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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

  • Independent and Dependent Variables
  • Purpose of Guide
  • Design Flaws to Avoid
  • Glossary of Research Terms
  • Reading Research Effectively
  • Narrowing a Topic Idea
  • Broadening a Topic Idea
  • Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
  • Academic Writing Style
  • Applying Critical Thinking
  • Choosing a Title
  • Making an Outline
  • Paragraph Development
  • Research Process Video Series
  • Executive Summary
  • The C.A.R.S. Model
  • Background Information
  • The Research Problem/Question
  • Theoretical Framework
  • Citation Tracking
  • Content Alert Services
  • Evaluating Sources
  • Primary Sources
  • Secondary Sources
  • Tiertiary Sources
  • Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
  • Qualitative Methods
  • Quantitative Methods
  • Insiderness
  • Using Non-Textual Elements
  • Limitations of the Study
  • Common Grammar Mistakes
  • Writing Concisely
  • Avoiding Plagiarism
  • Footnotes or Endnotes?
  • Further Readings
  • Generative AI and Writing
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Definitions

Dependent Variable The variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These variables are expected to change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is the presumed effect.

Independent Variable The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. It refers to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. It is the presumed cause.

Cramer, Duncan and Dennis Howitt. The SAGE Dictionary of Statistics . London: SAGE, 2004; Penslar, Robin Levin and Joan P. Porter. Institutional Review Board Guidebook: Introduction . Washington, DC: United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2010; "What are Dependent and Independent Variables?" Graphic Tutorial.

Identifying Dependent and Independent Variables

Don't feel bad if you are confused about what is the dependent variable and what is the independent variable in social and behavioral sciences research . However, it's important that you learn the difference because framing a study using these variables is a common approach to organizing the elements of a social sciences research study in order to discover relevant and meaningful results. Specifically, it is important for these two reasons:

  • You need to understand and be able to evaluate their application in other people's research.
  • You need to apply them correctly in your own research.

A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way. The best way to understand the difference between a dependent and independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by what the words tell us about the variable you are using. You can do this with a simple exercise from the website, Graphic Tutorial. Take the sentence, "The [independent variable] causes a change in [dependent variable] and it is not possible that [dependent variable] could cause a change in [independent variable]." Insert the names of variables you are using in the sentence in the way that makes the most sense. This will help you identify each type of variable. If you're still not sure, consult with your professor before you begin to write.

Fan, Shihe. "Independent Variable." In Encyclopedia of Research Design. Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2010), pp. 592-594; "What are Dependent and Independent Variables?" Graphic Tutorial; Salkind, Neil J. "Dependent Variable." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2010), pp. 348-349;

Structure and Writing Style

The process of examining a research problem in the social and behavioral sciences is often framed around methods of analysis that compare, contrast, correlate, average, or integrate relationships between or among variables . Techniques include associations, sampling, random selection, and blind selection. Designation of the dependent and independent variable involves unpacking the research problem in a way that identifies a general cause and effect and classifying these variables as either independent or dependent.

The variables should be outlined in the introduction of your paper and explained in more detail in the methods section . There are no rules about the structure and style for writing about independent or dependent variables but, as with any academic writing, clarity and being succinct is most important.

After you have described the research problem and its significance in relation to prior research, explain why you have chosen to examine the problem using a method of analysis that investigates the relationships between or among independent and dependent variables . State what it is about the research problem that lends itself to this type of analysis. For example, if you are investigating the relationship between corporate environmental sustainability efforts [the independent variable] and dependent variables associated with measuring employee satisfaction at work using a survey instrument, you would first identify each variable and then provide background information about the variables. What is meant by "environmental sustainability"? Are you looking at a particular company [e.g., General Motors] or are you investigating an industry [e.g., the meat packing industry]? Why is employee satisfaction in the workplace important? How does a company make their employees aware of sustainability efforts and why would a company even care that its employees know about these efforts?

Identify each variable for the reader and define each . In the introduction, this information can be presented in a paragraph or two when you describe how you are going to study the research problem. In the methods section, you build on the literature review of prior studies about the research problem to describe in detail background about each variable, breaking each down for measurement and analysis. For example, what activities do you examine that reflect a company's commitment to environmental sustainability? Levels of employee satisfaction can be measured by a survey that asks about things like volunteerism or a desire to stay at the company for a long time.

The structure and writing style of describing the variables and their application to analyzing the research problem should be stated and unpacked in such a way that the reader obtains a clear understanding of the relationships between the variables and why they are important. This is also important so that the study can be replicated in the future using the same variables but applied in a different way.

Fan, Shihe. "Independent Variable." In Encyclopedia of Research Design. Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2010), pp. 592-594; "What are Dependent and Independent Variables?" Graphic Tutorial; “Case Example for Independent and Dependent Variables.” ORI Curriculum Examples. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Research Integrity; Salkind, Neil J. "Dependent Variable." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2010), pp. 348-349; “Independent Variables and Dependent Variables.” Karl L. Wuensch, Department of Psychology, East Carolina University [posted email exchange]; “Variables.” Elements of Research. Dr. Camille Nebeker, San Diego State University.

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Research Variables 101

Independent variables, dependent variables, control variables and more

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) | January 2023

If you’re new to the world of research, especially scientific research, you’re bound to run into the concept of variables , sooner or later. If you’re feeling a little confused, don’t worry – you’re not the only one! Independent variables, dependent variables, confounding variables – it’s a lot of jargon. In this post, we’ll unpack the terminology surrounding research variables using straightforward language and loads of examples .

Overview: Variables In Research

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What (exactly) is a variable?

The simplest way to understand a variable is as any characteristic or attribute that can experience change or vary over time or context – hence the name “variable”. For example, the dosage of a particular medicine could be classified as a variable, as the amount can vary (i.e., a higher dose or a lower dose). Similarly, gender, age or ethnicity could be considered demographic variables, because each person varies in these respects.

Within research, especially scientific research, variables form the foundation of studies, as researchers are often interested in how one variable impacts another, and the relationships between different variables. For example:

  • How someone’s age impacts their sleep quality
  • How different teaching methods impact learning outcomes
  • How diet impacts weight (gain or loss)

As you can see, variables are often used to explain relationships between different elements and phenomena. In scientific studies, especially experimental studies, the objective is often to understand the causal relationships between variables. In other words, the role of cause and effect between variables. This is achieved by manipulating certain variables while controlling others – and then observing the outcome. But, we’ll get into that a little later…

The “Big 3” Variables

Variables can be a little intimidating for new researchers because there are a wide variety of variables, and oftentimes, there are multiple labels for the same thing. To lay a firm foundation, we’ll first look at the three main types of variables, namely:

  • Independent variables (IV)
  • Dependant variables (DV)
  • Control variables

What is an independent variable?

Simply put, the independent variable is the “ cause ” in the relationship between two (or more) variables. In other words, when the independent variable changes, it has an impact on another variable.

For example:

  • Increasing the dosage of a medication (Variable A) could result in better (or worse) health outcomes for a patient (Variable B)
  • Changing a teaching method (Variable A) could impact the test scores that students earn in a standardised test (Variable B)
  • Varying one’s diet (Variable A) could result in weight loss or gain (Variable B).

It’s useful to know that independent variables can go by a few different names, including, explanatory variables (because they explain an event or outcome) and predictor variables (because they predict the value of another variable). Terminology aside though, the most important takeaway is that independent variables are assumed to be the “cause” in any cause-effect relationship. As you can imagine, these types of variables are of major interest to researchers, as many studies seek to understand the causal factors behind a phenomenon.

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what is dependent variable in research methodology

What is a dependent variable?

While the independent variable is the “ cause ”, the dependent variable is the “ effect ” – or rather, the affected variable . In other words, the dependent variable is the variable that is assumed to change as a result of a change in the independent variable.

Keeping with the previous example, let’s look at some dependent variables in action:

  • Health outcomes (DV) could be impacted by dosage changes of a medication (IV)
  • Students’ scores (DV) could be impacted by teaching methods (IV)
  • Weight gain or loss (DV) could be impacted by diet (IV)

In scientific studies, researchers will typically pay very close attention to the dependent variable (or variables), carefully measuring any changes in response to hypothesised independent variables. This can be tricky in practice, as it’s not always easy to reliably measure specific phenomena or outcomes – or to be certain that the actual cause of the change is in fact the independent variable.

As the adage goes, correlation is not causation . In other words, just because two variables have a relationship doesn’t mean that it’s a causal relationship – they may just happen to vary together. For example, you could find a correlation between the number of people who own a certain brand of car and the number of people who have a certain type of job. Just because the number of people who own that brand of car and the number of people who have that type of job is correlated, it doesn’t mean that owning that brand of car causes someone to have that type of job or vice versa. The correlation could, for example, be caused by another factor such as income level or age group, which would affect both car ownership and job type.

To confidently establish a causal relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable (i.e., X causes Y), you’ll typically need an experimental design , where you have complete control over the environmen t and the variables of interest. But even so, this doesn’t always translate into the “real world”. Simply put, what happens in the lab sometimes stays in the lab!

As an alternative to pure experimental research, correlational or “ quasi-experimental ” research (where the researcher cannot manipulate or change variables) can be done on a much larger scale more easily, allowing one to understand specific relationships in the real world. These types of studies also assume some causality between independent and dependent variables, but it’s not always clear. So, if you go this route, you need to be cautious in terms of how you describe the impact and causality between variables and be sure to acknowledge any limitations in your own research.

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What is a control variable?

In an experimental design, a control variable (or controlled variable) is a variable that is intentionally held constant to ensure it doesn’t have an influence on any other variables. As a result, this variable remains unchanged throughout the course of the study. In other words, it’s a variable that’s not allowed to vary – tough life 🙂

As we mentioned earlier, one of the major challenges in identifying and measuring causal relationships is that it’s difficult to isolate the impact of variables other than the independent variable. Simply put, there’s always a risk that there are factors beyond the ones you’re specifically looking at that might be impacting the results of your study. So, to minimise the risk of this, researchers will attempt (as best possible) to hold other variables constant . These factors are then considered control variables.

Some examples of variables that you may need to control include:

  • Temperature
  • Time of day
  • Noise or distractions

Which specific variables need to be controlled for will vary tremendously depending on the research project at hand, so there’s no generic list of control variables to consult. As a researcher, you’ll need to think carefully about all the factors that could vary within your research context and then consider how you’ll go about controlling them. A good starting point is to look at previous studies similar to yours and pay close attention to which variables they controlled for.

Of course, you won’t always be able to control every possible variable, and so, in many cases, you’ll just have to acknowledge their potential impact and account for them in the conclusions you draw. Every study has its limitations , so don’t get fixated or discouraged by troublesome variables. Nevertheless, always think carefully about the factors beyond what you’re focusing on – don’t make assumptions!

 A control variable is intentionally held constant (it doesn't vary) to ensure it doesn’t have an influence on any other variables.

Other types of variables

As we mentioned, independent, dependent and control variables are the most common variables you’ll come across in your research, but they’re certainly not the only ones you need to be aware of. Next, we’ll look at a few “secondary” variables that you need to keep in mind as you design your research.

  • Moderating variables
  • Mediating variables
  • Confounding variables
  • Latent variables

Let’s jump into it…

What is a moderating variable?

A moderating variable is a variable that influences the strength or direction of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. In other words, moderating variables affect how much (or how little) the IV affects the DV, or whether the IV has a positive or negative relationship with the DV (i.e., moves in the same or opposite direction).

For example, in a study about the effects of sleep deprivation on academic performance, gender could be used as a moderating variable to see if there are any differences in how men and women respond to a lack of sleep. In such a case, one may find that gender has an influence on how much students’ scores suffer when they’re deprived of sleep.

It’s important to note that while moderators can have an influence on outcomes , they don’t necessarily cause them ; rather they modify or “moderate” existing relationships between other variables. This means that it’s possible for two different groups with similar characteristics, but different levels of moderation, to experience very different results from the same experiment or study design.

What is a mediating variable?

Mediating variables are often used to explain the relationship between the independent and dependent variable (s). For example, if you were researching the effects of age on job satisfaction, then education level could be considered a mediating variable, as it may explain why older people have higher job satisfaction than younger people – they may have more experience or better qualifications, which lead to greater job satisfaction.

Mediating variables also help researchers understand how different factors interact with each other to influence outcomes. For instance, if you wanted to study the effect of stress on academic performance, then coping strategies might act as a mediating factor by influencing both stress levels and academic performance simultaneously. For example, students who use effective coping strategies might be less stressed but also perform better academically due to their improved mental state.

In addition, mediating variables can provide insight into causal relationships between two variables by helping researchers determine whether changes in one factor directly cause changes in another – or whether there is an indirect relationship between them mediated by some third factor(s). For instance, if you wanted to investigate the impact of parental involvement on student achievement, you would need to consider family dynamics as a potential mediator, since it could influence both parental involvement and student achievement simultaneously.

Mediating variables can explain the relationship between the independent and dependent variable, including whether it's causal or not.

What is a confounding variable?

A confounding variable (also known as a third variable or lurking variable ) is an extraneous factor that can influence the relationship between two variables being studied. Specifically, for a variable to be considered a confounding variable, it needs to meet two criteria:

  • It must be correlated with the independent variable (this can be causal or not)
  • It must have a causal impact on the dependent variable (i.e., influence the DV)

Some common examples of confounding variables include demographic factors such as gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, education level, and health status. In addition to these, there are also environmental factors to consider. For example, air pollution could confound the impact of the variables of interest in a study investigating health outcomes.

Naturally, it’s important to identify as many confounding variables as possible when conducting your research, as they can heavily distort the results and lead you to draw incorrect conclusions . So, always think carefully about what factors may have a confounding effect on your variables of interest and try to manage these as best you can.

What is a latent variable?

Latent variables are unobservable factors that can influence the behaviour of individuals and explain certain outcomes within a study. They’re also known as hidden or underlying variables , and what makes them rather tricky is that they can’t be directly observed or measured . Instead, latent variables must be inferred from other observable data points such as responses to surveys or experiments.

For example, in a study of mental health, the variable “resilience” could be considered a latent variable. It can’t be directly measured , but it can be inferred from measures of mental health symptoms, stress, and coping mechanisms. The same applies to a lot of concepts we encounter every day – for example:

  • Emotional intelligence
  • Quality of life
  • Business confidence
  • Ease of use

One way in which we overcome the challenge of measuring the immeasurable is latent variable models (LVMs). An LVM is a type of statistical model that describes a relationship between observed variables and one or more unobserved (latent) variables. These models allow researchers to uncover patterns in their data which may not have been visible before, thanks to their complexity and interrelatedness with other variables. Those patterns can then inform hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships among those same variables which were previously unknown prior to running the LVM. Powerful stuff, we say!

Latent variables are unobservable factors that can influence the behaviour of individuals and explain certain outcomes within a study.

Let’s recap

In the world of scientific research, there’s no shortage of variable types, some of which have multiple names and some of which overlap with each other. In this post, we’ve covered some of the popular ones, but remember that this is not an exhaustive list .

To recap, we’ve explored:

  • Independent variables (the “cause”)
  • Dependent variables (the “effect”)
  • Control variables (the variable that’s not allowed to vary)

If you’re still feeling a bit lost and need a helping hand with your research project, check out our 1-on-1 coaching service , where we guide you through each step of the research journey. Also, be sure to check out our free dissertation writing course and our collection of free, fully-editable chapter templates .

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What Is a Dependent Variable?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

what is dependent variable in research methodology

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

what is dependent variable in research methodology

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  • Independent vs. Dependent
  • Selection Features

Frequently Asked Questions

The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment. This is different than the independent variable , which is a variable that stands on its own. For example, in a study looking at how tutoring impacts test scores, the dependent variable would be the participants' test scores since that is what is being measured and the independent variable would be tutoring.

Learn how to tell the difference between dependent and independent variables . We also share how dependent variables are selected in research and a few examples to increase your understanding of how these variables are used in real-life studies.

The dependent variable is called "dependent" because it is thought to depend, in some way, on the variations of the independent variable.

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

In a psychology experiment , researchers study how changes in one variable (the independent variable) change another variable (the dependent variable). Manipulating independent variables and measuring the effect on dependent variables allows researchers to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships.

These experiments can range from simple to quite complicated, so it can sometimes be a bit confusing to know how to identify the independent vs. dependent variables. Here are a couple of questions to ask to help you learn which is which.

Which Variable Is the Experimenter Measuring?

Keep in mind that the dependent variable is the one being measured. So, if the experiment is trying to see how one variable affects another, the variable that is being affected is the dependent variable.

In many psychology experiments and studies, the dependent variable is a measure of a certain aspect of a participant's behavior . In an experiment looking at how sleep affects test performance, for instance, the dependent variable would be test performance.

One way to help identify the dependent variable is to remember that it depends on the independent variable. When researchers make changes to the independent variable, they then measure any changes to the dependent variable.

Which Variable Does the Experimenter Manipulate?

The independent variable is "independent" because the experimenters are free to vary it as they need. This might mean changing the amount, duration, or type of variable that the participants in the study receive as a treatment or condition.

For example, it's common for treatment-based studies to have some subjects receive a certain treatment while others receive no treatment at all (often called a sham or placebo treatment ). In this case, the treatment is an independent variable because it is the one being manipulated or changed.

Variable being manipulated

Doesn't change based on other variables

Stands on its own

Variable being measured

May change based on other variables

Depends on other variables

How to Choose a Dependent Variable

How do researchers determine what will be a good dependent variable? There are a few key features a scientist might consider.

Stability is often a good sign of a higher-quality dependent variable. If the experiment is repeated with the same participants, conditions, and experimental manipulations, the effects on the dependent variable should be very close to what they were the first time around.

