda , 30 Aug. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/educational-policy-its-strengths-and-weaknesses/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses'. 30 August.

IvyPanda . 2020. "Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses." August 30, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/educational-policy-its-strengths-and-weaknesses/.

1. IvyPanda . "Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses." August 30, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/educational-policy-its-strengths-and-weaknesses/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses." August 30, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/educational-policy-its-strengths-and-weaknesses/.

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National Policy Education

National Education Policy (NEP 2020)

The Union Cabinet approved the National Education Policy (NEP) in July 2020. This policy will usher in sweeping changes to the education policy of the country, including a renaming of the Ministry of Human Resource Development as the Education Ministry. This article on education in India is aligned with the UPSC Syllabus and is relevant for prelims and mains examination.

National Education Policy 2020 UPSC Notes Download PDF Here

Education and topics related to education in India are relevant for the IAS Exam and are often seen in the news and hence are important for the UPSC Mains. Aspirants can find notes for UPSC Mains General Studies topics from the links given at the end of the article.

Candidates must read about NIPUN Bharat Programme that has been launched as a part of New Education Policy 2020, in June 2021.

The Union Cabinet has approved the new National Education Policy 2020 with an aim to introduce several changes in the Indian education system – from the school to the college level.

Its aims at making “India a global knowledge superpower”.
The Cabinet has also approved the renaming of the Ministry of Human Resource Development to the Ministry of Education.
The New Education Policy cleared by the Cabinet is only the third major revamp of the framework of education in India since independence.
The two earlier education policies were brought in 1968 and 1986.

Aspirants should read about New Education Policy along with other education-related topics to holistically cover this article. Such similar articles are linked below:

In this article, you will get the following facts about the new National Education Policy 2020 for the UPSC exam:

What is the new National Education Policy 2020?

National Education Policy of India – Background:

The Ministry of Human Resource Development formed a Committee chaired by Dr K. Kasturirangan for preparing the National Education Policy. The Committee was constituted in June 2017. The Committee submitted its report on May 31, 2019.

The National Policy on Education covers elementary and university education in urban as well as rural India.

The very first policy for education was promulgated in 1968 with the second one following in 1986.
The first NPE was based on the recommendations of the Education Commission (1964-66). This policy sought to have a ‘radical restructuring’ of India’s educational system and equalizing opportunities for education for all, to accomplish national integration and better economic and cultural development.
The NPE also called for realizing compulsory education for every child until the age of fourteen, as mentioned in the Indian Constitution.
It also aimed at providing enhanced training and improving teachers’ qualifications.

Compare NEP 2020 with NEP 1991 in the linked article.

Some relevant points from the official NEP 2020 PDF that can be useful for the UPSC Mains Exam:

NEP 2020 is the 21st Century’s first education policy in India.
The development of the creative potential of each student is emphasized in the National Education Policy 2020.
The NEP 2020 mentioned the ancient scholars like Charaka and Susruta, Aryabhata, Bhaskaracharya, Chanakya, Madhava, Patanjali, Panini and Thiruvalluvar.
Flexibility
No hard separations between subjects, curricular and extra-curricular activities
Multi-disciplinary education
Conceptual understanding
Critical thinking
Ethical Values
Teachers as the heart of the learning process
The strong public education system

Also, read State of School Education in India .

Features of National Education Policy 2020

The National Education Policy as submitted by the Kasturirangan Committee submitted an education policy that seeks to address the following challenges facing the existing education system:

Affordability
Accountability
The policy provides for reforms at all levels of education from school to higher education.
NEP aims to increase the focus on strengthening teacher training, reforming the existing exam system, early childhood care and restructuring the regulatory framework of education.
Increasing public investment in education,
Setting up NEC (National Education Commission),
Increasing focus on vocational and adult education,
Strengthening the use of technology, etc.

Compare the features of the New Education Policy with National Agricultural Education Policy .

Key Recommendations of National Education Policy 2020

The National Education Policy 2020 has recommendations and reforms with respect to the following items:

You can read the complete set of recommendations of the NEP 2020 in CNA dated July 30, 2020 .

The above-mentioned recommendations are explained below.

Early Childhood Care and Education

The NEP recommended that early childhood care & education be developed in a two-part curriculum consisting of:

Guidelines for Parents & Teachers of students up to 3 years of age
An educational framework for students between the ages of 3-8 years

The NEP talks about the implementation of these recommendations by expanding and improving the quality of the Anganwadi system and co-locating them with primary schools.

Right to Education Act, 2009

The NEP recommended extending the range of the Right to Education Act ,2009 to include the following education levels:

Early Childhood &
Secondary School

This will allow coverage of RTE to all children between the ages of 3-18 years. In addition, it suggested the elimination of detention of children until class eight.

Curriculum Framework

Reforms in the framework of the current curriculum of school education are based on the development needs of the students. The NEP recommends the 5-3-3-4 pattern explained in the table below:

School Exam Reforms

Reforms in the school exam recommended by the NEP include tracking the progress of the students throughout their school experience.

It includes State Census Exams in class 3, 5 and 8.
Another important recommendation was the restructuring of the 10th board exam that would mainly focus and test only the skills, core concepts and higher-order thinking & capacities.

Regulatory Structure and Accreditation of Higher Educational Institutions

In terms of Accreditation and Regulatory structure, the NEP recommended the following changes:

Setting up NHERA (National Higher Education Regulatory Authority),
Separating NAAC from UGC into an autonomous and independent body.

Read more on the UGC in the linked article.

National Research Foundation

In order to improve the quality of research in India, the NEP recommended:

It would be an autonomous body that would administer the mentoring, funding and capacity building for quality research in India.

Education Governance

The NEP recommended establishing an apex body for education headed by the Prime Minister under the name Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog or National Education Commission .

It also suggested changing the name of the Ministry of Human Resources & Development to the Ministry of Education.

Financing Education

Doubling the public investment for education was one of the important recommendations of the NEP 2020.

NEP 2020 insisted on the expenditure of 6% of the GDP on education.
Doubling the current 10% of total public expenditure to 20% in the next decade was recommended.

National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology

The NEP suggested setting up an autonomous body that would facilitate decision making on the deployment, induction and use of technology. NEP said that this would be achieved by implementing the following measures:

The recommended autonomous body would be administered under this mission.
It will also include virtual laboratories in various disciplines providing remote access.

Vocational Courses

Recommendations of NEP 2020 with respect to Vocational courses can be listed as follows:

Students in classes 9 to 12 must receive vocational education on at least one vocation,
Schools should build expert curriculum delivery methods that are aligned with National Skills Qualifications Framework (NSQF) competency levels,
Higher Education Institutes must also provide vocational courses that are integrated into undergraduate education programmes.

Three Language Formula

The Policy recommended that the three-language formula be continued and flexibility in the implementation of the formula should be provided. The three-language formula states that state governments should adopt and implement the study of a modern Indian language, preferably one of the southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi-speaking states, and of Hindi along with the regional language and English in the non-Hindi speaking states.

National Education Policy 2020 Concerns

Some of the concerns expressed about the NEP 2020 are as follow:

The report fails to address and incorporate ideas based on contemporary global thinking like the emphasis on creativity and critical thinking and the need for learning in a non-competitive and non-hierarchical ecosystem and discovering one’s true passion without any sense of fear.
Delivering the changes proposed related to Anganwadis may be difficult despite the focus given to early childhood care and schooling.
The propositions of volunteer teachers, peer tutoring, rationalisation of the system of schools and sharing of resources do not seem like long-term solutions.
Lack of clarity in government strategies regarding the Public Sector like municipal schools, state-run institutions, Kendra Vidyalaya, etc.
The creation of a National Testing Agency (NTA) has generated scepticism. The NTA, though envisaged to serve as a premier, expert, autonomous testing organisation to conduct entrance examinations for admissions and fellowships in higher educational institutions may, in reality, lead to loss of autonomy among the universities and departments over admissions.

For a critical analysis of the National Education Policy 2020, check CNA dated July 31, 2020 editorials .

Merits of New Education Policy 2020

Comprehensive : NEP seeks to address the entire gamut of education from preschool to doctoral studies, and from professional degrees to vocational training.
Early Childhood Education : In adopting a 5+3+3+4 model for school education starting at age 3, the New education Policy recognizes the primacy of the formative years from ages 3 to 8 in shaping the child’s future
Easy on Regulations: NEP 2020 makes a bold prescription to free our schools, colleges and universities from periodic “inspections” and place them on the path of self-assessment and voluntary declaration
Holistic : The policy, inter alia, aims to eliminate problems of pedagogy, structural inequities, access asymmetries and rampant commercialization.
Promote Inclusion: The Policy proposes the creation of ‘inclusion funds’ to help socially and educationally disadvantaged children pursue education

To complement the GS 1 preparation, candidates can check the following links:

UPSC Questions related to National Education Policy 2020

Who is the chairman of the national education policy 2020.

K. Kasturirangan is the chairman of the National Education Policy 2020.

When was the National Policy on Education formulated?

There were National Education Policies in 1968, 1986, 1992 and the latest in 2020. The gist of New Education Policy discussion on RSTV-Big Picture episode can be checked at the linked article.

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New Education Policy

Topics Covered: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation.

New Education Policy:

First new education policy in 34 years has been brought out. The union Cabinet gave its nod to the new policy recently.

The aim of the N ational E ducation P olicy 2020 is to create an education system which is deeply rooted in Indian ethos and can rebuild India as a global knowledge superpower, by providing high-quality education to all.

Background :

A panel headed by former ISRO chief K. Kasturirangan submitted a draft in December 2018, which was made public and opened for feedback after the Lok Sabha election in May 2019.

Highlights of the policy:

Public spending on education by states, Centre to be raised to 6% of the GDP.
Ministry of H uman R esource D evelopment to be renamed M inister of E ducation.

Digital Education- related:

An autonomous body, the national educational technology forum, will be created for the exchange of ideas on use of technology to enhance learning, assessment, planning and administration.
Separate technology unit to develop digital education resources. The new unit will coordinate digital infrastructure, content and capacity building.

Teacher Education- related:

By 2030, the minimum degree qualification for teaching will be a four year integrated B . Ed.
Teachers will also be given training in online educational methods relevant to the Indian situation in order to help bridge the digital divide.

School Education- related:

Universalise the pre-primary education (age range of 3-6 years) by 2025.
Universalization of Education from pre-school to secondary level with 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in school education by 2030.
A new school curriculum with coding and vocational studies from class 6 will be introduced.
A child’s mother tongue will be used as the medium of instruction till class 5 .
A new curricular framework is to be introduced, including the preschool and Anganwadi years.
A N ational Mission on F oundational L iteracy and Numeracy will ensure basic skills at the class 3 level by 2025.
Board exams to be easier, redesigned. Exams will test core competencies rather than memorising facts, with all students allowed to take the exam twice .
School governance is set to change, with a new accreditation framework and an independent authority to regulate both public and private schools.

Higher Education- related:

Four year undergraduate degrees with multiple entry and exit options will be introduced.
The Phil degree will be abolished.
New umbrella regulator for all higher education except medical, legal courses.
An Academic B ank of C redit will be set up to make it easier to transfer between institutions.
College affiliation system to be phased out in 15 years, so that every college develops into either an autonomous degree-granting institution, or a constituent college of a university.
It also aims to double the Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education, including vocational education, from 26.3% in 2018 to 50% by 2035, with an additional 3.5 crore new seats.

Traditional knowledge- related:

Indian knowledge systems, including tribal and indigenous knowledge, will be incorporated into the curriculum in an accurate and scientific manner.

Special focus:

Regions such as aspirational districts, which have large number of students facing economic, social or caste barriers will be designated as ‘S pecial E ducational Z ones’.
The Centre will also set up a G ender I nclusion F und to build the country’s capacity to provide equitable quality education to all girls and transgender students.

Financial support:

Meritorious students belonging to SC, ST, OBC and other socially and economically disadvantaged groups will be given incentives.

New Curricular and Pedagogical Structure:

The NEP proposes changing the existing 10+2 Curricular and Pedagogical Structure with 5+3+3+4 design covering the children in the age group 3-18 years. Under this —

Five years of the Foundational Stage: 3 years of pre-primary school and Grades 1, 2;
Three years of the Preparatory (or Latter Primary) Stage: Grades 3, 4, 5;
Three years of the Middle (or Upper Primary) Stage: Grades 6, 7, 8;
Four years of the High (or Secondary) Stage: Grades 9, 10, 11, 12.

Challenges ahead:

Since education is a concurrent subject most states have their own school boards. Therefore, state governments would have to be brought on board for actual implementation of this decision.

InstaLinks :

Prelims Link:

Overview of new Pedagogical Structure with 5+3+3+4 design.
What are Special Educational Zones as per the new policy?
Who will set up the Gender Education Fund as per the policy?
Role of the proposed Academic Bank of Credit.
Gross Enrolment Ratio target in higher education?
About the proposed national educational technology forum.

Mains Link:

Discuss the significance of recently announced New Education Policy 2020.

Sources: the Hindu.

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Essay on New Education Policy

Our government has sanctioned a New Education Policy for the National Education System in July 2020, following a 34-year gap. Through the enhancement of students’ thinking and creative abilities, the New Education Policy aims to make the learning process more efficient.

This essay on the New Education Policy will help you understand the topic in detail. It contains several changes in the school level and higher education.

Table of Contents

New Education Policy 2020 Essay 150 Words

It is the aim of this new policy to have universal educational coverage from preschool to secondary school level in order to achieve the goal of a 100% GRE (Gross Enrollment Ratio) in schooling by the year 2030.

The purpose of this essay on the new education policy 2020 is to highlight the changes brought about by this new policy. First of all, the policy proposes to open Indian higher education at foreign universities.

In order to make India a global knowledge superpower, this government is introducing a four-year multidisciplinary undergraduate program with various exit opportunities. Therefore, this new policy will strive to make the country a global knowledge superpower in the near future.

In the same way, the policy also aims to ensure that all universities and colleges in India will be multi-disciplinary by the year 2020. Last but not least, the policy aims to enhance employment opportunities in the country and also reorganize the educational system in a fundamental manner.

New Education Policy 2020 Essay 250 words

Despite being announced in 2020, this educational policy was implemented in 2022. Because of this, it is called the NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2022 by most people. In 1986, the Indian government introduced an education policy that was 34 years old. This policy, NEP 2022, replaces it.

The education system used to rely heavily on subject-centered teaching before the new education policy was adopted. Many government institutions felt it necessary to change the education policy significantly.

Therefore, a committee was constituted to investigate the gaps and issues in the previous education policy. Government received the Committee’s recommendations report in 2019.

In this regard, the government decided to bring major changes to the education system. It is now designed to assist students in pursuing multidisciplinary career paths according to their abilities and interests.

What is the goal of the new education policy?

A new education policy is aimed at imparting quality education and focusing on the all-round development of students.
Higher education is also aiming to increase its Gross Enrollment Ratio.
A greater portion of students will enroll in vocational courses to increase the overall Gross Enrollment Ratio.
The education policy would also focus on universalizing education from pre-nursery to secondary school.

Principles of New Education Policy

New education policy consists of the following principles:

The goal is to promote quality education.
Children’s inner capabilities should be recognized and strengthened.
Students’ overall development should be encouraged.
The country’s literacy rate and enrollment rate are increasing.
To give students the opportunity to select any subject or course they want.
Language learning should be encouraged in students.
Educate students in moral and ethical values.
Autonomy and empowerment are essential for encouraging youth to think outside of the box.

Essay on New Education Policy 2020 in 500 Words

India’s government has formulated a new education policy that aims to achieve the policy initiatives by 2030. This is a complete overhaul of the current policy, which was implemented in 1986. Rather than rote learning procedures, it emphasizes the child’s self-capabilities and concept-based learning.

In the National Education Policy, the framework for teaching and learning is outlined

National Education Policy 1986 has been replaced by the current policy.
The New Education Policy was first discussed by the committee under TSR Subramanian’s leadership in January 2015. In 2017, the committee submitted a report on its findings.
Using the 2017 report as a basis, the new team led by former ISRO chief Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan presented a draft of the National Education Policy in 2019.
After consulting with stakeholders and the public, the Ministry of Human Resource Development announced its drafted New Education Policy.
On 29 July 2020, a New Education Policy was implemented.

New Education Policy: Transformations in Structure

Education at school

The 10+2 module will be replaced by the 5+3+3+4 model. The execution will take place as follows:

Foundational Stage – This includes three years of preschool.
Stage Preparatory – Classes 3-5, 8-11 years of age.
Middle Stage – The middle stage will comprise classes 6-8 with ages 11-14.
Secondary Stage – Class 9-12 will have ages 14-19. These four years will allow students to choose from a variety of disciplines. One discipline is not required.
Examinations for grades 3, 5, and 8 are only required thrice.
In order to assess students’ performance, “PARAKH” should be established as an assessment body.

