types of essay arguments

Argumentative Essay Guide

Types Of Argument

Learn the 3 Different Types of Argument and Multiple Argument Claims

3 Main Types of Argument

There are 3 types of arguments that you'll most likely encounter while writing an argumentative essay . These are:

Classical Argument

The Classical or Aristotelian model of argument is the most common type of argument. It was developed by the Greek philosopher and Rhetorician Aristotle.

In the classical model, both sides of an argument are analyzed , and one side is proven right using clear evidence .

This model efficiently utilizes Ethos (authenticity) + Pathos (emotion) + Logos (logic) to persuade an audience to a side of an argument.

The classical model argumentative essay takes into account the following things:

Introduces the main claim or the argument of the essay.
Present the writer's perspective on the argument. The reasons something is not working and why something should be done.
Take into account the other side of the argument . Explain them in detail and refute them with the help of evidence.
Provide clear evidence that proves that your side of the claim is true.
Provide the conclusion which states the benefits of accepting your claim.

The structure of the classical model is as follows:

Introduction - hook statement, brief background, thesis statement
Body - topic sentence, facts & evidence to prove the argument
Counter argument - opposing arguments, evidence and reasons to refute the counter-arguments
Conclusion - restating the thesis statement, call to action and concluding remarks

Here is an example that follows this model:

Toulmin Argument

The Toulmin model for argumentative essays was developed by Stephen Toulmin. Unlike the classical model of argument, it presents only one side of the argument . This model works well when there is no clear truth or an absolute solution to a problem.

It breaks the argument into 6 basic components:

The structure of the Toulmin model is as follow:

Introduction - thesis statement or the main claim
Body - facts & evidence to support the argument
Conclusion - rebuttal of counter-arguments

Here is an example outline of an argumentative essay about abortion in the Toulmin Model:

Rogerian Argument

The Rogerian model of argument was developed by Carl R. Rogers to provide a middle ground between opposing parties. This model works on collaboration and cooperation. It acknowledges that an argument can be looked at from different standpoints .

The objectives of the Rogerian model are:

To show the reader that you have listened to their viewpoints and understood the complexities of the argument.
To define the area where the writer acknowledges the reader's claim to be valid.
Show the reader that you both share similar moral qualities and want to discover a solution that is mutually acceptable.

Each Rogerian model argumentative essay should define all of these aims.

The structure of the Rogerian model is as follow:

Introduction - Introduction to the argument and thesis statement.
Opposing position: An acknowledgment that there is another side of the argument.
State your claim: Your own perspective about the argument.
Provide a middle ground: Carefully bring both sides of the argument together and provide a compromised solution.
Conclusion - Concluding remarks that state the benefits of a compromised solution.

Here’s a short example:

You can follow any of these 3 types of argument essay models in your argumentative essay. These models will help you to write an argumentative essay in a well-structured and persuasive way.

Types of Argument Claims

An argument claim, often simply referred to as a "claim," is a

“declarative statement or proposition put forward in an argument or discussion.”

It is the central point or thesis that the person making the argument is trying to prove or persuade others to accept.

Factual Claims

Factual claims are statements that assert something as a fact or reality. They are based on observable evidence and can be proven or disproven.

For example,

Value Claims

Value claims express personal opinions, preferences, or judgments about something. They are not about facts but about what someone believes is right, good, or important.

For instance,

Policy Claims

Policy claims propose a specific course of action or advocate for a change in the way things are done. They are often found in discussions about laws, regulations, or actions that should be taken.

An example would be,

Causal Claims

Causal claims assert a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more phenomena. They suggest that one thing is responsible for another.

For instance,

Definitional Claims

Definitional claims seek to clarify or establish the meaning of a term or concept. They aim to set a specific definition or understanding for a particular word or idea.

For example ,

Understanding these different types of argument claims can help you identify the nature of statements in discussions and debates. This makes it easier to analyze and respond to various arguments.

Steps to Structure an Argumentative Essay

You may have a very good and controversial argument in mind with strong evidence to prove it. However, if you haven't structured your argument properly, your argument is wasted.

Here are the easy steps that can help you structure your argument effectively:

Choose a controversial and debatable topic from a comprehensive list of argumentative essay topics .
Decide the type of claim that you want to make with your essay.
Decide the type of argument structure you want to follow in your essay.
Collect facts and evidence from credible sources and use them to support your claim.
Develop a strong argumentative essay outline .
Study some argumentative essay examples to get a deeper understanding of how to develop an argument in the essay.
Begin your essay with an arguable claim or premises.
Make sure your claim is logical and is developed coherently throughout the essay.
Provide a conclusion that clearly matches the type of argument model you have followed.

Now that you've got the basics of different argument types, you're all set to start writing your argumentative essays.

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What this handout is about

This handout will define what an argument is and explain why you need one in most of your academic essays.

Arguments are everywhere

You may be surprised to hear that the word “argument” does not have to be written anywhere in your assignment for it to be an important part of your task. In fact, making an argument—expressing a point of view on a subject and supporting it with evidence—is often the aim of academic writing. Your instructors may assume that you know this and thus may not explain the importance of arguments in class.

Most material you learn in college is or has been debated by someone, somewhere, at some time. Even when the material you read or hear is presented as a simple fact, it may actually be one person’s interpretation of a set of information. Instructors may call on you to examine that interpretation and defend it, refute it, or offer some new view of your own. In writing assignments, you will almost always need to do more than just summarize information that you have gathered or regurgitate facts that have been discussed in class. You will need to develop a point of view on or interpretation of that material and provide evidence for your position.

Consider an example. For nearly 2000 years, educated people in many Western cultures believed that bloodletting—deliberately causing a sick person to lose blood—was the most effective treatment for a variety of illnesses. The claim that bloodletting is beneficial to human health was not widely questioned until the 1800s, and some physicians continued to recommend bloodletting as late as the 1920s. Medical practices have now changed because some people began to doubt the effectiveness of bloodletting; these people argued against it and provided convincing evidence. Human knowledge grows out of such differences of opinion, and scholars like your instructors spend their lives engaged in debate over what claims may be counted as accurate in their fields. In their courses, they want you to engage in similar kinds of critical thinking and debate.

Argumentation is not just what your instructors do. We all use argumentation on a daily basis, and you probably already have some skill at crafting an argument. The more you improve your skills in this area, the better you will be at thinking critically, reasoning, making choices, and weighing evidence.

Making a claim

What is an argument? In academic writing, an argument is usually a main idea, often called a “claim” or “thesis statement,” backed up with evidence that supports the idea. In the majority of college papers, you will need to make some sort of claim and use evidence to support it, and your ability to do this well will separate your papers from those of students who see assignments as mere accumulations of fact and detail. In other words, gone are the happy days of being given a “topic” about which you can write anything. It is time to stake out a position and prove why it is a good position for a thinking person to hold. See our handout on thesis statements .

Claims can be as simple as “Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged,” with evidence such as, “In this experiment, protons and electrons acted in such and such a way.” Claims can also be as complex as “Genre is the most important element to the contract of expectations between filmmaker and audience,” using reasoning and evidence such as, “defying genre expectations can create a complete apocalypse of story form and content, leaving us stranded in a sort of genre-less abyss.” In either case, the rest of your paper will detail the reasoning and evidence that have led you to believe that your position is best.

When beginning to write a paper, ask yourself, “What is my point?” For example, the point of this handout is to help you become a better writer, and we are arguing that an important step in the process of writing effective arguments is understanding the concept of argumentation. If your papers do not have a main point, they cannot be arguing for anything. Asking yourself what your point is can help you avoid a mere “information dump.” Consider this: your instructors probably know a lot more than you do about your subject matter. Why, then, would you want to provide them with material they already know? Instructors are usually looking for two things:

Proof that you understand the material
A demonstration of your ability to use or apply the material in ways that go beyond what you have read or heard.

This second part can be done in many ways: you can critique the material, apply it to something else, or even just explain it in a different way. In order to succeed at this second step, though, you must have a particular point to argue.

Arguments in academic writing are usually complex and take time to develop. Your argument will need to be more than a simple or obvious statement such as “Frank Lloyd Wright was a great architect.” Such a statement might capture your initial impressions of Wright as you have studied him in class; however, you need to look deeper and express specifically what caused that “greatness.” Your instructor will probably expect something more complicated, such as “Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture combines elements of European modernism, Asian aesthetic form, and locally found materials to create a unique new style,” or “There are many strong similarities between Wright’s building designs and those of his mother, which suggests that he may have borrowed some of her ideas.” To develop your argument, you would then define your terms and prove your claim with evidence from Wright’s drawings and buildings and those of the other architects you mentioned.

Do not stop with having a point. You have to back up your point with evidence. The strength of your evidence, and your use of it, can make or break your argument. See our handout on evidence . You already have the natural inclination for this type of thinking, if not in an academic setting. Think about how you talked your parents into letting you borrow the family car. Did you present them with lots of instances of your past trustworthiness? Did you make them feel guilty because your friends’ parents all let them drive? Did you whine until they just wanted you to shut up? Did you look up statistics on teen driving and use them to show how you didn’t fit the dangerous-driver profile? These are all types of argumentation, and they exist in academia in similar forms.