A researcher might also choose dependent variables based on the complexity of their study. While some studies only have one dependent variable and one independent variable, it is possible to have several of each type.

Researchers might also want to learn how changes in a single independent variable affect several dependent variables. For example, imagine an experiment where a researcher wants to learn how the messiness of a room influences people's creativity levels .

This research might also want to see how the messiness of a room might influence a person's mood. The messiness of a room would be the independent variable and the study would have two dependent variables: level of creativity and mood.

Ability to Operationalize

Operationalization is defined as "translating a construct into its manifestation." In simple terms, it refers to how a variable will be measured. So, a good dependent variable is one that you are able to measure.

If measuring burnout , for instance, researchers might decide to use the Maslach Burnout Inventory. If measuring depression, they could use the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9).

Dependent Variable Examples

When learning to identify the dependent variables in an experiment, it can be helpful to look at examples. Here are just a few dependent variable examples in psychology research .

  • How does the amount of time spent studying influence test scores? The test scores would be the dependent variable and the amount of studying would be the independent variable. The researcher could also change the independent variable by instead evaluating how age or gender influences test scores.
  • How does stress influence memory? The dependent variable might be scores on a memory test and the independent variable might be exposure to a stressful task.
  • How does a specific therapeutic technique influence the symptoms of psychological disorders ? In this case, the dependent variable might be defined as the severity of the symptoms a patient is experiencing, while the independent variable would be the use of a specific therapy method .
  • Does listening to classical music help students perform better on a math exam? The scores on the math exams are the dependent variable and classical music is the independent variable.
  • How long does it take people to respond to different sounds? The length of time it takes participants to respond to a sound is the dependent variable, while the sounds are the independent variable.
  • Do first-born children learn to speak at a younger age than second-born children? In this example, the dependent variable is the age at which the child learns to speak and the independent variable is whether the child is first- or second-born.
  • How does alcohol use influence reaction time while driving? The amount of alcohol a participant ingests is the independent variable, while their performance on the driving test is the dependent variable.

Understanding what a dependent variable is and how it is used can be helpful for interpreting different types of research that you encounter in different settings. When trying to determine which variables are which, remember that the independent variables are the cause while the dependent variables are the effect.

The dependent variable depends on the independent variable. Thus, if the independent variable changes, the dependent variable would likely change too.

The dependent variable is placed on a graph's y-axis. This is the vertical line or the line that extends upward. The independent variable is placed on the graph's x-axis or the horizontal line.

The dependent variable is the one being measured. If looking at how a lack of sleep affects mental health , for instance, mental health is the dependent variable. In a study that seeks to find the effects of supplements on mood , the participants' mood is the dependent variable.

A controlled variable is a variable that doesn't change during the experiment. This enables researchers to assess the relationship between the dependent and independent variables more accurately. For example, if trying to assess the impact of drinking green tea on memory, researchers might ask subjects to drink it at the same time of day. This would be a controlled variable.

U.S. National Library of Medicine. Dependent and independent variables .

Steingrimsdottir HS, Arntzen E. On the utility of within-participant research design when working with patients with neurocognitive disorders .  Clin Interv Aging . 2015;10:1189-1199. doi:10.2147/CIA.S81868

Kaliyadan F, Kulkarni V. Types of variables, descriptive statistics, and sample size .  Indian Dermatol Online J . 2019;10(1):82-86. doi:10.4103/idoj.IDOJ_468_18

Flannelly LT, Flannelly KJ, Jankowski KR. Independent, dependent, and other variables in healthcare and chaplaincy research . J Health Care Chaplain . 2014;20(4):161-70. doi:10.1080/08854726.2014.959374

Weiten W.  Psychology: themes and variations . 

Kantowitz BH, Roediger HL, Elmes DG. Experimental psychology .

Vassar M, Matthew H. The retrospective chart review: important methodological considerations . J Educ Eval Health Prof . 2013;10:12. doi:10.3352/jeehp.2013.10.12

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Independent and Dependent Variables

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

In research, a variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted in experimental investigations . One is called the dependent variable, and the other is the independent variable.

In research, the independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect, while the dependent variable is the measured outcome. Essentially, the independent variable is the presumed cause, and the dependent variable is the observed effect.

Variables provide the foundation for examining relationships, drawing conclusions, and making predictions in research studies.

variables2

Independent Variable

In psychology, the independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates or changes and is assumed to directly affect the dependent variable.

It’s considered the cause or factor that drives change, allowing psychologists to observe how it influences behavior, emotions, or other dependent variables in an experimental setting. Essentially, it’s the presumed cause in cause-and-effect relationships being studied.

For example, allocating participants to drug or placebo conditions (independent variable) to measure any changes in the intensity of their anxiety (dependent variable).

In a well-designed experimental study , the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental (e.g., treatment) and control (e.g., placebo) groups.

By changing the independent variable and holding other factors constant, psychologists aim to determine if it causes a change in another variable, called the dependent variable.

For example, in a study investigating the effects of sleep on memory, the amount of sleep (e.g., 4 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours) would be the independent variable, as the researcher might manipulate or categorize it to see its impact on memory recall, which would be the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

In psychology, the dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment and is “dependent” on the independent variable.

In psychology, a dependent variable represents the outcome or results and can change based on the manipulations of the independent variable. Essentially, it’s the presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship being studied.

An example of a dependent variable is depression symptoms, which depend on the independent variable (type of therapy).

In an experiment, the researcher looks for the possible effect on the dependent variable that might be caused by changing the independent variable.

For instance, in a study examining the effects of a new study technique on exam performance, the technique would be the independent variable (as it is being introduced or manipulated), while the exam scores would be the dependent variable (as they represent the outcome of interest that’s being measured).

Examples in Research Studies

For example, we might change the type of information (e.g., organized or random) given to participants to see how this might affect the amount of information remembered.

In this example, the type of information is the independent variable (because it changes), and the amount of information remembered is the dependent variable (because this is being measured).

Independent and Dependent Variables Examples

For the following hypotheses, name the IV and the DV.

1. Lack of sleep significantly affects learning in 10-year-old boys.

IV……………………………………………………

DV…………………………………………………..

2. Social class has a significant effect on IQ scores.

DV……………………………………………….…

3. Stressful experiences significantly increase the likelihood of headaches.

4. Time of day has a significant effect on alertness.

Operationalizing Variables

To ensure cause and effect are established, it is important that we identify exactly how the independent and dependent variables will be measured; this is known as operationalizing the variables.

Operational variables (or operationalizing definitions) refer to how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study. This enables another psychologist to replicate your research and is essential in establishing reliability (achieving consistency in the results).

For example, if we are concerned with the effect of media violence on aggression, then we need to be very clear about what we mean by the different terms. In this case, we must state what we mean by the terms “media violence” and “aggression” as we will study them.

Therefore, you could state that “media violence” is operationally defined (in your experiment) as ‘exposure to a 15-minute film showing scenes of physical assault’; “aggression” is operationally defined as ‘levels of electrical shocks administered to a second ‘participant’ in another room.

In another example, the hypothesis “Young participants will have significantly better memories than older participants” is not operationalized. How do we define “young,” “old,” or “memory”? “Participants aged between 16 – 30 will recall significantly more nouns from a list of twenty than participants aged between 55 – 70” is operationalized.

The key point here is that we have clarified what we mean by the terms as they were studied and measured in our experiment.

If we didn’t do this, it would be very difficult (if not impossible) to compare the findings of different studies to the same behavior.

Operationalization has the advantage of generally providing a clear and objective definition of even complex variables. It also makes it easier for other researchers to replicate a study and check for reliability .

For the following hypotheses, name the IV and the DV and operationalize both variables.

1. Women are more attracted to men without earrings than men with earrings.

I.V._____________________________________________________________

D.V. ____________________________________________________________

Operational definitions:

I.V. ____________________________________________________________

2. People learn more when they study in a quiet versus noisy place.

I.V. _________________________________________________________

D.V. ___________________________________________________________

3. People who exercise regularly sleep better at night.

Can there be more than one independent or dependent variable in a study?

Yes, it is possible to have more than one independent or dependent variable in a study.

In some studies, researchers may want to explore how multiple factors affect the outcome, so they include more than one independent variable.

Similarly, they may measure multiple things to see how they are influenced, resulting in multiple dependent variables. This allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the topic being studied.

What are some ethical considerations related to independent and dependent variables?

Ethical considerations related to independent and dependent variables involve treating participants fairly and protecting their rights.

Researchers must ensure that participants provide informed consent and that their privacy and confidentiality are respected. Additionally, it is important to avoid manipulating independent variables in ways that could cause harm or discomfort to participants.

Researchers should also consider the potential impact of their study on vulnerable populations and ensure that their methods are unbiased and free from discrimination.

Ethical guidelines help ensure that research is conducted responsibly and with respect for the well-being of the participants involved.

Can qualitative data have independent and dependent variables?

Yes, both quantitative and qualitative data can have independent and dependent variables.

In quantitative research, independent variables are usually measured numerically and manipulated to understand their impact on the dependent variable. In qualitative research, independent variables can be qualitative in nature, such as individual experiences, cultural factors, or social contexts, influencing the phenomenon of interest.

The dependent variable, in both cases, is what is being observed or studied to see how it changes in response to the independent variable.

So, regardless of the type of data, researchers analyze the relationship between independent and dependent variables to gain insights into their research questions.

Can the same variable be independent in one study and dependent in another?

Yes, the same variable can be independent in one study and dependent in another.

The classification of a variable as independent or dependent depends on how it is used within a specific study. In one study, a variable might be manipulated or controlled to see its effect on another variable, making it independent.

However, in a different study, that same variable might be the one being measured or observed to understand its relationship with another variable, making it dependent.

The role of a variable as independent or dependent can vary depending on the research question and study design.

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independent vs dependent variables

Independent vs Dependent Variables: Definitions & Examples

A variable is an important element of research. It is a characteristic, number, or quantity of any category that can be measured or counted and whose value may change with time or other parameters.  

Variables are defined in different ways in different fields. For instance, in mathematics, a variable is an alphabetic character that expresses a numerical value. In algebra, a variable represents an unknown entity, mostly denoted by a, b, c, x, y, z, etc. In statistics, variables represent real-world conditions or factors. Despite the differences in definitions, in all fields, variables represent the entity that changes and help us understand how one factor may or may not influence another factor.  

Variables in research and statistics are of different types—independent, dependent, quantitative (discrete or continuous), qualitative (nominal/categorical, ordinal), intervening, moderating, extraneous, confounding, control, and composite. In this article we compare the first two types— independent vs dependent variables .  

Table of Contents

What is a variable?  

Researchers conduct experiments to understand the cause-and-effect relationships between various entities. In such experiments, the entities whose values change are called variables. These variables describe the relationships among various factors and help in drawing conclusions in experiments. They help in understanding how some factors influence others. Some examples of variables include age, gender, race, income, weight, etc.   

As mentioned earlier, different types of variables are used in research. Of these, we will compare the most common types— independent vs dependent variables . The independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect, that is, independent variables influence dependent variables. In research, a dependent variable is the outcome of interest of the study and the independent variable is the factor that may influence the outcome. Let’s explain this with an independent and dependent variable example : In a study to analyze the effect of antibiotic use on microbial resistance, antibiotic use is the independent variable and microbial resistance is the dependent variable because antibiotic use affects microbial resistance.( 1)  

What is an independent variable?  

Here is a list of the important characteristics of independent variables .( 2,3)  

  • An independent variable is the factor that is being manipulated in an experiment.  
  • In a research study, independent variables affect or influence dependent variables and cause them to change.  
  • Independent variables help gather evidence and draw conclusions about the research subject.  
  • They’re also called predictors, factors, treatment variables, explanatory variables, and input variables.  
  • On graphs, independent variables are usually placed on the X-axis.  
  • Example: In a study on the relationship between screen time and sleep problems, screen time is the independent variable because it influences sleep (the dependent variable).  
  • In addition, some factors like age are independent variables because other variables such as a person’s income will not change their age.  

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Types of independent variables  

Independent variables in research are of the following two types:( 4)  

Quantitative  

Quantitative independent variables differ in amounts or scales. They are numeric and answer questions like “how many” or “how often.”  

Here are a few quantitative independent variables examples :  

  • Differences in treatment dosages and frequencies: Useful in determining the appropriate dosage to get the desired outcome.  
  • Varying salinities: Useful in determining the range of salinity that organisms can tolerate.  

Qualitative  

Qualitative independent variables are non-numerical variables.  

A few qualitative independent variables examples are listed below:  

  • Different strains of a species: Useful in identifying the strain of a crop that is most resistant to a specific disease.  
  • Varying methods of how a treatment is administered—oral or intravenous.  

A quantitative variable is represented by actual amounts and a qualitative variable by categories or groups.  

What is a dependent variable ?  

Here are a few characteristics of dependent variables: ( 3)  

  • A dependent variable represents a quantity whose value depends on the independent variable and how it is changed.  
  • The dependent variable is influenced by the independent variable under various circumstances.  
  • It is also known as the response variable and outcome variable.  
  • On graphs, dependent variables are placed on the Y-axis.  

Here are a few dependent variable examples :  

  • In a study on the effect of exercise on mood, the dependent variable is mood because it may change with exercise.  
  • In a study on the effect of pH on enzyme activity, the enzyme activity is the dependent variable because it changes with changing pH.   

Types of dependent variables  

Dependent variables are of two types:( 5)  

Continuous dependent variables

These variables can take on any value within a given range and are measured on a continuous scale, for example, weight, height, temperature, time, distance, etc.  

Categorical or discrete dependent variables

These variables are divided into distinct categories. They are not measured on a continuous scale so only a limited number of values are possible, for example, gender, race, etc.  

what is dependent variable in research methodology

Differences between independent and dependent variables  

The following table compares independent vs dependent variables .  

     
How to identify  Manipulated or controlled  Observed or measured 
Purpose  Cause or predictor variable  Outcome or response variable 
Relationship  Independent of other variables  Influenced by the independent variable 
Control  Manipulated or assigned by researcher  Measured or observed during experiments 

Independent and dependent variable examples  

Listed below are a few examples of research questions from various disciplines and their corresponding independent and dependent variables.( 6)

       
Genetics  What is the relationship between genetics and susceptibility to diseases?  genetic factors  susceptibility to diseases 
History  How do historical events influence national identity?  historical events  national identity 
Political science  What is the effect of political campaign advertisements on voter behavior?  political campaign advertisements  voter behavior 
Sociology  How does social media influence cultural awareness?  social media exposure  cultural awareness 
Economics  What is the impact of economic policies on unemployment rates?  economic policies  unemployment rates 
Literature  How does literary criticism affect book sales?  literary criticism  book sales 
Geology  How do a region’s geological features influence the magnitude of earthquakes?  geological features  earthquake magnitudes 
Environment  How do changes in climate affect wildlife migration patterns?  climate changes  wildlife migration patterns 
Gender studies  What is the effect of gender bias in the workplace on job satisfaction?  gender bias  job satisfaction 
Film studies  What is the relationship between cinematographic techniques and viewer engagement?  cinematographic techniques  viewer engagement 
Archaeology  How does archaeological tourism affect local communities?  archaeological techniques  local community development 

  Independent vs dependent variables in research  

Experiments usually have at least two variables—independent and dependent. The independent variable is the entity that is being tested and the dependent variable is the result. Classifying independent and dependent variables as discrete and continuous can help in determining the type of analysis that is appropriate in any given research experiment, as shown in the table below. ( 7)  

   
   
    Chi-Square  t-test 
Logistic regression  ANOVA 
Phi  Regression 
Cramer’s V  Point-biserial correlation 
  Logistic regression  Regression 
Point-biserial correlation  Correlation 

  Here are some more research questions and their corresponding independent and dependent variables. ( 6)  

     
What is the impact of online learning platforms on academic performance?  type of learning  academic performance 
What is the association between exercise frequency and mental health?  exercise frequency  mental health 
How does smartphone use affect productivity?  smartphone use  productivity levels 
Does family structure influence adolescent behavior?  family structure  adolescent behavior 
What is the impact of nonverbal communication on job interviews?  nonverbal communication  job interviews 

  How to identify independent vs dependent variables  

In addition to all the characteristics of independent and dependent variables listed previously, here are few simple steps to identify the variable types in a research question.( 8)  

  • Keep in mind that there are no specific words that will always describe dependent and independent variables.  
  • If you’re given a paragraph, convert that into a question and identify specific words describing cause and effect.  
  • The word representing the cause is the independent variable and that describing the effect is the dependent variable.  

Let’s try out these steps with an example.  

A researcher wants to conduct a study to see if his new weight loss medication performs better than two bestseller alternatives. He wants to randomly select 20 subjects from Richmond, Virginia, aged 20 to 30 years and weighing above 60 pounds. Each subject will be randomly assigned to three treatment groups.  

To identify the independent and dependent variables, we convert this paragraph into a question, as follows: Does the new medication perform better than the alternatives? Here, the medications are the independent variable and their performances or effect on the individuals are the dependent variable.  

what is dependent variable in research methodology

Visualizing independent vs dependent variables  

Data visualization is the graphical representation of information by using charts, graphs, and maps. Visualizations help in making data more understandable by making it easier to compare elements, identify trends and relationships (among variables), among other functions.  

Bar graphs, pie charts, and scatter plots are the best methods to graphically represent variables. While pie charts and bar graphs are suitable for depicting categorical data, scatter plots are appropriate for quantitative data. The independent variable is usually placed on the X-axis and the dependent variable on the Y-axis.  