Higher Education

With a flexible exit policy, the bachelor’s programme will be four years long. A year course will provide a certificate, a two-year diploma, a three-year bachelor’s degree, and a four-year course will integrate research findings and research work related to the subject matter.
This will replace AICTE and UGC with the Higher Education Grants Council (HEGC).
Common entrance exams for universities and colleges, as well as NEET and JEE, are the responsibility of the national testing agency.
Courses for Master of Philosophy to be discontinued, as they were intermediate courses between Masters and Doctoral programs.
To foster innovation and research, the National Research Foundation (NRA) will be created.
We encourage foreign universities to establish campuses here in our country as well as vice versa.

Teacher’s Education and Recruitment

It was essential for teaching due to the 4-year integrated B.Ed program.
Teachers should be trained on various teaching aids through workshops.
Students are highly dependent on teachers, who play a centralized role in their development. Transparency in teacher recruitment processes is necessary.

Beneficial Impacts of the New Education Policy

Children with inborn talents can develop their talents with this program, since it stresses their self-capability and cognitive skills.
The students had the option of selecting only one subject earlier, but now they can choose from a variety of subjects, for instance – they can study mathematics alongside art and craft.
The importance of treating all subjects equally.
With the inculcation of innovative ideas, the main purpose is to develop the power of interaction, critical thinking, and reasoning ability in the students.
Bachelor’s courses with multiple exits offer students the opportunity to gain experience and develop skills while working somewhere in the meantime and continuing their studies later.
According to the new education policy, practicing a subject is considered a better way to understand it as it is considered a more effective way of learning it.
By 2040, all institutions and higher education institutes will be multidisciplinary.

The essay on the New Education Policy concludes by stating that the policy is an essential initiative that will greatly contribute to the growth of our country and society as a whole.

Nevertheless, with a youth-dominated population, India is capable of truly achieving a better state with the proper implementation of this education policy. However, the implementation of this policy will greatly determine its success.

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Education policies and strategies

Education is a complex system with many interconnected subsystems and stakeholders. Any decision taken on one component at one level of education brings change to other components and subsystems. This interconnectedness requires policy and decision-makers to ensure that coherent and consistent education policy and strategic frameworks are in place from a sector and system perspective. Emerging challenges such as rapid digitalization, increasing inequality and disruptions caused by climate change, pandemics and conflicts, demand that countries develop resilient and sustainable policies and strategies on which to build efficient, relevant and transformative education systems.

What you need to know about education policies and strategies

Education is one of the largest public sectors often taking up 15-20% of a government's total budget and employing many teachers as civil servants. All education sub-sectors (from early childhood to higher education and beyond) as well as different elements of education (e.g. teachers, curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment) must work in sync to support a learner’s lifelong and life-wide learning, as well as their successful social and economic integration. Therefore, education ministries need to define coherently and systemically what the system should achieve, the policy priorities and strategies to deploy to implement that vision and development options and actions that are executable, measurable and accountable. In countries with several ministries in charge of the education and training sector, developing sector-wide education policies and programmes can help overcome incoherence and the development of different plans in isolation that can often contradict one another.

Supporting countries to build and improve their education systems to meet the needs of a changing world is at the core of UNESCO’s work. At the global level, UNESCO develops and advocates for public goods to enable strategic policy-making. These include SimuED, an education sector simulation model that can help countries to develop forward-looking yet feasible education policies and strategies.

UNESCO helps governments to strengthen legal and policy frameworks in relation to education systems as well as improving management efficiency and accountability, financing, data collection and analysis and learning assessment, all with the targets of the 2030 Agenda in view. This is part of UNESCO's rights-based approach to education with States having the main responsibility to respect, protect and fulfil the right to quality education for all throughout life and is carried out through education policy reviews and other technical and capacity development support.

UNESCO also emphasizes the importance of happiness in education as the foundation for better learning. Its Happy Schools Project aims to improve learning experiences by focusing on well-being, engagement, a sense of belonging at school, and helps foster a lifelong love of learning. The project targets the happiness of the school rather than individual students because schools are sites of holistic, sustainable community development that include teachers, parents, staff and school leaders. Faced with many crises and challenges, schools around the world are struggling to determine how to support teachers, learners, and communities while also prioritizing supplemental learning. The project emphasizes that schools can be powerful places to combat the negativity that stunts learning, both cognitive and non-cognitive.

Upon request from countries, UNESCO undertakes activities according to the country’s needs which may start with an education policy review or supporting the development of education sector policies and plans. It also promotes policy dialogue and debate based on evidence and insights drawn from analytical work and research. Working mainly through its institutes such as its International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) , UNESCO helps to build national capacities on developing and implementing education policies to realize the country’s education and national development visions.

Strengthening the resilience, quality and equity of education systems

A framework to support governments to position school happiness as a key target

through UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning

was allocated to education and training during the pandemic

spend below international benchmarks for public education spending

achieved international target of allocating 0.7% of GNI to official development assistance

highlighted the need to support psycho-social and mental well-being of students and teachers

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Planipolis, by UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning

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Have you met Malia? She explains why educational planning is the backbone of stronger, more resilient, and quality-focused education systems. Educational planning is also a key to her attaining all of her dreams and aspirations.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Education Policy in the United States

Introduction, classic works, textbooks and general overviews, data sources, pedagogical reform, school system–wide reforms, politics of education, early childhood education, elementary and secondary education, higher education, school choice, international perspectives, social resources, school funding and finance, family and community, race and ethnicity, social class, special education, related articles expand or collapse the "related articles" section about, about related articles close popup.

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Education Policy in the United States by Lindsey Young , Justina Judy Spicer , Barbara Schneider LAST REVIEWED: 03 December 2019 LAST MODIFIED: 24 May 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0098

Examining educational policy through a sociological lens allows for a deeper understanding of the educational process—both of the individual and of the organization. Sociologists study the provision of education, including policies created at various levels of government, the implementation of these policies, and the outcomes for the individual and organization. Policies in education affect a broad range of the population, spanning from birth to adult learning. Educational policy is influenced by the historical context in which the policy is shaped; the social forces and consequences that extend beyond the walls of schools; and the political setting of reform. Although educational policymaking in the United States has historically been relegated to local and state entities, since the 1960s the federal role in education has been increasing, changing the conditions in which the education system functions and how it is studied. Specifically, the federal government has greatly emphasized increased accountability through testing, teacher evaluation, and school rankings. Policies in this vein have been fluid and bipartisan; recently, accountability measures increased through the No Child Left Behind Act, and continued through the Every Student Succeeds Act. While the focus of this article is on educational policy in the United States, sources that feature other nations and regions are included to allow opportunities for a comparative analysis and to provide a global context to policies worldwide.

These selected works demonstrate a foundation for understanding motivations behind educational policy and come from a diverse range of disciplines, but they by no means represent an exhaustive list. Although a vast quantity of text has been written, these pieces reflect significant contributions to the field and their influence on educational policy in the United States. John Dewey was one of the early voices to explore the role of the school as well as the learner in his book, The School and Society . The release of Equality of Educational Opportunity (commonly referred to as the “Coleman Report”) in 1966 fundamentally challenged what was understood about equality of education and how educational outcomes were studied. Twenty years later, Hallinan 1988 revisited inequality and reviewed the then-current body of research on this issue. Bourdieu 1973 and Bowles and Gintis 2011 provide frameworks for understanding the relationship between schools and society. Findings from Edmonds 1979 reinforce the importance of institutional factors for improving student performance. National Commission on Excellence in Education 1983 highlights problems with the US education system and offers recommendations for new curricular standards, instruction, and assessments. Coleman and Hoffer 1987 analyzes data from public and private high schools to understand the role of community factors and access to social capital for enhancing educational outcomes. Elmore 2004 provides a critique of accountability and high-stakes testing policies from the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1973. Cultural reproduction and social reproduction. In Knowledge, education and cultural change: Papers in the sociology of education . Edited by Richard Brown, 71–112. Explorations in Sociology 2. London: Tavistock.

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In this chapter, Bourdieu extends the idea of capital to include social and cultural capital as a framework for understanding behavior. He argues that those who are richest in cultural capital are more likely to invest in their children’s education.

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Bowles, Samuel, and Herbert Gintis. 2011. Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradictions of economic life . Chicago: Haymarket.

Originally published in 1976 (New York: Basic Books). Bowles and Gintis argue in this book that the education system in America is geared toward producing laborers for a capitalist workforce. They assert that schools function not to teach content but rather to shape the aspirations, behaviors, and values of students according to their social and economic class.

Coleman, James S., Ernest Q. Campbell, Carol J. Hobson, et al. 1966. Equality of educational opportunity . Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

The “Coleman Report” was commissioned by the US government to evaluate the equality of education across elementary and secondary schools in the United States. The analysis included more than 150,000 students and measured the equality of educational outcomes for students across different schools.

Coleman, James S., and Thomas Hoffer. 1987. Public and private high schools: The impact of communities . New York: Basic Books.

This book reports findings from a large-scale comparison of sophomores and seniors in public, Catholic, and other private schools. The authors argue that students in private schools showed higher academic performance, were less likely to drop out, and were more likely to enroll in college compared to students in public schools.

Dewey, John. 1900. The school and society . 3d ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

The text of this book comes from three lectures that Dewey delivered on the rationale behind the University Elementary School, and where he also introduced his pedagogic approach to education.

Edmonds, Ronald. 1979. Effective schools for the urban poor. Educational Leadership 37.1: 15–24.

In this article, the author argues that children in low-achieving schools should have the same opportunities for achievement in reading as children in high-achieving schools. The findings from this study reinforce the influence of institutional leadership, expectations, and atmosphere for student performance.

Elmore, Richard. 2004. School reform from the inside out: Policy, practice, and performance . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

This book provides a critique of the accountability and high-stakes testing policies that are part of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Elmore argues that successful school reform begins from “the inside out,” suggesting that change should begin with the teachers, administrators, and school staff as opposed to external mandates and policies.

Hallinan, Maureen T. 1988. Equality of educational opportunity. Annual Review of Sociology 14:249–268.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.so.14.080188.001341 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article discusses the relationship between the field of sociology of education and the persistent subject of the equality of educational opportunity.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. 1983. A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform . Washington, DC: US Department of Education.

Written at a time when there were serious questions about the competitiveness of US students compared to students in other countries, this report called for a series of reforms to the educational system. These reforms included a more rigorous curriculum, improvements to instruction and assessments, and other structural changes as a way of maintaining global economic competitiveness for the United States.

Several texts provide an overview of the research in sociology of education. Select samples of these texts are listed in this section. Hallinan 2006 includes contributions that provide a foundation of theoretical approaches and analyses of previous research in the sociology of education. Ballantine and Spade 2011 and Sadovnik 2011 include a wide range of topics and relevant research in the sociology of education. Midgley and Livermore 2009 provides a comprehensive policy view of education, focusing on the relationship between social policy and social services. Kirst and Wirt 2009 provides a framework for organizing the politics of American education. Buchmann 2011 offers a comparative perspective of educational policy in the United States and the study of international sociology of education. Finally, Schneider and Saw 2018 investigates the relationship between the individual and the social systems they operate within, such as schools.

Ballantine, Jeanne H., and Joan Z. Spade, eds. 2011. Schools and society: A sociological approach to education . 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge.

This fourth edition includes original work and article excerpts from leading contributors in the area of sociology of education. Ballantine and Spade include discussions of theory and methodology, as well as classical and early-21st-century issues of educational systems.

Buchmann, Claudia. 2011. Frontiers in comparative and international sociology of education: American distinctiveness and global diversity. In Frontiers in sociology of education . Edited by Maureen T. Hallinan, 35–51. Frontiers in Sociology and Social Research 1. New York: Springer.

DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-1576-9 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this chapter, Buchmann discusses the role of international sociological research and advocates for a greater integration of more comparative streams of research on issues central to the sociology of education.

Hallinan, Maureen T., ed. 2006. Handbook of the sociology of education . Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. New York: Springer.

This handbook includes several contributions that present research and analyses on a range of educational issues, including the social processes that involve schooling, the role of schools, and the impact of education on society. This book is organized based on themes such as the theoretical background of education, development and expansion of education, access to schooling, schools as organizations, educational policy, and research.

Kirst, Michael W., and Frederick M. Wirt. 2009. The political dynamics of American education . 4th ed. Richmond, CA: McCutchan.

DOI: 10.12698/cpre.2009.PoliticalDynamics.KirstBk Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This politics of education textbook creates an original conceptual framework to organize the politics of American education, focusing on school choice, the 2008 presidential election, and the politics of charter schools and No Child Left Behind.

Midgley, James, and Michelle Livermore, eds. 2009. The handbook of social policy . 2d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

In this handbook, Midgley and Livermore attempt to document a body of knowledge about government social policies. The areas of focus include the nature, history, and political economy of social policy; the relationship between social policy and social services; and the future implications of social policy.

Sadovnik, Alan, ed. 2011. Sociology of education: A critical reader . 2d ed. New York: Routledge.

This reader provides examples of both research and theory in the fields of sociology and education. The editor includes classic and early-21st-century scholarship that represents a diverse selection of research. Topics include international education, higher education, and inequality in education.

Schneider, Barbara, and Guan Saw, eds. 2018. Handbook of sociology of education in the 21st century . New York: Springer.

This handbook investigates the relationship between the individual and the social systems the individual interacts with and through, while also examining how social systems are shaped by their environment. Topics in this volume include families and schools, the social organization of school and learning opportunities, the demographics of social inequality, the transition into adulthood, and sociological perspectives on accountability and evaluation.

As education policy is multidisciplinary in its nature, research can be found in a variety of general and specialty journals throughout education and the social sciences. Several journals specifically focus on education policy. The American Educational Research Association sponsors the flagship education policy journal— Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis —as well as the American Educational Research Journal , the Educational Researcher , and the Review of Educational Research . The Harvard Educational Review promotes dialogue between education scholars and educators. The American Journal of Sociology is the oldest academic journal of sociology in the United States, contributing to national understanding of sociological theory and methods. The American Sociological Association (ASA) sponsors the American Sociological Review as well as Sociology of Education , which include articles on education policy, although their missions are more diverse. The Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness covers a range of topics that apply to classrooms and schools. Policy work can also be found in the Social Science Quarterly , which includes research across a broad range of social sciences, including sociology, political science, and economics. The Review of Educational Research reviews education-related articles from a variety of fields, such as psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Sociological Forum is a journal representing innovative sociological research, Sociological Perspectives includes research regarding social processes related to issues such as economics and politics, and the British Journal of Sociology represents mainstream sociological research.

American Educational Research Journal . 1964–.

This American Educational Research Association journal publishes six issues a year and includes theoretical and empirical studies in education. The journal is organized into two sections: social and institutional analysis—focused on political, cultural, social, economic, and organizational issues; and a section on teaching, learning, and human development—focused on the processes and outcomes of teaching, learning, and development.

American Journal of Sociology . 1895–.

This journal is attached to the University of Chicago’s sociology department, and it is published bimonthly by the University of Chicago Press. This journal is the oldest academic journal of sociology in the United States, contributing to a national understanding of the theory, methods, practice, and history of sociology.

American Sociological Review . 1936–.

The flagship journal of the ASA, this bimonthly publication includes research in sociology that contributes to the understanding of fundamental social processes, new theoretical developments, and important methodological innovations.

British Journal of Sociology . 1950–.

The British Journal of Sociology , representing the mainstream of sociological thinking and research, has been considered to be among “the highest-status journals.”

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis . 1979–.

This multidisciplinary journal largely focuses on research and scholarly work related to policy. Published four times a year, its target audience is those engaged in educational policy analysis, evaluation, and decision making.

Educational Researcher . 2009–.

This journal, published nine times a year, includes scholarly articles from a broad range of areas of education research. This journal is published in association with the American Educational Research Association.

Harvard Educational Review . 1930–.

This journal, published by the Harvard Graduate School of Education, is a prestigious journal that is distributed to policymakers, teachers, researchers, and administrators. Published quarterly, this journal aims to provide a forum for debate about education’s major issues.

Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness . 2009–.

The flagship publication of the Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness, this journal is published annually and focuses on classrooms and schools. Publications within this journal focus on reading, mathematics education, and science education, cognitive functions, and social processes.

Review of Educational Research . 1931–.

A quarterly journal that publishes critical reviews of education-related research literature, not original empirical research. Reviews of research submitted to this journal include work from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology, and others.

Social Science Quarterly . 1919–.

A quarterly journal that publishes research on a broad range of topics in the social sciences. The official journal of the Southwestern Social Science Association and includes a special annual issue on important—and sometimes controversial—topics.