Every field has slightly different requirements for acceptable evidence, so familiarize yourself with some arguments from within that field instead of just applying whatever evidence you like best. Pay attention to your textbooks and your instructor’s lectures. What types of argument and evidence are they using? The type of evidence that sways an English instructor may not work to convince a sociology instructor. Find out what counts as proof that something is true in that field. Is it statistics, a logical development of points, something from the object being discussed (art work, text, culture, or atom), the way something works, or some combination of more than one of these things?

Be consistent with your evidence. Unlike negotiating for the use of your parents’ car, a college paper is not the place for an all-out blitz of every type of argument. You can often use more than one type of evidence within a paper, but make sure that within each section you are providing the reader with evidence appropriate to each claim. So, if you start a paragraph or section with a statement like “Putting the student seating area closer to the basketball court will raise player performance,” do not follow with your evidence on how much more money the university could raise by letting more students go to games for free. Information about how fan support raises player morale, which then results in better play, would be a better follow-up. Your next section could offer clear reasons why undergraduates have as much or more right to attend an undergraduate event as wealthy alumni—but this information would not go in the same section as the fan support stuff. You cannot convince a confused person, so keep things tidy and ordered.

Counterargument

One way to strengthen your argument and show that you have a deep understanding of the issue you are discussing is to anticipate and address counterarguments or objections. By considering what someone who disagrees with your position might have to say about your argument, you show that you have thought things through, and you dispose of some of the reasons your audience might have for not accepting your argument. Recall our discussion of student seating in the Dean Dome. To make the most effective argument possible, you should consider not only what students would say about seating but also what alumni who have paid a lot to get good seats might say.

You can generate counterarguments by asking yourself how someone who disagrees with you might respond to each of the points you’ve made or your position as a whole. If you can’t immediately imagine another position, here are some strategies to try:

Do some research. It may seem to you that no one could possibly disagree with the position you are arguing, but someone probably has. For example, some people argue that a hotdog is a sandwich. If you are making an argument concerning, for example, the characteristics of an exceptional sandwich, you might want to see what some of these people have to say.
Talk with a friend or with your teacher. Another person may be able to imagine counterarguments that haven’t occurred to you.
Consider your conclusion or claim and the premises of your argument and imagine someone who denies each of them. For example, if you argued, “Cats make the best pets. This is because they are clean and independent,” you might imagine someone saying, “Cats do not make the best pets. They are dirty and needy.”

Once you have thought up some counterarguments, consider how you will respond to them—will you concede that your opponent has a point but explain why your audience should nonetheless accept your argument? Will you reject the counterargument and explain why it is mistaken? Either way, you will want to leave your reader with a sense that your argument is stronger than opposing arguments.

When you are summarizing opposing arguments, be charitable. Present each argument fairly and objectively, rather than trying to make it look foolish. You want to show that you have considered the many sides of the issue. If you simply attack or caricature your opponent (also referred to as presenting a “straw man”), you suggest that your argument is only capable of defeating an extremely weak adversary, which may undermine your argument rather than enhance it.

It is usually better to consider one or two serious counterarguments in some depth, rather than to give a long but superficial list of many different counterarguments and replies.

Be sure that your reply is consistent with your original argument. If considering a counterargument changes your position, you will need to go back and revise your original argument accordingly.

Audience is a very important consideration in argument. Take a look at our handout on audience . A lifetime of dealing with your family members has helped you figure out which arguments work best to persuade each of them. Maybe whining works with one parent, but the other will only accept cold, hard statistics. Your kid brother may listen only to the sound of money in his palm. It’s usually wise to think of your audience in an academic setting as someone who is perfectly smart but who doesn’t necessarily agree with you. You are not just expressing your opinion in an argument (“It’s true because I said so”), and in most cases your audience will know something about the subject at hand—so you will need sturdy proof. At the same time, do not think of your audience as capable of reading your mind. You have to come out and state both your claim and your evidence clearly. Do not assume that because the instructor knows the material, he or she understands what part of it you are using, what you think about it, and why you have taken the position you’ve chosen.

Critical reading

Critical reading is a big part of understanding argument. Although some of the material you read will be very persuasive, do not fall under the spell of the printed word as authority. Very few of your instructors think of the texts they assign as the last word on the subject. Remember that the author of every text has an agenda, something that he or she wants you to believe. This is OK—everything is written from someone’s perspective—but it’s a good thing to be aware of. For more information on objectivity and bias and on reading sources carefully, read our handouts on evaluating print sources and reading to write .

Take notes either in the margins of your source (if you are using a photocopy or your own book) or on a separate sheet as you read. Put away that highlighter! Simply highlighting a text is good for memorizing the main ideas in that text—it does not encourage critical reading. Part of your goal as a reader should be to put the author’s ideas in your own words. Then you can stop thinking of these ideas as facts and start thinking of them as arguments.

When you read, ask yourself questions like “What is the author trying to prove?” and “What is the author assuming I will agree with?” Do you agree with the author? Does the author adequately defend her argument? What kind of proof does she use? Is there something she leaves out that you would put in? Does putting it in hurt her argument? As you get used to reading critically, you will start to see the sometimes hidden agendas of other writers, and you can use this skill to improve your own ability to craft effective arguments.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, Joseph Bizup, and William T. FitzGerald. 2016. The Craft of Research , 4th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Ede, Lisa. 2004. Work in Progress: A Guide to Academic Writing and Revising , 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Gage, John T. 2005. The Shape of Reason: Argumentative Writing in College , 4th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 2016. Everything’s an Argument , 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Rosen, Leonard J., and Laurence Behrens. 2003. The Allyn & Bacon Handbook , 5th ed. New York: Longman.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Types of Argument

Just as there many types of essays you will write in college and many types of writing in general, argumentative essays come in many forms as well. There are three basic structures or types of argument you are likely to encounter in college: the Toulmin argument, the Rogerian argument, and the Classical or Aristotelian argument. Although the Toulmin method was originally developed to analyze arguments, some professors will ask you to model its components. Each of these serves a different purpose, and deciding which type to use depends upon the rhetorical situation: In other words, you have to think about what is going to work best for your audience given your topic and the situation in which you are writing.

The following pages will explain each major type and offer you support and samples for each type of argument.

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Organizing Your Argument

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This page summarizes three historical methods for argumentation, providing structural templates for each.

How can I effectively present my argument?

In order for your argument to be persuasive, it must use an organizational structure that the audience perceives as both logical and easy to parse. Three argumentative methods —the Toulmin Method , Classical Method , and Rogerian Method — give guidance for how to organize the points in an argument.

Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument. Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment’s directions if you’re unsure which to use (if any).

Toulmin Method

The Toulmin Method is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation for their arguments. First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in The Uses of Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows:

Claim: In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.

Data (Grounds): You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide the reader with facts that prove your argument is strong.

Warrant (Bridge): In this section, you explain why or how your data supports the claim. As a result, the underlying assumption that you build your argument on is grounded in reason.

Backing (Foundation): Here, you provide any additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim: You should anticipate a counterclaim that negates the main points in your argument. Don't avoid arguments that oppose your own. Instead, become familiar with the opposing perspective. If you respond to counterclaims, you appear unbiased (and, therefore, you earn the respect of your readers). You may even want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Rebuttal: In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the counterclaim. It is essential to include a thorough warrant or bridge to strengthen your essay’s argument. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they may draw different conclusions.

Example of the Toulmin Method:

Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1: Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air-polluting activity.

Warrant 1: Due to the fact that cars are the largest source of private (as opposed to industrial) air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that the decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3: The combination of these technologies produces less pollution.

Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages an inefficient culture of driving even as it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging the use of mass transit systems.

Rebuttal: While mass transit is an idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work. Thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

Rogerian Method

The Rogerian Method (named for, but not developed by, influential American psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:

your position seems like a reasonable compromise.
you seem compassionate and empathetic.

The basic format of the Rogerian Method is as follows:

Introduction: Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as possible.

Opposing View : Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing side can see how you do not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.

Statement of Validity (Understanding): This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points can be valid under certain circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still present your own argument.

Statement of Your Position: By this point, you have demonstrated that you understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain your own stance.

Statement of Contexts : Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain contexts, the reader can recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.

Statement of Benefits: You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By explaining the advantages of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other side’s perspective.

Example of the Rogerian Method:

Introduction: The issue of whether children should wear school uniforms is subject to some debate.

Opposing View: Some parents think that requiring children to wear uniforms is best.

Statement of Validity (Understanding): Those parents who support uniforms argue that, when all students wear the same uniform, the students can develop a unified sense of school pride and inclusiveness.

Statement of Your Position : Students should not be required to wear school uniforms. Mandatory uniforms would forbid choices that allow students to be creative and express themselves through clothing.

Statement of Contexts: However, even if uniforms might hypothetically promote inclusivity, in most real-life contexts, administrators can use uniform policies to enforce conformity. Students should have the option to explore their identity through clothing without the fear of being ostracized.

Statement of Benefits: Though both sides seek to promote students' best interests, students should not be required to wear school uniforms. By giving students freedom over their choice, students can explore their self-identity by choosing how to present themselves to their peers.

Classical Method

The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize your points. Originally devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical arguments tend to focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the underlying assumption of classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.

The basic format of the Classical Method is as follows:

Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.

Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information to the audience to further their understanding of the issue. By doing so, you provide the reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.

Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you are ready to state your claims which relate to the information you have provided previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.

Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if necessary, you can provide supplementary evidence and subpoints.

Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the other side’s perspective, it is important to prove why your stance is more logical.

Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of pathos here makes the reader more inclined to consider your argument.