Figure 1 is a scatter plot that depicts the relationship between the number of household members and their monthly grocery expenses. 9 The number of household members is the independent variable and the expenses the dependent variable. The graph shows that as the number of members increases the expenditure also increases.  

scatter plot

Key takeaways   

Let’s summarize the key takeaways about independent vs dependent variables from this article:  

  • A variable is any entity being measured in a study.  
  • A dependent variable is often the focus of a research study and is the response or outcome. It depends on or varies with changes in other variables.  
  • Independent variables cause changes in dependent variables and don’t depend on other variables.  
  • An independent variable can influence a dependent variable, but a dependent variable cannot influence an independent variable.  
  • An independent variable is the cause and dependent variable is the effect.  

Frequently asked questions  

  • What are the different types of variables used in research?  

The following table lists the different types of variables used in research.( 10)  

     
Categorical  Measures a construct that has different categories  gender, race, religious affiliation, political affiliation 
Quantitative  Measures constructs that vary by degree of the amount  weight, height, age, intelligence scores 
Independent (IV)  Measures constructs considered to be the cause  Higher education (IV) leads to higher income (DV) 
Dependent (DV)  Measures constructs that are considered the effect  Exercise (IV) will reduce anxiety levels (DV) 
Intervening or mediating (MV)  Measures constructs that intervene or stand in between the cause and effect  Incarcerated individuals are more likely to have psychiatric disorder (MV), which leads to disability in social roles 
Confounding (CV)  “Rival explanations” that explain the cause-and-effect relationship  Age (CV) explains the relationship between increased shoe size and increase in intelligence in children 
Control variable   Extraneous variables whose influence can be controlled or eliminated  Demographic data such as gender, socioeconomic status, age 

 2. Why is it important to differentiate between independent vs dependent variables ?  

  Differentiating between independent vs dependent variables is important to ensure the correct application in your own research and also the correct understanding of other studies. An incorrectly framed research question can lead to confusion and inaccurate results. An easy way to differentiate is to identify the cause and effect.  

 3. How are independent and dependent variables used in non-experimental research?  

  So far in this article we talked about variables in relation to experimental research, wherein variables are manipulated or measured to test a hypothesis, that is, to observe the effect on dependent variables. Let’s examine non-experimental research and how variable are used. 11 In non-experimental research, variables are not manipulated but are observed in their natural state. Researchers do not have control over the variables and cannot manipulate them based on their research requirements. For example, a study examining the relationship between income and education level would not manipulate either variable. Instead, the researcher would observe and measure the levels of each variable in the sample population. The level of control researchers have is the major difference between experimental and non-experimental research. Another difference is the causal relationship between the variables. In non-experimental research, it is not possible to establish a causal relationship because other variables may be influencing the outcome.  

  4. Are there any advantages and disadvantages of using independent vs dependent variables ?

  Here are a few advantages and disadvantages of both independent and dependent variables.( 12)

Advantages: 

  • Dependent variables are not liable to any form of bias because they cannot be manipulated by researchers or other external factors.  
  • Independent variables are easily obtainable and don’t require complex mathematical procedures to be observed, like dependent variables. This is because researchers can easily manipulate these variables or collect the data from respondents.  
  • Some independent variables are natural factors and cannot be manipulated. They are also easily obtainable because less time is required for data collection.

Disadvantages: 

  • Obtaining dependent variables is a very expensive and effort- and time-intensive process because these variables are obtained from longitudinal research by solving complex equations.  
  • Independent variables are prone to researcher and respondent bias because they can be manipulated, and this may affect the study results.  

We hope this article has provided you with an insight into the use and importance of independent vs dependent variables , which can help you effectively use variables in your next research study.    

  • Kaliyadan F, Kulkarni V. Types of variables, descriptive statistics, and sample size. Indian Dermatol Online J. 2019 Jan-Feb; 10(1): 82–86. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6362742/  
  • What Is an independent variable? (with uses and examples). Indeed website. Accessed March 11, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-independent-variable  
  • Independent and dependent variables: Differences & examples. Statistics by Jim website. Accessed March 10, 2024. https://statisticsbyjim.com/regression/independent-dependent-variables/  
  • Independent variable. Biology online website. Accessed March 9, 2024. https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/independent-variable#:~:text=The%20independent%20variable%20in%20research,how%20many%20or%20how%20often .  
  • Dependent variables: Definition and examples. Clubz Tutoring Services website. Accessed March 10, 2024. https://clubztutoring.com/ed-resources/math/dependent-variable-definitions-examples-6-7-2/  
  • Research topics with independent and dependent variables. Good research topics website. Accessed March 12, 2024. https://goodresearchtopics.com/research-topics-with-independent-and-dependent-variables/  
  • Levels of measurement and using the correct statistical test. Univariate quantitative methods. Accessed March 14, 2024. https://web.pdx.edu/~newsomj/uvclass/ho_levels.pdf  
  • Easiest way to identify dependent and independent variables. Afidated website. Accessed March 15, 2024. https://www.afidated.com/2014/07/how-to-identify-dependent-and.html  
  • Choosing data visualizations. Math for the people website. Accessed March 14, 2024. https://web.stevenson.edu/mbranson/m4tp/version1/environmental-racism-choosing-data-visualization.html  
  • Trivedi C. Types of variables in scientific research. Concepts Hacked website. Accessed March 15, 2024. https://conceptshacked.com/variables-in-scientific-research/  
  • Variables in experimental and non-experimental research. Statistics solutions website. Accessed March 14, 2024. https://www.statisticssolutions.com/variables-in-experimental-and-non-experimental-research/#:~:text=The%20independent%20variable%20would%20be,state%20instead%20of%20manipulating%20them .  
  • Dependent vs independent variables: 11 key differences. Formplus website. Accessed March 15, 2024. https://www.formpl.us/blog/dependent-independent-variables

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Dependent vs. Independent Variables in Research

what is dependent variable in research methodology

Introduction

Independent and dependent variables in research, can qualitative data have independent and dependent variables.

Experiments rely on capturing the relationship between independent and dependent variables to understand causal patterns. Researchers can observe what happens when they change a condition in their experiment or if there is any effect at all.

It's important to understand the difference between the independent variable and dependent variable. We'll look at the notion of independent and dependent variables in this article. If you are conducting experimental research, defining the variables in your study is essential for realizing rigorous research .

what is dependent variable in research methodology

In experimental research, a variable refers to the phenomenon, person, or thing that is being measured and observed by the researcher. A researcher conducts a study to see how one variable affects another and make assertions about the relationship between different variables.

A typical research question in an experimental study addresses a hypothesized relationship between the independent variable manipulated by the researcher and the dependent variable that is the outcome of interest presumably influenced by the researcher's manipulation.

Take a simple experiment on plants as an example. Suppose you have a control group of plants on one side of a garden and an experimental group of plants on the other side. All things such as sunlight, water, and fertilizer being equal, both plants should be expected to grow at the same rate.

Now imagine that the plants in the experimental group are given a new plant fertilizer under the assumption that they will grow faster. Then you will need to measure the difference in growth between the two groups in your study.

In this case, the independent variable is the type of fertilizer used on your plants while the dependent variable is the rate of growth among your plants. If there is a significant difference in growth between the two groups, then your study provides support to suggest that the fertilizer causes higher rates of plant growth.

what is dependent variable in research methodology

What is the key difference between independent and dependent variables?

The independent variable is the element in your study that you intentionally change, which is why it can also be referred to as the manipulated variable.

You manipulate this variable to see how it might affect the other variables you observe, all other factors being equal. This means that you can observe the cause and effect relationships between one independent variable and one or multiple dependent variables.

Independent variables are directly manipulated by the researcher, while dependent variables are not. They are "dependent" because they are affected by the independent variable in the experiment. Researchers can thus study how manipulating the independent variable leads to changes in the main outcome of interest being measured as the dependent variable.

Note that while you can have multiple dependent variables, it is challenging to establish research rigor for multiple independent variables. If you are making so many changes in an experiment, how do you know which change is responsible for the outcome produced by the study? Studying more than one independent variable would require running an experiment for each independent variable to isolate its effects on the dependent variable.

This being said, it is certainly possible to employ a study design that involves multiple independent and dependent variables, as is the case with what is called a factorial experiment. For example, a psychological study examining the effects of sleep and stress levels on work productivity and social interaction would have two independent variables and two dependent variables, respectively.

Such a study would be complex and require careful planning to establish the necessary research rigor , however. If possible, consider narrowing your research to the examination of one independent variable to make it more manageable and easier to understand.

Independent variable examples

Let's consider an experiment in the social studies. Suppose you want to determine the effectiveness of a new textbook compared to current textbooks in a particular school.

The new textbook is supposed to be better, but how can you prove it? Besides all the selling points that the textbook publisher makes, how do you know if the new textbook is any good? A rigorous study examining the effects of the textbook on classroom outcomes is in order.

The textbook given to students makes up the independent variable in your experimental study. The shift from the existing textbooks to the new one represents the manipulation of the independent variable in this study.

what is dependent variable in research methodology

Dependent variable examples

In any experiment, the dependent variable is observed to measure how it is affected by changes to the independent variable. Outcomes such as test scores and other performance metrics can make up the data for the dependent variable.

Now that we are changing the textbook in the experiment above, we should examine if there are any effects.

To do this, we will need two classrooms of students. As best as possible, the two sets of students should be of similar proficiency (or at least of similar backgrounds) and placed within similar conditions for teaching and learning (e.g., physical space, lesson planning).

The control group in our study will be one set of students using the existing textbook. By examining their performance, we can establish a baseline. The performance of the experimental group, which is the set of students using the new textbook, can then be compared with the baseline performance.

As a result, the change in the test scores make up the data for our dependent variable. We cannot directly affect how well students perform on the test, but we can conclude from our experiment whether the use of the new textbook might impact students' performance.

what is dependent variable in research methodology

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How do you know if a variable is independent or dependent?

We can typically think of an independent variable as something a researcher can directly change. In the above example, we can change the textbook used by the teacher in class. If we're talking about plants, we can change the fertilizer.

Conversely, the dependent variable is something that we do not directly influence or manipulate. Strictly speaking, we cannot directly manipulate a student's performance on a test or the rate of growth of a plant, not without other factors such as new teaching methods or new fertilizer, respectively.

Understanding the distinction between a dependent variable and an independent variable is key to experimental research. Ultimately, the distinction can be reduced to which element in a study has been directly influenced by the researcher.

Other variables

Given the potential complexities encountered in research, there is essential terminology for other variables in any experimental study. You might employ this terminology or encounter them while reading other research.

A control variable is any factor that the researcher tries to keep constant as the independent variable changes. In the plant experiment described earlier in this article, the sunlight and water are each a controlled variable while the type of fertilizer used is the manipulated variable across control and experimental groups.

To ensure research rigor, the researcher needs to keep these control variables constant to dispel any concerns that differences in growth rate were being driven by sunlight or water, as opposed to the fertilizer being used.

what is dependent variable in research methodology

Extraneous variables refer to any unwanted influence on the dependent variable that may confound the analysis of the study. For example, if bugs or animals ate the plants in your fertilizer study, this was greatly impact the rates of plant growth. This is why it would be important to control the environment and protect it from such threats.

Finally, independent variables can go by different names such as subject variables or predictor variables. Dependent variables can also be referred to as the responding variable or outcome variable. Whatever the language, they all serve the same role of influencing the dependent variable in an experiment.

The use of the word " variables " is typically associated with quantitative and confirmatory research. Naturalistic qualitative research typically does not employ experimental designs or establish causality. Qualitative research often draws on observations , interviews , focus groups , and other forms of data collection that are allow researchers to study the naturally occurring "messiness" of the social world, rather than controlling all variables to isolate a cause-and-effect relationship.

In limited circumstances, the idea of experimental variables can apply to participant observations in ethnography , where the researcher should be mindful of their influence on the environment they are observing.

However, the experimental paradigm is best left to quantitative studies and confirmatory research questions. Qualitative researchers in the social sciences are oftentimes more interested in observing and describing socially-constructed phenomena rather than testing hypotheses .

Nonetheless, the notion of independent and dependent variables does hold important lessons for qualitative researchers. Even if they don't employ variables in their study design, qualitative researchers often observe how one thing affects another. A theoretical or conceptual framework can then suggest potential cause-and-effect relationships in their study.

what is dependent variable in research methodology

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what is dependent variable in research methodology

What is a dependent variable?

Last updated

4 March 2023

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

Admit it. The mere mention of the term "dependent variables" evokes vague memories of your math and science classes back in high school. If you're a science buff, you likely enjoyed those classes a lot. 

Fast forward to today, and that knowledge could've come in handy—except you don't remember the nitty-gritty of it all. Fret not; we've got you covered.

At the heart of every scientific experiment lies the dependent variable, and we cannot overstate its importance in understanding cause-and-effect relationships. 

In this definitive guide, we'll look at dependent variables, how they differ from their independent counterparts, how to choose one, examples, and everything in between. 

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  • First things first, what is a variable?

A variable is an entity that can assume different values. In the simplest of terms, we can consider anything that can vary as a variable. 

For instance, height is a variable because we can assign a person's height a value. Other variables include income, age, country of birth, test scores, and so on.

  • What exactly is a dependent variable?

Now, back to our topic of the day. A dependent variable varies when other factors influence it. Specifically, it changes as a result of the independent variable's influence. 

In an experimental study, the dependent variable is typically the one you're interested in measuring or monitoring to determine whether or not other variables affect it. 

In statistics, dependent variables use a few other names, including:

Outcome variables because you observe and measure them by changing independent variables

Response variables because they respond to changes in other variables

Left-hand-side variables because they appear on the left side of the equals sign in a regression equation

Y-variables because 'Y' usually represents them on a graph

Is it possible to define dependent variables in the context of cause-and-effect relationships? Absolutely! That's precisely why this phenomenon exists in the first place. 

While the independent variable is the "cause," the dependent variable is the "effect"—the affected variable. 

Naturally, you're itching to learn the difference between dependent and independent variables. Luckily for you, that's next.

  • Dependent vs. independent variables: How are they different?

Let's first understand what an independent variable is. True to its name, an independent variable stands alone, and other variables don’t change or affect it. 

If the value of an independent variable changes at any time, that change happens at the researcher's discretion, not because of other variables. 

Typically, the researcher determines the independent variable. Its value is clear and well-known right at the beginning of the experiment, unlike the dependent variable. Those values only become clear after the experiment's conclusion.

Comprehending the difference between dependent and independent variables is vital for any research. Thankfully, getting it right the first time isn't difficult. 

The quickest way is to place both variables in the sentence below in a logical way:

"The IV causes changes to the DV. It is not possible that DV could cause any changes to IV."

Here's how that would reflect in our above example:

"Sleeping causes changes to test results. It is not possible that test results could cause any changes to sleeping."

When altering the independent variable during an experiment, your goal is to track and measure the changes it causes to dependent variables. Remember that changes in the dependent variable can only occur due to independent variable manipulation. 

To better understand the nuanced differences between dependent and independent variables, let's explore a few examples:

Example 1: What is the effect of green tea on blood pressure?

Independent variable: The amount of green tea consumed

Dependent variable: Blood pressure

Example 2: How does employee productivity affect business growth?

Independent variable: Hours spent doing productive work

Dependent variable: Business growth

Example 3: What is the impact of economic change on customer behavior?

Independent variable: Individual changes in the economy

Dependent variable: Customer behavior

On a broader level, here's what makes dependent and independent variables fundamentally different:

Dependent variables:

Depend on other variables

May change due to other variables

Are always the ones you’re measuring

Independent variables:

Stand on their own

Never change due to other variables

Undergo manipulation

  • How to choose a good dependent variable

Pinpointing a good dependent variable is more complex than it sounds. You're often contending with several above-par variables, leaving you spoilt for choice. Other times, the research context is way too complex and gives nothing away. 

Fortunately for you, we've formulated a set of questions to streamline your selection process.

How stable is the variable?

A dependent variable is only half as good as the stability and consistency of its output. A high-quality variable yields the same outcome irrespective of how often you repeat the experiment. 

To arrive at accurate conclusions, you must maintain the same conditions, experimental manipulations, and participants from start to finish.

How complex is your study?

Choosing a dependent variable without first considering the complexity of your study is a recipe for failure. Some studies require more than just a single variable of either type. 

You must do your due diligence early in the process to ensure your final results are accurate and conclusive. 

You might also have a situation where you want to find out how changes in one independent variable impact a couple of dependent variables. In that case, it's crucial to pinpoint all of them correctly from the get-go.

For instance, say you want to investigate how low employee morale affects productivity. 

Obviously, the dependent variable here is productivity, while low employee morale is the independent variable. Upon further scrutiny, you'll realize there's an opportunity to test for a few more dependent variables, including employee turnover and profitability. 

So, it all boils down to how complex you want your study to be.

Is it possible to operationalize the variable?

In research, operationalization refers to the ability to measure a variable. A dependent variable is only good enough if you can measure it easily, accurately, and without hiccups.

In measuring individual test results, you may use the standard error of measurement (SEm). 

If measuring blood pressure, you could use a digital blood pressure monitor. SEm will tell you how much the repeated measures of the same person on the same digital pressure monitor tend to be spread around the person’s “true” score.

  • Pitfalls to keep an eye on

We hate to break it to you, but dependent and independent variables aren't the only variables that may influence the outcome of your experiment. Several others can, too. 

Here are a few to be aware of:

Confounding variables

You can’t account for a confounding variable in a scientific experiment. It acts as an external force that can quickly change the effect of dependent and independent research variables, often yielding outcomes that differ completely from reality.

For example, a confounding variable may be responsible for the correlation between weight loss and weight loss. We’d expect that the more you exercise, the more likely you will lose weight.

However, a confounding variable may be eating habits: The more people eat, the more weight they gain, regardless of exercise.

It's best to account for confounding variables before your study starts to prevent them from wreaking havoc. Matching, restriction, and randomization are all reliable methods for keeping these wayward variables in check.