Sociological Forum . 1986–.

Sociological Forum is the flagship journal of the Eastern Sociological Society. This quarterly publication covers substantive issues of fundamental importance to the study of society, emphasizing innovative direction in sociological research.

Sociological Perspectives . 1957–.

Sociological Perspectives is the official publication of the Pacific Sociological Association. This quarterly publication covers social processes related to economic, political, anthropological, and historical issues.

Sociology of Education . 2004–.

A quarterly journal of the ASA that publishes works largely focused on the relationships among individuals and social institutions, including schools and other educational institutions. The journal also includes international work as well as advances in methodology for studying social networks.

Researchers in the field of education have access to a variety of cross-sectional and longitudinal data sets that include several different sampling designs and methods of data collection. This is not a complete list, but these sources include data on educational characteristics of individuals, student achievement, educational and occupational attainment, demographic trends, and other topics. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the primary federal agency responsible for collecting and analyzing these data in the United States. From the NCES website, several national longitudinal studies (such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress) can be accessed and publicly available data can be downloaded. Two additional surveys listed below study American students’ transition into adulthood: the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health , which investigates the experiences related to adolescent development, and the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System , which collects data on enrollment in postsecondary institutions. Data collected by the United States Census Bureau and the American Community Survey can be used to examine demographic information nationally, as it relates to educational and occupational attainment, and can also be linked to the data collected by NCES. The UNESCO Institute for Statistics obtains data on education trends internationally. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study is an international data set, which includes the United States, that collects information on math and science achievement. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development publishes data that compares the academic achievement of its member countries (most notably, the Programme for International Student Assessment). Finally, the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study collects information on reading achievement across several participating countries. It should also be noted that many states in the United States are developing their own databases of information that are not listed below but can be located through the Department of Education of individual states.

American Community Survey .

The US Census Bureau collects data more frequently with the American Community Survey that is administered to a sample of the population every year. Data collected include a range of information, such as education and occupation.

Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System .

This data set is comprised of survey data collected annually in the United States by the NCES and includes data, such as student enrollment and expenditures, from every college, university, and technical and vocational institution that participates in the federal student financial aid programs.

National Center for Education Statistics .

The NCES is the primary federal agency that collects and analyzes data related to US education. Several data sources are available through NCES that cover the spectrum of education from birth to adulthood, including students, teachers, and families. Many of the studies employ nationally representative longitudinal samples.

National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health .

This study follows a panel of adolescents in the United States as they transition from adolescence to adulthood. It includes four waves of data collection from 1994 to 2008 and contains data related to the experiences of adolescents and young adults.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) .

The OECD, established in 1961, publishes reports and promotes policies for its thirty-five member countries and additional emerging economies. OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment compares the test performance of fifteen-year-old students in participating countries and provides recommendations for scholastic improvement.

Progress in International Reading Literacy Study .

The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study began in 2001 and reports every five years, focusing on the reading achievement of fourth-grade students.

Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study .

This international study was first conducted in 1995 and reports every four years on the mathematics and science achievement of fourth- and eighth-grade students.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics .

The UNESCO Institute for Statistics is the primary source for cross-nationally comparable statistics on several topics, including education, science and technology, culture, and communication. Data from more than two hundred countries and territories are included.

United States Census Bureau .

Census data are collected every ten years in the United States, with the most recent collection occurring in 2010. The census collects demographic information from all households in the United States, including a range of data from educational attainment and household income.

The works listed below explore various historical dimensions of education, but they largely focus on the development of education in the United States. Rury 2013 begins at the time of the common school era in the United States and analyzes this policy history through the No Child Left Behind era. A four-part documentary, Mondale and Patton 2004 chronicles the history of education in the United States with contributions from several scholars in the field. Ravitch 2000 and Ravitch 2011 offer contrasting analyses of educational policies in the United States. Vinovskis 2009 focuses on the last thirty years in education policy, allowing a more detailed analysis of history leading up to the early-21st-century policies and criticisms of education in the United States. Providing a broader view, Reese 2005 traces educational reforms from the 19th century through the 21st century. Cremin 1990 discusses the history of education and how the United States uses educational policy as a vehicle for social change. Hess 2010 describes the features of the American education system that have remained constant since its conception. Lastly, Boli, et al. 1985 explores the rise and spread of mass education throughout the globe.

Boli, John, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John W. Meyer. 1985. Explaining the origins and expansion of mass education. Comparative Education Review 29.2: 145–170.

DOI: 10.1086/446504 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In the first part of this article, the authors discuss explanations of the creation and rise of mass education. The second part analyzes the general themes of mass education, and, based on these analyses, the third part presents the hypotheses that the expansion of mass education in both developed and developing countries is characterized by traditional social organization, social inequality, and lack of autonomy.

Cremin, Lawrence A. 1990. Popular education and its discontents . New York: Harper & Row.

Organized into three essays—“Popularization,” “Multitudinousness,” and “Politicization”—Cremin explores achievements and problems of educational policy. This book begins with a discussion of rising dissatisfaction during the 1800s and continues through educational reforms of the post–World War II years, concluding with an examination of how US citizens tend to remedy certain social issues indirectly through education policy.

Hess, Fredrick M. 2010. The same thing over and over: How school reformers get stuck in yesterday’s ideas . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

In this book, the director of education policy studies at the American Enterprise Institute (AEI) provides an overview of major school reform debates, highlighting the features of the American education system that have remained constant over time. Hess argues for a change in the structure of the current system’s taken-for-granted structure to meet the needs of the 21st century.

Mondale, Sarah, dir. and prod., and Sarah Patton, prod. 2004. School: The story of American public education . DVD. Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities & Sciences.

This four-part documentary originally aired on PBS in 2001 follows the development of US public education beginning in the late 1770s up to the 21st century. It details the romanticism of early public education proponents and examines the challenges that have influenced educational reform over time. See companion website .

Ravitch, Diane. 2000. Left back: A century of failed school reforms . New York: Simon & Schuster.

Educational historian Diane Ravitch explores commonly held myths about how the educational system in the United States developed. Ravitch argues for a more liberal education and that progressive education has undermined not only the intellectual development of students, but also the democratic principles of American society.

Ravitch, Diane. 2011. The death and life of the great American school system: How testing and choice are undermining education . New York: Basic Books.

In this revised and expanded edition of the book first published in 2010, Ravitch reveals the radical change of heart she experienced as she examines her career and contributions in education reform through previously published works. This work draws on Ravitch’s forty years of experience in education.

Reese, William. 2005. America’s public schools: From the common school to “No Child Left Behind.” Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

William J. Reese, professor of educational policy studies, examines the practices and theories that have impacted and transformed US public schools from the 19th century onward. This book is framed as a means to observe the ways education reforms society and explores reform within schools, highlighting pedagogical, race, and academic standard reforms.

Rury, John L. 2013. Education and social change: Themes in the history of American schooling . 4th ed. New York: Routledge.

This book provides a brief and interpretive history of schooling, focusing on the relationship between education and social change. Rury discusses the influence of important historical movements, such as industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. The book also explores how schools have contributed to the history of social change.

Vinovskis, Maris A. 2009. From A Nation at Risk to No Child Left Behind: National education goals and the creation of federal education policy . New York: Teachers College Press.

Vinovskis discusses late-20th- and early-21st-century policies beginning with the National Education Goals, America 2000, Goals 2000, and finally No Child Left Behind. He also highlights key policy debates and addresses the practical considerations of policy implementation and evaluation.

Policy and Practice

As educational reforms are developed and implemented, they do not occur in a vacuum. Policies are shaped from their original forms to schools and classrooms in which current reforms and policies already exist. The works below discuss policymaking, governance as it relates to education reform, and changes in education policy over time, and they provide recommendations for collaborative partnerships between policymakers and educators. Cooper, et al. 2004 documents the process of policymaking, providing a framework for policy development. Manna and McGuinn 2013 analyzes governance structures and provides recommendations for improving student educational outcomes. Penuel and Gallagher 2017 contributes suggestions for policymakers as they work to collaborate with educators. Finally, Mitchell, et al. 2018 documents changes in education policy from the mid-20th century to today.

Cooper, Bruce S., Lance D. Fusarelli, and E. Vance Randall. 2004. Better policies, better schools : Theories and applications . Boston: Pearson.

This book provides a general overview of the theories of policymaking, the policymaking process, and examples of how the theories apply to school improvement policies. Key components include discussion of policy definition, agenda setting, policy formulation, and implementation.

Manna, Paul, and Patrick McGuinn, eds. 2013. Education governance for the twenty-first century: Overcoming the structural barriers to school reform . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

This book, containing contributions from education scholars, analysts, and practitioners, provides analysis of education governance structures, and suggests how governing structures may be changed to improve educational outcomes for students.

Mitchell, Douglas E., Dorothy Shipps, and Robert L. Crowson, eds. 2018. Shaping education policy: Power and process . 2d ed. New York: Routledge.

This book is sponsored by the Politics of Education Association. Chapters within this book examine changes in education policy from 1950 to today, and they cover topics that have influenced education, such as the civil rights movement, the accountability movement, family choice, and globalization.

Penuel, William R., and Daniel Gallagher. 2017. Creating research-practice partnerships in education . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

This book aims to serve as a resource for researchers and educators to use as they pursue working relationships with one another. The authors describe the purposes of such partnerships, strategies for problem-solving conflicts, and tools for collaboration.

Cuban 1993 and Lortie 2002 provide a portrait of the teacher profession, including the various demands placed on teachers by reforms. Coburn 2001 examines the relationship between policy and practice through a model of sense-making theory. Lipsky 2010 explores the role of teachers as “street-level bureaucrats” who face multiple demands and ambiguous goals in the classroom, possibly influencing the implementation of policy.

Coburn, Cynthia E. 2001. Collective sensemaking about reading: How teachers mediate reading policy in their professional communities. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 23.2: 145–170.

DOI: 10.3102/01623737023002145 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Using an in-depth case study, Coburn examines the processes of teachers as they construct their understanding of a new reading policy and the role of collective sense making in this process. Sense making, the act of simultaneously shaping and reacting to policy reforms, suggests that teachers interpret, adapt, and change policies as they put them into practice.

Cuban, Larry. 1993. How teachers taught: Constancy and change in American classrooms, 1890–1990 . 2d ed. New York: Teachers College Press.

In this updated text, Larry Cuban, professor of education at Stanford University, furthers his previous research into the history of teaching practice in the United States, highlighting teaching practices in segments of ten to twenty years and concluding his volume by offering recommendations for policymakers.

Lipsky, Michael. 2010. Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services . Updated ed. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

In this expanded edition of his text originally published in 1980, Lipsky argues that policy is best understood through the daily encounters of those closest to the ground—teachers, in the educational context. He argues that these “street-level bureaucrats” carry out policies by establishing routines and devices to cope with the uncertainties and increasing pressures of their jobs.

Lortie, Dan C. 2002. Schoolteacher: A sociological study . 2d ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

This book discusses how teachers manage mandated reforms in their classrooms, with a focus on how teachers’ individual practices may influence policy implementation. Lortie’s in-depth study examines the behaviors of teachers and the various ways in which they respond to educational reforms.

Weiss 1995 provides a framework for understanding the relationship among teachers, administrators, and reforms. Tyack and Cuban 1995 discusses the relationship between schools and reforms, drawing on a century of changes in education in the United States. Additional resources on school system–wide reforms include Borman, et al. 1996 ; Sadovnik, et al. 2007 ; Hubbard, et al. 2006 ; Downey, et al. 2008 ; Zavadsky 2009 ; Chenoweth 2009 ; Smerdon and Borman 2009 ; O’Day, et al. 2011 ; Grant 2011 ; and Cuban 2010 .

Borman, Kathryn, Peter Cookson Jr., Alan Sadovnik, and Joan Spade, eds. 1996. Implementing educational reform: Sociological perspectives on educational policy . Social and Policy Issues in Education. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Using a sociological perspective, the contributors describe and analyze the Goals 2000 legislation, intended to improve equality and increase achievement in the US school system. The book summarizes the standards and assessments; expectations for schools, parents, students, and community members; instructional support and professional development; and implications of this reform.

Chenoweth, Karin. 2009. How it’s being done: Urgent lessons from unexpected schools . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Building on earlier work, Chenoweth provides educators information on how some schools with high-poverty and high-minority populations have improved student outcomes and closed achievement gaps. Analyzing data from eight schools, the author argues that teachers and schools can implement policies that support effective instruction and reduce ineffective practices.

Cuban, Larry. 2010. As good as it gets: What school reform brought to Austin . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Cuban explores whether school policies and practices can equalize student achievement and if schools can overcome differences in achievement associated with race and the socioeconomic status of students. Analyzing data from Austin, Texas, Cuban argues that despite overall improvement in the district, schools with high-poverty and high-minority student populations continued to struggle while predominantly affluent schools improve.

Downey, Douglas, Paul von Hippel, and Melanie Hughes. 2008. Are “failing” schools really failing? Using seasonal comparison to evaluate school effectiveness. Sociology of Education 81.3: 242–270.

DOI: 10.1177/003804070808100302 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study evaluates whether impact-based evaluation methods alter the identification of failing schools using the data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study of 1998–1999. The authors argue that for schools that are labeled as “failing” in terms of achievement levels, less than half are actually failing with respect to learning or impact.

Grant, Gerald. 2011. Hope and despair in the American city: Why there are no bad schools in Raleigh . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

This book examines two US cities—Raleigh, North Carolina, and Syracuse, New York—to understand how educational reforms and inequalities have evolved over the last few decades. Grant demonstrates that these two reform contexts offer a window into the challenges and the potential opportunities faced by urban districts that confront growing racial and socioeconomic achievement gaps.

Hubbard, Lea, Hugh Mehan, and Mary Kay Stein. 2006. Reform as learning: School reform, organizational culture, and community politics in San Diego . New York: Routledge.

The authors use four years of ethnographic data from San Diego to understand how teachers, administrators, and district staff were influenced by a systematic school reform initiative. This study uses a sociological perspective to examine the challenges to reform implementation and provides insights into why this reform failed to achieve its purposes.

O’Day, Jennifer, Catherine Bitter, and Louis Gomez, eds. 2011. Education reform in New York City: Ambitious change in the nation’s most complex school system . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

This edited volume provides analyses of several different reforms in the largest school district in the United States—New York City. The analyses of reforms include those targeting governance, community engagement, finance, accountability, and instruction. The contributors describe the scope of educational reform while highlighting interrelated factors, challenges in implementation, and how these reforms target improved outcomes for all students.

Sadovnik, Alan, Jennifer O’Day, George Bohrnstedt, and Kathryn Borman, eds. 2007. No Child Left Behind and the reduction of the achievement gap: Sociological perspectives on federal educational policy . New York: Routledge.

Using a sociological lens, and similar to Borman, et al. 1996 on Goals 2000, this book analyzes the effects of No Child Left Behind on children, teachers, parents, and schools. The contributors examine the implications of this policy for schools and subgroups of students, and they explore the possibilities for decreasing achievement gaps in education.

Smerdon, Becky, and Kathryn Borman. 2009. Saving America’s high schools . Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

The authors examine multiple reforms across several cities to look at how US high schools can be improved. Smerdon and Borman outline steps teachers and administrators, faced with more diverse student populations and increased standards, can do to improve schools, including the use of formative and summative student assessments and the increase of administrator support for good teachers.

Tyack, David, and Larry Cuban. 1995. Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

This book details the history of public school reform in the United States and posits that reforms are never implemented as they were originally envisioned. Tyack and Cuban also discuss how teachers and reforms act upon each other as reforms become assimilated into the school environment.

Weiss, Carol H. 1995. The four “I’s” of school reform: How interests, ideology, information, and institution affect teachers and principals. Harvard Educational Review 65.4: 571–592.

DOI: 10.17763/haer.65.4.05530845t676w50h Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Weiss examines how teachers and principals respond to a school reform with a case study focused on shared decision making. Using the “4-I” analysis, the author explains how interests, ideology, information, and the institution shape actors’ responses to and implementation of school reform.

Zavadsky, Heather. 2009. Bringing school reform to scale: Five award-winning urban districts . Educational Innovations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

This book provides a detailed analysis of five high-performing urban districts’ efforts to improve teaching and learning, align district goals with instructional practices, and narrow gaps in student achievement. Zavadsky explores the divergent approaches these districts took and argues that diverse perspectives can contribute to understanding how reforms influence improved outcomes.