Example of the Classical Method:

Introduction (Exordium): Millions of workers are paid a set hourly wage nationwide. The federal minimum wage is standardized to protect workers from being paid too little. Research points to many viewpoints on how much to pay these workers. Some families cannot afford to support their households on the current wages provided for performing a minimum wage job .

Statement of Background (Narratio): Currently, millions of American workers struggle to make ends meet on a minimum wage. This puts a strain on workers’ personal and professional lives. Some work multiple jobs to provide for their families.

Proposition (Propositio): The current federal minimum wage should be increased to better accommodate millions of overworked Americans. By raising the minimum wage, workers can spend more time cultivating their livelihoods.

Proof (Confirmatio): According to the United States Department of Labor, 80.4 million Americans work for an hourly wage, but nearly 1.3 million receive wages less than the federal minimum. The pay raise will alleviate the stress of these workers. Their lives would benefit from this raise because it affects multiple areas of their lives.

Refutation (Refuatio): There is some evidence that raising the federal wage might increase the cost of living. However, other evidence contradicts this or suggests that the increase would not be great. Additionally, worries about a cost of living increase must be balanced with the benefits of providing necessary funds to millions of hardworking Americans.

Conclusion (Peroratio): If the federal minimum wage was raised, many workers could alleviate some of their financial burdens. As a result, their emotional wellbeing would improve overall. Though some argue that the cost of living could increase, the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks.

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8 Intro to Researched-Based Types of Arguments

Deciding on the purpose of a research-based argument.

Every argument sets out to convince readers or listeners to believe it, no? In that sense, every argument has the same purpose. However, there are different kinds of beliefs we might want to encourage and different attitudes we might take toward those beliefs. Besides, we may want an argument not just to convince but to lead to action. Sometimes the purpose goes beyond just “Believe me!” For example, when the argument is part of an advertisement, the goal is clear: “Buy me!” The goal of a stump speech is to get listeners to cast their votes in support of a candidate. Sometimes, the purpose is simply to struggle with a topic in order to begin to come up with an informed opinion. Many times, the purpose of a piece of writing is to encourage critical thinking on a subject, and maybe change something wrong in our world in response.

For example, we could set out to write about global warming for different purposes. We might simply aim to make people believe that global warming is real. Alternately, we might try to convince readers to make drastic changes in their lives to combat climate change, or to protest a particular company responsible for climate change. Our purpose will shape the ideas we express, but it will also shape the emotional appeals we make.

Identifying our purpose can help us decide what we need to include to achieve that purpose. Often arguments with a particular kind of purpose will share common features. Below we will describe four kinds of research-based essays, each of which we will explore in more depth in a later section of this chapter.

One note: these basic strategies also can be a part of another type of essay. For example, a definition may be a crucial part of a proposal argument.

Purposes for research papers

We can ask ourselves which of the following best describes our purpose:

We want to describe the nature of something.
We want to assess how good or bad something is.
We want to demonstrate that one thing causes or caused another.
We want to propose some action.

An argument may contain multiple elements from this list, but if we can decide which is ultimately the most important, we can shape the introduction and conclusion with that goal in mind. Each type of argument has particular questions that may be worth addressing, as we will explore in the later sections.

In the following sections, we suggest strategies and components of four different types of arguments, matched to the four purposes mentioned above.

Definition arguments describe the nature of something or identify a pattern or trend. Generally speaking, they answer the question, “What is it?”
Evaluation arguments assess something according to particular criteria. They answer the question, “How good or bad is it?”
Causal arguments attempt to show that one thing leads to or has led to another. They answer the question, “What caused it?”
Proposal arguments present a case for action. They answer the question, “What should we do about it?”

Let’s look at some examples of argument purposes divided into these categories.

Definition argument examples

We want readers to know what kinds of communication dolphins are capable of.
We want to clarify which groups of people the term “Latinx” refers to.
We want to show how Kurdish communities differ in Iraq, Syria, and Turkey.

Evaluation argument examples

We want to recommend a gaming device.
We want to convince readers that the Supreme Court decision to give corporations First Amendment rights to free speech was misguided.
We want to show that a new Alzheimer’s drug meets the criteria for emergency use authorization.

Causal argument examples

We want to argue that the attack on the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021 actually made Americans value American democracy more and want to protect it.
We want to show that parents can’t change a child’s feeling of being male, female, or nonbinary.
We want to suggest that the Covid-19 pandemic led to an increase in internet addiction.

Proposal argument examples

We want readers to take the online Harvard Implicit Association Tests and reflect on what the results suggest about their unconscious biases.
We want legislators to double the gas tax in order to speed up the transition to clean energy.
We want to make community college free for all Americans.

Comparing and contrasting for different purposes

It’s worth noting that we may want to discuss more than one thing for any of the purposes above. If we are comparing and contrasting two or more things in our essay, we will want to think about essay structure for compare and contrast essays as well as thinking about the elements of the argument according to the overall purpose. See Section 3.9: Comparing and Contrasting Arguments for more on this.

For each argument below, select the category that best describes the argument’s purpose. Explain how it fits the category.

Muslim women should be allowed to wear full face and body coverings such as burkas in public if they choose.
Minecraft play offers many opportunities for creativity and learning.
The explosion of mental health content on TikTok has reduced the shame many people feel about their mental health issues.
Only apartments where the rent is less than 30% of a minimum wage worker’s income can truly be considered “affordable housing.”
Composting food waste can generate energy with a minimum of greenhouse gas emissions.

Tailoring an Argument to an Audience

There is a common misconception about writing that it is a solitary exercise. As such, each time you get stuck on a word or sentence, it may be up to you alone to move past that writer’s block. However, that’s simply not true. Beyond the support of your instructor, peers, or tutors, you have an audience that you’re writing to that can help you generate ideas and stay focused. The more we imagine our audience’s likely reactions as part of the writing process, the more likely we are to generate ideas, reach them, and convince them or affect their thinking. Why? Because an argument implies a relationship. So, read on to find out more about how you can work together with your audience to develop your paper.

An auditorium full of racially diverse young people looking thoughtful.

“Audience listens at Startup School” by Robert Scoble is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Audience Awareness in the Writing Process

Analyzing your audience affects nearly every stage of your writing, from early drafting to how you revise and get to the final draft. Beyond writing to answer a prompt, at a really basic level, you’re writing to be read, by your peers, your professor, or by any audience designated in your prompt. To do this effectively, consider the following questions. Many of these considerations already happen intuitively when we talk with other people. When we’re writing we need to be a bit more conscious about imagining the audience.

What does your audience probably already know about your topic? Depending on how much your audience knows, there may be background information you should include or leave out. For example, if we are writing on global warming in an English Composition class for an audience of an English professor and assorted students, we might need to use more detailed explanations for scientific concepts. However, if we are writing on global warming in an upper-level environmental science class, we can assume that our audience is more well-versed in the basics of climate science. We wouldn’t need to explain the details of the greenhouse effect works and could probably use more jargon from the discipline without defining every term.

How is your audience likely to feel about your topic? A skeptical audience needs more evidence than an open-minded one. Is the audience likely to have a prejudice or misconception that needs to be addressed? Assessing how your audience feels may also be the key to finding common ground. Refer to 9.8: Reaching a Hostile Audience for more information.

What new information can you provide? New information about a topic or its purpose can keep the audience engaged in a way rehashing old information cannot.

What is your relationship to the audience? This can affect your tone and how much of yourself you insert into the paper. For example, addressing an authority figure would require a different approach than addressing a relative peer or a complete stranger.

The Effect of Audience on Style

Like a conversation, in addition to your audience affecting what you say, your audience can sometimes affect how you say that content as well. The following items are some things to consider:

Purpose: What does your audience care about or believe in? What will move your audience to act? It will help your paper if you can align its purpose with something the audience cares about. See 9.6: Moral Character for more information on this.

Backing: What kind of evidence will convince your audience? Remember what looks like strong evidence to you may appear flimsy to your audience.

Sentence Type and Length: Should you use long and complex sentences? Or short ones? The reading level of your paper should match the reading level of your audience.

Level of Formality: Should you use technical jargon? Or slang? Avoid the temptation to ‘sound academic’ with technical words and phrases unless the situation calls for it.

Tone: Formal or informal? Serious or humorous? Distanced or personal? Hitting the right tone will help your audience take you more seriously. Consider checking out 8.4: Tone or 9.3: Distance and Intimacy for more resources related to this.

Reaching Out to the Audience

Many audiences form an opinion about what they read by the end of the introduction. Take advantage of this information to make sure you make a positive first impression. Try to pick a title that your audience may recognize or resonate with. Work on a hook that is geared towards your audience (as opposed to something that is purely provocative or attention-grabbing). Consider making a direct appeal to your audience in the introduction, and end your introduction with a thesis statement modeled after the values you know your reader will identify with. Check out 7.1: Introductions for more information about this.

Addressing a Diverse Audience

The word "Bias" crossed out with a single red line.

Image by OnlineStreet , licensed CC BY 4.0 .

While the previous points have been geared towards writing to a specific audience, the following items are some good practices to observe for any audience you may encounter.

Recognize your cultural filter : Cultures are formed from a variety of factors like class, gender, generation, religion, and education. Your culture shapes how you view the world and can at times prevent you from understanding different backgrounds. Do your best to understand how your cultural values may be affecting your argument and how they may differ from your audience’s.