Extraneous variables

Sometimes, it's impossible to control a confounding variable. When that happens, it automatically becomes an extraneous variable .

One way to control extraneous variables is through elimination. Control by elimination means removing potential extraneous variables by holding them constant in all experimental conditions. Otherwise, you may draw inaccurate conclusions about the relationships between the independent and dependent variables.

  • Examples of Dependent Variables

We've already highlighted several tangible examples of dependent variables. For clarity's sake, let's go a step further.

Here are additional dependent variables examples you might find helpful.

In organizations

A business wants to find out how the color of the office decor affects worker productivity. 

In this case, worker productivity would be the dependent variable, and the color of the office would be the independent variable. The business could also alter the independent variable by instead evaluating how work hours or low morale influence worker productivity.

In the workplace

A researcher wants to determine if giving workers more control over their extra shifts leads to increased job satisfaction. 

In an experiment, one group of employees gets to pick up shifts freely and without restriction, while the other group enjoys little freedom. Job satisfaction is the dependent variable in this example.

In psychology research

A researcher intends to investigate the effects of alcohol on the brain. 

Here, the dependent variable could be the scores on the PHQ-9 assessment tool, which provisionally diagnoses depression. The independent variable might be the amount of alcohol a participant ingests.

Of course, dependent variable examples abound. We couldn't possibly exhaust all of them. But with the information and slew of examples in this piece, you should be well-positioned to make your next experiment a resounding success.

  • Final words

The role of dependent variables in shaping and grounding modern-day research experiments is undeniably important. 

Alongside independent variables, dependent variables make it easy for researchers and organizations to uncover the true impact of events. This speeds up the formulation of real and tangible solutions.

What are the three types of variables?

An experimental study has three types of variables:

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Controlled variable

A dependent variable is the one a researcher tests to get its values. 

An independent variable is what the researcher changes to test the dependent variable. 

The variable that the scientist intentionally holds constant throughout the research is a controlled variable. While it may not be part of the experiment, it's important because it can affect the results.

Is the control group the same as the dependent variable?

No. The control group serves as the standard of comparison in a specific experiment. In other words, this group isn't part of the actual experiment.

The opposite of a control group is an experimental group.

Meanwhile, the dependent variable is the factor that may change as a result of independent variable manipulation.

How do you identify a dependent variable?

The quickest way to identify a dependent variable is to ask yourself these three questions:

Does it depend on another variable in the experiment?

Does it change due to other variables?

Is it the one you’re measuring?

If your answer to all these questions is yes, that's a dependent variable.

If not, reexamine the above criteria to see if it’s an independent variable instead.

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Chapter 4: Measurement and Units of Analysis

4.5 Independent and Dependent Variables

When one variable causes another variable, we have what researchers call independent and dependent variables. In the example where gender was found to be causally linked to cell phone addiction, gender would be the independent variable (IV) and cell phone addiction would be the dependent variable (DV). An independent variable is one that causes another. A dependent variable is one that is caused by the other. Dependent variables depend on independent variables. If you are struggling to figure out which is the dependent and which is the independent variable, there is a little trick, as follows:

Ask yourself the following question: Is X dependent upon Y. Now substitute words for X and Y. For example, is the level of success in an online class dependent upon time spent online? Success in an online class is the dependent variable, because it is dependent upon something. In this case, we are asking if the level of success in an online class is dependent upon the time spent online. Time spent online is the independent variable.

Table 4.2 provides you with an opportunity to practice identifying the dependent and the independent variable.

Practice Exercise:  Practice choosing the dependent and independent variables. Identify the dependent and independent variables from the questions below.

1. Is success in an online class dependent upon gender?
2. Is the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder in Canada dependent upon the level of funding for early intervention?
3. Is the reporting of incidents of high school bullying dependent upon anti-bullying programs in high school?
4. Is the survival rate of female heart attack victims correlated to hospital emergency room procedures?
  • Dependent variable = success in online class; Independent variable = gender.
  • Dependent variable = prevalence of PTSD in BC; Independent variable = level of funding for early intervention.
  • Dependent variable = reporting of high school bullying; Independent variable = anti-bullying programs in high schools.
  • Dependent variable = survival rate of female heart attack victims; Independent variable = hospital emergency room procedures.

Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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When one variable causes another variable, we have what researchers call independent and dependent variables. In the example where gender was found to be causally linked to cell phone addiction, gender would be the independent variable (IV) and cell phone addiction would be the dependent variable (DV). An independent variable is one that causes another. A dependent variable is one that is caused by the other. Dependent variables depend on independent variables. If you are struggling to figure out which is the dependent and which is the independent variable, there is a little trick, as follows:

Ask yourself the following question: Is X dependent upon Y. Now substitute words for X and Y. For example, is the level of success in an online class dependent upon time spent online? Success in an online class is the dependent variable, because it is dependent upon something. In this case, we are asking if the level of success in an online class is dependent upon the time spent online. Time spent online is the independent variable.

Table 4.2 provides you with an opportunity to practice identifying the dependent and the independent variable.

Practice Exercise:  Practice choosing the dependent and independent variables. Identify the dependent and independent variables from the questions below.

1. Is success in an online class dependent upon gender?
2. Is the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder in Canada dependent upon the level of funding for early intervention?
3. Is the reporting of incidents of high school bullying dependent upon anti-bullying programs in high school?
4. Is the survival rate of female heart attack victims correlated to hospital emergency room procedures?
  • Dependent variable = success in online class; Independent variable = gender.
  • Dependent variable = prevalence of PTSD in BC; Independent variable = level of funding for early intervention.
  • Dependent variable = reporting of high school bullying; Independent variable = anti-bullying programs in high schools.
  • Dependent variable = survival rate of female heart attack victims; Independent variable = hospital emergency room procedures.

Research Methods, Data Collection and Ethics Copyright © 2020 by Valerie Sheppard is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Frequently asked questions

What’s the definition of a dependent variable.

A dependent variable is what changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation in experiments . It’s what you’re interested in measuring, and it “depends” on your independent variable.

In statistics, dependent variables are also called:

  • Response variables (they respond to a change in another variable)
  • Outcome variables (they represent the outcome you want to measure)
  • Left-hand-side variables (they appear on the left-hand side of a regression equation)

Frequently asked questions: Methodology

Attrition refers to participants leaving a study. It always happens to some extent—for example, in randomized controlled trials for medical research.

Differential attrition occurs when attrition or dropout rates differ systematically between the intervention and the control group . As a result, the characteristics of the participants who drop out differ from the characteristics of those who stay in the study. Because of this, study results may be biased .

Action research is conducted in order to solve a particular issue immediately, while case studies are often conducted over a longer period of time and focus more on observing and analyzing a particular ongoing phenomenon.

Action research is focused on solving a problem or informing individual and community-based knowledge in a way that impacts teaching, learning, and other related processes. It is less focused on contributing theoretical input, instead producing actionable input.

Action research is particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry because it prioritizes reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Educators are able to simultaneously investigate an issue as they solve it, and the method is very iterative and flexible.

A cycle of inquiry is another name for action research . It is usually visualized in a spiral shape following a series of steps, such as “planning → acting → observing → reflecting.”

To make quantitative observations , you need to use instruments that are capable of measuring the quantity you want to observe. For example, you might use a ruler to measure the length of an object or a thermometer to measure its temperature.

Criterion validity and construct validity are both types of measurement validity . In other words, they both show you how accurately a method measures something.

While construct validity is the degree to which a test or other measurement method measures what it claims to measure, criterion validity is the degree to which a test can predictively (in the future) or concurrently (in the present) measure something.

Construct validity is often considered the overarching type of measurement validity . You need to have face validity , content validity , and criterion validity in order to achieve construct validity.

Convergent validity and discriminant validity are both subtypes of construct validity . Together, they help you evaluate whether a test measures the concept it was designed to measure.

  • Convergent validity indicates whether a test that is designed to measure a particular construct correlates with other tests that assess the same or similar construct.
  • Discriminant validity indicates whether two tests that should not be highly related to each other are indeed not related. This type of validity is also called divergent validity .

You need to assess both in order to demonstrate construct validity. Neither one alone is sufficient for establishing construct validity.

  • Discriminant validity indicates whether two tests that should not be highly related to each other are indeed not related

Content validity shows you how accurately a test or other measurement method taps  into the various aspects of the specific construct you are researching.

In other words, it helps you answer the question: “does the test measure all aspects of the construct I want to measure?” If it does, then the test has high content validity.

The higher the content validity, the more accurate the measurement of the construct.

If the test fails to include parts of the construct, or irrelevant parts are included, the validity of the instrument is threatened, which brings your results into question.

Face validity and content validity are similar in that they both evaluate how suitable the content of a test is. The difference is that face validity is subjective, and assesses content at surface level.

When a test has strong face validity, anyone would agree that the test’s questions appear to measure what they are intended to measure.

For example, looking at a 4th grade math test consisting of problems in which students have to add and multiply, most people would agree that it has strong face validity (i.e., it looks like a math test).

On the other hand, content validity evaluates how well a test represents all the aspects of a topic. Assessing content validity is more systematic and relies on expert evaluation. of each question, analyzing whether each one covers the aspects that the test was designed to cover.

A 4th grade math test would have high content validity if it covered all the skills taught in that grade. Experts(in this case, math teachers), would have to evaluate the content validity by comparing the test to the learning objectives.

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method . Unlike probability sampling (which involves some form of random selection ), the initial individuals selected to be studied are the ones who recruit new participants.

Because not every member of the target population has an equal chance of being recruited into the sample, selection in snowball sampling is non-random.

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method , where there is not an equal chance for every member of the population to be included in the sample .

This means that you cannot use inferential statistics and make generalizations —often the goal of quantitative research . As such, a snowball sample is not representative of the target population and is usually a better fit for qualitative research .

Snowball sampling relies on the use of referrals. Here, the researcher recruits one or more initial participants, who then recruit the next ones.

Participants share similar characteristics and/or know each other. Because of this, not every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, giving rise to sampling bias .

Snowball sampling is best used in the following cases:

  • If there is no sampling frame available (e.g., people with a rare disease)
  • If the population of interest is hard to access or locate (e.g., people experiencing homelessness)
  • If the research focuses on a sensitive topic (e.g., extramarital affairs)

The reproducibility and replicability of a study can be ensured by writing a transparent, detailed method section and using clear, unambiguous language.

Reproducibility and replicability are related terms.

  • Reproducing research entails reanalyzing the existing data in the same manner.
  • Replicating (or repeating ) the research entails reconducting the entire analysis, including the collection of new data . 
  • A successful reproduction shows that the data analyses were conducted in a fair and honest manner.
  • A successful replication shows that the reliability of the results is high.

Stratified sampling and quota sampling both involve dividing the population into subgroups and selecting units from each subgroup. The purpose in both cases is to select a representative sample and/or to allow comparisons between subgroups.

The main difference is that in stratified sampling, you draw a random sample from each subgroup ( probability sampling ). In quota sampling you select a predetermined number or proportion of units, in a non-random manner ( non-probability sampling ).

Purposive and convenience sampling are both sampling methods that are typically used in qualitative data collection.

A convenience sample is drawn from a source that is conveniently accessible to the researcher. Convenience sampling does not distinguish characteristics among the participants. On the other hand, purposive sampling focuses on selecting participants possessing characteristics associated with the research study.

The findings of studies based on either convenience or purposive sampling can only be generalized to the (sub)population from which the sample is drawn, and not to the entire population.

Random sampling or probability sampling is based on random selection. This means that each unit has an equal chance (i.e., equal probability) of being included in the sample.

On the other hand, convenience sampling involves stopping people at random, which means that not everyone has an equal chance of being selected depending on the place, time, or day you are collecting your data.

Convenience sampling and quota sampling are both non-probability sampling methods. They both use non-random criteria like availability, geographical proximity, or expert knowledge to recruit study participants.

However, in convenience sampling, you continue to sample units or cases until you reach the required sample size.

In quota sampling, you first need to divide your population of interest into subgroups (strata) and estimate their proportions (quota) in the population. Then you can start your data collection, using convenience sampling to recruit participants, until the proportions in each subgroup coincide with the estimated proportions in the population.

A sampling frame is a list of every member in the entire population . It is important that the sampling frame is as complete as possible, so that your sample accurately reflects your population.

Stratified and cluster sampling may look similar, but bear in mind that groups created in cluster sampling are heterogeneous , so the individual characteristics in the cluster vary. In contrast, groups created in stratified sampling are homogeneous , as units share characteristics.

Relatedly, in cluster sampling you randomly select entire groups and include all units of each group in your sample. However, in stratified sampling, you select some units of all groups and include them in your sample. In this way, both methods can ensure that your sample is representative of the target population .

A systematic review is secondary research because it uses existing research. You don’t collect new data yourself.

The key difference between observational studies and experimental designs is that a well-done observational study does not influence the responses of participants, while experiments do have some sort of treatment condition applied to at least some participants by random assignment .

An observational study is a great choice for you if your research question is based purely on observations. If there are ethical, logistical, or practical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment , an observational study may be a good choice. In an observational study, there is no interference or manipulation of the research subjects, as well as no control or treatment groups .

It’s often best to ask a variety of people to review your measurements. You can ask experts, such as other researchers, or laypeople, such as potential participants, to judge the face validity of tests.

While experts have a deep understanding of research methods , the people you’re studying can provide you with valuable insights you may have missed otherwise.

Face validity is important because it’s a simple first step to measuring the overall validity of a test or technique. It’s a relatively intuitive, quick, and easy way to start checking whether a new measure seems useful at first glance.

Good face validity means that anyone who reviews your measure says that it seems to be measuring what it’s supposed to. With poor face validity, someone reviewing your measure may be left confused about what you’re measuring and why you’re using this method.

Face validity is about whether a test appears to measure what it’s supposed to measure. This type of validity is concerned with whether a measure seems relevant and appropriate for what it’s assessing only on the surface.

Statistical analyses are often applied to test validity with data from your measures. You test convergent validity and discriminant validity with correlations to see if results from your test are positively or negatively related to those of other established tests.

You can also use regression analyses to assess whether your measure is actually predictive of outcomes that you expect it to predict theoretically. A regression analysis that supports your expectations strengthens your claim of construct validity .

When designing or evaluating a measure, construct validity helps you ensure you’re actually measuring the construct you’re interested in. If you don’t have construct validity, you may inadvertently measure unrelated or distinct constructs and lose precision in your research.

Construct validity is often considered the overarching type of measurement validity ,  because it covers all of the other types. You need to have face validity , content validity , and criterion validity to achieve construct validity.

Construct validity is about how well a test measures the concept it was designed to evaluate. It’s one of four types of measurement validity , which includes construct validity, face validity , and criterion validity.

There are two subtypes of construct validity.

  • Convergent validity : The extent to which your measure corresponds to measures of related constructs
  • Discriminant validity : The extent to which your measure is unrelated or negatively related to measures of distinct constructs

Naturalistic observation is a valuable tool because of its flexibility, external validity , and suitability for topics that can’t be studied in a lab setting.

The downsides of naturalistic observation include its lack of scientific control , ethical considerations , and potential for bias from observers and subjects.

Naturalistic observation is a qualitative research method where you record the behaviors of your research subjects in real world settings. You avoid interfering or influencing anything in a naturalistic observation.

You can think of naturalistic observation as “people watching” with a purpose.

An independent variable is the variable you manipulate, control, or vary in an experimental study to explore its effects. It’s called “independent” because it’s not influenced by any other variables in the study.

Independent variables are also called:

  • Explanatory variables (they explain an event or outcome)
  • Predictor variables (they can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable)
  • Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation).

As a rule of thumb, questions related to thoughts, beliefs, and feelings work well in focus groups. Take your time formulating strong questions, paying special attention to phrasing. Be careful to avoid leading questions , which can bias your responses.

Overall, your focus group questions should be:

  • Open-ended and flexible
  • Impossible to answer with “yes” or “no” (questions that start with “why” or “how” are often best)
  • Unambiguous, getting straight to the point while still stimulating discussion
  • Unbiased and neutral

A structured interview is a data collection method that relies on asking questions in a set order to collect data on a topic. They are often quantitative in nature. Structured interviews are best used when: 

  • You already have a very clear understanding of your topic. Perhaps significant research has already been conducted, or you have done some prior research yourself, but you already possess a baseline for designing strong structured questions.
  • You are constrained in terms of time or resources and need to analyze your data quickly and efficiently.
  • Your research question depends on strong parity between participants, with environmental conditions held constant.

More flexible interview options include semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favorably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys , but is most common in semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.

This type of bias can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behavior accordingly.

The interviewer effect is a type of bias that emerges when a characteristic of an interviewer (race, age, gender identity, etc.) influences the responses given by the interviewee.

There is a risk of an interviewer effect in all types of interviews , but it can be mitigated by writing really high-quality interview questions.

A semi-structured interview is a blend of structured and unstructured types of interviews. Semi-structured interviews are best used when:

  • You have prior interview experience. Spontaneous questions are deceptively challenging, and it’s easy to accidentally ask a leading question or make a participant uncomfortable.
  • Your research question is exploratory in nature. Participant answers can guide future research questions and help you develop a more robust knowledge base for future research.

An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview, but it is not always the best fit for your research topic.

Unstructured interviews are best used when:

  • You are an experienced interviewer and have a very strong background in your research topic, since it is challenging to ask spontaneous, colloquial questions.
  • Your research question is exploratory in nature. While you may have developed hypotheses, you are open to discovering new or shifting viewpoints through the interview process.
  • You are seeking descriptive data, and are ready to ask questions that will deepen and contextualize your initial thoughts and hypotheses.
  • Your research depends on forming connections with your participants and making them feel comfortable revealing deeper emotions, lived experiences, or thoughts.