Education in the United States is a shared process among all citizens, influencing their own socialization and learning as well as schooling experiences of their family, community, and nation. Because education is an integral part of all individuals’ development, educational attainment, occupational outcome, and future economic status—educational policy is subject to significant political action. Hess 1999 and Payne 2008 explore the politics surrounding urban school reform. Berliner and Biddle 1996 discusses the politics of reform and the role media plays in perpetuating misguided information about the successes and failures of education reform. Apple 2006 takes a closer look at the evolving conservative shift in education. Feigenbaum, et al. 1999 comparatively analyzes data from three countries to understand the influence of privatization in education on the state and economy. Henig 2013 documents the increased involvement of the US federal government in local education. Maryl 2016 examines how political structures have shaped religious education in the United States and Australia.

Apple, Michael. 2006. Educating the “right” way: Markets, standards, God, and inequality . 2d ed. New York: Routledge.

The author examines the early-21st-century conservative shift in US education with reforms such as voucher policies, charter schools, and standardized testing. Apple argues that a coalition of strange bedfellows has pushed for these policies and discusses how educators and policymakers can respond by creating a more democratic school system.

Berliner, David, and Bruce Biddle. 1996. The manufactured crisis: Myths, fraud, and the attack on America’s public schools . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Berliner and Biddle use comprehensive evidence from ACT scores, educational reports, and achievement results to dispute the commonly held myth that American schools are failing. The authors demonstrate how educational data and information have been misunderstood and misused, arguing that many of the problems students and schools face are based on societal and economic conditions.

Feigenbaum, Harvey, Jeffrey R. Henig, and Chris Hamnett. 1999. Shrinking the state: The political underpinnings of privatization . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

This book describes how privatization in education across many countries has reshaped the balance between the state and the market. Utilizing a comparative political analysis in the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, the authors argue that these policies benefit some students and adversely affect others.

Henig, Jeffery R. 2013. The end of exceptionalism in American education . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

This book discusses the transfer of American education system decision-making power from the level of local and state school board control to that of higher levels of government.

Hess, Frederick. 1999. Spinning wheels: The politics of urban school reform . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

In this book, Hess argues that many of the problems in urban education are the result of fragmented reform—or reforms that continually cycle through school systems, often with different incentives for various stakeholders. To combat this policy churn, Hess recommends institutional changes that allow schools to develop expertise in specific instructional approaches.

Maryl, Damon. 2016. Secular conversion: Political institutions and religious education in the United States and Australia, 1800–2000 . New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781316217368 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this book, Maryl investigates how the institutional structure of the state shapes secularization. Maryl analyzes the United States and Australia to explain how political structures have shaped religious education, specifically through their administrative structures, electoral systems, and legal procedures.

Payne, Charles. 2008. So much reform, so little change: The persistence of failure in urban schools . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Payne argues that the majority of policy discussions are disconnected from what occurs in most urban neighborhoods and that neither the Democratic nor the Republican parties have improved educational reform. Both of these parties exhaust their resources pursuing educational reforms that are not practical for urban districts. This book includes an examination of successes and failures of urban school reforms.

Institutions

School organization varies widely across settings and institutions. The institution can play an important role in the educational experiences and outcomes of students. The works included here offer a broad insight into the predominant educational institutions (for a discussion of private schools and homeschooling, see School Choice ). Bidwell 1965 provides a conceptual foundation for analyzing schools as a unique type of formal organization that influences the education process. In Ramirez and Boli 1987 , the authors provide an exploration of the construction of mass schooling in Europe and worldwide. Baker and LeTedre 2005 discusses the similarities and differences between schooling in the United States and in other countries. Bryk and Schneider 2002 looks within the schools and articulates the role of trust relationships in school institutions. Baker 2014 argues that the US education system is a primary institution that greatly influences the economy, politics, religion, and other aspects of society. See also Bryk, et al. 2010 and Bulkley, et al. 2010 .

Baker, David. 2014. The schooled society: The educational transformation of global culture . Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.

In this book, Baker argues that education is a primary institution that has transformed, influenced, and defined society. Baker argues the effects of school on aspects of society, such as the economy, politics, and religion.

Baker, David, and Gerald K. LeTedre. 2005. National differences, global similarities: World culture and the future of schooling . Stanford, CA: Stanford Social Sciences.

This book uses US schools as a reference point for providing a description of school as a global institution. Drawing on a four-year investigation in forty-seven countries, Baker and LeTedre show the implications of current trends in student achievement, school curriculum, and teaching practice.

Bidwell, Charles E. 1965. The school as a formal organization. In Handbook of organizations . Edited by James G. March, 972–1022. Rand McNally Sociology Series. Chicago: Rand McNally.

In this essay, Bidwell argues that teaching practice is resistant to new organizational routines, largely because teaching is idiosyncratic and highly autonomous. Although most schools have a set curriculum and other formal structures, Bidwell argues that schools are more likely to have relatively weak organizational ties between teachers and classrooms.

Bryk, Anthony S., and Barbara Schneider. 2002. Trust in schools: A core resource for improvement . Rose Series in Sociology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Bryk and Schneider examine the role of relational trust in schools using quantitative and qualitative longitudinal data. They argue that the extent of trust and effective social relationships among teachers, principals, and parents are an important influence on the dynamics of school improvement.

Bryk, Anthony S., Penny Bender Sebring, Elaine Allensworth, Stuart Luppescu, and John Q. Easton. 2010. Organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

Analyzing seven years of comprehensive data from elementary schools in the Chicago Public Schools, the authors identify effective practices and conditions necessary for school improvement. These factors include school leadership, professional capacity of faculty and staff, and a student-centered learning climate.

Bulkley, Katrina E., Jeffrey R. Henig, and Henry M. Levin. 2010. Between public and private: Politics, governance, and the new portfolio models for urban school reform . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

The authors examine the utilization of a “portfolio management model” in school district reform, wherein a central office oversees disparate organizational and curricular structures within a district, such as traditional schools and charter schools. The authors discuss the strengths and limitations of this type of reform.

Ramirez, Francisco O., and John Boli. 1987. The political construction of mass schooling: European origins and worldwide institutionalization. Sociology of Education 60.1: 2–17.

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This article explores the origins of large-scale educational systems in Europe and the subsequent institutionalization of mass education around the world. Ramirez and Boli argue that the political, economic, and cultural development of Europe in the 19th century led to a highly institutionalized society and educative process.

Historically, education in the United States has focused on primary and secondary education. Since the 1970s, however, there has been an increased focus on the role of early childhood education (prior to the age of seven) for student success. Early childhood policies are often targeted as a means to improve educational equality. Magnuson and Waldfogel 2005 explores the gaps in school readiness among children of different racial and ethnic backgrounds in the United States. Vinovskis 2005 traces the history of early childhood programs in the United States, from the first program to early-21st-century policy, and discusses the implications of early childhood policies. Barnett 1995 examines several early childhood care and educational programs—highlighting their positive influence on child outcomes and future policy considerations. Hart and Risley 2003 offers data on the development of a child’s vocabulary and the inequality of development in children from different family backgrounds.

Barnett, W. Steven. 1995. Long-term effects of early childhood programs on cognitive and school outcomes. The Future of Children 5.3: 25–50.

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This article reviews thirty-six studies that examine the effects of model projects and public programs for children from low-income families. The findings suggest that early childhood programs can provide considerable short-term benefits in addition to long-term advantages, concluding with policy recommendations.

Hart, Betty, and Todd R. Risley. 2003. The early catastrophe: The 30 million word gap by age 3. American Educator 27.1: 4–9.

This longitudinal study of forty-two families found different rates of vocabulary development for children of varying socioeconomic backgrounds. By age three, children from advantaged families have heard, on average, thirty million more words than children from disadvantaged families. Exposure to high-quality language was predictive of children’s vocabulary and reading performance in elementary school.

Magnuson, Katherine A., and Jane Waldfogel. 2005. Early childhood care and education: Effects on ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness. The Future of Children 15.1: 169–196.

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This article examines differences among the experiences of children of various racial and ethnic backgrounds regarding early childhood care and education. Magnuson and Waldfogel argue that incremental changes in enrollment or quality of care and education will do little to narrow school readiness gaps. However, they argue that policies should focus on improving the experiences of black, Hispanic, racial and ethnic heritage, and low-income children.

Vinovskis, Maris A. 2005. The birth of head start: Preschool education policies in the Kennedy and Johnson administrations . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

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This book provides a historical perspective of early childhood policies, beginning with Project Head Start in 1964. Since the creation of this policy, a number of programs have appeared that support the development of young children. Vinovskis discusses the political implications and future of this policy area.

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act passed in 1965, a part of the “War on Poverty,” creating a national formal organization for primary and secondary schools in the United States. The early-21st-century reauthorization of the law is called the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 , which was the eighth such reauthorization. Its ninth revision was the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 , maintaining the high accountability standards of No Child Left Behind while offering more control to states. Although primary and secondary school is universally offered in the United States, this is not necessarily the case internationally; Heyneman and Loxley 1983 and Alexander 2001 describe and examine the importance of primary education in the United States and internationally. Lucas 1999 explores how high schools can produce inequality of education through differential access to curriculum and student tracking. Frank, et al. 2008 studies social contexts of high school students using their math course–taking behavior and how student’s “local positions,” or the clusters of students within the high school, influence social norms and academic effort. Crosnoe 2011 examines how adolescents navigate the complex social dynamics of American high schools. See also Oakes 2005 , Oakes and Saunders 2008 , and Rumberger 2011 .

Alexander, Robin J. 2001. Culture and pedagogy: International comparisons in primary education . Malden, MA: Blackwell.

This book provides a comparison of primary and secondary elementary schooling in England, France, India, Russia, and the United States. Alexander explores how the teacher, school values and organization, local pressures, national policy, and political tension shape teaching and learning.

Crosnoe, Robert. 2011. Fitting in, standing out: Navigating the social challenges of high school to get an education . New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

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Crosnoe explores the complex environment of American high schools from a sociological perspective. Drawing on national statistics, interviews, and observations within a single school, this book examines how teenagers navigate the social dynamics of high school while transitioning into adulthood.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Pub. L. No. 889–10, 79 Stat. 27 (1965).

This legislation, signed in 1965 as a foundation of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s “War on Poverty,” provided funding for primary and secondary education in an attempt to create equal access to quality education, promoting high standards for academic achievement and accountability. This act has been renewed, with modifications, every five years after its adoption, under various names such as the No Child Left Behind Act and the Every Student Succeeds Act.

Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114–95, 114 Stat. 1177 (2015–2016).

The Every Student Succeeds Act replaced the No Child Left Behind Act by shifting public education from national to local and state control. Accountability measures resulting from this act expanded from test scores to include needs assessments for schools and learning communities, plans for federal funding, program implementation, and monitoring protocols.

Frank, Kenneth A., Chandra Muller, Kathryn S. Schiller, et al. 2008. The social dynamics of mathematics coursetaking in high school. American Journal of Sociology 113.6: 1645–1696.

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Using data from the Adolescent Health and Academic Achievement Study, Frank and his colleagues examine how peers within a similar social network contribute to differences in academic effort. The authors argue that adolescents’ social contexts are defined, in part, by clusters of students, and females are highly responsive to the norms of these student clusters.

Heyneman, Stephen P., and William A. Loxley. 1983. The effect of primary-school quality on academic achievement across twenty-nine high- and low-income countries. American Journal of Sociology 88.6: 1162–1194.

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Heyneman and Loxley challenge the belief that student and family background characteristics are the biggest contributors to student achievement. Using student achievement data from Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East, the authors assert that school and teacher quality are more salient, particularly for students in low-income countries.

Lucas, Samuel Roundfield. 1999. Tracking inequality: Stratification and mobility in American high schools . Sociology of Education Series. New York: Teachers College Press.

In this book, Lucas explores formal academic tracking in US high schools. Using nationally representative data, he examines the curriculum structure, the location of students within this structure, and the consequences of tracking for an individual’s postsecondary and career path.

Mittleman, Joel, and Jennifer L. Jennings. 2018. Accountability, achievement, and inequality in American public schools: A review of the literature. In Handbook of the sociology of education in the 21st century . Edited by Barbara Schneider and Guan Saw, 510–529. New York: Springer.

In this chapter, Mittleman and Jennings review accountability systems in US schools by reviewing the social science literature. The authors document the history of accountability in schools and review the impacts of the systems in terms of instruction, student outcomes, and policy feedback.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 , Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).

This legislation is a standards-based education reform that significantly increased the accountability of schools. These federal statutes included guidelines for states to create rigorous curriculum standards and benchmarks for their students, in addition to standardized ways of measuring student achievement.

Oakes, Jeannie. 2005. Keeping track: How schools structure inequality . 2d ed. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Oakes examines the role schools play in reproducing inequalities through the sorting of students into different academic tracks. This second edition includes an updated discussion of the “tracking wars” in schools and provides an examination of the assumptions and implications of continued tracking practices in secondary schools.

Oakes, Jeannie, and Marisa Saunders. 2008. Beyond tracking: Multiple pathways to college, career, and civic participation . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Continuing the discussion of tracking in high school, Oakes and coauthor Saunders offer an innovative alternative to tracking—a multiple pathways approach. This approach is built on the notion that American high schools should provide both academic and real-world foundations for all students. The four main components of the multiple pathways system include college-preparatory core, professional/technical core, field-based learning and realistic workplace simulations, and additional support services.

Rumberger, Russell W. 2011. Dropping out: Why students drop out of high school and what can be done about it . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

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This book asks the straightforward yet critical questions: Who drops out? Why? And what happens after they drop out? Vulnerable students can often be targeted early in their school careers and Rumberger argues for interventions that can keep students in school and away from a potential future of poverty, crime, and increased health problems.

Literature on higher education includes the structure and policies of varying higher education institutions as well as examines the influence of higher education on outcomes later in life. MacLeod 2009 provides an ethnographic study of how teenagers from a housing project in the United States develop and attain their future aspirations. Schneider and Stevenson 1999 studies the educational and occupational ambitions of adolescents and argues that many lack support in planning and reaching their desired goals. Armstrong and Hamilton 2015 investigates how young women’s college experiences lead to their academic outcomes, social lives, and labor-market opportunities. Karabel 2005 explores how an administrative regime evolved in three leading organizations (e.g., Harvard, Princeton, and Yale) in one field. Espenshade and Radford 2009 explores persistent inequality in education at colleges and universities in the United States. Arum and Roksa 2011 investigates what students are learning in college and argues that a sizable number of students are not learning essential knowledge and skills. Arum, et al. 2018 examines the college experiences of students from different socioeconomic and racial backgrounds. Finally, Rosenbaum 2001 describes the relationships between employers and high school, and preparing students for careers. See also Bowen, et al. 2009 and Attewell and Lavin 2007 .

Armstrong, Elizabeth, and Laura Hamilton. 2015. Paying for the party: How college maintains inequality . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

The authors investigate how young women’s college experience lead to their academics, social lives, and labor-market participation. This book provides a longitudinal qualitative study that includes extensive ethnographic observation and interviews. The authors also question current policymakers on whether our higher education provides a path to social mobility for all who wish for such mobility.

Arum, Richard, and Josipa Roksa. 2011. Academically adrift: Limited learning on college campuses . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

Arum and Roksa investigate students’ learning in college. Using data from more than twenty-three hundred undergraduates at twenty-four institutions, the authors found differences in academic learning, time on studies, and social activities among the students at different types of universities.

Arum, Richard, Josipa Roksa, Jacqueline Cruz, and Blake Silver. 2018. Student experiences in college. In Handbook of sociology of education in the 21st century . Edited by Barbara Schneider and Guan Saw, 421–441. New York: Springer.

In this book chapter, Arum and colleagues argue for a broader view of college student academic and social experiences—one couched in historical and institutional contexts. These authors focus on the various college experiences of students from different demographic backgrounds, such as socioeconomic and racial groups.

Attewell, Paul, and David E. Lavin. 2007. Passing the torch: Does higher education for the disadvantaged pay off across the generations? Rose Series in Sociology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Examining evidence from multiple cohorts of women who enrolled at the City University of New York after the start of the university’s “open admissions” policy, Attewell and Lavin examine the idea that education can support upward social mobility. Following these women over thirty years, this study analyzes the impact of higher educational attainment on the achievement of the women’s children.

Bowen, William, Matthew Chingos, and Michael McPherson. 2009. Crossing the finish line: Completing college at America’s public universities . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

This book attempts to understand the college dropout crisis in the United States. Using data from twenty-one state universities and four statewide higher education systems, the authors identify challenges that low-income and minority students face regarding the costs of college, lower graduation rates, and longer time-to-degree, and they describe several reforms that policymakers could adopt to improve these outcomes.

Espenshade, Thomas J., and Alexandria Walton Radford. 2009. No longer separate, not yet equal: Race and class in elite college admission and campus life . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

This book raises the research question: are US elite colleges admitting and successfully educating a diverse student body? Using data from more than nine thousand students who applied to selective institutions, the authors investigate admission advantages for minorities as well as race- and class-related gaps in academic achievements, tuition costs, and satisfaction with college experiences.