Avoid ethnocentrism : Assuming that your culture’s values, customs, or beliefs are superior to another’s is ethnocentrism. It’s an attitude that can alienate your audience. Be careful not to assume that all cultural practices are shared. Suspend any judgments or cultural stereotypes.

Adopt bias-free language : Biased language is tricky and has a way of sneaking into writing when you least expect it. While you may think writing “the male lawyer” provides important detail, including the lawyer’s gender suggests the law is an inherently male or masculine profession. So, be mindful of any biased, sexist, or stereotypical language that may come from unconscious biases as you’re writing and edit accordingly.

Acknowledge issues of oppression. Similar to ethnocentrism, the language we write or speak might convey a negative bias towards individuals or groups. If your message stereotypes a group, even unconsciously, you risk offending your audience. Examples of discriminating language to avoid include:

Racism – Your audience will be diverse. By recognizing that there are many cultural frames of reference, you’ll reach each reader or listener effectively. Unless it is necessary, avoid references to ethnicity.

Heterosexism – If your essay or speech depicts a relationship, don’t assume that each member of your audience is heterosexual.

Ageism – Many pervasive stereotypes exist with regard to the age of individuals. If you write or speak about an elderly person, challenge discriminating ideas such as “old people are feeble” or “teenagers lack wisdom.”

Sexism – While sexist language assumes one term for both genders, sexism suggests one sex or gender is inferior to the other. To suggest that females are emotional and men are logical privileges one sex over the other, while stereotyping that all of one sex have the same traits or characteristics.

Attribution

Most of the above was adapted by Ryan Hitch from Composing Ourselves and Our World by Elizabeth Burrows, Angela Fowler, Heath Fowler, and Amy Locklear, Auburn University at Montgomery , licensed CC BY 4.0 .
Portions of the above were written by Dylan Altman, licensed CC BY 4.0 .

Chapter Attribution

This chapter is from “Forming a Research-Based Argument” in in How Arguments Work: A Guide to Writing and Analyzing Texts in College by Anna Mills under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license.

Upping Your Argument and Research Game Copyright © 2022 by Liona Burnham is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Three types of argumentative essays and how to write them, bob cardens.

November 30, 2023
How to Guides

Argumentative essays are common in college. In these essays, you take a side on a topic and back it up with evidence. You need to research, gather evidence, and clearly state your stance. Unlike other essays that try to persuade, argumentative essays rely on solid evidence.

But the strength of argumentative essays depends on how well you make your argument. After picking your main point, you need to organize your essay. There’s no one right way to do it, but there are basic structures you should follow. There are three main structures for argumentative essays in college: Classical or Aristotelian, Toulmin, and Rogerian. Each structure has a different purpose, and which one you choose depends on why you’re writing. Let’s look at each one in detail

Related Article: How to Write an Outstanding Argumentative Essay Paper

What You'll Learn

Key Takeaways:

There are three main types of argumentative essays: classical, Toulmin, and Rogerian.
The classical argument relies on ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade the audience.
The Toulmin argument focuses on justifying claims with evidence.
The Rogerian argument aims to find common ground between opposing parties.
Argumentative essays involve different types of claims, including factual, value, policy, causal, and definitional claims .
Structuring an argumentative essay involves several important steps, such as choosing a controversial topic, collecting evidence, and addressing counterarguments.
Understanding the different types of argumentative essays allows writers to structure their arguments effectively and persuade their audiences.

Are you ready to explore the intricacies of argumentative essays? Let’s dive in and uncover the strengths and characteristics of each type!

The Classical Argument: Persuasion through Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

The classical argument , also known as the Aristotelian model, is the most commonly used type of argumentative essay. It utilizes ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade the audience to a specific viewpoint. Ethos refers to the credibility and authenticity of the writer, pathos aims to evoke emotions in the readers, and logos appeals to logic and reasoning.

The structure of a classical argument essay follows a specific order. It begins with an introduction that presents the main claim or thesis statement. The writer then presents their perspective on the topic , providing evidence and logical reasoning to support their claim. The next step is to consider the opposing side of the argument, acknowledging their viewpoints and addressing any potential counterarguments. This helps to strengthen the writer’s own position by showing a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

After considering the opposing side, the writer provides further evidence and examples to support their claim, appealing to the audience’s logic and reasoning. This is where the logos aspect of the classical argument comes into play. Finally, the essay concludes by summarizing the main points and restating the benefits of accepting the writer’s claim. This structure allows for a logical flow of arguments, making the classical argument essay persuasive and effective.

The classical argument essay structure allows writers to effectively persuade their audience by appealing to ethos, pathos, and logos. By understanding and implementing this structure, writers can craft compelling arguments that are logical, emotional, and credible.

The Toulmin Argument: Justifying Claims with Evidence

In argumentative essays, the Toulmin argument , also known as the Toulmin model , provides a structured approach to justifying claims with evidence. Developed by philosopher Stephen Toulmin, this method breaks down an argument into six key components: claim, grounds, warrant, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal. By incorporating these elements, writers can effectively present and support their arguments.

The Structure of a Toulmin Argument

The Toulmin argument follows a specific structure to ensure clarity and coherence. It typically begins with an introduction that presents the main claim or thesis statement. The body paragraphs then provide the grounds or evidence to support the claim, along with the warrant or reasoning behind the claim. The backing offers further support or additional evidence, while the qualifier acknowledges any limitations or conditions of the argument. Finally, the conclusion includes a rebuttal of counterarguments to reinforce the validity of the claim.

To illustrate this structure, consider the following example:

“The use of smartphones should be banned in classrooms.”

By structuring the argument in this way, writers can effectively present their claims and provide evidence to support them, making the Toulmin argument a powerful tool in persuasive writing.

The Rogerian Argument: Finding Common Ground

The Rogerian argument , also known as the Rogerian model , is a unique approach to argumentative writing that emphasizes communication, collaboration, and finding common ground between opposing viewpoints. Developed by psychologist Carl R. Rogers, this method aims to foster understanding and empathy instead of promoting confrontation or winning debates.

In a Rogerian argument essay, the structure is different from the classical or Toulmin models. Instead of immediately presenting the writer’s position, the essay begins by acknowledging the opposing viewpoint in a respectful and unbiased manner. This acknowledgment is crucial in building trust and establishing a foundation for productive dialogue.

After acknowledging the opposing position, the writer can then present their own perspective, focusing on shared goals, values, or interests that both sides can agree on. This middle ground solution aims to find commonalities and points of agreement between the conflicting parties. The emphasis is not on convincing the opponent to change their stance, but rather on constructing a mutually acceptable solution that benefits both sides.

By adopting a Rogerian approach, writers can promote constructive dialogue and strive for mutual understanding rather than confrontation. This method recognizes the complexity of issues and encourages empathy and respect for differing viewpoints. It is a valuable tool for addressing highly controversial topics and fostering meaningful discussions.

Different Types of Argument Claims

When writing an argumentative essay, it’s important to understand the different types of claims that can be made to persuade your audience. Each type of claim serves a specific purpose and requires different types of evidence and reasoning. Here are the main types of argument claims :

Factual Claims

A factual claim asserts a statement as a fact based on evidence. It aims to provide objective information that can be verified and supported by data or research. Factual claims are often used in scientific or informational essays where the goal is to present accurate and unbiased information.

Value Claims

Value claims express personal opinions or judgments about what is right, wrong, good, or bad. They are subjective in nature and are based on personal values, beliefs, or moral principles. Value claims are commonly used in persuasive essays to argue for or against specific ideas, actions, or behaviors.

Policy Claims

Policy claims propose specific actions or changes that should be implemented to address a problem or improve a situation. These claims focus on advocating for a particular course of action and often involve government policies, laws, or regulations. Policy claims are commonly found in argumentative essays that aim to influence decision-makers or bring about social change.

Causal Claims

Causal claims establish cause-and-effect relationships between events or phenomena. They argue that one event or action leads to another, based on evidence and logical reasoning. Causal claims are often used in essays that analyze the impact of certain factors or events and explain why they occur.

Definitional Claims

Definitional claims clarify the meaning of terms or concepts. They aim to provide a clear definition or interpretation of a word, idea, or phenomenon. Definitional claims are commonly used when there is a disagreement or confusion about the meaning of a particular term, and the writer seeks to offer their interpretation or understanding.

Understanding the different types of argument claims allows writers to effectively present their arguments and persuade their audience. By choosing the most appropriate type of claim for their purpose and providing strong evidence and reasoning, writers can create compelling and convincing argumentative essays.

Steps to Structure an Argumentative Essay

Structuring an argumentative essay effectively is crucial for presenting a strong and persuasive argument. By following these steps, you can ensure that your essay is well-organized and engaging, capturing the attention of your readers and convincing them of your viewpoint.

1. Choose a Controversial Topic

The first step in structuring your argumentative essay is selecting a topic that is debatable and sparks interest. Choose a topic that has multiple viewpoints and enough evidence to support your argument.

2. Decide the Type of Claim and Argument Structure

Determine the type of claim you want to make in your essay, whether it is a factual claim, value claim, policy claim, causal claim, or definitional claim. This will help you shape your arguments and evidence accordingly.

3. Collect Facts and Evidence

Gather relevant facts, data, and evidence to support your claims. This can include statistics, research studies, expert opinions, anecdotes, or real-life examples. Ensure that your evidence is credible and supports your argument effectively.

4. Develop an Outline

Create a clear and logical outline for your argumentative essay. This will help you organize your thoughts, structure your paragraphs, and ensure a coherent flow. Divide your essay into introduction, body paragraphs (each presenting a separate argument), and a conclusion.