The four most common types of interviews are:

  • Structured interviews : The questions are predetermined in both topic and order. 
  • Semi-structured interviews : A few questions are predetermined, but other questions aren’t planned.
  • Unstructured interviews : None of the questions are predetermined.
  • Focus group interviews : The questions are presented to a group instead of one individual.

Deductive reasoning is commonly used in scientific research, and it’s especially associated with quantitative research .

In research, you might have come across something called the hypothetico-deductive method . It’s the scientific method of testing hypotheses to check whether your predictions are substantiated by real-world data.

Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions. It’s often contrasted with inductive reasoning , where you start with specific observations and form general conclusions.

Deductive reasoning is also called deductive logic.

There are many different types of inductive reasoning that people use formally or informally.

Here are a few common types:

  • Inductive generalization : You use observations about a sample to come to a conclusion about the population it came from.
  • Statistical generalization: You use specific numbers about samples to make statements about populations.
  • Causal reasoning: You make cause-and-effect links between different things.
  • Sign reasoning: You make a conclusion about a correlational relationship between different things.
  • Analogical reasoning: You make a conclusion about something based on its similarities to something else.

Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach, while deductive reasoning is top-down.

Inductive reasoning takes you from the specific to the general, while in deductive reasoning, you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions.

In inductive research , you start by making observations or gathering data. Then, you take a broad scan of your data and search for patterns. Finally, you make general conclusions that you might incorporate into theories.

Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general. It’s usually contrasted with deductive reasoning, where you proceed from general information to specific conclusions.

Inductive reasoning is also called inductive logic or bottom-up reasoning.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Triangulation can help:

  • Reduce research bias that comes from using a single method, theory, or investigator
  • Enhance validity by approaching the same topic with different tools
  • Establish credibility by giving you a complete picture of the research problem

But triangulation can also pose problems:

  • It’s time-consuming and labor-intensive, often involving an interdisciplinary team.
  • Your results may be inconsistent or even contradictory.

There are four main types of triangulation :

  • Data triangulation : Using data from different times, spaces, and people
  • Investigator triangulation : Involving multiple researchers in collecting or analyzing data
  • Theory triangulation : Using varying theoretical perspectives in your research
  • Methodological triangulation : Using different methodologies to approach the same topic

Many academic fields use peer review , largely to determine whether a manuscript is suitable for publication. Peer review enhances the credibility of the published manuscript.

However, peer review is also common in non-academic settings. The United Nations, the European Union, and many individual nations use peer review to evaluate grant applications. It is also widely used in medical and health-related fields as a teaching or quality-of-care measure. 

Peer assessment is often used in the classroom as a pedagogical tool. Both receiving feedback and providing it are thought to enhance the learning process, helping students think critically and collaboratively.

Peer review can stop obviously problematic, falsified, or otherwise untrustworthy research from being published. It also represents an excellent opportunity to get feedback from renowned experts in your field. It acts as a first defense, helping you ensure your argument is clear and that there are no gaps, vague terms, or unanswered questions for readers who weren’t involved in the research process.

Peer-reviewed articles are considered a highly credible source due to this stringent process they go through before publication.

In general, the peer review process follows the following steps: 

  • First, the author submits the manuscript to the editor.
  • Reject the manuscript and send it back to author, or 
  • Send it onward to the selected peer reviewer(s) 
  • Next, the peer review process occurs. The reviewer provides feedback, addressing any major or minor issues with the manuscript, and gives their advice regarding what edits should be made. 
  • Lastly, the edited manuscript is sent back to the author. They input the edits, and resubmit it to the editor for publication.

Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re studying is new or when the data collection process is challenging for some reason.

You can use exploratory research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that explores research questions that have not previously been studied in depth. It is often used when the issue you’re studying is new, or the data collection process is challenging in some way.

Explanatory research is used to investigate how or why a phenomenon occurs. Therefore, this type of research is often one of the first stages in the research process , serving as a jumping-off point for future research.

Exploratory research aims to explore the main aspects of an under-researched problem, while explanatory research aims to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.

Explanatory research is a research method used to investigate how or why something occurs when only a small amount of information is available pertaining to that topic. It can help you increase your understanding of a given topic.

Clean data are valid, accurate, complete, consistent, unique, and uniform. Dirty data include inconsistencies and errors.

Dirty data can come from any part of the research process, including poor research design , inappropriate measurement materials, or flawed data entry.

Data cleaning takes place between data collection and data analyses. But you can use some methods even before collecting data.

For clean data, you should start by designing measures that collect valid data. Data validation at the time of data entry or collection helps you minimize the amount of data cleaning you’ll need to do.

After data collection, you can use data standardization and data transformation to clean your data. You’ll also deal with any missing values, outliers, and duplicate values.

Every dataset requires different techniques to clean dirty data , but you need to address these issues in a systematic way. You focus on finding and resolving data points that don’t agree or fit with the rest of your dataset.

These data might be missing values, outliers, duplicate values, incorrectly formatted, or irrelevant. You’ll start with screening and diagnosing your data. Then, you’ll often standardize and accept or remove data to make your dataset consistent and valid.

Data cleaning is necessary for valid and appropriate analyses. Dirty data contain inconsistencies or errors , but cleaning your data helps you minimize or resolve these.

Without data cleaning, you could end up with a Type I or II error in your conclusion. These types of erroneous conclusions can be practically significant with important consequences, because they lead to misplaced investments or missed opportunities.

Data cleaning involves spotting and resolving potential data inconsistencies or errors to improve your data quality. An error is any value (e.g., recorded weight) that doesn’t reflect the true value (e.g., actual weight) of something that’s being measured.

In this process, you review, analyze, detect, modify, or remove “dirty” data to make your dataset “clean.” Data cleaning is also called data cleansing or data scrubbing.

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, or videos.

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

In multistage sampling , you can use probability or non-probability sampling methods .

For a probability sample, you have to conduct probability sampling at every stage.

You can mix it up by using simple random sampling , systematic sampling , or stratified sampling to select units at different stages, depending on what is applicable and relevant to your study.

Multistage sampling can simplify data collection when you have large, geographically spread samples, and you can obtain a probability sample without a complete sampling frame.

But multistage sampling may not lead to a representative sample, and larger samples are needed for multistage samples to achieve the statistical properties of simple random samples .

These are four of the most common mixed methods designs :

  • Convergent parallel: Quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same time and analyzed separately. After both analyses are complete, compare your results to draw overall conclusions. 
  • Embedded: Quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same time, but within a larger quantitative or qualitative design. One type of data is secondary to the other.
  • Explanatory sequential: Quantitative data is collected and analyzed first, followed by qualitative data. You can use this design if you think your qualitative data will explain and contextualize your quantitative findings.
  • Exploratory sequential: Qualitative data is collected and analyzed first, followed by quantitative data. You can use this design if you think the quantitative data will confirm or validate your qualitative findings.

Triangulation in research means using multiple datasets, methods, theories and/or investigators to address a research question. It’s a research strategy that can help you enhance the validity and credibility of your findings.

Triangulation is mainly used in qualitative research , but it’s also commonly applied in quantitative research . Mixed methods research always uses triangulation.

In multistage sampling , or multistage cluster sampling, you draw a sample from a population using smaller and smaller groups at each stage.

This method is often used to collect data from a large, geographically spread group of people in national surveys, for example. You take advantage of hierarchical groupings (e.g., from state to city to neighborhood) to create a sample that’s less expensive and time-consuming to collect data from.

No, the steepness or slope of the line isn’t related to the correlation coefficient value. The correlation coefficient only tells you how closely your data fit on a line, so two datasets with the same correlation coefficient can have very different slopes.

To find the slope of the line, you’ll need to perform a regression analysis .

Correlation coefficients always range between -1 and 1.

The sign of the coefficient tells you the direction of the relationship: a positive value means the variables change together in the same direction, while a negative value means they change together in opposite directions.

The absolute value of a number is equal to the number without its sign. The absolute value of a correlation coefficient tells you the magnitude of the correlation: the greater the absolute value, the stronger the correlation.

These are the assumptions your data must meet if you want to use Pearson’s r :

  • Both variables are on an interval or ratio level of measurement
  • Data from both variables follow normal distributions
  • Your data have no outliers
  • Your data is from a random or representative sample
  • You expect a linear relationship between the two variables

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

  • Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
  • Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

  • Your research questions and/or hypotheses
  • Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
  • The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
  • Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
  • Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
  • Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
  • Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

Questionnaires can be self-administered or researcher-administered.

Self-administered questionnaires can be delivered online or in paper-and-pen formats, in person or through mail. All questions are standardized so that all respondents receive the same questions with identical wording.

Researcher-administered questionnaires are interviews that take place by phone, in-person, or online between researchers and respondents. You can gain deeper insights by clarifying questions for respondents or asking follow-up questions.

You can organize the questions logically, with a clear progression from simple to complex, or randomly between respondents. A logical flow helps respondents process the questionnaire easier and quicker, but it may lead to bias. Randomization can minimize the bias from order effects.

Closed-ended, or restricted-choice, questions offer respondents a fixed set of choices to select from. These questions are easier to answer quickly.

Open-ended or long-form questions allow respondents to answer in their own words. Because there are no restrictions on their choices, respondents can answer in ways that researchers may not have otherwise considered.

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analyzing data from people using questionnaires.

The third variable and directionality problems are two main reasons why correlation isn’t causation .

The third variable problem means that a confounding variable affects both variables to make them seem causally related when they are not.

The directionality problem is when two variables correlate and might actually have a causal relationship, but it’s impossible to conclude which variable causes changes in the other.

Correlation describes an association between variables : when one variable changes, so does the other. A correlation is a statistical indicator of the relationship between variables.

Causation means that changes in one variable brings about changes in the other (i.e., there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables). The two variables are correlated with each other, and there’s also a causal link between them.

While causation and correlation can exist simultaneously, correlation does not imply causation. In other words, correlation is simply a relationship where A relates to B—but A doesn’t necessarily cause B to happen (or vice versa). Mistaking correlation for causation is a common error and can lead to false cause fallacy .

Controlled experiments establish causality, whereas correlational studies only show associations between variables.

  • In an experimental design , you manipulate an independent variable and measure its effect on a dependent variable. Other variables are controlled so they can’t impact the results.
  • In a correlational design , you measure variables without manipulating any of them. You can test whether your variables change together, but you can’t be sure that one variable caused a change in another.

In general, correlational research is high in external validity while experimental research is high in internal validity .

A correlation is usually tested for two variables at a time, but you can test correlations between three or more variables.

A correlation coefficient is a single number that describes the strength and direction of the relationship between your variables.

Different types of correlation coefficients might be appropriate for your data based on their levels of measurement and distributions . The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r ) is commonly used to assess a linear relationship between two quantitative variables.

A correlational research design investigates relationships between two variables (or more) without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. It’s a non-experimental type of quantitative research .

A correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the association between two or more variables.

  • A positive correlation means that both variables change in the same direction.
  • A negative correlation means that the variables change in opposite directions.
  • A zero correlation means there’s no relationship between the variables.

Random error  is almost always present in scientific studies, even in highly controlled settings. While you can’t eradicate it completely, you can reduce random error by taking repeated measurements, using a large sample, and controlling extraneous variables .

You can avoid systematic error through careful design of your sampling , data collection , and analysis procedures. For example, use triangulation to measure your variables using multiple methods; regularly calibrate instruments or procedures; use random sampling and random assignment ; and apply masking (blinding) where possible.

Systematic error is generally a bigger problem in research.

With random error, multiple measurements will tend to cluster around the true value. When you’re collecting data from a large sample , the errors in different directions will cancel each other out.

Systematic errors are much more problematic because they can skew your data away from the true value. This can lead you to false conclusions ( Type I and II errors ) about the relationship between the variables you’re studying.

Random and systematic error are two types of measurement error.

Random error is a chance difference between the observed and true values of something (e.g., a researcher misreading a weighing scale records an incorrect measurement).

Systematic error is a consistent or proportional difference between the observed and true values of something (e.g., a miscalibrated scale consistently records weights as higher than they actually are).

On graphs, the explanatory variable is conventionally placed on the x-axis, while the response variable is placed on the y-axis.

  • If you have quantitative variables , use a scatterplot or a line graph.
  • If your response variable is categorical, use a scatterplot or a line graph.
  • If your explanatory variable is categorical, use a bar graph.

The term “ explanatory variable ” is sometimes preferred over “ independent variable ” because, in real world contexts, independent variables are often influenced by other variables. This means they aren’t totally independent.

Multiple independent variables may also be correlated with each other, so “explanatory variables” is a more appropriate term.

The difference between explanatory and response variables is simple:

  • An explanatory variable is the expected cause, and it explains the results.
  • A response variable is the expected effect, and it responds to other variables.

In a controlled experiment , all extraneous variables are held constant so that they can’t influence the results. Controlled experiments require:

  • A control group that receives a standard treatment, a fake treatment, or no treatment.
  • Random assignment of participants to ensure the groups are equivalent.

Depending on your study topic, there are various other methods of controlling variables .

There are 4 main types of extraneous variables :

  • Demand characteristics : environmental cues that encourage participants to conform to researchers’ expectations.
  • Experimenter effects : unintentional actions by researchers that influence study outcomes.
  • Situational variables : environmental variables that alter participants’ behaviors.
  • Participant variables : any characteristic or aspect of a participant’s background that could affect study results.

An extraneous variable is any variable that you’re not investigating that can potentially affect the dependent variable of your research study.

A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that not only affects the dependent variable, but is also related to the independent variable.

In a factorial design, multiple independent variables are tested.

If you test two variables, each level of one independent variable is combined with each level of the other independent variable to create different conditions.

Within-subjects designs have many potential threats to internal validity , but they are also very statistically powerful .

Advantages:

  • Only requires small samples
  • Statistically powerful
  • Removes the effects of individual differences on the outcomes

Disadvantages:

  • Internal validity threats reduce the likelihood of establishing a direct relationship between variables
  • Time-related effects, such as growth, can influence the outcomes
  • Carryover effects mean that the specific order of different treatments affect the outcomes

While a between-subjects design has fewer threats to internal validity , it also requires more participants for high statistical power than a within-subjects design .

  • Prevents carryover effects of learning and fatigue.
  • Shorter study duration.
  • Needs larger samples for high power.
  • Uses more resources to recruit participants, administer sessions, cover costs, etc.
  • Individual differences may be an alternative explanation for results.

Yes. Between-subjects and within-subjects designs can be combined in a single study when you have two or more independent variables (a factorial design). In a mixed factorial design, one variable is altered between subjects and another is altered within subjects.

In a between-subjects design , every participant experiences only one condition, and researchers assess group differences between participants in various conditions.

In a within-subjects design , each participant experiences all conditions, and researchers test the same participants repeatedly for differences between conditions.

The word “between” means that you’re comparing different conditions between groups, while the word “within” means you’re comparing different conditions within the same group.

Random assignment is used in experiments with a between-groups or independent measures design. In this research design, there’s usually a control group and one or more experimental groups. Random assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable.

In general, you should always use random assignment in this type of experimental design when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic.

To implement random assignment , assign a unique number to every member of your study’s sample .

Then, you can use a random number generator or a lottery method to randomly assign each number to a control or experimental group. You can also do so manually, by flipping a coin or rolling a dice to randomly assign participants to groups.

Random selection, or random sampling , is a way of selecting members of a population for your study’s sample.

In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample into control and experimental groups.

Random sampling enhances the external validity or generalizability of your results, while random assignment improves the internal validity of your study.

In experimental research, random assignment is a way of placing participants from your sample into different groups using randomization. With this method, every member of the sample has a known or equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group.

“Controlling for a variable” means measuring extraneous variables and accounting for them statistically to remove their effects on other variables.

Researchers often model control variable data along with independent and dependent variable data in regression analyses and ANCOVAs . That way, you can isolate the control variable’s effects from the relationship between the variables of interest.

Control variables help you establish a correlational or causal relationship between variables by enhancing internal validity .

If you don’t control relevant extraneous variables , they may influence the outcomes of your study, and you may not be able to demonstrate that your results are really an effect of your independent variable .

A control variable is any variable that’s held constant in a research study. It’s not a variable of interest in the study, but it’s controlled because it could influence the outcomes.

Including mediators and moderators in your research helps you go beyond studying a simple relationship between two variables for a fuller picture of the real world. They are important to consider when studying complex correlational or causal relationships.

Mediators are part of the causal pathway of an effect, and they tell you how or why an effect takes place. Moderators usually help you judge the external validity of your study by identifying the limitations of when the relationship between variables holds.

If something is a mediating variable :

  • It’s caused by the independent variable .
  • It influences the dependent variable
  • When it’s taken into account, the statistical correlation between the independent and dependent variables is higher than when it isn’t considered.

A confounder is a third variable that affects variables of interest and makes them seem related when they are not. In contrast, a mediator is the mechanism of a relationship between two variables: it explains the process by which they are related.

A mediator variable explains the process through which two variables are related, while a moderator variable affects the strength and direction of that relationship.

There are three key steps in systematic sampling :

  • Define and list your population , ensuring that it is not ordered in a cyclical or periodic order.
  • Decide on your sample size and calculate your interval, k , by dividing your population by your target sample size.
  • Choose every k th member of the population as your sample.

Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where researchers select members of the population at a regular interval – for example, by selecting every 15th person on a list of the population. If the population is in a random order, this can imitate the benefits of simple random sampling .

Yes, you can create a stratified sample using multiple characteristics, but you must ensure that every participant in your study belongs to one and only one subgroup. In this case, you multiply the numbers of subgroups for each characteristic to get the total number of groups.

For example, if you were stratifying by location with three subgroups (urban, rural, or suburban) and marital status with five subgroups (single, divorced, widowed, married, or partnered), you would have 3 x 5 = 15 subgroups.