Karabel, Jerome. 2005. The chosen: The hidden history of admission and exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

The author studies the history of college admissions at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton from 1900 to 2005 and provides both a view of institutional power and of the evolution of gatekeeping tools across organizations. This book also reveals the changing dynamics of power and privilege in America over the past century.

MacLeod, Jay. 2009. Ain’t no makin’ it: Aspirations and attainment in a low-income neighborhood . 3d ed. Boulder, CO: Westview.

This urban ethnography follows a group of low-income teenagers through school and into adulthood, exploring how social inequality is reproduced from one generation to the next. MacLeod uses this study to argue how inequality is created, sustained, and legitimized in the United States.

Rosenbaum, James E. 2001. Beyond college for all: Career paths for the forgotten half . Rose Series in Sociology. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

This book focuses on this crisis in the American labor market. Rosenbaum describes findings from survey and interview data and argues that alignment in the perception and actions between students, educators, and employers is absent. In contrast to countries such as Germany and Japan, misinformation, student disengagement, and lack of trust between schools and employers poses challenges to young adults in the United States.

Schneider, Barbara, and David Stevenson. 1999. The ambitious generation: America’s teenagers, motivated but directionless . New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Schneider and Stevenson argue that American teenagers have ambitious educational and occupational expectations, yet often lack the ability to achieve their goals. The study includes seven thousand teenagers and offers specific guidance based on their findings for how parents and teachers can better support adolescents in their efforts to achieve their ambitions.

School choice policy is largely built on the economic theory of choice and free markets, where individuals choose their educational institution. A classic essay, Friedman 2002 proposes choice theory in education and discusses a free market system for schools. Hirschman 1970 further explores choice theory and the responses individuals have to their choices. Chubb and Moe 1990 argues for increased school choice and competition as a means to increase student achievement. McEwan and Carnoy 2000 evaluates the use of voucher systems in Chile. Bryk, et al. 1993 analyzes the effect of attending Catholic schools compared to public schools. Carnoy, et al. 2005 uses student gain scores to more accurately compare charter and public school effectiveness. Bettinger 2005 evaluates the effects of charter schools, both on within-school student achievement and on the achievement of neighboring public schools. Cooper and Sureau 2007 discusses the politics of homeschooling in the United States, an increasingly popular educational choice for families. Lubienski and Lubienski 2013 uses demographic information to claim public schools as more effective than private schools for creating gains in student achievement. See also Lubienski and Weitzel 2010 and Fabricant and Fine 2012 .

Bettinger, Eric P. 2005. The effect of charter schools on charter students and public schools. Economics of Education Review 24.2: 133–147.

DOI: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2004.04.009 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article evaluates the changes in test scores of students attending charter schools as well as the effects of charter schools on students at neighboring public schools. Bettinger argues that there were no significant effects on test scores for neighboring public schools when charters were introduced.

Bryk, Anthony, Valerie Lee, and Peter Holland. 1993. Catholic schools and the common good . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

This book examines US Catholic high schools to understand if students are better educated there or in public schools. The authors argue that Catholic schools have a positive effect on student achievement, particularly in reducing disparities between disadvantaged students and their privileged counterparts. They cite Catholic schools’ moral imperative as a key factor in driving educational quality.

Carnoy, Martin, Rebecca Jacobsen, Lawrence Mishel, and Richard Rothstein. 2005. The charter school dust-up: Examining the evidence on enrollment and achievement . Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.

Carnoy and colleagues employ student achievement data to compare charter schools with traditional public schools. Using achievement gains, as opposed to static test scores, the authors determine that contrary to much public discourse, charter schools in New York City performed worse than comparable public schools.

Chubb, John, and Terry Moe. 1990. Politics, markets, and America’s schools . Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Chubb and Moe, in this book, argue that reforms for educational change in the 1980s did not address the core of the problem they aimed to solve. Chubb and Moe recommend a dramatic change; that school choice and competition should be the basis for school improvement and increased student achievement.

Cooper, Bruce S., and John Sureau. 2007. The politics of homeschooling: New developments, new challenges. Educational Policy 21.1: 110–131.

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In this article, Cooper and Sureau describe the rapid growth of the homeschooling movement in the United States. They describe how homeschooling families are organized and the families’ relationships with public institutions.

Fabricant, Michael, and Michelle Fine. 2012. Charter schools and the corporate makeover of public education: What’s at stake? New York: Teachers College Press.

The authors analyze empirical data to determine whether charter schools are an authentic alternative to public schools. Fabricant and Fine discuss the history, politics, and economic motivation behind the charter school movement and its effects on student outcomes.

Friedman, Milton. 2002. Capitalism and freedom . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

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In this classic economics text, Friedman argues that competitive capitalism serves as a mechanism for economic choice and as a necessary condition for political freedom. He outlines a free market system for schools, using vouchers as a means to exercise choice and competition with the primary goal of enhancing school quality. Originally published in 1962.

Hirschman, Albert O. 1970. Exit, voice, and loyalty: Responses to decline in firms, organizations, and states . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Hirschman describes several ways dissatisfaction is expressed in firms—through exit (leaving the organization) and voice (exerting influence for change from within the organization). This argument can be applied to school choice, where schools are firms and students and their families represent members.

Lubienski, Christopher, and Sarah Lubienski. 2013. The public school advantage: Why public school outperform private schools . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

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Influenced by recent debates regarding market-based school solutions such as school choice and increased privatization of schools, Lubienski and Lubienski argue against the belief that private schools are superior to public schools, offering evidence that public schools are better-performing. These authors argue that superior performance by private school students is attributable to demographics, and they correct for demographic measures to show that gains in student achievement are higher in public schools.

Lubienski, Christopher, and Peter Weitzel. 2010. The charter school experiment: Expectations, evidence, and implications . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

This book examines the unintended impacts of charter schools over the last twenty years. In this comprehensive exploration, the authors discuss how the purpose of charter schools evolved from their original goals of introducing competition into the education system to encouraging innovation and providing more equitable access to quality education.

McEwan, Patrick J., and Martin Carnoy. 2000. The effectiveness and efficiency of private schools in Chile’s voucher system. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 22.3: 213–239.

DOI: 10.3102/01623737022003213 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article evaluates the comparative effectiveness and efficiency of private and public schools in Chile. Findings show that nonreligious voucher schools are marginally less effective than public schools in the fourth grade. When assessing student achievement, Catholic voucher schools are somewhat more effective than public ones.

Educational reform presents similar challenges in the United States as in many developed and developing countries. A comparative perspective in educational research highlights shared patterns and diverse solutions, and can lead to an enhanced understanding of how to improve education. Carnoy 2000 introduces the relationship between globalization and education, examining how globalization influences the quality and financing of education, in addition to labor market outcomes. In Levin and Lockheed 2012 , the authors analyze case studies from eight different countries to inform strategies that can improve education for children in low-income communities. McPherson and Willms 1987 examines the effects of a comprehensive reorganization initiative on reducing social class inequalities in Scotland. Comparing the Finnish educational system to other developed countries, Sahlberg 2011 provides a detailed description of the success of educational reform in Finland. The authors of Schmidt, et al. 1997 use a comparative analysis of fifty different countries to reveal the splintered nature of curriculum and instruction in the United States. Torney-Purta, et al. 1999 examines case studies from twenty-four countries to understand how different educational policies and practices influence civic education and knowledge. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2011 provides synopses of country profiles, recommending improvements to the US education system based on features of high-scoring countries’ systems. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 2015 highlights success and challenges of the international effort to provide education for all.

Carnoy, Martin. 2000. Globalization and educational reform. In Globalization and education: Integration and contestation across cultures . Edited by Nelly P. Stromquist and Karen Monkman, 43–61. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Carnoy discusses how globalization influences education, in particular globalization’s impact on the financing of education, labor market outcomes, and the quality of national education systems. This chapter also highlights the role of comparative research that uses international assessments (e.g., Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) in understanding the differences among countries.

Levin, Henry, and Marlaine E. Lockheed, eds. 2012. Effective schools in developing countries . Routledge Library Editions: Education 8. New York: Routledge.

This volume contains eight case studies describing educational initiatives for children in poverty in nations including Brazil, Burundi, Colombia, Ghana, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the United States. These independent initiatives can collectively inform the future development of effective strategies for children in low-income communities.

McPherson, Andrew, and J. Douglas Willms. 1987. Equalisation and improvement: Some effects of comprehensive reorganisation in Scotland. Sociology 21.4: 509–539.

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McPherson and Willms examine a policy initiative that required schools to transition from a two- or three-tier selective system—whereby pupils were channeled into grammar, technical, or secondary modern schools—to a “comprehensive” system that served all pupils. Results show that this comprehensive reorganization had a small positive effect on students’ attainment and reduced social class inequalities in attainment.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2011. Lessons from PISA for the United States . Paris: OECD.

This report on student performance on the Programme for International Student Assessment has been greatly influential for curriculum reform in science, serving to analyze US PISA results while describing practices of the highest-scoring education systems.

Sahlberg, Pasi. 2011. Finnish lessons: What can the world learn from educational change in Finland? Series on School Reform. New York: Teachers College Press.

Chronicling the changes in the Finnish educational system over the past three decades, Sahlberg traces how educational reform evolved in Finland. Contrasting the Finnish system to the United States and other developed countries, this book provides a detailed account of education in Finland—a system focused on the professionalization of teachers, effective instructional leadership, and enhanced trust in schools.

Schmidt, William H., Curtis McKnight, and Senta Raizen. 1997. A splintered vision: An investigation of U.S. science and mathematics education . Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.

This study analyzes data from curriculum guides and textbooks from about fifty countries to examine differences in curricula, instructional practices, school factors, and social conditions. Schmidt and colleagues argue that the mathematics and science curriculum in the United States is splintered because there is no unified vision of how to educate students. Because of this splintered vision, the curricula, textbooks, and teaching in the United States are often overly broad in topic but lack depth in content.

Torney-Purta, Judith, John Schwille, and Jo-Ann Amadeo, eds. 1999. Civic education across countries: Twenty-four national case studies from the IEA Civic Education Project . Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.

This volume reports the results from qualitative case studies in twenty-four countries examining the circumstances, contents, and processes of civic education. Each chapter within this volume provides a thorough summary of these national case studies, highlighting important issues or themes within civic education.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2015. EFA Global Monitoring Report – Education for All 2000–2015: Achievements and Challenges . Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

This influential report analyzed the progress of over 160 governments to reach the Dakar Framework goal of providing education for all individuals and provided recommendations for the 2015 global sustainable development agenda. The report takes stock of countries’ successes and challenges in meeting this goal, while identifying remaining concerns with regards to gender and racial disparity, the effect of income inequality on schooling, and the poor quality of learning at a primary level.

Access to resources outside of school can influence the educational experiences and outcomes of students, both domestically and globally. Stevenson and Baker 1992 and Baker, et al. 2001 explore the phenomenon of shadow education internationally. Cheng and Powell 2007 examines the transmission of resources across generations in biracial families. Fuller and Clarke 1994 considers the role of culture in understanding the effects of school. Putnam 2015 offers policy solutions to improve the outcomes of low-income students who are subject to the educational opportunity gap.

Baker, David P., Motoko Akiba, Gerald K. LeTendre, and Alexander W. Wiseman. 2001. Worldwide shadow education: Outside-school learning, institutional quality of schooling, and cross-national mathematics achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 23.1: 1–17.

DOI: 10.3102/01623737023001001 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this study, the phenomenon of shadow education is explored using cross-national data from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study. The authors argue that institutional factors of education, including limited access and lower levels of funding, drive the use of shadow education.

Cheng, Simon, and Brian Powell. 2007. Under and beyond constraints: Resource allocation to young children from biracial families. American Journal of Sociology 112.4: 1044–1094.

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This study uses data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study to examine the differences in biracial families and monoracial families in the transmission of resources to young children in the United States. Cheng and Powell demonstrate the utility of using refined measures of biracial families (e.g., white father/Asian mother) to examine stratification practices in school.

Fuller, Bruce, and Prema Clarke. 1994. Raising school effects while ignoring culture? Local conditions and the influence of classroom tools, rules, and pedagogy. Review of Educational Research 64.1: 119–157.

DOI: 10.3102/00346543064001119 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this article, Fuller and Clarke review how research on the effects of schooling is informed by research in developing countries. The authors discuss the aggregate effect of the school, review findings from developing countries on school inputs, and argue the importance for policy to consider cultural conditions in education.

Putnam, Robert. 2015. Our kids: The American dream in crisis . New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.

In this book, Putnam argues the presence of an opportunity gap preventing students from obtaining upward mobility. Putnam discusses differential outcomes for students with varying incomes, family backgrounds, and communities, arguing for policy solutions that benefit the disadvantaged.

Stevenson, David L., and David P. Baker. 1992. Shadow education and allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in Japan. American Journal of Sociology 97.6: 1639–1657.

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This article describes “shadow education,” which is described as educational activities that occur outside of formal schooling but enhance a student’s education. Stevenson and Baker explore how shadow education and social advantages of students in Japan are transferred from one generation to the next.

Variation in school funding can introduce additional inequalities in education. Odden and Picus 2008 provides an overview of school finance and the implications for policy. Levin 1998 examines the cost of voucher programs and their effects on socioeconomic and racial segregation. Rebell 2009 and Yaffe 2007 describe the judicial influence and political debate over educational equity.

Levin, Henry. 1998. Educational vouchers: Effectiveness, choice, and costs. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 17.3: 373–392.

DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6688(199822)17:3%3C373::AID-PAM1%3E3.0.CO;2-D Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article analyzes a substantial body of empirical data and demonstrates that private schools offer only a small advantage over public schools, particularly for graduation and postsecondary matriculation. In addition, school choice leads to greater socioeconomic and racial segregation of students. Relative costs of a voucher system appear to exceed those of the present system.

Odden, Allan, and Lawrence Picus. 2008. School finance: A policy perspective . 4th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

This book offers a comprehensive discussion of the history, law, and role of research in school finance, resource allocation, site-based management, and teacher compensation. Odden and Picus offer practical implications of how these different factors may impact the funding of schools in the United States.

Rebell, Michael A. 2009. Courts and kids: Pursuing educational equity through the state courts . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

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Rebell analyzes how and why state courts advocate for school desegregation and discusses the success of their efforts. He argues that courts have the authority and responsibility to pursue the goal of educational equity and offers recommendations for how courts can collaborate with policymakers to reach this goal.

Yaffe, Deborah. 2007. Other people’s children: The battle for justice and equality in New Jersey’s schools . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.

Chronicling decades of funding debates in New Jersey, this book examines the legal and political battle for equitable school financing for all students. Yaffe discusses the responsibility that the United States has for its poor and the implications for the role of public schools in providing equal opportunities for students of all backgrounds.

Research on this topic considers the effects of the family and neighborhood on educational outcomes. Astone and McLanahan 1991 explores the effects of family structure and parenting on high school completion. Duncan and Brooks-Gunn 1997 includes research on children growing up in low socioeconomic environments. In Tate 2012 , contributors explore the relationships among health, geography, and human development in education. Buchmann and DiPrete 2006 explores the impact of parental resources on gender gaps between female and male students in higher education. Schneider and Waite 2005 examines dual-career families to evaluate their approaches to work-life balance.

Astone, Nan Marie, and Sara S. McLanahan. 1991. Family structure, parental practices and high school completion. American Sociological Review 56.3: 309–320.

DOI: 10.2307/2096106 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study uses data from the High School and Beyond study in the United States to examine the relationship between family structure and academic achievement. Astone and McLanahan’s work demonstrates that the effects of parental involvement on achievement and engagement vary by single-parent households, step-parent households, and biological-parent households.

Buchmann, Claudia, and Thomas A. DiPrete. 2006. The growing female advantage in college completion: The role of family background and academic achievement. American Sociological Review 71.4: 515–541.

DOI: 10.1177/000312240607100401 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article examines the causes related to the growing female advantage in college completion. Buchmann and DiPrete argue that parental education levels, presence of a father at home, academic performance, and declining gender discrimination influence female-favorable patterns in college completion.

Duncan, Greg, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, eds. 1997. Consequences of growing up poor . New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

This interdisciplinary text includes contributions from social scientists that examine the influence of economic deprivation on child development. Through the consideration of heterogeneous life experiences within low-income settings, the contributors posited several solutions. These policy considerations focus on child welfare, income supplements, and childcare subsidies.

Schneider, Barbara, and Linda J. Waite, eds. 2005. Being together, working apart: Dual-career families and the work-life balance . New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

This book, targeted toward academics, policymakers, and working parents, examines how families attempt to attain work-life balance by examining 500 dual-career families in eight communities across the United States.