5. Study Examples

Study examples of well-written argumentative essays to get a better understanding of how to effectively structure and present your arguments. Analyze the organization, use of evidence, and persuasive techniques employed by experienced writers.

6. Write a Compelling Introduction

In the introduction, begin with an attention-grabbing hook and provide some background information on the topic. State your arguable claim and briefly outline the main arguments you will present in the body of your essay. Make sure your introduction is clear, concise, and engaging.

7. Present Logical Arguments with Evidence

In the body paragraphs, present each argument in a separate paragraph. Start with a topic sentence that introduces the argument, provide supporting evidence and examples, and explain how the evidence supports your claim. Use logical reasoning to strengthen your arguments and make sure they flow smoothly.

8. Address Counterarguments

Acknowledge and address counterarguments to strengthen your position. Anticipate potential objections and provide rebuttals to show that you have considered different viewpoints and can effectively counter them. This will make your essay more convincing and demonstrate your ability to engage in critical thinking.

9. Conclude with a Restatement and Call to Action

In the conclusion, restate your thesis statement and summarize your main arguments. Emphasize the importance of your claim and provide a call to action or a thought-provoking question to leave a lasting impression on your readers.

By following these steps, you can structure your argumentative essay effectively and increase the chances of persuading your audience to agree with your viewpoint. Remember to continuously revise and edit your essay for clarity, coherence, and persuasive power.

Understanding the three types of argumentative essays – classical, Toulmin, and Rogerian – allows writers to structure their arguments effectively and persuade their audiences. Each type has its own unique approach and strengths, catering to different situations and audiences.

In the classical argument, writers utilize ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade the audience. This approach appeals to logic, emotions, and the credibility of the writer, making it a persuasive choice.

The Toulmin argument , on the other hand, focuses on justifying claims with evidence. By breaking down the argument into various components and presenting evidence, writers can make a strong case for their viewpoint.

The Rogerian argument emphasizes collaboration and finding common ground. By acknowledging opposing viewpoints and striving for a mutually acceptable solution, this approach promotes understanding and compromise.

When choosing the appropriate type of essay for your argument, carefully consider your claims, provide strong evidence, and address counterarguments. By following these steps and utilizing the different types of argumentative essays , you can create a well-structured and persuasive essay that effectively conveys your point of view.

Related Article: Three Main Ways to Present Arguments in Argumentative Essays

What are the three main types of argumentative essays?

The three main types are the classical argument, the Toulmin argument, and the Rogerian argument.

What is the structure of a classical argument essay?

The structure includes introducing the main claim, presenting the writer’s perspective, considering the opposing side, providing evidence, and concluding with the benefits of accepting the claim.

What is the Toulmin argument and its structure?

The Toulmin argument justifies claims with evidence and includes six components: claim, grounds, warrant, backing, qualifier, and rebuttal.

What is the structure of a Rogerian argument?

The structure includes acknowledging the opposing position, presenting the writer’s own perspective, proposing a middle ground solution, and concluding with the benefits of compromise.

What are the different types of argument claims?

There are factual claims , value claims , policy claims , causal claims , and definitional claims.

What are the steps to structure an argumentative essay?

The steps include choosing a topic, deciding the claim and structure, collecting evidence, developing an outline, studying examples, writing an introduction, presenting logical arguments, addressing counterarguments, and concluding with a restatement of the thesis and a call to action.

How can understanding the types of argumentative essays improve my writing?

Understanding the types allows you to structure your arguments effectively and persuade your audience more successfully.

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Argumentative Essay Writing

Types Of Argument

Basic Types of Argument and How to Use Them?

17 min read

Published on: Jul 5, 2020

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

Types of Arguments

There are three basic types of arguments in writing that you will encounter while persuading others or presenting your point of view.

Letâs discuss each type in detail.

Classical Argument

The classical or Aristotelian argument is a form of argument developed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.

The goal is to convince the audience using strategies about a certain side of the issue. The classical argument uses ethos, pathos, and logos in the most persuasive way possible.

If you are drafting an essay using the classical argument, use the following format to structure your essay.

Introduction: Capture the audience's attention, and provide context.
Thesis Statement: Concisely state the main argument or claim.
Background Information: Establish context, and provide relevant details.
Main Points: Present supporting reasons with evidence.
Counter Arguments and Rebuttal: Address opposing viewpoints, and provide counterarguments.
Conclusion: Restate the thesis, summarize the main points, and provide a âCall-to-Actionâ to leave a lasting impression.

Classical Argument Example (PDF)

Rogerian Argument

A Rogerian argument is an argument type that focuses on finding a middle ground between the audience and the writer. In many situations, the audience doesnât fully agree with the writerâs argument.

This argument time is extremely convincing and helps the writer understand his own biases.

The Rogerian argument strategy structures your document in the following way:

Introduction: Establish the issue and the importance of respectful communication.
Understanding Opposing Views: Demonstrate empathy and understanding of opposing perspectives.
Statement of Position: Present your own argument objectively and respectfully.
Exploration of Shared Ground: Identify areas of agreement or shared values.
Presentation of Evidence and Support: Provide evidence that supports your position while emphasizing shared values.
Addressing Counterarguments: Respectfully address and respond to counterarguments without direct refutation.
Conclusion: Emphasize the importance of respectful dialogue and suggest further steps for collaboration.

Rogerian Argument Example (PDF)

Toulmin Argument

A Toulmin argument is a structure developed by Stephen Toulmin to analyze arguments.

This argument type is used when there are no clear or absolute solutions to the issues and problems. It takes into account the complexity of the situations.

According to the Toulmin method, there are seven elements to analyze and present the argument:

Letâs discuss them in detail.

Claim: Present a clear and concise thesis statement.
Data: Provide evidence, examples, or statistics that support the claim is true.
Warrant: Explain the logical reasoning that connects the data to the claim.
Backing: Offer additional support or evidence for the warrant.
Qualifier: Acknowledge limitations or conditions under which the claim is valid.
Rebuttal: Address potential counterarguments or opposing viewpoints.
Conclusion: Restate the claim and summarize key points, reinforcing the argument's strength.

Toulmin argument Example (PDF)

Types of Arguments in Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating arguments.

Various types of arguments are encountered in this process, each with its own characteristics and logical structure.

Here are some types of arguments commonly encountered in critical thinking, along with examples:

Analogical Arguments

Analogical arguments draw comparisons between similar situations or cases to support a conclusion.

They rely on the assumption that if two or more situations share relevant similarities, they are likely to have similar characteristics or outcomes.

For example:

Causal Arguments

Causal arguments aim to establish cause-and-effect relationships. They propose that one event or factor is responsible for bringing about another.

Causal arguments often rely on empirical evidence, statistical data, or logical reasoning to support the claim of causation.

For example:

Statistical Arguments

Statistical arguments utilize statistical data or probabilities to support a conclusion. They draw on the principles of probability and inferential statistics to make claims about a population based on a sample.

Moral Arguments

Moral arguments employ ethical principles or values to support a claim or position. They appeal to moral reasoning and address questions of right and wrong, justice, and fairness.

Pragmatic Arguments

Pragmatic arguments focus on practicality, usefulness, or pragmatic considerations. They weigh the costs, benefits, and practical consequences of different courses of action.

Pragmatic arguments often involve considerations of efficiency, feasibility, societal impact, or individual well-being.

Types of Arguments in Philosophy

In philosophy, various types of arguments are used to explore and analyze different aspects of knowledge.

Here are some of the key types of arguments used in philosophy:

Deductive Arguments

Deductive arguments in philosophy follow the principles of deductive reasoning.

These arguments aim to establish conclusions that necessarily follow from the given premises. If the premises are true and the logical structure of the argument is valid, the conclusion must also be true.

Deductive arguments play a fundamental role in formal logic and are used extensively in philosophical debates.

Inductive Arguments

Inductive arguments in philosophy rely on observations, evidence, or patterns to draw general conclusions. These arguments reason from specific instances or data to broader generalizations.

Unlike deductive arguments, inductive arguments provide probabilistic support rather than absolute certainty.

Inductive reasoning is common in scientific inquiries and empirical investigations.

Abductive Arguments

Abductive arguments are employed to propose plausible explanations for observed phenomena.

These arguments involve generating hypotheses or explanations that best account for the available evidence.

The goal is to identify the most reasonable or likely explanation, even if it cannot be proven definitively. Abductive reasoning aids in hypothesis formation and theory building.

Teleological Arguments

Teleological arguments, also referred to as arguments from design, explore the existence and purposeful order in the world.

These arguments suggest that the complexity, order, and apparent design in nature indicate the existence of a smart creator or designer.

Teleological arguments often draw upon examples from biology, cosmology, or fine-tuning of physical constants.

Ethical Arguments

Ethical arguments delve into moral principles, values, and ethical theories to support claims about what is right, wrong, or morally permissible.

These arguments explore questions of ethics, moral duties, and normative judgments.

Ethical arguments often involve discussions on consequentialism, deontology, virtue ethics, or ethical relativism.

Types of Argument Fallacies

In critical thinking, fallacies refer to common errors or flaws in reasoning that can weaken or invalidate an argument.

By understanding these different types of argument fallacies, individuals can identify and avoid faulty reasoning.