You should use stratified sampling when your sample can be divided into mutually exclusive and exhaustive subgroups that you believe will take on different mean values for the variable that you’re studying.

Using stratified sampling will allow you to obtain more precise (with lower variance ) statistical estimates of whatever you are trying to measure.

For example, say you want to investigate how income differs based on educational attainment, but you know that this relationship can vary based on race. Using stratified sampling, you can ensure you obtain a large enough sample from each racial group, allowing you to draw more precise conclusions.

In stratified sampling , researchers divide subjects into subgroups called strata based on characteristics that they share (e.g., race, gender, educational attainment).

Once divided, each subgroup is randomly sampled using another probability sampling method.

Cluster sampling is more time- and cost-efficient than other probability sampling methods , particularly when it comes to large samples spread across a wide geographical area.

However, it provides less statistical certainty than other methods, such as simple random sampling , because it is difficult to ensure that your clusters properly represent the population as a whole.

There are three types of cluster sampling : single-stage, double-stage and multi-stage clustering. In all three types, you first divide the population into clusters, then randomly select clusters for use in your sample.

  • In single-stage sampling , you collect data from every unit within the selected clusters.
  • In double-stage sampling , you select a random sample of units from within the clusters.
  • In multi-stage sampling , you repeat the procedure of randomly sampling elements from within the clusters until you have reached a manageable sample.

Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method in which you divide a population into clusters, such as districts or schools, and then randomly select some of these clusters as your sample.

The clusters should ideally each be mini-representations of the population as a whole.

If properly implemented, simple random sampling is usually the best sampling method for ensuring both internal and external validity . However, it can sometimes be impractical and expensive to implement, depending on the size of the population to be studied,

If you have a list of every member of the population and the ability to reach whichever members are selected, you can use simple random sampling.

The American Community Survey  is an example of simple random sampling . In order to collect detailed data on the population of the US, the Census Bureau officials randomly select 3.5 million households per year and use a variety of methods to convince them to fill out the survey.

Simple random sampling is a type of probability sampling in which the researcher randomly selects a subset of participants from a population . Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Data is then collected from as large a percentage as possible of this random subset.

Quasi-experimental design is most useful in situations where it would be unethical or impractical to run a true experiment .

Quasi-experiments have lower internal validity than true experiments, but they often have higher external validity  as they can use real-world interventions instead of artificial laboratory settings.

A quasi-experiment is a type of research design that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. The main difference with a true experiment is that the groups are not randomly assigned.

Blinding is important to reduce research bias (e.g., observer bias , demand characteristics ) and ensure a study’s internal validity .

If participants know whether they are in a control or treatment group , they may adjust their behavior in ways that affect the outcome that researchers are trying to measure. If the people administering the treatment are aware of group assignment, they may treat participants differently and thus directly or indirectly influence the final results.

  • In a single-blind study , only the participants are blinded.
  • In a double-blind study , both participants and experimenters are blinded.
  • In a triple-blind study , the assignment is hidden not only from participants and experimenters, but also from the researchers analyzing the data.

Blinding means hiding who is assigned to the treatment group and who is assigned to the control group in an experiment .

A true experiment (a.k.a. a controlled experiment) always includes at least one control group that doesn’t receive the experimental treatment.

However, some experiments use a within-subjects design to test treatments without a control group. In these designs, you usually compare one group’s outcomes before and after a treatment (instead of comparing outcomes between different groups).

For strong internal validity , it’s usually best to include a control group if possible. Without a control group, it’s harder to be certain that the outcome was caused by the experimental treatment and not by other variables.

An experimental group, also known as a treatment group, receives the treatment whose effect researchers wish to study, whereas a control group does not. They should be identical in all other ways.

Individual Likert-type questions are generally considered ordinal data , because the items have clear rank order, but don’t have an even distribution.

Overall Likert scale scores are sometimes treated as interval data. These scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing between them.

The type of data determines what statistical tests you should use to analyze your data.

A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. It is made up of 4 or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are combined.

To use a Likert scale in a survey , you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with 5 or 7 possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement.

In scientific research, concepts are the abstract ideas or phenomena that are being studied (e.g., educational achievement). Variables are properties or characteristics of the concept (e.g., performance at school), while indicators are ways of measuring or quantifying variables (e.g., yearly grade reports).

The process of turning abstract concepts into measurable variables and indicators is called operationalization .

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

  • Prepare and organize your data.
  • Review and explore your data.
  • Develop a data coding system.
  • Assign codes to the data.
  • Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

  • Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
  • Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
  • Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
  • Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
  • Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:

  • You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g. understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website)
  • You can control and standardize the process for high reliability and validity (e.g. choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods )

However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labor-intensive and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control and randomization.

In restriction , you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables.

In matching , you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable .

In statistical control , you include potential confounders as variables in your regression .

In randomization , you randomly assign the treatment (or independent variable) in your study to a sufficiently large number of subjects, which allows you to control for all potential confounding variables.

A confounding variable is closely related to both the independent and dependent variables in a study. An independent variable represents the supposed cause , while the dependent variable is the supposed effect . A confounding variable is a third variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables.

Failing to account for confounding variables can cause you to wrongly estimate the relationship between your independent and dependent variables.

To ensure the internal validity of your research, you must consider the impact of confounding variables. If you fail to account for them, you might over- or underestimate the causal relationship between your independent and dependent variables , or even find a causal relationship where none exists.

Yes, but including more than one of either type requires multiple research questions .

For example, if you are interested in the effect of a diet on health, you can use multiple measures of health: blood sugar, blood pressure, weight, pulse, and many more. Each of these is its own dependent variable with its own research question.

You could also choose to look at the effect of exercise levels as well as diet, or even the additional effect of the two combined. Each of these is a separate independent variable .

To ensure the internal validity of an experiment , you should only change one independent variable at a time.

No. The value of a dependent variable depends on an independent variable, so a variable cannot be both independent and dependent at the same time. It must be either the cause or the effect, not both!

You want to find out how blood sugar levels are affected by drinking diet soda and regular soda, so you conduct an experiment .

  • The type of soda – diet or regular – is the independent variable .
  • The level of blood sugar that you measure is the dependent variable – it changes depending on the type of soda.

Determining cause and effect is one of the most important parts of scientific research. It’s essential to know which is the cause – the independent variable – and which is the effect – the dependent variable.

In non-probability sampling , the sample is selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member of the population has a chance of being included.

Common non-probability sampling methods include convenience sampling , voluntary response sampling, purposive sampling , snowball sampling, and quota sampling .

Probability sampling means that every member of the target population has a known chance of being included in the sample.

Probability sampling methods include simple random sampling , systematic sampling , stratified sampling , and cluster sampling .

Using careful research design and sampling procedures can help you avoid sampling bias . Oversampling can be used to correct undercoverage bias .

Some common types of sampling bias include self-selection bias , nonresponse bias , undercoverage bias , survivorship bias , pre-screening or advertising bias, and healthy user bias.

Sampling bias is a threat to external validity – it limits the generalizability of your findings to a broader group of people.

A sampling error is the difference between a population parameter and a sample statistic .

A statistic refers to measures about the sample , while a parameter refers to measures about the population .

Populations are used when a research question requires data from every member of the population. This is usually only feasible when the population is small and easily accessible.

Samples are used to make inferences about populations . Samples are easier to collect data from because they are practical, cost-effective, convenient, and manageable.

There are seven threats to external validity : selection bias , history, experimenter effect, Hawthorne effect , testing effect, aptitude-treatment and situation effect.

The two types of external validity are population validity (whether you can generalize to other groups of people) and ecological validity (whether you can generalize to other situations and settings).

The external validity of a study is the extent to which you can generalize your findings to different groups of people, situations, and measures.

Cross-sectional studies cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship or analyze behavior over a period of time. To investigate cause and effect, you need to do a longitudinal study or an experimental study .

Cross-sectional studies are less expensive and time-consuming than many other types of study. They can provide useful insights into a population’s characteristics and identify correlations for further research.

Sometimes only cross-sectional data is available for analysis; other times your research question may only require a cross-sectional study to answer it.

Longitudinal studies can last anywhere from weeks to decades, although they tend to be at least a year long.

The 1970 British Cohort Study , which has collected data on the lives of 17,000 Brits since their births in 1970, is one well-known example of a longitudinal study .

Longitudinal studies are better to establish the correct sequence of events, identify changes over time, and provide insight into cause-and-effect relationships, but they also tend to be more expensive and time-consuming than other types of studies.

Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies are two different types of research design . In a cross-sectional study you collect data from a population at a specific point in time; in a longitudinal study you repeatedly collect data from the same sample over an extended period of time.

Longitudinal study Cross-sectional study
observations Observations at a in time
Observes the multiple times Observes (a “cross-section”) in the population
Follows in participants over time Provides of society at a given point

There are eight threats to internal validity : history, maturation, instrumentation, testing, selection bias , regression to the mean, social interaction and attrition .

Internal validity is the extent to which you can be confident that a cause-and-effect relationship established in a study cannot be explained by other factors.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

  • If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
  • If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
  • If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

A confounding variable , also called a confounder or confounding factor, is a third variable in a study examining a potential cause-and-effect relationship.

A confounding variable is related to both the supposed cause and the supposed effect of the study. It can be difficult to separate the true effect of the independent variable from the effect of the confounding variable.

In your research design , it’s important to identify potential confounding variables and plan how you will reduce their impact.

Discrete and continuous variables are two types of quantitative variables :

  • Discrete variables represent counts (e.g. the number of objects in a collection).
  • Continuous variables represent measurable amounts (e.g. water volume or weight).

Quantitative variables are any variables where the data represent amounts (e.g. height, weight, or age).

Categorical variables are any variables where the data represent groups. This includes rankings (e.g. finishing places in a race), classifications (e.g. brands of cereal), and binary outcomes (e.g. coin flips).

You need to know what type of variables you are working with to choose the right statistical test for your data and interpret your results .

You can think of independent and dependent variables in terms of cause and effect: an independent variable is the variable you think is the cause , while a dependent variable is the effect .

In an experiment, you manipulate the independent variable and measure the outcome in the dependent variable. For example, in an experiment about the effect of nutrients on crop growth:

  • The  independent variable  is the amount of nutrients added to the crop field.
  • The  dependent variable is the biomass of the crops at harvest time.

Defining your variables, and deciding how you will manipulate and measure them, is an important part of experimental design .

Experimental design means planning a set of procedures to investigate a relationship between variables . To design a controlled experiment, you need:

  • A testable hypothesis
  • At least one independent variable that can be precisely manipulated
  • At least one dependent variable that can be precisely measured

When designing the experiment, you decide:

  • How you will manipulate the variable(s)
  • How you will control for any potential confounding variables
  • How many subjects or samples will be included in the study
  • How subjects will be assigned to treatment levels

Experimental design is essential to the internal and external validity of your experiment.

I nternal validity is the degree of confidence that the causal relationship you are testing is not influenced by other factors or variables .

External validity is the extent to which your results can be generalized to other contexts.

The validity of your experiment depends on your experimental design .

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

  • Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
  • Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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  • Independent vs Dependent Variables | Definition & Examples

Independent vs Dependent Variables | Definition & Examples

Published on 4 May 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 17 October 2022.

In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different values, such as height, age, temperature, or test scores.

Researchers often manipulate or measure independent and dependent variables in studies to test cause-and-effect relationships.

  • The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your study.
  • The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable.

Your independent variable is the temperature of the room. You vary the room temperature by making it cooler for half the participants, and warmer for the other half.

Table of contents

What is an independent variable, types of independent variables, what is a dependent variable, identifying independent vs dependent variables, independent and dependent variables in research, visualising independent and dependent variables, frequently asked questions about independent and dependent variables.

An independent variable is the variable you manipulate or vary in an experimental study to explore its effects. It’s called ‘independent’ because it’s not influenced by any other variables in the study.

Independent variables are also called:

  • Explanatory variables (they explain an event or outcome)
  • Predictor variables (they can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable)
  • Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation).

These terms are especially used in statistics , where you estimate the extent to which an independent variable change can explain or predict changes in the dependent variable.

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There are two main types of independent variables.

  • Experimental independent variables can be directly manipulated by researchers.
  • Subject variables cannot be manipulated by researchers, but they can be used to group research subjects categorically.

Experimental variables

In experiments, you manipulate independent variables directly to see how they affect your dependent variable. The independent variable is usually applied at different levels to see how the outcomes differ.

You can apply just two levels in order to find out if an independent variable has an effect at all.

You can also apply multiple levels to find out how the independent variable affects the dependent variable.

You have three independent variable levels, and each group gets a different level of treatment.

You randomly assign your patients to one of the three groups:

  • A low-dose experimental group
  • A high-dose experimental group
  • A placebo group

Independent and dependent variables

A true experiment requires you to randomly assign different levels of an independent variable to your participants.

Random assignment helps you control participant characteristics, so that they don’t affect your experimental results. This helps you to have confidence that your dependent variable results come solely from the independent variable manipulation.

Subject variables

Subject variables are characteristics that vary across participants, and they can’t be manipulated by researchers. For example, gender identity, ethnicity, race, income, and education are all important subject variables that social researchers treat as independent variables.

It’s not possible to randomly assign these to participants, since these are characteristics of already existing groups. Instead, you can create a research design where you compare the outcomes of groups of participants with characteristics. This is a quasi-experimental design because there’s no random assignment.

Your independent variable is a subject variable, namely the gender identity of the participants. You have three groups: men, women, and other.

Your dependent variable is the brain activity response to hearing infant cries. You record brain activity with fMRI scans when participants hear infant cries without their awareness.

A dependent variable is the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation. It’s the outcome you’re interested in measuring, and it ‘depends’ on your independent variable.

In statistics , dependent variables are also called:

  • Response variables (they respond to a change in another variable)
  • Outcome variables (they represent the outcome you want to measure)
  • Left-hand-side variables (they appear on the left-hand side of a regression equation)

The dependent variable is what you record after you’ve manipulated the independent variable. You use this measurement data to check whether and to what extent your independent variable influences the dependent variable by conducting statistical analyses.

Based on your findings, you can estimate the degree to which your independent variable variation drives changes in your dependent variable. You can also predict how much your dependent variable will change as a result of variation in the independent variable.

Distinguishing between independent and dependent variables can be tricky when designing a complex study or reading an academic paper.

A dependent variable from one study can be the independent variable in another study, so it’s important to pay attention to research design.

Here are some tips for identifying each variable type.

Recognising independent variables

Use this list of questions to check whether you’re dealing with an independent variable:

  • Is the variable manipulated, controlled, or used as a subject grouping method by the researcher?
  • Does this variable come before the other variable in time?
  • Is the researcher trying to understand whether or how this variable affects another variable?

Recognising dependent variables

Check whether you’re dealing with a dependent variable:

  • Is this variable measured as an outcome of the study?
  • Is this variable dependent on another variable in the study?
  • Does this variable get measured only after other variables are altered?

Independent and dependent variables are generally used in experimental and quasi-experimental research.

Here are some examples of research questions and corresponding independent and dependent variables.

Research question Independent variable Dependent variable(s)
Do tomatoes grow fastest under fluorescent, incandescent, or natural light?
What is the effect of intermittent fasting on blood sugar levels?
Is medical marijuana effective for pain reduction in people with chronic pain?
To what extent does remote working increase job satisfaction?

For experimental data, you analyse your results by generating descriptive statistics and visualising your findings. Then, you select an appropriate statistical test to test your hypothesis .

The type of test is determined by:

  • Your variable types
  • Level of measurement
  • Number of independent variable levels

You’ll often use t tests or ANOVAs to analyse your data and answer your research questions.

In quantitative research , it’s good practice to use charts or graphs to visualise the results of studies. Generally, the independent variable goes on the x -axis (horizontal) and the dependent variable on the y -axis (vertical).

The type of visualisation you use depends on the variable types in your research questions:

  • A bar chart is ideal when you have a categorical independent variable.
  • A scatterplot or line graph is best when your independent and dependent variables are both quantitative.

To inspect your data, you place your independent variable of treatment level on the x -axis and the dependent variable of blood pressure on the y -axis.

You plot bars for each treatment group before and after the treatment to show the difference in blood pressure.

independent and dependent variables

An independent variable is the variable you manipulate, control, or vary in an experimental study to explore its effects. It’s called ‘independent’ because it’s not influenced by any other variables in the study.

  • Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation)

A dependent variable is what changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation in experiments . It’s what you’re interested in measuring, and it ‘depends’ on your independent variable.

In statistics, dependent variables are also called:

Determining cause and effect is one of the most important parts of scientific research. It’s essential to know which is the cause – the independent variable – and which is the effect – the dependent variable.

You want to find out how blood sugar levels are affected by drinking diet cola and regular cola, so you conduct an experiment .

  • The type of cola – diet or regular – is the independent variable .
  • The level of blood sugar that you measure is the dependent variable – it changes depending on the type of cola.

Yes, but including more than one of either type requires multiple research questions .

For example, if you are interested in the effect of a diet on health, you can use multiple measures of health: blood sugar, blood pressure, weight, pulse, and many more. Each of these is its own dependent variable with its own research question.

You could also choose to look at the effect of exercise levels as well as diet, or even the additional effect of the two combined. Each of these is a separate independent variable .

To ensure the internal validity of an experiment , you should only change one independent variable at a time.

No. The value of a dependent variable depends on an independent variable, so a variable cannot be both independent and dependent at the same time. It must be either the cause or the effect, not both.

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Independent and Dependent Variables

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher.

The dependent variable is the response that is measured.   One way to think about it is that the dependent variable depends on the change in the independent variable.  In theory, a change in the independent variable will lead to a change in the dependent variable.