Tate, William F., ed. 2012. Research on schools, neighborhoods, and communities: Toward civic responsibility . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

This book includes empirical and theoretical contributions from a diverse set of scholars who consider structural effects on schools. More specifically, the authors emphasize the relationship between geography and location on the social contexts of schools and the potential issues that students face, such as racial segregation, immigration, and college readiness.

At the frontline of education, teachers are a critical component in the educative process. As such, they have been the focal point of education research and policy. Cochran-Smith, et al. 2008 addresses big questions in teacher education, such as the purposes of teacher education. Goldstein 2014 documents the history of the teaching profession. Darling-Hammond 2000 provides a review of teacher policies in the United States and encourages investment in policies that improve teacher quality. Rivkin, et al. 2005 examines the impact of teacher quality on student achievement. Lankford, et al. 2002 explores the distribution of teacher quality across schools over time and finds that low-income and low-achieving schools often have the least-qualified teachers. Konstantopoulos and Chung 2011 examines the persistence of teacher effects and argues that cumulative effects of teaching are an important consideration in developing teacher policy. McKenzie and Santiago 2005 comparatively analyzes international data, documents the importance of teachers in education, and provides positive examples of teacher policy across different countries. Ingersoll 2001 reveals that, contrary to the notion, there is a shortage of qualified teachers and that teacher turnover and retention are due to an excess quantity of teachers. See also Ingersoll 2003 and the Carnegie Knowledge Network .

Carnegie Knowledge Network .

This website brings together statistical research and information on improving teacher quality through value-added systems. Its mission is to funnel and translate the research that is being conducted and to provide a community where these findings can be incorporated into policies and teacher evaluation systems that can improve student learning.

Cochran-Smith, Marilyn, Sharon Feiman-Nemser, D. John McIntyre, and Kelly E. Demers., eds. 2008. Handbook of research on teacher education: Enduring questions in changing contexts . 3d ed. New York: Routledge.

This handbook features texts that address the purposes of teacher education, what teachers should be taught, how teachers learn to teach effectively, and other questions prominent in the scope of teacher education and teacher training. This handbook is composed of framing chapters, commentaries, and artifacts, such as essays, speeches, and articles.

Darling-Hammond, Linda. 2000. Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives 8.1: 1–44.

DOI: 10.14507/epaa.v8n1.2000 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article examines how teacher qualifications and other school inputs are associated with student achievement in the United States. Using the Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS), the National Assessment of Education Progress, a state survey of policies, and case studies, the author obtains findings that suggest that policy investments in teacher quality may improve student performance.

Goldstein, Dana. 2014. The teacher wars: A history of America’s most embattled profession . New York: Penguin Random House.

Covering 175 years of American education, Goldstein traces the progression of the teaching profession from the 19th century onward. Goldstein’s work begins with the Common School Movement and ends with the data-driven approach of the new Millennium, highlighting policies that include the feminization of the teaching force, the rise of unions, and increased teacher accountability.

Ingersoll, Richard. 2001. Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational analysis. American Educational Research Journal 38.3: 499–534.

DOI: 10.3102/00028312038003499 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Ingersoll analyzes data from the SASS to understand factors related to the supply and retention of qualified teachers. Results show that staffing problems in schools are not related to a shortage of teachers. Data reveal that the demand for new teachers is driven by an excess of teachers leaving the profession, but not for retirement—creating a “revolving door” in and out of the classroom.

Ingersoll, Richard. 2003. Who controls teachers’ work? Power and accountability in America’s schools . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

This book describes the profession of teaching, examining if teachers are more similar to professionals or to factory workers in their autonomy, and if this influences their work. Ingersoll demonstrates that because of the nested nature of classrooms within schools, this influences the decision-making powers of the administration, district, and state—allowing teachers a certain degree of autonomy, but new federal and state policies could limit this autonomy.

Konstantopoulos, Spyros, and Vicki Chung. 2011. The persistence of teacher effects in elementary grades. American Educational Research Journal 48.2: 361–386.

DOI: 10.3102/0002831210382888 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors use data from Project STAR (Project Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio) to understand the persistence of teacher effects in elementary schools in the United States. The authors find that the effects of a teacher persist through sixth grade in mathematics, reading, and science. This suggests that cumulative effects of teachers may seriously impact student achievement.

Lankford, Hamilton, Susanna Loeb, and James Wyckoff. 2002. Teacher sorting and the plight of urban schools: A descriptive analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 24.1: 37–62.

DOI: 10.3102/01623737024001037 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Using New York State data, the authors first examine the variation in the average attributes of teachers across schools, identify schools with the least-qualified teachers, and assess the teacher distribution changes over time. The authors find that low-income, low-achieving New York City schools with high populations of nonwhite students often have the least-skilled teachers.

McKenzie, Phillip, and Paulo Santiago. 2005. Teachers matter: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers . Education and Training Policy. Paris: OECD.

This report was conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 2002–2004 and examines the role of teachers across twenty-five countries. The project illuminates concerns about teachers, teaching, and teacher policy. It also highlights positive policy examples that were shown to make a difference. Available online for purchase or by subscription.

Rivkin, Steven G., Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain. 2005. Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Econometrica 73.2: 417–458.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0262.2005.00584.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Using multiple measurements over time, the authors explore the impact of schools and teachers on student achievement in the United States. They argue that a higher-quality teacher can have a greater influence on achievement as opposed to a significant reduction in class size, underscoring the importance of teacher effectiveness.

Equity and Equality

The ideals of equity and equality in education are often the aim of social policies and educational reforms—providing access to a quality education for all students in the United States. However, gaps in educational achievement and attainment persist, particularly for children of color and for students from low-income families. To understand the struggles over the structure and effectiveness of the educational system in the United States, Labaree 1997 discusses the tensions surrounding the competing goals of the American education system. Rothstein 2004 explores the various causes of the achievement gaps in education. Duncan and Murnane 2011 investigates a range of research and policies in the United States that contribute to inequalities in education. Buchmann and Hannum 2001 reviews the literature on stratification in education in developing countries. Jencks 1972 examines the social composition of schools in America and argues that the social composition of a school is associated with student achievement. Grubb and Lazerson 2007 discusses how social forces and policies produce advantages and privileges that contribute to growing inequalities in the workforce. Darling-Hammond 2010 argues that academic gaps are the result of opportunity gaps experienced by low-income and minority students. DiPrete and Buchmann 2013 discusses the gender gap in higher education. See also the Education Trust and The Equality of Opportunity Project .

Buchmann, Claudia, and Emily Hannum. 2001. Education and stratification in developing countries: A review of theories and research. Annual Review of Sociology 27:77–102.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.77 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article is a review of the research on inequality in education in developing regions of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Through their examination of cross-national studies, Buchmann and Hannum discuss the use of new data sources in research and the opportunities for researchers to collaborate on similar studies across fields.

Darling-Hammond, Linda. 2010. The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future . Multicultural Education Series. New York: Teachers College Press.

With increasingly diverse student populations in the United States, schools are challenged to educate growing numbers of ethnic minorities and immigrants. This book describes how academic gaps are influenced by growing inequalities, particularly opportunity gaps experienced by low-income and minority students. Darling-Hammond discusses policy implications and reforms aimed at providing all students a more equitable education.

DiPrete, Thomas A., and Claudia Buchmann. 2013. The rise of women: The growing gender gap in education and what it means for American schools . New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

The authors provide useful explanations of changes in the school environment to understand the causes and the extent of the gender gap in higher education.

Duncan, Greg J., and Richard J. Murnane, eds. 2011. Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances . New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

In this edited volume, a team of researchers from multiple disciplines examines the factors related to inequality in education in the United States, including family resources, neighborhoods, and school conditions—from birth to primary and secondary school experiences through college completion. The contributors suggest that rising inequality may compromise how schools function in America.

Education Trust .

The mission of this organization is to “ensure students of color and low-income students, pre-K through college, have an equitable chance at a good education.” The organization’s website contains research summaries and policy reports on reforms for all age groups. The organization’s core values support effectively using student data, improving teaching practices, drafting policy recommendations, and improving access and persistence in higher education.

The Equality of Opportunity Project .

This project, led by a group of economists and other social scientists, aims to find the most effective ways to address chronic poverty through data analysis. Specifically, this project aims to address declining upward income mobility, and improve the ability of children to have a higher standard to living than their parents.

Grubb, W. Norton, and Marvin Lazerson. 2007. The education gospel: The economic power of schooling . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Grubb and Lazerson challenge the notion that more schooling for more people is the solution to our social and economic problems. The book describes a mismatch between academic preparation provided in schools and the skills required for the workforce, suggesting that reforms should be targeted at providing more meaningful alignment between high school and postsecondary goals.

Jencks, Christopher. 1972. Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America . New York: Basic Books.

This book examines the impact that schools have on reducing inequality among students. Multiple analyses of a myriad of factors related to academic achievement suggest that educational reform is limited in its capacity to address these larger social issues. Jencks argues that fundamental economic reform is necessary to address social inequality.

Labaree, David F. 1997. Public goods, private goods: The American struggle over educational goals. American Educational Research Journal 34.1: 39–81.

DOI: 10.3102/00028312034001039 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this article, the author presents three ideals of the American education system that have been the source of educational conflicts: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility. Labaree posits that because there is no consensus among these competing goals of education, the structure and effectiveness of the education system has been adversely affected.

Rothstein, Richard. 2004. Class and schools: Using social, economic, and educational reform to close the black-white achievement gap . Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute.

In this book, Rothstein analyzes various causes of the achievement gap, examining a broad range of research and literature on equality in education. This volume explores school factors as well as the impacts of health care, nutrition, parents, home, and community. The author also expands his arguments by including cognitive and soft skills (e.g., behavior) in his analysis.

The study of racial and ethnic diversity in education life focuses on understanding demographic trends for students and the experiences of the individual student. Carter 2013 argues that the cultural mismatch between teachers and students increases the achievement gap between majority and minority groups. Alexander, et al. 2011 examines the racial composition of schools and what happens to students over winter and summer breaks from school. The Brown v. Board of Education ruling declared separate but equal education unconstitutional. Cronin 2011 examines Boston Public Schools, with implications for urban school reform. Pattillo-McCoy 1999 explores the experiences of black middle-class families and how the black and white middle classes remain separate but unequal. Rumbaut and Portes 2001 , Gonzales 2016 , and Callahan and Muller 2013 describe the experiences and educational trajectories of the children of immigrants in the United States. Lastly, Kao and Tienda 1995 analyzes achievement differences between immigrant and native students in the United States and finds behavioral differences in parents that may explain variations in student achievement. See also Ferguson 2007 , Tyson 2011 , and Cronin 2011 .

Alexander, Karl, Entwisle, Doris, and Olson, Linda. 2011. The long shadow family background, disadvantaged urban youth, and the transition to adulthood . New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.

Using a longitudinal sample of elementary students in Baltimore, Maryland, the researchers examine reading comprehension growth during winter (in school) and summer (out of school) for black and white students across segregated and mixed-race schools. They find that white and black students across all schools make less than expected growth during the school year. In the summer, however, black students in segregated schools made significantly less reading growth during the summer compared to their counterparts in mixed-race schools, thus compounding during-school gaps in reading comprehension.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas , 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

This landmark US Supreme Court case overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896 to declare segregation, the separate schooling of black and white students, unconstitutional. The decision declared separate educational facilities as “inherently unequal,” but it did not set a protocol in place for the desegregation of schools.

Callahan, Rebecca, and Chandra Muller. 2013. Coming of political age: American schools and the civic development of immigrant youth . New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

In this book, Callahan and Muller examine how high schools play a role in integrating immigrant students’ civic participation using two large national surveys of adolescents and interviews data with social science teachers. The authors also expand their concerns to the high school civics curriculum and social science preparation of immigrant youth.

Carter, Prudence. 2013. Closing the opportunity gap: What America must do to give all children an even chance . Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199982981.001.0001 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Prudence Carter discusses how schools’ sociocultural environments and practices matter to student engagement and achievement. Carter posits that the cultural mismatch between students and educators hinders educators’ capacity to engage students’ effective learning, which increases the achievement gap between majority group and other minority groups (e.g., black, Latino, and Native American).

Cronin, Joseph. 2011. Reforming Boston schools, 1930 to the present: Overcoming corruption and racial segregation . Palgrave Studies in Urban Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

DOI: 10.1057/9780230340978 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This book provides a comprehensive history of reforms, politics, protests, and racial conflict in the Boston Public Schools. Examining segregation, busing, and white flight, Cronin explores what compels some parents to keep their students in their schools while others choose to leave. This analysis provides implications for the future of urban school reform.

Ferguson, Ronald F. 2007. Toward excellence with equity: An emerging vision for closing the achievement gap . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

This book summarizes fifteen years of research on the black-white achievement gap, looking at multiple factors and policies impacting racial disparities. Ferguson argues for a comprehensive, holistic approach, involving parents as key stakeholders in educational reforms to narrow gaps between black and white students.

Gonzales, Roberto G. 2016. Lives in limbo: Undocumented and coming of age in America . Oakland: Univ. of California Press.

Using ethnographic fieldwork and participant observation of 150 immigrants between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one, Gonzales investigates undocumented youths and their families in the K-12 system, as well as their job market participation. Gonzales also uncovers the aspirational differences between “college-goers” and “early exiters.” While different educational opportunities and aspirations were evident, ultimately, documentation status still determines younger people’s life chances from adolescence to adulthood.

Kao, Grace, and Marta Tienda. 1995. Optimism and achievement: The educational performance of immigrant youth. Social Science Quarterly 76.1: 1–19.

This study uses the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 to examine the impact of generational status on achievement and college aspirations of eighth graders. Kao and Tienda find that behavioral differences between native and immigrant parents help to explain variations in academic performance between these student groups.

Pattillo-McCoy, Mary. 1999. Black picket fences: Privilege and peril among the black middle class . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

This book explores the black middle class in the United States, examining the advantages and boundaries that exist for this group, drawing on a three-year ethnographic study in a Southside Chicago neighborhood. Pattillo-McCoy demonstrates how the black and white middle classes remain separate and unequal.

Rosenbaum, J. E. 2001. Beyond college-for-all: Career paths for the forgotten half . ASA Rose Monograph Series. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

This book focuses on this crisis in the American labor market. Rosenbaum describes findings from survey and interview data and argues that the absence of alignment in the perception and actions among students, educators, and employers is a problem in the United States. In contrast to countries such as Germany and Japan, misinformation, student disengagement, and lack of trust between schools and employers pose challenges to young adults in the society.

Rumbaut, Rubén G., and Alejandro Portes, eds. 2001. Ethnicities: Children of immigrants in America . Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.

This volume includes contributions by leading scholars of immigration and ethnicity who examine the lives and trajectories of the children of immigrants. The authors explore the rising second generation of immigrants growing up in the United States by focusing on youth of diverse national origins.

Tyson, Karolyn. 2011. Integration interrupted: Tracking, black students, and acting white after Brown. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199736447.001.0001 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This book draws on ten years of ethnographic data to explore the role of the school in creating the oppositional culture observed among black students in their efforts to avoid “acting white.” The author argues that school practices since desegregation, particularly regarding within-school curriculum tracking among black students, have served to perpetuate anti-academic behavior among black students.

Research on class-based variation in education examines how the social constraints of students and the structural opportunities available in education are related to the educational experiences and outcomes. One classic text that explores social class in education is Lareau 2000 , in which the author uses ethnographic data to understand social class differences in parenting in the United States. The author of Anyon 1981 uses several case studies to examine differences in social class across school settings. Reardon 2011 describes increasing income inequalities and how this growing gap contributes to differences in educational outcomes. Lastly, Baker, et al. 2002 explores differences in socioeconomic status, school quality, and economic development across developing countries.

Anyon, Jean. 1981. Social class and school knowledge. Curriculum Inquiry 11.1: 3–42.

DOI: 10.2307/1179509 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this article, Anyon analyzes data collected from case studies in five elementary schools in New Jersey and examines different social class settings. He argues that although the curriculum and materials were similar among the schools, their data suggest the social stratification of knowledge.

Baker, David P., Gerald K. LeTendre, and Brian Goesling. 2002. Socioeconomic status, school quality, and national economic development: A cross-national analysis of the “Heyneman-Loxley effect” on mathematics and science achievement. Comparative Education Review 46.3: 291–312.

DOI: 10.1086/341159 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Using 1990s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study data, the authors examine the “Heyneman-Loxley (HL) effect” that suggested that school factors were more important than family socioeconomic status in determining student achievement in developing countries. This reassessment found the association between student achievement and family background to be similar across countries in the study, regardless of national income, which suggests that the HL effect has been reduced as access to schooling has increased.