Here are several types of argument fallacies, along with detailed explanations and examples:

Ad Hominem

The ad hominem fallacy involves attacking the person making an argument instead of addressing the substance of their argument.

It attempts to undermine the credibility or character of the person rather than engaging with their ideas.

In this example, Person B dismisses Person A's argument by attacking their expertise instead of addressing the merits.

Appeal to Ignorance

The appeal to ignorance fallacy occurs when the absence of evidence is used as evidence for a claim.

It asserts that something must be true or false simply because it hasn't been proven otherwise.

In this example, the lack of evidence disproving unicorns is used as a basis for asserting their existence. This is a fallacious appeal to ignorance.

Appeal to Authority

The appeal to authority fallacy relies on citing an authority figure or expert to support an argument.

Even if the authority figure's expertise lies outside the relevant domain or if there is disagreement among experts.

In this example, the appeal to authority uses the celebrity status of Dr. Smith to endorse a weight loss product, despite the lack of relevant expertise in the field.

False Dilemma Fallacy

The false dilemma fallacy is also known as the black-or-white fallacy.

It presents a limited set of options or viewpoints as the only possibilities. When, in reality, there are more alternatives or shades of gray.

In this example , the false dilemma fallacy presents only two extreme options, disregarding the possibility of alternative perspectives or nuanced positions.

The straw man fallacy involves misrepresenting or distorting someone's argument to make it easier to attack or refute.

Instead of addressing the actual argument, a weaker or distorted version is attacked.

In this example, Person B misrepresents Person A's argument by implying they advocate for unlimited funding without accountability. This is not what Person A originally stated.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

The slippery slope fallacy suggests that a small, initial action will inevitably lead to a series of increasingly negative consequences.

Without sufficient evidence to support the causal link between the actions.

In this example, the slippery slope fallacy suggests an unsupported chain of events. It implies that allowing same-sex marriage will lead to extreme and unfounded consequences.

Hasty Generalization

The hasty generalization fallacy occurs when a conclusion is drawn based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence.

It involves making a broad generalization about a whole group based on a limited sample.

In this example, the fallacy draws a sweeping conclusion about an entire group based on the behavior of only two individuals.

Circular Argument

The circular argument is also known as circular reasoning.

This is a fallacy where the conclusion is restated or presupposed in the premises, resulting in circular or tautological reasoning.

In this example, the circular argument relies on assuming the truth of the conclusion in the premise and vice versa. Without providing independent evidence.

Red Herring Fallacy

The red herring fallacy involves diverting attention from the main issue or topic by introducing an irrelevant or unrelated point or argument.

In this example, the red herring fallacy deflects attention from the discussion about climate change by introducing an unrelated concern about the economy.

Appeal to Hypocrisy

The appeal to hypocrisy fallacy attempts to discredit an argument or position by pointing out inconsistencies in the person making the argument. Rather than addressing the argument itself.

In this example, the appeal to hypocrisy disregards the merits of the argument by attacking the person's behavior instead.

Causal Fallacy

The causal fallacy is also known as the post hoc fallacy. It assumes that one event follows another.

The first event caused the second event without considering other potential causes or factors.

In this example, the causal fallacy assumes a cause-and-effect relationship between wearing lucky socks and winning. Without considering other factors that may have contributed to the outcome.

Fallacy of Sunk Costs

The fallacy of sunk costs occurs when past investments (time, money, or effort) are used as a reason to continue with a course of action.

Even when it no longer serves the present or future interests.

In this example, the fallacy of sunk costs ignores the current situation and decision-making based on past investments. Even if continuing with the project may not be rational or beneficial.

Equivocation

Equivocation is a fallacy that relies on the use of ambiguous or multiple meanings of a word or phrase to mislead or confuse the audience.

It involves shifting the meaning of a term within an argument to support a particular conclusion.

In this example, equivocation occurs by shifting the meaning of "man" from referring to all humans to exclusively referring to males. This leads to an invalid and biased conclusion.

Appeal to Pity Fallacy

The appeal to pity fallacy is also known as the argument from pity or the ad misericordiam fallacy.

It seeks to evoke sympathy or pity from the audience in order to support a claim. It relies on emotional manipulation rather than sound reasoning or evidence.

In this example, the appeal to pity attempts to gain special treatment or leniency.

It is done by appealing to the sympathy generated from personal circumstances. Rather than addressing academic performance.

Bandwagon Fallacy

The bandwagon fallacy is also known as the appeal to popularity or the argumentum ad populum fallacy.

It suggests that an idea or action is valid or desirable simply because it is popular or widely accepted.

In this example, the bandwagon fallacy assumes that the popularity of a fitness product automatically makes it effective or necessary.

It disregards individual needs or other viable options.

How to Structure an Argument for an Essay?

Having a strong argument and good supporting information is worthless if the argument is not structured. When drafting a formal document, it is essential to shape your statement to make it effective.

The following are the professional steps used in structuring an argument:

Come Up With an Interesting Topic - For your document, choose an arguable and strong topic. Your topic should motivate the audience to read your entire essay. Drafting an argumentative essay will become more comfortable if your topic is debatable or controversial.
Identify the Type of Claim - When drafting an argumentative essay, five general claims can be selected. Choose a claim that suits your purpose:
Fact - Is your argument true or false?
Definition - Meaning of the argument
Value - Importance and significance of the argument
Causes and effects of the problem
Policy - What to do to solve the problem?
Decide on the argument type - Whether it is Toulmin, deductive and inductive, etc. Then decide the structure you want to follow in shaping your essay.
Consult credible and authentic sources to gather information for your deductive, inductive argument, etc.
Draft an essay outline and organize the gathered data accordingly.
Draft an introduction with a strong claim or premises
Make sure to develop a logical claim.
Write the conclusion that perfectly goes with the argument type you chose for the essay.

In conclusion, understanding the different types of arguments and fallacies is essential for developing strong critical thinking skills.

By recognizing the structure and characteristics of various argument types, students can effectively communicate their ideas and persuade others.

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 3 strong argumentative essay examples, analyzed.

General Education

Need to defend your opinion on an issue? Argumentative essays are one of the most popular types of essays you’ll write in school. They combine persuasive arguments with fact-based research, and, when done well, can be powerful tools for making someone agree with your point of view. If you’re struggling to write an argumentative essay or just want to learn more about them, seeing examples can be a big help.

After giving an overview of this type of essay, we provide three argumentative essay examples. After each essay, we explain in-depth how the essay was structured, what worked, and where the essay could be improved. We end with tips for making your own argumentative essay as strong as possible.

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is an essay that uses evidence and facts to support the claim it’s making. Its purpose is to persuade the reader to agree with the argument being made.

A good argumentative essay will use facts and evidence to support the argument, rather than just the author’s thoughts and opinions. For example, say you wanted to write an argumentative essay stating that Charleston, SC is a great destination for families. You couldn’t just say that it’s a great place because you took your family there and enjoyed it. For it to be an argumentative essay, you need to have facts and data to support your argument, such as the number of child-friendly attractions in Charleston, special deals you can get with kids, and surveys of people who visited Charleston as a family and enjoyed it. The first argument is based entirely on feelings, whereas the second is based on evidence that can be proven.

The standard five paragraph format is common, but not required, for argumentative essays. These essays typically follow one of two formats: the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model.

The Toulmin model is the most common. It begins with an introduction, follows with a thesis/claim, and gives data and evidence to support that claim. This style of essay also includes rebuttals of counterarguments.
The Rogerian model analyzes two sides of an argument and reaches a conclusion after weighing the strengths and weaknesses of each.

3 Good Argumentative Essay Examples + Analysis

Below are three examples of argumentative essays, written by yours truly in my school days, as well as analysis of what each did well and where it could be improved.

Argumentative Essay Example 1

Proponents of this idea state that it will save local cities and towns money because libraries are expensive to maintain. They also believe it will encourage more people to read because they won’t have to travel to a library to get a book; they can simply click on what they want to read and read it from wherever they are. They could also access more materials because libraries won’t have to buy physical copies of books; they can simply rent out as many digital copies as they need.

However, it would be a serious mistake to replace libraries with tablets. First, digital books and resources are associated with less learning and more problems than print resources. A study done on tablet vs book reading found that people read 20-30% slower on tablets, retain 20% less information, and understand 10% less of what they read compared to people who read the same information in print. Additionally, staring too long at a screen has been shown to cause numerous health problems, including blurred vision, dizziness, dry eyes, headaches, and eye strain, at much higher instances than reading print does. People who use tablets and mobile devices excessively also have a higher incidence of more serious health issues such as fibromyalgia, shoulder and back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and muscle strain. I know that whenever I read from my e-reader for too long, my eyes begin to feel tired and my neck hurts. We should not add to these problems by giving people, especially young people, more reasons to look at screens.

Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries offer is book lending. Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only available if the library has a physical location. Some of these benefits include acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to converse with their neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering patron questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that, after a local library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers and parents, job fairs for teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a third of residents reported feeling more connected to their community. Similarly, a Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-thirds of American adults feel that closing their local library would have a major impact on their community. People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions answered, benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.

While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would encourage people to spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the myriad issues surrounding them. It would also end access to many of the benefits of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many areas, libraries are such an important part of the community network that they could never be replaced by a simple object.

The author begins by giving an overview of the counter-argument, then the thesis appears as the first sentence in the third paragraph. The essay then spends the rest of the paper dismantling the counter argument and showing why readers should believe the other side.