In a study of how different doses of a drug affect the severity of symptoms, a researcher could compare the frequency and intensity of symptoms when different doses are administered.

Here the independent variable is the dose and the dependent variable is the frequency/intensity of symptoms .

The rudder on a boat directs the course of the boat.  By changing the position of the rudder (turning it left or right), the rudder moves a certain way in the water, and that movement changes the trajectory of the boat.  

Here the independent variable is the rudder , while the dependent variable is the trajectory of the boat.

Tips: 

Independent and dependent variables are often referred to in other ways.  For instance, independent variables are sometimes called experimental variables or predictor variables.  Dependent variables are sometimes called outcome variables.

One way to differentiate between whether a variable is independent or dependent is to consider when each variable occurred.  Typically, the independent variable will be the variable that happened earlier. Meaning, if I am looking at a dataset that has a variable for the year someone was born and a variable for their level of happiness in 2019, it’s a good bet that the birth year is the independent variable because it happened before the current measure of happiness in 2019 (assuming we are not surveying newborn babies). In effect, this question would be measuring whether someone’s year of birth (maybe translated as generation affiliation) relates to how happy they are in 2019.

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Research Method

Home » Independent Variable – Definition, Types and Examples

Independent Variable – Definition, Types and Examples

Table of Contents

Independent Variable

Independent Variable

Definition:

Independent variable is a variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It is also known as the predictor variable or explanatory variable

The independent variable is the presumed cause in an experiment or study, while the dependent variable is the presumed effect or outcome. The relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable is often analyzed using statistical methods to determine the strength and direction of the relationship.

Types of Independent Variables

Types of Independent Variables are as follows:

Categorical Independent Variables

These variables are categorical or nominal in nature and represent a group or category. Examples of categorical independent variables include gender, ethnicity, marital status, and educational level.

Continuous Independent Variables

These variables are continuous in nature and can take any value on a continuous scale. Examples of continuous independent variables include age, height, weight, temperature, and blood pressure.

Discrete Independent Variables

These variables are discrete in nature and can only take on specific values. Examples of discrete independent variables include the number of siblings, the number of children in a family, and the number of pets owned.

Binary Independent Variables

These variables are dichotomous or binary in nature, meaning they can take on only two values. Examples of binary independent variables include yes or no questions, such as whether a participant is a smoker or non-smoker.

Controlled Independent Variables

These variables are manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe their effect on the dependent variable. Examples of controlled independent variables include the type of treatment or therapy given, the dosage of a medication, or the amount of exposure to a stimulus.

Independent Variable and dependent variable Analysis Methods

Following analysis methods that can be used to examine the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable:

Correlation Analysis

This method is used to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between two continuous variables. Correlation coefficients such as Pearson’s r or Spearman’s rho are used to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship.

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)

This method is used to compare the means of two or more groups for a continuous dependent variable. ANOVA can be used to test the effect of a categorical independent variable on a continuous dependent variable.

Regression Analysis

This method is used to examine the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. Linear regression is a common type of regression analysis that can be used to predict the value of the dependent variable based on the value of one or more independent variables.

Chi-square Test

This method is used to test the association between two categorical variables. It can be used to examine the relationship between a categorical independent variable and a categorical dependent variable.

This method is used to compare the means of two groups for a continuous dependent variable. It can be used to test the effect of a binary independent variable on a continuous dependent variable.

Measuring Scales of Independent Variable

There are four commonly used Measuring Scales of Independent Variables:

  • Nominal Scale : This scale is used for variables that can be categorized but have no inherent order or numerical value. Examples of nominal variables include gender, race, and occupation.
  • Ordinal Scale : This scale is used for variables that can be categorized and have a natural order but no specific numerical value. Examples of ordinal variables include levels of education (e.g., high school, bachelor’s degree, master’s degree), socioeconomic status (e.g., low, middle, high), and Likert scales (e.g., strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree).
  • I nterval Scale : This scale is used for variables that have a numerical value and a consistent unit of measurement but no true zero point. Examples of interval variables include temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit, IQ scores, and time of day.
  • Ratio Scale: This scale is used for variables that have a numerical value, a consistent unit of measurement, and a true zero point. Examples of ratio variables include height, weight, and income.

Independent Variable Examples

Here are some examples of independent variables:

  • In a study examining the effects of a new medication on blood pressure, the independent variable would be the medication itself.
  • In a study comparing the academic performance of male and female students, the independent variable would be gender.
  • In a study investigating the effects of different types of exercise on weight loss, the independent variable would be the type of exercise performed.
  • In a study examining the relationship between age and income, the independent variable would be age.
  • In a study investigating the effects of different types of music on mood, the independent variable would be the type of music played.
  • In a study examining the effects of different teaching strategies on student test scores, the independent variable would be the teaching strategy used.
  • In a study investigating the effects of caffeine on reaction time, the independent variable would be the amount of caffeine consumed.
  • In a study comparing the effects of two different fertilizers on plant growth, the independent variable would be the type of fertilizer used.

Independent variable vs Dependent variable

Independent Variable
The variable that is changed or manipulated in an experiment.The variable that is measured or observed and is affected by the independent variable.
The independent variable is the cause and influences the dependent variable.The dependent variable is the effect and is influenced by the independent variable.
Typically plotted on the x-axis of a graph.Typically plotted on the y-axis of a graph.
Age, gender, treatment type, temperature, time.Blood pressure, heart rate, test scores, reaction time, weight.
The researcher can control the independent variable to observe its effects on the dependent variable.The researcher cannot control the dependent variable but can measure and observe its changes in response to the independent variable.
To determine the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.To observe changes in the dependent variable and understand how it is affected by the independent variable.

Applications of Independent Variable

Applications of Independent Variable in different fields are as follows:

  • Scientific experiments : Independent variables are commonly used in scientific experiments to study the cause-and-effect relationships between different variables. By controlling and manipulating the independent variable, scientists can observe how changes in that variable affect the dependent variable.
  • Market research: Independent variables are also used in market research to study consumer behavior. For example, researchers may manipulate the price of a product (independent variable) to see how it affects consumer demand (dependent variable).
  • Psychology: In psychology, independent variables are often used to study the effects of different treatments or therapies on mental health conditions. For example, researchers may manipulate the type of therapy (independent variable) to see how it affects a patient’s symptoms (dependent variable).
  • Education: Independent variables are used in educational research to study the effects of different teaching methods or interventions on student learning outcomes. For example, researchers may manipulate the teaching method (independent variable) to see how it affects student performance on a test (dependent variable).

Purpose of Independent Variable

The purpose of an independent variable is to manipulate or control it in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable. In other words, the independent variable is the variable that is being tested or studied to see if it has an effect on the dependent variable.

The independent variable is often manipulated by the researcher in order to create different experimental conditions. By varying the independent variable, the researcher can observe how the dependent variable changes in response. For example, in a study of the effects of caffeine on memory, the independent variable would be the amount of caffeine consumed, while the dependent variable would be memory performance.

The main purpose of the independent variable is to determine causality. By manipulating the independent variable and observing its effect on the dependent variable, researchers can determine whether there is a causal relationship between the two variables. This is important for understanding how different variables affect each other and for making predictions about how changes in one variable will affect other variables.

When to use Independent Variable

Here are some situations when an independent variable may be used:

  • When studying cause-and-effect relationships: Independent variables are often used in studies that aim to establish causal relationships between variables. By manipulating the independent variable and observing the effect on the dependent variable, researchers can determine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two variables.
  • When comparing groups or conditions: Independent variables can also be used to compare groups or conditions. For example, a researcher might manipulate an independent variable (such as a treatment or intervention) and observe the effect on a dependent variable (such as a symptom or behavior) in two different groups of participants (such as a treatment group and a control group).
  • When testing hypotheses: Independent variables are used to test hypotheses about how different variables are related. By manipulating the independent variable and observing the effect on the dependent variable, researchers can test whether their hypotheses are supported or not.

Characteristics of Independent Variable

Here are some of the characteristics of independent variables:

  • Manipulation: The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher in order to create different experimental conditions. The researcher changes the level or value of the independent variable to observe how it affects the dependent variable.
  • Control : The independent variable is controlled by the researcher to ensure that it is the only variable that is changing in the experiment. By controlling other variables that might affect the dependent variable, the researcher can isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
  • Categorical or continuous: Independent variables can be either categorical or continuous. Categorical independent variables have distinct categories or levels that are not ordered (e.g., gender, ethnicity), while continuous independent variables are measured on a scale (e.g., age, temperature).
  • Treatment : In some experiments, the independent variable represents a treatment or intervention that is being tested. For example, a researcher might manipulate the independent variable by giving participants a new medication or therapy.
  • Random assignment : In order to control for extraneous variables and ensure that the independent variable is the only variable that is changing, participants are often randomly assigned to different levels of the independent variable. This helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are not due to pre-existing differences between the participants.

Advantages of Independent Variable

Independent variables have several advantages, including:

  • Control : Independent variables allow researchers to control the variables being studied, which helps to establish cause-and-effect relationships. By manipulating the independent variable, researchers can see how changes in that variable affect the dependent variable.
  • Replication : Manipulating independent variables allows researchers to replicate studies to confirm or refute previous findings. By controlling the independent variable, researchers can ensure that any differences in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, rather than other factors.
  • Predictive Powe r: Independent variables can be used to predict future outcomes. By examining how changes in the independent variable affect the dependent variable, researchers can make predictions about how the dependent variable will respond in the future.
  • Precision : Independent variables can help to increase the precision of a study by allowing researchers to control for extraneous variables that might otherwise confound the results. This can lead to more accurate and reliable findings.
  • Generalizability : Independent variables can help to increase the generalizability of a study by allowing researchers to manipulate variables in a way that reflects real-world conditions. This can help to ensure that findings are applicable to a wider range of situations and contexts.

Disadvantages of Independent Variable

Independent variables also have several disadvantages, including:

  • Artificiality : In some cases, manipulating the independent variable in a study may create an artificial environment that does not reflect real-world conditions. This can limit the generalizability of the findings.
  • Ethical concerns: Manipulating independent variables in some studies may raise ethical concerns, such as when human participants are subjected to potentially harmful or uncomfortable conditions.
  • Limitations in measuring variables: Some variables may be difficult or impossible to manipulate in a study. For example, it may be difficult to manipulate someone’s age or gender, which can limit the researcher’s ability to study the effects of these variables.
  • Complexity : Some variables may be very complex, making it difficult to determine which variables are independent and which are dependent. This can make it challenging to design a study that effectively examines the relationship between variables.
  • Extraneous variables : Even when researchers manipulate the independent variable, other variables may still affect the results. These extraneous variables can confound the results, making it difficult to draw clear conclusions about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

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Determinants of intention to use of hospital information systems among healthcare professionals.

what is dependent variable in research methodology

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. hospital information systems, 2.2. determinants of intention to use his, 3. research proposition development, 3.1. time savings, 3.2. privacy protection, 3.3. demographic characteristics, 4. methodology, 4.1. research instrument, 4.3. statistical analysis, 5.1. descriptive analysis, 5.2. reliability and validity analysis, 5.3. correlation analysis, 5.4. regression analysis, 5.5. research proposition testing, 6. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

CodeVariableMeasurement
Perceived time savings
TIME1The HIS, with its database and search method, shortens the time for reviewing findings compared with findings found in printed media.Likert scale (1-not agree at all; 5-fully agree)
TIME2The HIS, with its database, shortens the writing of findings/information about nursing care, etc., by approximately 20 min.
TIME3Sending and exchanging data via the HIS with other health institutions (e.g., hospitals and Croatian Health Insurance Fund offices) is at a satisfactory level, shortening the time of exchange of findings and the possibility of wrong diagnosis.
TIME4Using the HIS speeds up my daily work routine.
Perceived privacy
PRIVACY1The HIS provides full protection of patients’ data following legal regulations.Likert scale (1-not agree at all; 5-fully agree)
PRIVACY2The level of security of the information system is such that hacker intrusions into the system cannot happen.
PRIVACY3Due to the additional parameters entered, patients with the same first and last names cannot be mistaken in the HIS.
PRIVACY4The access rights in the HIS are well defined (e.g., the difference in the availability of data to doctors and nurses).
Intention to use HIS
INTENT1I intend to use the HIS in the next 2 months.Likert scale (1-not agree at all; 5-fully agree)
INTENT2I plan to continue to use the HIS.
INTENT3I anticipate using the HIS after the next 2 months.
Education
EDULevel of education of the HIS userSecondary and lower (1); Undergraduate and higher (2)
Age
AGEAge of the HIS userLower than 35 (1); 35 and older (2)
VariablesNMinimumMaximumMeanStandard DeviationCronbach’s AlphaVIF
INTENT1113154.210.280.269
INTENT2113354.240.21
INTENT3113354.240.21
PRIVACY1113153.281.210.2573.447
PRIVACY2113152.270.26
PRIVACY3113152.261.21
PRIVACY4113153.261.20
TIME1113154.230.240.2944.216
TIME2113153.201.23
TIME3113153.221.25
TIME4113153.281.26
AGE113010.230.20 7.935
EDUCATION113010.210.29 6.528
VariablesFactor 1Factor 2Factor 3
INTENT10.219
INTENT20.265
INTENT30.265
PRIVACY1 0.247
PRIVACY2 0.252
PRIVACY3 0.213
PRIVACY4 0.205
TIME1 0.258
TIME2 0.252
TIME3 0.237
TIME4 0.235
VariableINTENTTIMEPRIVACYAGEEDUCATION
1. INTENT1
2. TIME0.400 ***
3. PRIVACY−0.0640.171 **
4. AGE−0.149−0.0440.070
5. EDUCATION0.256 ***0.115−0.270 ***0.021
Model 1 (H1 and H2)Model 2 (H3)
Bp-ValueBp-Value
Constant3.5260.000 ***3.460 0.000 ***
Time savings (TIME)0.3640.000 ***0.328 0.000 ***
Privacy protection (PROTECT)−0.1340.113−0.077 0.379
Age--−0.176 0.155
Education--0.265 0.047 **
R0.402 0.452
R square0.161 0.205
Adj. R Square0.146 0.175
No observ.113 113
F-change--2.9440.057 *
Model 1
(H1 and H2)
Model 2 (H3)Conclusion
Constant---
Time savings (TIME)(+1%)(+1%)H1 → Accepted
Privacy protection (PROTECT)--H2 → Not accepted
Age--H3a → Not accepted
Education-(+5%)H3b → Accepted
F-change-(+10%)H4 → Accepted
The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

Pejić Bach, M.; Mihajlović, I.; Stanković, M.; Khawaja, S.; Qureshi, F.H. Determinants of Intention to Use of Hospital Information Systems among Healthcare Professionals. Systems 2024 , 12 , 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12070235

Pejić Bach M, Mihajlović I, Stanković M, Khawaja S, Qureshi FH. Determinants of Intention to Use of Hospital Information Systems among Healthcare Professionals. Systems . 2024; 12(7):235. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12070235

Pejić Bach, Mirjana, Iris Mihajlović, Marino Stanković, Sarwar Khawaja, and Fayyaz Hussain Qureshi. 2024. "Determinants of Intention to Use of Hospital Information Systems among Healthcare Professionals" Systems 12, no. 7: 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12070235

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The impact of food sufficiency on the health status: The case of households in the North Central Region / Research Brief

Antara Chowdhury, North Central Regional Center for Rural Development, Purdue University

Food sufficiency is positively associated with self-evaluated health status, which is a matter of great concern for stakeholders and policymakers. In this study, we show the effect of food availability, accessibility, and food assistance programs on the self-evaluated health status of the respondents in the North Central Region. We employed an ordered probit regression analysis and used data from the NCR-Stat: Baseline Survey 2022. The study results imply that food availability and accessibility are significantly positively associated with respondents’ self-reported health status. In addition, demographic factors, such as being married, having higher educational attainment, and having a higher income level, are positively related to better self-reported health. In contrast to other studies, White respondents are significantly less healthy than other racial groups. This study highlights the importance of food sufficiency for the population’s health.

1. Introduction

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data reveal that around 44.2 million people in the United States in 2022 lived in food-insecure households and lacked access to sufficient food to maintain an active and healthy lifestyle (USDA, 2022). Food insecurity affects health status negatively, making it a matter of great concern for researchers, community development practitioners, and policymakers. For instance, members of food-insecure households may experience worse physical and mental health, require longer recoveries from sickness, and need more frequent hospitalization. They may also have a greater risk of developmental and educational delays than those from food-secure households (Gunderson and Ziliak, 2015). Besides, food insecurity often leads to a less productive and unhealthy labor force (Moore, 2022).

Respondents from food-insecure households often report their inability to afford a balanced diet, interrupted food supply, a high rate of running out of food, and meal skipping (Seligman et al., 2010). Living in a food-insecure household changes the dietary pattern of the household members, as evident from prior studies that suggest food insecurity decreases dietary variety and increases the consumption of energy-dense food, leading to adverse negative health consequences (Drewnowski and Darmon, 2005).

Food insecurity [1] in the United States has declined over the past decades (ERS, 2019). However, different studies show that any catastrophic phenomenon, such as a weather-related disaster or a war conflict, causes a long-term negative impact on food security. For instance, food insecurity and food pantry usage increased significantly after Hurricane Katrina (Colten et al., 2008), and the food insecurity rate in Louisiana and Mississippi states remained higher for several years than before (Clay et al., 2018).

Several federal food assistance programs have been introduced to fight food insecurity and ensure essential nutritious food for health and well-being. Some of these food assistance programs include the Food Stamp Program, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), National School Lunch Program, School Breakfast Program, Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), Summer Food Service Program, WIC Farmers Market Nutrition Program, Meals on Wheels Program, Community Supplemental Food Program (CSFP), and The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP). In 2022, around $183 billion were allocated for USDA’s food and nutrition assistance program (USDA ERS – Food Security and Nutrition Assistance). However, these programs do not ensure food security for the population in need (Center for Budget and policy Priorities, 2021).