Lareau, Annette. 2000. Home advantage: Social class and parental intervention in elementary education . 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

This book discusses an ethnographic study that compares two elementary schools—one considered a working-class school and the other an upper-middle-class school, both in California. Lareau argues that parents from the working class are just as interested in their children’s education when compared to their counterparts; however, working-class parents are more likely to yield to the advice of teachers, guidance counselors, and other school professionals, who they regard as having special skills and insights.

Reardon, Sean F. 2011. The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In Whither opportunity? Rising inequality, schools, and children’s life chances . Edited by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane, 91–116. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

In this chapter, Reardon explores the achievement gap among students from different socioeconomic backgrounds. This study investigates several explanations for this widening gap among students from varying income levels by analyzing several different national longitudinal data sources.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 established that students requiring special education are exposed to the least restrictive educational environment in US schools. Osgood 2008 chronicles over 120 years of the history of special education. Lastly, Carroll and Muller 2018 discusses the history and outcomes of formal and informal curricular differentiation.

Carroll, Jamie, and Chandra Muller. 2018. Curricular differentiation and its impact on different status groups including immigrants and students with disabilities. In Handbook of sociology of education in the 21st century . Edited by Barbara Schneider and Guan Saw, 285–309. New York: Springer.

This chapter discusses the history of formal and informal curricular differentiation in US schools, highlighting the school outcomes (such as skill development and educational expectations) and non-school outcomes (such as health outcomes). Specifically, the chapter reports key findings on course-taking by race/ethnicity, gender, disability status, and immigrant status.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 101-476, 104 Stat. 1142 (2004).

This legislation ensures that students with a disability are provided with the least restrictive environment that meets their needs, determining how states and agencies provide early education, and special education services. IDEA includes procedures for determining who receives special education services, parental rights, and individualized education programs (IEPs).

Osgood, Robert. 2008. The history of special education: A struggle for equality in American public schools . Westport, CT: Praeger.

In this book, Robert L. Osgood documents the history of formal and informal special education settings in US public education by defining and characterizing special education, tracing the emergence of special education as a distinct department of public education, and discussing the status of children with disabilities as compared to their nondisabled peers.

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Essays on Education Policy

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This dissertation consists of three essays on the topic of education policy. In the first essay, I evaluate the impacts of a teacher quality equity law that was enacted in California in the fall of 2006 prohibiting superintendents from transferring a teacher into a school in the bottom three performance deciles of the state's academic performance index if the principal refuses the transfer. The primary mechanism through which the policy should affect student outcomes is through the mix of the quality of teachers in the school. Using publicly available statewide administrative education data, and two quasi-experimental methodologies, I assess whether the policy had an effect on the district-wide distribution of teachers with varying levels of experience, education and licensure and on student academic performance. I extend the analysis by examining whether the policy has differential effects on subgroups of schools classified as having high-poverty or high-minority student populations. I find that, as a result of the teacher quality equity law, low-performing schools experienced a relative increase in fully-credentialed teachers and more highly educated teachers, but that did not necessarily translate to an increase in academic performance. I also find evidence that the dimension along which the policy was most effective was in improving teacher pre-service qualifications in schools with high minority student populations.

In the second essay, I estimate racial, ethnic, gender and socioeconomic differences in teacher reports of student absenteeism and tardiness while controlling for administrative records of actual absences. Subjective perceptions that teachers form about students' classroom behaviors matter for student academic outcomes. Given this potential impact, it is important to identify any biases in these perceptions that would disadvantage subgroups of students. I use longitudinal data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 in conjunction with longitudinal, student-level data from the North Carolina Education Data Research Center to employ a variation of a two sample instrumental variables approach in which I instrument for actual eighth grade absences with simulated measures of eight grade absences. I find consistent evidence that teacher reports of the attendance of poor students are negatively biased and that math teacher reports of male attendance are positively biased. There is mixed evidence with regard to student race and ethnicity.

The third essay is a co-authored work in which we employ a quasi-experimental estimation strategy to examine the effects of state-level job losses on fourth- and eighth-grade test scores, using federal Mass Layoff Statistics and 1996-2009 National Assessment of Educational Progress data. Results indicate that job losses decrease scores. Effects are larger for eighth than fourth graders and for math than reading assessments, and are robust to specification checks. Job losses to 1 percent of a state's working-age population lead to a .076 standard deviation decrease in the state's eighth-grade math scores. This result is an order of magnitude larger than those found in previous studies that have compared students whose parents lose employment to otherwise similar students, suggesting that downturns affect all students, not just students who experience parental job loss. Our findings have important implications for accountability schemes: we calculate that a state experiencing one-year job losses to 2 percent of its workers (a magnitude observed in seven states) likely sees a 16 percent increase in the share of its schools failing to make Adequate Yearly Progress under No Child Left Behind.

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Francis, Dania Veronica (2013). Essays on Education Policy . Dissertation, Duke University. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10161/7176 .

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Dukes student scholarship is made available to the public using a Creative Commons Attribution / Non-commercial / No derivative (CC-BY-NC-ND) license .

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Essay on New Education Policy in 500 Words

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Dec 21, 2023

Essay on New Education Policy: Education policies are the rules and regulations implemented by the Central/ Federal and State Governments in their respective territories. The Ministry of Education implemented the New Education policy to make India a global hub of skilled manpower in the next 25 years; termed as ‘Amrit Kal.’ The Government aims to build a Developed India by 2047. The New Education Policy 2023 in India has replaced the three-decade-old policy and transformed the education system. The New Education Policy 2023 highlights the ‘Transformation is the Mantra’ for growth and prosperity. The New Education Policy will modernize the education system and the related laws and rules that govern the operation of the academic realm.

Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Arkansas led the nation sending letters home from school about obesity. did it help.

Kavitha Cardoza

Since Arkansas started sending the obesity letters to parents, the state's childhood obesity rates rose to nearly 24% from 21%. During the pandemic, the state obesity rate hit a high of more than 26%. M. Spencer Green/AP hide caption

LITTLE ROCK, Ark. — Sixth-grade boys were lining up to be measured in the Mann Arts and Science Magnet Middle School library. As they took off their shoes and emptied their pockets, they joked about being the tallest.

"It's an advantage," said one. "You can play basketball," said another. "A taller dude can get more girls!" a third student offered.

Everyone laughed. What they didn't joke about was their weight.

Anndrea Veasley, the school's registered nurse, had them stand one by one. One boy, Christopher, slumped as she measured his height. "Chin up slightly," she said. Then Veasley asked him to stand backward on a scale so he didn't see the numbers. She silently noted his height as just shy of 4 feet, 7 inches, and his weight as 115.6 pounds.

Lifesaving or stigmatizing? Parents wrestle with obesity treatment options for kids

His parents later would be among thousands to receive a letter beginning, "Many children in Arkansas have health problems caused by their weight." The letter includes each student's measurements as well as their calculated body mass index. The BMI number categorizes each child as "underweight," "normal," "overweight," or "obese." Christopher's BMI of 25.1 put him in the obese range.

In 2003, Arkansas became the first state to send home BMI reports about all students as part of a broader anti-obesity initiative. But in the 20 years since, the state's childhood obesity rates have risen to nearly 24% from 21%, reflecting a similar, albeit higher, trajectory than national rates. During the pandemic, the state obesity rate hit a high of more than 26%.

Still, at least 23 states followed Arkansas' lead and required height and weight assessments of students. Some have since scaled back their efforts after parents raised concerns.

One school district in Wyoming used to include a child's BMI score in report cards , a practice it has since stopped. Ohio allows districts to opt in, and last year just two of 611 school districts reported BMI information to the state. And Massachusetts stopped sending letters home . Even Arkansas changed its rules to allow parents to opt out.

Multiple studies have shown that these reports, or "fat letters" as they're sometimes mockingly called, have had no effect on weight loss. And some nutritionists, psychologists, and parents have criticized the letters, saying they can lead to weight stigma and eating disorders.

BMI as a tool has come under scrutiny, too, because it does not consider differences across racial and ethnic groups, sex, gender, and age. In 2023, the American Medical Association called the BMI "imperfect" and suggested it be used alongside other tools such as visceral fat measurements, body composition, and genetic factors.

All that highlights a question: What purpose do BMI school measurements and letters serve? Nearly 20% of American children were classified as obese just before the pandemic — up from only 5% some 50 years ago — and lockdowns made the problem worse. It's unclear what sorts of interventions might reverse the trend.

Joe Thompson, a pediatrician who helped create Arkansas' program and now leads the Arkansas Center for Health Improvement , said BMI letters are meant to be a screening tool, not a diagnostic test, to make parents aware if their child is at risk of developing serious health issues, such as heart disease, diabetes, and respiratory problems.

Sharing this information with them is critical, he said, given that many don't see it as a problem because obesity is so prevalent. Arkansas is also a rural state, so many families don't have easy access to pediatricians, he said.

Don't Focus On Kids' Weight Gain. Focus On Healthy Habits Instead

Thompson said he's heard from many parents who have acted on the letters. "To this day, they are still our strongest advocates," he said.

The program also led to new efforts to reduce obesity. Some school districts in Arkansas have instituted " movement breaks ," while others have added vegetable gardens , cooking classes , and walking trails . One district sought funding for bicycles . The state does not study whether these efforts are working.

Researchers say the BMI data also serves an important purpose in illuminating population-level trends , even if it isn't helpful to individuals.

Parents are generally supportive of weighing children in school, and the letters have helped increase their awareness of obesity, research shows. At the same time, few parents followed up with a health care provider or made changes to their child's diet or physical activity after getting a BMI letter, several other studies have found.

In what is considered the gold-standard study of BMI letters , published in 2020, researchers in California found that the letters home had no effect on students' weight. Hannah Thompson , a University of California-Berkeley assistant professor who co-authored the study, said most parents didn't even remember getting the letters. "It's such a tiny-touch behavioral intervention," she said.

Arkansas now measures all public school students in even grades annually — except for 12th graders because by that stage, the pediatrician Joe Thompson said, the students are "beyond the opportunities for schools to have an impact." The change also came after many boys in one school wore leg weights under their jeans as a prank, he said.

Kimberly Collins, 50, remembers being confused by the BMI letters sent to her from the Little Rock School District stating that all her children were overweight, and that one daughter was considered obese.

"It offended me as a mama," she said. "It made me feel like I wasn't doing my job."

She didn't think her children looked overweight and the family pediatrician had never brought it up as a concern.

Hannah Thompson, the researcher from California, said that's the biggest problem with BMI letters: Parents don't know what to do with the information. Without support to help change behavior, she said, the letters don't do much.

"You find out your child is asthmatic, and you can get an inhaler, right?" she said. "You find out that your child is overweight and where do you even go from there? What do you do?"

Kevin Gee , a professor at the University of California-Davis, who has studied BMI letters , said the mailings miss cultural nuances. In some communities, for example, people prefer their children to be heavier, associating it with comfort and happiness. Or some eat foods that they know aren't very nutritious but are an important way of expressing love and traditions.

"There's a lot of rich contextual pieces that we know influences rates of obesity," Gee said. "And so how do we balance that information?"

Collins' daughter, now 15, said that as she's grown older she increasingly feels uncomfortable about her weight. People stare at her and sometimes make comments. (Collins' mother asked that her daughter's name not be published because of her age and the sensitive nature of the subject.)

"On my birthday, I went to get my allergy shots and one of the nurses told me, 'You are getting chubbier,'" she said. "That didn't make me feel the best."

How Doctors Can Stop Stigmatizing — And Start Helping — Kids With Obesity

Collins said it pains her to see her soft-spoken daughter cover herself with her arms as if she's trying to hide. The teenager has also begun sneaking food and avoids the mirror by refusing to turn on the bathroom light, Collins said. The girl signed up for tennis but stopped after other children made fun of her, her mother said.

Looking back, Collins said, while she wishes she had paid more attention to the BMI letters, she also would have liked practical suggestions on what to do. Collins said she had already been following the short list of recommended healthy practices, including feeding her children fruits and vegetables and limiting screen time. She isn't sure what else she could have done.

Now everyone has an opinion on her daughter's weight, Collins said. One person told her to put a lock on the fridge. Another told her to buy vegan snacks. Her mother bought them a scale.

"It's a total uphill climb," Collins said with a sigh.

This article was produced as a part of a project for the Spencer Education Journalism Fellowship .

KFF Health News is a national newsroom that produces in-depth journalism about health issues and is one of the core operating programs at KFF — the independent source for health policy research, polling, and journalism.

Curmudgucation: TX: Using Computers To Make STAAR Test Worse

Computing, Technology, and Information Systems
High-Stakes Testing and Evaluation

There are several fundamental problems with trying to use standardized testing on a large scale (say, assessing every student in the state). One is the tension between turnaround time and quality. The quickest tests to score are those based on multipole choice questions; however, multiple choice questions are not a particularly good measure of student learning. Essay questions are an excellent tool for letting students show what they know, but they are super time consuming to score.

So we have the undying dream of test manufacturers, the dream of a computer program that can assess student writing accurately. It's a fantasy, a technology that, like self-driving cars, is always right around the corner. And like self-driving cars, the imperfected not-really-functional tech keeps getting purchased by folks who succumb to the sales pitch. Add Texas to the list of suckers and Texas students to the list of victims.

The trouble with software

I've been writing about the shortcomings of these programs for a decade ( here , here , here , here , and here , for starters).

There are a variety of technical problems, including the software's ability to recognize whether the content of the answer is bunk or not. Did Hitler fight in the Civil War? Your computer does not "know."

The "solution" is "training" the software on the particular question for which it's assessing answers, but that is essentially teaching the software that a good answer looks like these sample good answers it has viewed, which in turn sets some narrow parameters for what students can write.

Computers are good at recognizing patterns, but that recognition is based on what their trainers show them, like the facial recognition programs that can't see Black faces because they were trained on white ones. When Ohio did quick pivot to computer-scored essays, it trained its software on essays that did not use the classic "recycle the prompt as your topic sentence" technique used by many teachers (in response to the old algorithm), and a whole lot of students failed. Who is doing the software training and how are they doing it--these are critical questions.

The shift is subtle but important--the software can't tell you if the written answer is good, but it can tell you if it closely resembles the examples that the software has been told are good ones.

Which hints at the philosophical issue here. Using computer scoring fundamentally changes the task. Instead of making a good faith effort to communicate information to another human being, the student is now tasked with trying to meet the requirements of the software.

I took a look at how things were going in various states in 2021 . Not well, is the short answer. A favorite dodge is to say that roboscoring works as well as human scoring, but the trick here is to train human scorers to follow a narrow algorithm cemented with examples of how to apply it--in other words, to teach humans to score the essays as a computer would.

The trouble with STAAR

Texas's Big Standardized Test is the STAAR (which does not stand for Some Tests Are Always Ridiculous or maybe Should Throw Away Any Results or even Stupid Tests' Asses Are Raggedy). And the STAAR has a troubled history including technical glitches and questions without correct answers and just losing crates of answer sheets and just not working. Or is not aligned with state standards . And after many years, still glitch like crazy .

A big STAAR highlight is covered in this piece by poet Sara Holbrook , a poet who discovered that A) her own work was being used on the STAAR test and B) she couldn't answer some of the questions about her own work.

After several years of struggling, STAAR went fully on line last year, which could only make the idea of roboscoring written portions more attractive.

So now what

"Constructed responses" will now be scored mostly by computer , an "automated scoring engine." 25% will then be routed past human beings. Spanish language tests will be human scored.

Human scorers will be trained to use the rubrics with practice sets, then required to display their machine-like precision "by successfully completing a qualification set." Short answer responses (SCR) are scored on 0-1 or 0-2 rubric. The long answer questions (ECR) are scored "using an item-specific 5-point rubric that identifies scores based on two traits—development and organization of ideas (up to 3 points) and language conventions (up to 2 points)."

Which raises two questions--who decided that conventions should count for 40%, and how will an algorithm assess development and organization of ideas?

The ASE is trained on student responses and human scores from the field-test data. It is trained to emulate how humans would score student responses for each constructed-response question...

As part of the training process, the ASE calculates confidence values that indicate the degree to which the ASE is confident the score it has assigned matches the score a human would assign. The ASE also identifies student responses that should receive condition codes. Condition codes indicate that a response is blank, uses too few words, uses mostly duplicated text, is written in another language, consists primarily of stimulus material, uses vocabulary that does not overlap with the vocabulary in the subset of responses used to train the ASE, or uses language patterns that are reflective of off-topic or off-task responses.

Emphasis mine. So, "doesn't sufficiently mimic the essay the program was trained on" is a problem on the same order as "left the page blank."

Education professor Duncan Klussman commented, “What we don’t wanna do is have a system that moves to completely formulaic writing. Like ‘If I write exactly this way, I get the highest score,'” but that's exactly what you get.