What this essay does well:

Although it’s a bit unusual to have the thesis appear fairly far into the essay, it works because, once the thesis is stated, the rest of the essay focuses on supporting it since the counter-argument has already been discussed earlier in the paper.
This essay includes numerous facts and cites studies to support its case. By having specific data to rely on, the author’s argument is stronger and readers will be more inclined to agree with it.
For every argument the other side makes, the author makes sure to refute it and follow up with why her opinion is the stronger one. In order to make a strong argument, it’s important to dismantle the other side, which this essay does this by making the author's view appear stronger.
This is a shorter paper, and if it needed to be expanded to meet length requirements, it could include more examples and go more into depth with them, such as by explaining specific cases where people benefited from local libraries.
Additionally, while the paper uses lots of data, the author also mentions their own experience with using tablets. This should be removed since argumentative essays focus on facts and data to support an argument, not the author’s own opinion or experiences. Replacing that with more data on health issues associated with screen time would strengthen the essay.
Some of the points made aren't completely accurate , particularly the one about digital books being cheaper. It actually often costs a library more money to rent out numerous digital copies of a book compared to buying a single physical copy. Make sure in your own essay you thoroughly research each of the points and rebuttals you make, otherwise you'll look like you don't know the issue that well.

Argumentative Essay Example 2

There are multiple drugs available to treat malaria, and many of them work well and save lives, but malaria eradication programs that focus too much on them and not enough on prevention haven’t seen long-term success in Sub-Saharan Africa. A major program to combat malaria was WHO’s Global Malaria Eradication Programme. Started in 1955, it had a goal of eliminating malaria in Africa within the next ten years. Based upon previously successful programs in Brazil and the United States, the program focused mainly on vector control. This included widely distributing chloroquine and spraying large amounts of DDT. More than one billion dollars was spent trying to abolish malaria. However, the program suffered from many problems and in 1969, WHO was forced to admit that the program had not succeeded in eradicating malaria. The number of people in Sub-Saharan Africa who contracted malaria as well as the number of malaria deaths had actually increased over 10% during the time the program was active.

One of the major reasons for the failure of the project was that it set uniform strategies and policies. By failing to consider variations between governments, geography, and infrastructure, the program was not nearly as successful as it could have been. Sub-Saharan Africa has neither the money nor the infrastructure to support such an elaborate program, and it couldn’t be run the way it was meant to. Most African countries don't have the resources to send all their people to doctors and get shots, nor can they afford to clear wetlands or other malaria prone areas. The continent’s spending per person for eradicating malaria was just a quarter of what Brazil spent. Sub-Saharan Africa simply can’t rely on a plan that requires more money, infrastructure, and expertise than they have to spare.

Additionally, the widespread use of chloroquine has created drug resistant parasites which are now plaguing Sub-Saharan Africa. Because chloroquine was used widely but inconsistently, mosquitoes developed resistance, and chloroquine is now nearly completely ineffective in Sub-Saharan Africa, with over 95% of mosquitoes resistant to it. As a result, newer, more expensive drugs need to be used to prevent and treat malaria, which further drives up the cost of malaria treatment for a region that can ill afford it.

Instead of developing plans to treat malaria after the infection has incurred, programs should focus on preventing infection from occurring in the first place. Not only is this plan cheaper and more effective, reducing the number of people who contract malaria also reduces loss of work/school days which can further bring down the productivity of the region.

One of the cheapest and most effective ways of preventing malaria is to implement insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs). These nets provide a protective barrier around the person or people using them. While untreated bed nets are still helpful, those treated with insecticides are much more useful because they stop mosquitoes from biting people through the nets, and they help reduce mosquito populations in a community, thus helping people who don’t even own bed nets. Bed nets are also very effective because most mosquito bites occur while the person is sleeping, so bed nets would be able to drastically reduce the number of transmissions during the night. In fact, transmission of malaria can be reduced by as much as 90% in areas where the use of ITNs is widespread. Because money is so scarce in Sub-Saharan Africa, the low cost is a great benefit and a major reason why the program is so successful. Bed nets cost roughly 2 USD to make, last several years, and can protect two adults. Studies have shown that, for every 100-1000 more nets are being used, one less child dies of malaria. With an estimated 300 million people in Africa not being protected by mosquito nets, there’s the potential to save three million lives by spending just a few dollars per person.

Reducing the number of people who contract malaria would also reduce poverty levels in Africa significantly, thus improving other aspects of society like education levels and the economy. Vector control is more effective than treatment strategies because it means fewer people are getting sick. When fewer people get sick, the working population is stronger as a whole because people are not put out of work from malaria, nor are they caring for sick relatives. Malaria-afflicted families can typically only harvest 40% of the crops that healthy families can harvest. Additionally, a family with members who have malaria spends roughly a quarter of its income treatment, not including the loss of work they also must deal with due to the illness. It’s estimated that malaria costs Africa 12 billion USD in lost income every year. A strong working population creates a stronger economy, which Sub-Saharan Africa is in desperate need of.

This essay begins with an introduction, which ends with the thesis (that malaria eradication plans in Sub-Saharan Africa should focus on prevention rather than treatment). The first part of the essay lays out why the counter argument (treatment rather than prevention) is not as effective, and the second part of the essay focuses on why prevention of malaria is the better path to take.

The thesis appears early, is stated clearly, and is supported throughout the rest of the essay. This makes the argument clear for readers to understand and follow throughout the essay.
There’s lots of solid research in this essay, including specific programs that were conducted and how successful they were, as well as specific data mentioned throughout. This evidence helps strengthen the author’s argument.
The author makes a case for using expanding bed net use over waiting until malaria occurs and beginning treatment, but not much of a plan is given for how the bed nets would be distributed or how to ensure they’re being used properly. By going more into detail of what she believes should be done, the author would be making a stronger argument.
The introduction of the essay does a good job of laying out the seriousness of the problem, but the conclusion is short and abrupt. Expanding it into its own paragraph would give the author a final way to convince readers of her side of the argument.

Argumentative Essay Example 3

There are many ways payments could work. They could be in the form of a free-market approach, where athletes are able to earn whatever the market is willing to pay them, it could be a set amount of money per athlete, or student athletes could earn income from endorsements, autographs, and control of their likeness, similar to the way top Olympians earn money.

Proponents of the idea believe that, because college athletes are the ones who are training, participating in games, and bringing in audiences, they should receive some sort of compensation for their work. If there were no college athletes, the NCAA wouldn’t exist, college coaches wouldn’t receive there (sometimes very high) salaries, and brands like Nike couldn’t profit from college sports. In fact, the NCAA brings in roughly $1 billion in revenue a year, but college athletes don’t receive any of that money in the form of a paycheck. Additionally, people who believe college athletes should be paid state that paying college athletes will actually encourage them to remain in college longer and not turn pro as quickly, either by giving them a way to begin earning money in college or requiring them to sign a contract stating they’ll stay at the university for a certain number of years while making an agreed-upon salary.

Supporters of this idea point to Zion Williamson, the Duke basketball superstar, who, during his freshman year, sustained a serious knee injury. Many argued that, even if he enjoyed playing for Duke, it wasn’t worth risking another injury and ending his professional career before it even began for a program that wasn’t paying him. Williamson seems to have agreed with them and declared his eligibility for the NCAA draft later that year. If he was being paid, he may have stayed at Duke longer. In fact, roughly a third of student athletes surveyed stated that receiving a salary while in college would make them “strongly consider” remaining collegiate athletes longer before turning pro.

Paying athletes could also stop the recruitment scandals that have plagued the NCAA. In 2018, the NCAA stripped the University of Louisville's men's basketball team of its 2013 national championship title because it was discovered coaches were using sex workers to entice recruits to join the team. There have been dozens of other recruitment scandals where college athletes and recruits have been bribed with anything from having their grades changed, to getting free cars, to being straight out bribed. By paying college athletes and putting their salaries out in the open, the NCAA could end the illegal and underhanded ways some schools and coaches try to entice athletes to join.

People who argue against the idea of paying college athletes believe the practice could be disastrous for college sports. By paying athletes, they argue, they’d turn college sports into a bidding war, where only the richest schools could afford top athletes, and the majority of schools would be shut out from developing a talented team (though some argue this already happens because the best players often go to the most established college sports programs, who typically pay their coaches millions of dollars per year). It could also ruin the tight camaraderie of many college teams if players become jealous that certain teammates are making more money than they are.

They also argue that paying college athletes actually means only a small fraction would make significant money. Out of the 350 Division I athletic departments, fewer than a dozen earn any money. Nearly all the money the NCAA makes comes from men’s football and basketball, so paying college athletes would make a small group of men--who likely will be signed to pro teams and begin making millions immediately out of college--rich at the expense of other players.

Those against paying college athletes also believe that the athletes are receiving enough benefits already. The top athletes already receive scholarships that are worth tens of thousands per year, they receive free food/housing/textbooks, have access to top medical care if they are injured, receive top coaching, get travel perks and free gear, and can use their time in college as a way to capture the attention of professional recruiters. No other college students receive anywhere near as much from their schools.

People on this side also point out that, while the NCAA brings in a massive amount of money each year, it is still a non-profit organization. How? Because over 95% of those profits are redistributed to its members’ institutions in the form of scholarships, grants, conferences, support for Division II and Division III teams, and educational programs. Taking away a significant part of that revenue would hurt smaller programs that rely on that money to keep running.