In this paper, we examine the impact of food availability, food accessibility, and food assistance programs on the self-evaluated health status of respondents in the North Central Region (NCR) using the data from NCR-Stat: Baseline Survey 2022 (Bednarikova et al., 2022).

2. Literature review

The relation between food security and health status.

Several studies focus on the association between adverse health outcomes and food insecurity. For example, Seligman et al. (2010) examine the relationship between food insecurity and diet-sensitive chronic diseases (hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes) using clinical evidence. In their study, the population-based sample includes 5,094 poor adults who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The results suggest participants from food-insecure households have a 21% higher risk of clinical hypertension and about 50% higher risk of clinical diabetes than their food-secure counterparts. The study also shows that household food insecurity is associated with low income, high tobacco usage, and low educational attainment.

Stuff et al. (2004) study the association between household food insecurity and the self-reported health status of adults in the lower Mississippi Delta region. Adults from food-insecure households are more likely to rate their physical and mental health as poor. Also, younger participants have better health than older participants. Stuff et al. (2004) suggest that a $10,000 increase in income per year would lead to health status changes from poor to good.

Blaylock and Blisard (1995) explore that food security significantly influences a woman’s self-evaluated health status, using the USDA Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals between 1985 and 1986. The results show that a food-secure woman is 60% more likely to have an excellent health status than a food-insecure woman. In addition, food stamp recipients and Black Americans are more likely to be food insecure. Homeowners, suburban residents, and respondents with higher income and education are more likely to experience food security. Respondents from suburban areas, living in larger households, and having higher educational attainment, as well as White respondents are more likely to report better health. However, older respondents, those with a higher body mass index, smokers, unemployed, and food insecure respondents are more likely to indicate poor health.

Other determinants of food accessibility and availability, such as direct-to-consumer farm sales, per capita grocery stores, full-service restaurants, fast food restaurants, and convenience stores in metro and non-metro areas, are important to health outcomes (Ahern et al., 2011). Their study uses the Food Environment Atlas and the Center for Disease Control and Prevention data to estimate the relationship between food accessibility and health outcomes. The study shows that more per capita full-service restaurants, grocery stores, and direct-to-consumer farm sales are associated with positive health outcomes in metro and non-metro areas. In contrast, fast-food restaurants and convenience stores are associated with negative health outcomes.

Socio-economic and demographic factors of households

The study by Nicholas and Valerie (2003) identifies the socio-demographic factors of Canadian food insufficient households using the National Population Health Survey from 1996/1997. The study examines the association between food insufficiency and physical, mental, and social health (derived from the social support index measuring perceived social support) among households struggling with economic constraints. The study indicates that the respondents from food insufficient households are more likely to report poor or fair health. They also suffer from poor functional health, chronic health conditions, major depression, and distress and have poor social support. Respondents from food insufficient households are more likely to report heart diseases, diabetes, high blood pressure, and food allergies than the respondents from food sufficient households. The results also show that those who do not own a house, single-parent households, households from western Canada, and households reporting welfare, unemployment insurance, and workers’ compensation as their primary source of income are more likely to report food insufficiency.

Women reported significantly poorer health than men in the study conducted by Boerma et al. (2016) using World Health Surveys 2002 – 2004 data from 59 countries. Women of all ages reported poorer health than same-age men. The observed gender gap in self-reported health status was caused by the higher prevalence of chronic conditions in women, such as arthritis, depression, cognitive loss, asthma, etc. Also, women had more risk factors for stroke (Boerma et al. 2016). A study conducted at the University of London in 2016 found that women make fewer visits to the general practitioner, receive less health monitoring, and take more potentially harmful medication. In contrast, another study (Oksuzyan et al., 2010) shows that men die younger than women, and they are more burdened by illnesses during their life. They fall ill at a younger age and have more chronic sicknesses than women.

A study conducted in Poland reveals that self-rated health status is associated with employment status. Unemployed men have more than three times higher risk of low self-rated health than employed men. On the other hand, unemployed women show a 1.5 times higher risk of low self-rated health than employed women (Kaleta et al., 2008).

3. Theoretical Model

We explore the relationship between self-evaluated health status and food sufficiency while controlling for the demographic characteristics of respondents (Figure 1). Specifically, the study aims to answer the following research questions:

  • How is food availability associated with the respondent’s health status?
  • How is food accessibility associated with the respondent’s health status?
  • How is food assistance participation associated with the respondent’s health status?

Figure 1. The relationship between health status, food sufficiency, and demographic characteristics

Figure 1. The relationship between health status, food sufficiency, and demographic characteristics graph

4. Materials and methods

We used the NCR-Stat: Baseline Survey (Bednarikova et al., 2022) conducted by the North Central Regional Center for Rural Development (NCRCRD) in 2022. The NCR-Stat: Baseline Survey is a household survey including 4,669 respondents from all states in the NCR: Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Participation in the survey was voluntary, and all information about respondents was de-identified. The dataset includes primary economic and social data collected at the state level and focused on households, businesses, and community well-being. However, the cross-sectional nature of the dataset represents a study limitation. The data contain one-time measurements, leading to difficulty in finding a cause-and-effect relationship. Despite this limitation, the dataset provides unique information about the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents.

4.2 Methodology

We used an ordered probit regression analysis to evaluate the relationship between self-evaluated health status and food sufficiency. The equation for a probit model can be written as (Mehmet Mehmetoglu and Tor Georg Jakobsen, 2022)

 = Φ ( a + b X + g C +   )                                                                                                                    (1)

where the probit (the total probit) of Y is the dependent variable representing the probability that the event occurs given the independent variables X and C . In Eq. 1, the parameter a denotes the intercept, and the terms β and g   are slopes and regression coefficients, respectively, reflecting the effect of change of vectors X and C on Y . The parameter ε i quantifies the random error, and Φ represents the cumulative standard normal distribution function. Considering the independent variables, the general form of the model becomes

Health status i = Φ ( a + b Food security + g   Demographic  characteristics + ε i )                           (2)

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable health status is the self-evaluated health status of the respondent determined by the question, “How would you rate your health in general?”. The survey participants rated their health status on a scale from 1 to 3, where 1 is poor, 2 is good, and 3 is excellent. The survey data show that 25.4% of the respondents indicated their health as poor, 37.1% as good, and 37.4% as excellent.

Independent Variables

We grouped independent variables into two categories: food sufficiency-related variables and household demographics. Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the variables.

The Food Sufficiency group includes three variables. The variable food availability is created from the question, “In the last 12 months, how often did food run out before you or other household members had money to buy more?”. If the respondent or their family members ran out of food for at least 1 or 2 months, they are considered as not having food available. If they never ran out of food, they had food available. This dummy variable takes the value of 1 if the household has food available and 0 otherwise.

The variable food accessibility  is created from the question, “Is it hard to get to the places where you purchase or receive food?”. If the respondent ever found it hard to get to places to purchase or receive food, then they did not have food accessibility. On the other hand, if they never encountered hardship in finding a place to purchase or receive food, they had food accessible. If the household had food accessibility, then this dummy variable takes the value of 1, and 0 if otherwise. The variable food assistance results from the question, “Has anyone in your household participated in any of the Federal Food Assistance Programs?” The variable  food assistance  takes the value of 1 if the respondent was a food assistance recipient and 0 if otherwise.

The demographic variables include age, location, race, gender, educational attainment, income, type of household, and marital status.  Age  is a continuous variable that indicates the age of the respondent in 2022. The variable gender is a dummy variable with the value of 1 if the respondent was female, and 0 for otherwise. The variable  location  takes the value of 1 if the respondent was from a rural location and 0 if otherwise. The variable race is 1 if the respondent was white and 0 if otherwise. The educational attainment is a categorical variable that equals 1 if the respondent’s educational attainment was grade 12 or GED and less, equals 2 if the educational attainment was 1 to 3 years of college or technical school, and 3 indicates 4-year graduate degree and higher. The variable  income  equals 1 if the household income was less than $25,000, 2 if the household income was between $25,000 to $49,999, and 3 if the household income was more than $50,000.

Family household variable indicates the household that consists of a householder and one or more other people living in the same household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption. The nonfamily household consists of a householder living alone or with nonrelatives only, for example, with roommates or an unmarried partner. The responses take values of 1 for a family household and 0 if otherwise. The  marital status  variable is 1 if the respondent was married and 0 if otherwise.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of all variables

. . . . .
    Poor 4,651 0.254 0.435 0 1
    Good 4,651 0.372 0.483 0 1
    Excellent 4,651 0.374 0.484 0 1
Food availability 4,608 0.676 0.468 0 1
Food accessibility 4,629 0.749 0.433 0 1
Food assistance 4,668 0.345 0.476 0 1
Family household 4,668 0.711 0.453 0 1
Age 4,668 51.155 17.866 18 93
Location 3,743 0.155 0.362 0 1
Race 4,596 0.842 0.365 0 1
Marital status 4,633 0.447 0.497 0 1
Gender 4,665 0.683 .466 0 1
 i. . . . . .
    Grade 12 or GED and less 4,658 0.291 0.454 0 1
    College or technical school 4,658 0.371 0.483 0 1
    Graduate degree 4,658 0.339 0.473 0 1
 i. . . . . .
    Less than $25,000 4,502 0.224 0.417 0 1
    $25,000-$49,999 4,502 0.317 0.465 0 1
    More than $50,000 4,502 0.458 0.498 0 1
Data Source: Bednarikova et al. (2022).

5. Results and discussion

Table 2 contains the results of the ordered probit regression model. The statistically significant variables are food availability , food accessibility , age , race , marital status , educational attainment , and income . The variables positively associated with better health outcomes are food availability, food accessibility, marital status, and higher income and educational attainment. Variables negatively associated with better health outcomes are age and race.

Table 2. Results of ordered probit regression analysis

Food availability .198 .051 ***
Food accessibility .217 .052 ***
Food assistance .009 .049
Family household -.024 .053
Age -.008 .001 ***
Location .016 .053
Race -.154 .053 ***
Marital status .133 .051 ***
Gender -.04 .042

Grade 12 or GED and less (Reference category)

 

 

 

College or technical school .092 .05 *
Graduate degree .357 .053 ***

Less than $25,000 (Reference category)

 

 

 

$25,000-$49,999 .243 .057 ***
More than $50,000 .467 .06 ***

Note: Significance of coefficients in the model *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Source: Author’s own calculations

To interpret properly the variables that might be significantly associated with the self-evaluated health status, we analyzed the marginal effects of the ordered probit model shown in Table 3. The results reveal that the respondents who do not lack food are more likely to report excellent health than others. Additionally, the marginal effect shows that having food available is associated with being 6 percentage points less likely to be in poor health status, 1.3 percentage points less likely to be in fair health status, and 7 percentage points more likely to be in excellent health status. Similar studies also show a strong positive association between food availability and health (Stuff et al., 2004). Food availability positively affects the respondent’s health status, which answers our first research question.

Table 3. Marginal effect of the statistically significant variables

Food availability -0.0613 -0.013 0.0744
Food accessibility -0.067 -0.0144 0.082
Age 0.002 0.000 -0.003
Race 0.047 0.010 0.058
Marital status -0.041 -0.008 0.05

– College or technical school

-0.0309675 -0.002153 0.0331205

– Graduate degree and higher

-0.1093039 -0.0248072 0.1341112
– $25,000-$49,999 -0.084088 -0.0003175 0.0844055
– More than $50,000 -0.1508025 -0.0192042 0.1700067

Note: Only significant marginal impacts are reported.  Source: Author’s own calculations

The respondents who had food accessibility (do not find hardship to purchase or receive food) have a positive association with health. More precisely, those with food accessibility are more likely to report excellent health. The marginal effect indicates that having food accessibility is associated with being 8 percentage points more likely to be in excellent health. Ahern et al. (2011) also found in their work that more per capita full-service restaurants, grocery stores, and direct-to-consumer farm sales are positively associated with health outcomes. This positive association between health and food accessibility relation answers our second research question.

Participation in the Federal Food Assistance Programs showed a negative association with self-evaluated health status. However, the result was not statistically significant in this study. It answered the third research question, that participating in food assistance programs was not significantly associated with self-evaluated health.

Several demographic factors might affect self-evaluated health status. The results show that older respondents are more likely to have poor health status than younger respondents. Interestingly, White respondents are less likely to report excellent health, which contradicts several previous studies (e.g., Boen, 2016). The marginal effect shows White respondents are 5.8 percentage points less likely to be in excellent health compared to respondents that self-identified as racial or ethnic minorities.

Additionally, the results reveal that married respondents are more likely to report better health status. Married respondents are 5 percentage points more likely to have excellent health. Other studies also show that married individuals are generally healthier than unmarried individuals (Waldron et al., 1996).

The results show that an increase in income might be significantly positively associated with the self-reported health status. The respondents with a graduate degree or more are 13 percentage points more likely to report excellent health than respondents with a high school degree. Higher levels of education might be positively associated with better self-reported health status, as people with tertiary education tend to be better informed about healthy decisions and choices and have greater knowledge of preventive measures (Zajacova & Lawrence, 2018). Moreover, a higher income level increases the likelihood of reporting excellent health. The respondents with household income of $50,000 or more are 13 percentage points more likely to report excellent health compared to those with a household income of less than $25,000.

Availability and accessibility to food play a critical role in respondents’ health status. In this study, food availability and accessibility, described as food sufficiency, showed that food-secured respondents are more likely to report better health. Moreover, married respondents and respondents with higher income and educational attainment are more likely to report better health. On the other hand, older respondents and white respondents are more likely to report poor health.

The association between food sufficiency and health found in this study may help address the importance of food availability and accessibility for self-reported health status. The results regarding the healthier status of non-white respondents compared to White respondents suggest additional research to understand better the relationship between race and health status.

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About the Author

Antara Chowdhury is a Graduate Research Assistant with North Central Regional Center for Rural Development at Purdue University.

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[1] More information about definitions of food security can be found at https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-u-s/definitions-of-food-security/ .

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Cardi-Ankle Vascular Index Optimizes Ischemic Heart disease Diagnosis

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Background: Ischemic heart disease (IHD) has the highest mortality rate in the globe in between the other cardiovascular diseases (CVD). This returns to the poor diagnostic and therapeutic strategies including the primary prevention techniques. Aims: To assess the changes in the cardio-ankle vascular index (CAVI) in patients with vs without IHD confirmed by stress computed tomography myocardial perfusion (CTP) imaging with vasodilatation stress-test (Adenosine triphosphate). Objectives: IHD often has preventable risk factors and causes that lead to the appearance of the disease. However, the lack of appropriate diagnostic and prevention tools remains a global challenge in or era despite current scientific advances. Material and methods: A single center observational study included 80 participants from Moscow. The participants aged ≥ 40 years and given a written consent to participate in the study. Both groups, G1=31 with vs. G2 = 49 without post stress induced myocardial perfusion defect, received cardiologist s consultation, anthropometric measurements, blood pressure and pulse rate, echocardiography, CAVI and performing bicycle ergometry. For statistical analysis, descriptive statistics, t-test independent by groups and dependent by numerical variables for repeated analysis for the same patients, Pearson s correlation coefficient, multivariate ANOVA test, and for clarification purposes, diagrams and bar figures were used. For performing the statistical analysis, used the Statistica 12 programme (StatSoft, Inc. (2014). STATISTICA (data analysis software system), version 12. www.statsoft.com.) and the IBM SPSS Statistics, version 28.0.1.1 (14). Results: The mean age of the participants 56.28, standard deviation (Std.Dev. 10.601). Mean CAVI in the IHD group 8.509677 (Std.Dev. 0.975057208) vs 7.994898 (Std.Dev. 1.48990509) in the non-IHD group. The mean estimated biological age of the arteries according to the results of the CAVI in the first group 61.2258 years vs 53.5102 years in the second group. The Mean brachial-ankle pulse (Tba) in the IHD group 82.0968 vs 89.0102 in the second group. The mean heart-ankle pulse wave velocity (haPWV; m/s) in the IHD group was 0.9533 vs 0.8860 in the second group. Regression analysis demonstrated that the dependent variable, the CAVI parameter, have no significant effect on the development of stress-induced myocardial perfusion defect, regression coefficient 95.316, p>0.05. The CAVI showed 64 % diagnostic accuracy for the IHD. Conclusion: The CAVI parameter showed no statistical difference between the participants with IHD vs without. The CAVI parameter can be used as an axillary method for improving the diagnosis of IHD. Other: Additional indicators associated with IHD include the Tba and haPWV parameters, higher in patients with IHD.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Clinical Trial

NCT06181799

Funding Statement

The work of Philipp Kopylov and Daria Gognieva was financed by the government assignment 1023022600020-6 "Application of mass spectrometry and exhaled air emission spectrometry for cardiovascular risk stratification". The work of Basheer Marzoog and Peter Chomakhidze was financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation within the framework of state support for the creation and development of World-Class Research Center "Digital biodesign and personalized healthcare" № 075-15-2022-304.

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The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

the study approved by the Sechenov University, Russia, from 'Ethics Committee Requirement № 19-23 from 26.10.2023'.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

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  27. Cardi-Ankle Vascular Index Optimizes Ischemic Heart disease Diagnosis

    The mean heart-ankle pulse wave velocity (haPWV; m/s) in the IHD group was 0.9533 vs 0.8860 in the second group. Regression analysis demonstrated that the dependent variable, the CAVI parameter, have no significant effect on the development of stress-induced myocardial perfusion defect, regression coefficient 95.316, p>0.05.