Well, that's what you get once you adapt teaching to fit the algorithm. Last year when the STAAR test went on line, 54% of Houston fourth graders scored a zero on the written portion. Previously, pre-online STAAR, the number was 5%. So did fourth graders turn stupid, or did the test requirements change in ways that teaching hasn't adapted to yet (believe it or not, the director of the state's assessment development division says it's not that second one, but "it really is the population of testers much more than anything else.")

All of this matters a great deal in a state where schools are still graded largely on student results from the BS Test.

The Dallas News asked a few experts, including my hero and friend of the institute Les Perelman, an absolute authority in the many failings of roboscoring. Perelman notes that having humans backstop only 25% of the writing responses was "inherently unequal," which is an understatement. Imagine telling a class, "Okay, I'm going to actually look at the essays from 25% of you; the rest will just get whatever the computer says."

Perelman also notes that machine scoring

“teaches students to be bad writers,” with teachers incentivized to instruct children on how to write to a computer rather than to a human. The problem, he said, is machines are “really stupid” when it comes to ideas.

Exactly. Computer-assessed grading remains a faster, cheaper way to enshrine the same hallmarks of bad writing that standardized tests were already promoting.

But TEA officials are sure they've got everything under control. They've "worked with their assessment vendors" who are Pearson, the well-known 800 pound gorilla of ed tech moneymaking, and Cambium, a sprawling octopus of education-flavored businesses ( you can get a taste of their sprawl here ). It might have been nice to have worked with actual educators, even to the tony extent of letting them know what was coming rather than just rolling this out quietly.

Peter Foltz, professor at University of Colorado at Boulder, reassured the Dallas News that it's not easy to coach students how to game a scoring engine. I doubt it. We learned how to game the algorithm in PA when it was applied by humans, and that transferred just fine to roboscorers. All we had to do was replace some actual writing instruction with writing for the test instruction.

Foltz also said that automated scorers must be built with strong guardrails, and that just takes me back to when self-driving car manufacturers remind drivers of self-driving cars , "When using Autopilot, drivers are continuously reminded of their responsibility to keep their hands on the wheel and maintain control of the vehicle at all times."

You know what's better than guardrails and safeguards to protect us from the many ways in which software fails to do the job that it is supposed to do but actually can't? Not using software to do a job that it actually can't.

I'm sure that Cambium and Pearson smell big bucks. Folks at TEA may even smell a way to erase some of STAAR's sad history by being all shiny and new (a thing they presumably new because the sales force from Pearson and Cambium have told them so). But this is a bad idea. Bad for schools, bad for education, bad for writing, bad for students. Bad.

This blog post has been shared by permission from the author. Readers wishing to comment on the content are encouraged to do so via the link to the original post. Find the original post here:

The views expressed by the blogger are not necessarily those of NEPC.

Peter Greene

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Dear Colleague Letter: Enhancing STEM Education, Research Capacity, and Workforce Development in Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) Jurisdictions

April 11, 2024

Dear Colleague:

In alignment with the CHIPS and Science Act of 2022, the U.S. National Science Foundation's Directorate for STEM Education (EDU) affirms its commitment to support science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, research capacity, workforce development, and professional development within institutions in Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR) eligible jurisdictions. Through this Dear Colleague Letter (DCL), EDU encourages new proposal submissions to EDU programs and supplemental funding requests to existing EDU awards led by institutions in the 28 EPSCoR jurisdictions (see list below). In order to achieve this, EDU seeks increased accessibility to the ideas, opportunities, and tools of STEM education and research for students, educators, researchers, communities at all levels and in all settings (both formal and informal), and by the public in EPSCoR jurisdictions, which historically receive less STEM education funding than other regions of the country.

The mission of EDU is to achieve excellence in U.S. STEM education; to support the development of a diverse and well-prepared workforce of scientists, technicians, engineers, mathematicians, and educators; and to strengthen a well-informed citizenry. This DCL is aligned with this mission by expanding the geographic and institutional reach of EDU investments in EPSCoR jurisdictions that will enhance and support untapped STEM innovation, instructional talent, and robust and rigorous research on teaching and learning in STEM education. Focused attention in these areas is likely to stimulate private sector investments in these jurisdictions and, importantly, greater equity in STEM education and economic development throughout the Nation. The EDU mission is intentionally seeking broader institutional inclusion that may catalyze STEM education, scientific discovery, and workforce development in EPSCoR jurisdictions, improving the quality of life of all citizens and the health, prosperity, welfare, and security of the nation.

Proposal submissions and supplemental funding requests should address one or more of the following EDU goals:

Prepare the next generation of STEM professionals and attract and retain more Americans to STEM careers.
Develop a robust research community that can conduct rigorous research and evaluation that will support excellence in STEM education and that integrates research and education.
Increase the technological, scientific, and quantitative literacy of all Americans so that they can successfully participate in every realm of citizenship, living productive lives in an increasingly technological society.
Broaden participation (e.g., individuals, geographic regions, types of institutions, and STEM disciplines) and close achievement gaps in all STEM fields.

EPSCoR-eligible jurisdictions (FY2024-FY2027) include Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Delaware, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Vermont, US Virgin Islands, West Virginia, and Wyoming. These jurisdictions have demonstrated a commitment to enhance their research capacity and improve the quality of STEM research yet have historically received little federal research and development funding. Pub. L. No. 100-570, 102 Stat. 2865 sets forth a jurisdiction's eligibility for EPSCoR funding. Please visit the EPSCoR website for more information

All Four Divisions in the Directorate for STEM Education (EDU) are participating in this DCL:

Division of Equity for Excellence in STEM (EES) serves as a focal point for NSF's agency-wide commitment to enhancing the quality and excellence of STEM education, STEM education research, and STEM research through expanding participation by individuals from historically underrepresented groups – racial/ethnic minorities, women, and persons with disabilities. Priority is placed on investments that promise innovation and transformative strategies and that focus on creating and testing models that ensure the full participation of and provide opportunities for the educators, researchers, and institutions dedicated to serving these populations. For EES program information, please see the Division's webpage . Division of Research on Learning in Formal and Informal Settings (DRL) invests in the improvement of STEM learning for people of all ages and backgrounds by promoting innovative research, development, and evaluation of learning and teaching across all STEM disciplines in formal and informal learning settings. It is the only Division at NSF that focuses exclusively on preK-12 STEM education in formal schooling environments and learning outside of school (e.g., television, film, radio, exhibitions, Artificial Intelligence, etc.). For DRL program information, please see the Division's webpage . Division of Undergraduate Education (DUE) aims to promote excellence in undergraduate STEM education for all students. The Division accomplishes its mission through a variety of programs that constitute a comprehensive approach to strengthening STEM education at two- and four-year colleges and universities by improving curricula, instruction, laboratories, infrastructure, assessment, diversity of students and faculty, and collaborations. For DUE program information, please see the Division's webpage . Division of Graduate Education (DGE) advocates for innovative, inclusive, high quality graduate education in STEM fields. DGE manages innovative cross-Foundation programs that directly or indirectly support U.S. citizens and permanent residents in their quest to become the leading scientists and engineers of the future. To better inform its programs, DGE supports research and other activities that will generation exciting new ideas for graduate education of the future. For DGE program information, please see the Division's webpage .

PROPOSAL AND SUPPLEMENTAL FUNDING REQUEST PREPARATION INSTRUCTIONS

New Proposals

New proposals must be prepared and submitted to an EDU program within one of the divisions named above. Proposers must follow the guidance in the NSF Proposal & Award Policies & Procedures Guide (PAPPG) and must adhere to the due dates (if applicable) and guidance specified in the relevant program solicitation, program announcement, or program description to which the proposal will be submitted.

For new proposals, in addition to the proposal types specified in the relevant program solicitation, program announcement, or program description, proposers may also consider the following additional proposal types specified in the PAPPG and below. See Chapter II.F of the PAPPG for more information.

EArly Concept Grants for Exploratory Research (EAGER) Proposals
Planning Proposals
Rapid Response Research (RAPID) Proposals
Conference Proposals
EDU is especially interested in conference proposals seeking to host NSF funding and informational workshops for single or multiple EPSCoR jurisdictions.

Proposers are encouraged to discuss proposal concepts with the relevant program before submission.

SUPPLEMENTAL FUNDING REQUESTS

For supplemental funding requests, approval must be obtained from the cognizant NSF Program Director for the original award prior to submission of the supplemental funding request. The email confirming approval to submit must be uploaded as a Supplementary Document in the proposal.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Partnerships among EPSCoR jurisdictions are encouraged but not required.

EDU plans to conduct outreach and information dissemination, which will be accessible online at https://new.nsf.gov/edu to all eligible institutions, which includes 2- and 4-year institutions of higher education, community-based organizations, and informal STEM providers.

For general inquiries regarding this DCL please forward your inquiry to [email protected] .

James L. Moore III Assistant Director Directorate for STEM Education

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Essay on New Education Policy 2020
Similarly, education plays a great role in the national development of a nation. As we are facing a major change in terms of knowledge globally, the Government of India approved the National Education Policy 2020. This essay on new education policy 2020 will help you learn how this new policy has replaced the National Education Policy 1986 that ...
Essay on New Education Policy (NEP)
200 Words Essay on New Education Policy. The New National Education Policy has had a really revolutionary impact on the Indian educational system. After 34 years of our education policy following the same standards without change, the Ministry of Education (formerly known as MHRD) made some significant changes to it on July 29, 2020.
National Education Policy 2020: Key Highlights
Important Highlights of National Education Policy 2020. New Policy aims for Universalization of Education from preschool to secondary level with 100 % GER in school education by 2030. NEP 2020 will bring 2 crore out-of-school children back into the mainstream. New 5+3+3+4 school curriculum with 12 years of schooling and 3 years of Anganwadi ...
National Education Policy (NEP) 2020
The new National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, is a good policy as it aims at making the education system holistic, flexible, multidisciplinary, aligned to the needs of the 21 st century and the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. The intent of policy seems to be ideal in many ways but it is the implementation where lies the key to success.
PDF A Critical Analysis of the National Education Policy 2020: Implications
The National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020) is a comprehensive reform policy introduced by the Government of India to transform the education system and address the evolving needs of the country. This policy aims to revolutionize the education landscape by promoting a holistic and multidisciplinary approach, emphasizing skill development ...
National Education Policy, 2020
Why in News. Recently, the Union Cabinet has approved the new National Education Policy (NEP), 2020 with an aim to introduce several changes in the Indian education system - from the school to college level.. The NEP 2020 aims at making "India a global knowledge superpower".; The Cabinet has also approved the renaming of the Ministry of Human Resource Development to the Ministry of Education.
Educational Policy, Its Strengths and Weaknesses Essay
According to UNESCO (2013), educational policy is the set of key goals and priorities that the government intends to achieve or pursue education. It is apparent that this definition presupposes the creation of a plan to achieve the goal; also, the priorities can be viewed as the values to be maintained, and UNESCO (2013) states that policy is ...
National Education Policy (NEP 2020)
The Union Cabinet has approved the new National Education Policy 2020 with an aim to introduce several changes in the Indian education system - from the school to the college level. Its aims at making "India a global knowledge superpower". The Cabinet has also approved the renaming of the Ministry of Human Resource Development to the ...
Full article: National Education Policy: How does it Affect Higher
The new National Education Policy (NEP) announced by the government has come after a 34 years of waiting. The NEP is timely and futuristic in its approach and has the potential to transform the Indian educational system into a "new normal". The emphasis in NEP on promoting critical thinking, encouraging competency and making learning ...
New Education Policy
First new education policy in 34 years has been brought out. The union Cabinet gave its nod to the new policy recently. The aim of the National Education Policy 2020 is to create an education system which is deeply rooted in Indian ethos and can rebuild India as a global knowledge superpower, by providing high-quality education to all.
Essay on National Education Policy in English (2024)
New Education Policy 2020 Essay 150 Words. It is the aim of this new policy to have universal educational coverage from preschool to secondary school level in order to achieve the goal of a 100% GRE (Gross Enrollment Ratio) in schooling by the year 2030. The purpose of this essay on the new education policy 2020 is to highlight the changes ...
Essay on New Education Policy
The new education policy is centred on the holistic development of students. The 5+3+3+4 structure, which requires 12 years of schooling and three years of preschool, replaces the 10+2 system and provides children with schooling experience at a younger age. The exams will be taken only by students in grades 3, 5, and 8; all other students will ...
PDF National Education Policy-2020: Issues and Challenges
The National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020), which was approved by the Union Cabinet of India on 29 July 2020, outlines the vision of India's new education system. The new policy replaces the previous National Policy on Education, 1986. The policy is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher education as well as vocational ...
Education policies and strategies
Education policy working papers. This series documents experiences of countries in the area of education policy development and system strengthening. Explore. Planipolis, by UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. Planipolis is a portal of national education plans and policies, key education frameworks and monitoring report. It ...
The History of Educational Policy and Governance
Even though educational ideas may reach transnational proportions, the dimensions of political culture have specific gravity in local policy implementation. This chapter details the important questions addressed in educational governance and policies with historical examples of how different local and national communities faced challenges and ...
Education Policy in the United States
Introduction. Examining educational policy through a sociological lens allows for a deeper understanding of the educational process—both of the individual and of the organization. Sociologists study the provision of education, including policies created at various levels of government, the implementation of these policies, and the outcomes ...
(PDF) National Education Policy 2020: A key towards ...
After 34. years, a new education policy has been proposed by the Indian government in the year 2020. (Pawan Kalyani, 2020). This National Education Policy 2020 is the first education policy of ...
PDF A Review on National Education Policy 2020
"A Review on National Education Policy 2020." Mr. Pavan Ramchandra Manurkar. B.Com. M.Com, MBA, SET (Commerce), SET (Management), PhD (Pursuing) Academic Advisor, Deccan Education Society's Chintamanrao College of Commerce, Sangli. Abstract: - This study titled "A review of National Education Policy 2020 is an earnest effort to study the
Essays on Education Policy
This dissertation consists of three essays on the topic of education policy. In the first essay, I evaluate the impacts of a teacher quality equity law that was enacted in California in the fall of 2006 prohibiting superintendents from transferring a teacher into a school in the bottom three performance deciles of the state's academic performance index if the principal refuses the transfer.
Policy Briefs
Policy Briefs synthesize existing research knowledge on a policy or practice issue of importance. Written in language an interested non-expert would find accessible, policy briefs answer the questions: "What is the research evidence related to a given policy or practice option - and what policy recommendations follow from that evidence?" Policy Briefs are blind peer reviewed. NEPC ...
PDF National Education Policy 2020: Opportunities and Challenges ...
national education policy in India was put into effect in 1968, the second in 1986, and it was further modified in 1992. In March 2019, the Dr. K Kasturirangan Committee issued the draught of the national ... implementing the numerous policies outlined in the National Education Policy 2020 in this essay. Smitha (2020), in her article ...
Essay on New Education Policy in 500 Words
Essay on New Education Policy: Education policies are the rules and regulations implemented by the Central/ Federal and State Governments in their respective territories. The Ministry of Education implemented the New Education policy to make India a global hub of skilled manpower in the next 25 years; termed as 'Amrit Kal.'The Government aims to build a Developed India by 2047.
Larry Cuban on School Reform and Classroom Practice: Why Do School
National commissions issue reports and a consensus-what David Tyack and I have called "policy talk"-begins to grow about what the real problems are and which solutions are politically feasible. Here is where elites frame the problem and very often point to improving schools as a solution (e.g., The Nation at Risk, 1983).
Free Essay: National policy on education
7. This policy links religion and education with new initiatives in cultural rebirth (the. African Renaissance), moral regeneration, and the promotion of values in our schools. Religion can play a significant role in preserving our heritage, respecting our diversity, and building a future based on progressive values. 8.
Arkansas led the nation in measuring obesity in kids. Did it help ...
About 20 years ago, Arkansas started weighing children in school and sending home letters to try to combat obesity. Even though obesity rates only have risen, many other states picked up the policy.
Curmudgucation: TX: Using Computers To Make STAAR Test Worse
Essay questions are an excellent tool for letting students show what they know, but they are super time consuming to score. So we have the undying dream of test manufacturers, the dream of a computer program that can assess student writing accurately. ... National Education Policy Center School of Education University of Colorado Boulder, CO ...
Dear Colleague Letter: Enhancing STEM Education, Research ...
April 11, 2024. Dear Colleague: In alignment with the CHIPS and Science Act of 2022, the U.S. National Science Foundation's Directorate for STEM Education (EDU) affirms its commitment to support science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, research capacity, workforce development, and professional development within institutions in Established Program to Stimulate ...
Teachers are using AI to grade essays. Students are using AI to write
Meanwhile, while fewer faculty members used AI, the percentage grew to 22% of faculty members in the fall of 2023, up from 9% in spring 2023. Teachers are turning to AI tools and platforms ...