While both sides have good points, it’s clear that the negatives of paying college athletes far outweigh the positives. College athletes spend a significant amount of time and energy playing for their school, but they are compensated for it by the scholarships and perks they receive. Adding a salary to that would result in a college athletic system where only a small handful of athletes (those likely to become millionaires in the professional leagues) are paid by a handful of schools who enter bidding wars to recruit them, while the majority of student athletics and college athletic programs suffer or even shut down for lack of money. Continuing to offer the current level of benefits to student athletes makes it possible for as many people to benefit from and enjoy college sports as possible.

This argumentative essay follows the Rogerian model. It discusses each side, first laying out multiple reasons people believe student athletes should be paid, then discussing reasons why the athletes shouldn’t be paid. It ends by stating that college athletes shouldn’t be paid by arguing that paying them would destroy college athletics programs and cause them to have many of the issues professional sports leagues have.

Both sides of the argument are well developed, with multiple reasons why people agree with each side. It allows readers to get a full view of the argument and its nuances.
Certain statements on both sides are directly rebuffed in order to show where the strengths and weaknesses of each side lie and give a more complete and sophisticated look at the argument.
Using the Rogerian model can be tricky because oftentimes you don’t explicitly state your argument until the end of the paper. Here, the thesis doesn’t appear until the first sentence of the final paragraph. That doesn’t give readers a lot of time to be convinced that your argument is the right one, compared to a paper where the thesis is stated in the beginning and then supported throughout the paper. This paper could be strengthened if the final paragraph was expanded to more fully explain why the author supports the view, or if the paper had made it clearer that paying athletes was the weaker argument throughout.

3 Tips for Writing a Good Argumentative Essay

Now that you’ve seen examples of what good argumentative essay samples look like, follow these three tips when crafting your own essay.

#1: Make Your Thesis Crystal Clear

The thesis is the key to your argumentative essay; if it isn’t clear or readers can’t find it easily, your entire essay will be weak as a result. Always make sure that your thesis statement is easy to find. The typical spot for it is the final sentence of the introduction paragraph, but if it doesn’t fit in that spot for your essay, try to at least put it as the first or last sentence of a different paragraph so it stands out more.

Also make sure that your thesis makes clear what side of the argument you’re on. After you’ve written it, it’s a great idea to show your thesis to a couple different people--classmates are great for this. Just by reading your thesis they should be able to understand what point you’ll be trying to make with the rest of your essay.

#2: Show Why the Other Side Is Weak

When writing your essay, you may be tempted to ignore the other side of the argument and just focus on your side, but don’t do this. The best argumentative essays really tear apart the other side to show why readers shouldn’t believe it. Before you begin writing your essay, research what the other side believes, and what their strongest points are. Then, in your essay, be sure to mention each of these and use evidence to explain why they’re incorrect/weak arguments. That’ll make your essay much more effective than if you only focused on your side of the argument.

#3: Use Evidence to Support Your Side

Remember, an essay can’t be an argumentative essay if it doesn’t support its argument with evidence. For every point you make, make sure you have facts to back it up. Some examples are previous studies done on the topic, surveys of large groups of people, data points, etc. There should be lots of numbers in your argumentative essay that support your side of the argument. This will make your essay much stronger compared to only relying on your own opinions to support your argument.

Summary: Argumentative Essay Sample

Argumentative essays are persuasive essays that use facts and evidence to support their side of the argument. Most argumentative essays follow either the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model. By reading good argumentative essay examples, you can learn how to develop your essay and provide enough support to make readers agree with your opinion. When writing your essay, remember to always make your thesis clear, show where the other side is weak, and back up your opinion with data and evidence.

What's Next?

Do you need to write an argumentative essay as well? Check out our guide on the best argumentative essay topics for ideas!

You'll probably also need to write research papers for school. We've got you covered with 113 potential topics for research papers.

Your college admissions essay may end up being one of the most important essays you write. Follow our step-by-step guide on writing a personal statement to have an essay that'll impress colleges.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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15 Types of Essays (and What You Need To Know About Them)

list of all 15 types of essays from the article

DESCRIPTION paper and pen icon with list of 15 types of essays
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Narrative essays narrate, argumentative essays argue, and expository essays … expose? Explain? (It’s a little of both). While these essays may use narrative, argumentative, and expository writing styles to make their points, they’re not the only types of essays to do so. In fact, there are 15 different types of essays — all of which narrate, argue, or explain something to their readers.

1. Narrative Essays

Narrative essays tell stories from your life or the lives of others. They’re told just like fictional short stories, with characters, a setting, a compelling plot, a climax, and a resolution.

Narrative essays use the third person perspective (it happened to someone else) or the first person perspective (it happened to the writer). Narrative essays should be entertaining and engaging to read, so choose a narrative writing topic that speaks to you.

Narrative Essay Example Structure

When writing a narrative essay , a possible structure could include:

Introduction - Hint at what you or the character learned
Body - Tell the story from beginning to end, finishing in an exciting or compelling climax in the last body paragraph
Conclusion - Reflect on what you or the character learned from the experience in the story

2. Argumentative Essays

Argumentative essays (also called argument essays ) investigate topics fairly and thoroughly to present the writer’s argument to the reader. The writer makes a claim and argues why evidence and logic support that claim in a well-structured essay.

Strong argumentative essays use rhetorical devices to strengthen their arguments, and they address the opposing argument (known as a counterclaim) as well. When choosing an argumentative essay topic , select an issue that you care about (or a topic you’d like to learn more about), and begin researching your position with reliable sources.

Argumentative Essay Structure Example

You can structure an argumentative essay like this:

Introduction - Introduce the topic and your claim in a thesis statement
Body - Support your position with evidence (and bring up counterclaims)
Conclusion - Restate your claim and summarize how you proved it

3. Expository Essays

Expository essays use research and critical thinking to explain more about a topic. Newspaper articles are a type of expository essay — they provide information to the reader in a concise, factual way. Writing expository essays requires a straightforward outline, evidence-based conclusions, and a strong thesis statement.

Though expository writing reveals information, it’s not the same as technical writing . Expository essays “expose” the truth about a selected topic , not just the information about it.

Expository Essay Structure Example

Most expository essays follow a structure similar to this:

Introduction - Introduce the topic and hint at a deeper truth
Body - Explain more about the topic with evidence; expose the truth and/or implications of the topic in a final body paragraph
Conclusion - Summarize the information and its larger meaning

4. Descriptive Essays

Like narrative essays, descriptive essays use narration to set a scene for the reader. But unlike narrative essays, descriptive essays don’t tell a story from beginning to end. If a painting could be an essay, it would be a descriptive essay — a written experience that you can almost see.

Descriptive essays use lots of sensory details to describe the way something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels. Well-written descriptive essays also use similes, metaphors, hyperboles, or other types of figurative language to pull their readers into the experience.

Descriptive Essay Structure Example

When writing a descriptive essay, you can follow this outline:

Introduction - Introduce the topic you’re going to describe with an engaging, sensory hook sentence
Body - Describe the topic with rich sensory detail and figurative language
Conclusion - Summarize your essay and conclude with a memorable descriptive sentence

5. Persuasive Essays

Persuasive essay writers try to convince their readers to agree with them. You’ll find examples of persuasive writing in both essays and speeches when a speaker, writer, or politician wants the audience on their side.

When you write a persuasive essay, you use similar strategies as you would in an argumentative essay. But persuasive essays use personal anecdotes (stories about yourself or others) and emotional appeals rather than the logic and evidence you’ll find in an argumentative essay. They also include a call to action at the end that inspires their audience to act.

Persuasive Essay Structure Example

You can structure your persuasive essay in a similar way as your argumentative essay, with a few key differences.

Introduction - Use an emotional evocative hook to get the reader interested in your position right away
Body - Use personal anecdotes, dramatic language, and emotional appeals to get the reader on your side
Conclusion - Finish with a call to action for your reader — what should they do now?

6. Informative Essays

Like expository essays, informative essays (also called informational essays ) inform their readers about a topic. But the main purpose of an informative essay is to educate the audience rather than to expose them to the truth.

Informative essays require lots of evidence and strong research. Be sure to choose an informative essay topic that interests you, since you’re going to learn a lot about it during the course of your writing.

Informative Essay Structure Example

Outline your informative essay structure in a straightforward, no-nonsense way.

Introduction - Introduce the topic with a strong hook (such as an interesting fact or statistic)
Body - Explain more about the topic with evidence
Conclusion - Restate your thesis and conclude with a general statement about the topic

7. Personal Narrative Essays

Personal narrative essays (also called personal narratives ) are a form of narrative writing in which the writer explores how an experience affected or shaped them. They focus on a single event or theme in one’s life, and unlike narrative essays, personal narratives are always true (and always autobiographical).

College entrance essays are a type of personal narrative in which a college applicant considers how a event or person in their past helped them to become the person they are today. Another type of personal narrative is a memoir — a longer narrative about one’s own life.

Personal Narrative Structure Example

It’s tempting to write a personal narrative in an unstructured way, but having a solid structure is the key to writing a compelling personal narrative.

Introduction - Set the scene, both in setting and tone (Where are we? When does it take place?)
Body - Tell the story with rich detail, beginning to end, culminating in a meaningful climax
Conclusion - Reflect on the experience and reveal how it shaped or changed you

8. Reflective Essays

Reflective essays explore an idea, concept, or observation from a writer’s point of view. They may include humor or emotional writing, but they should reveal a lot about the writer themselves (and about the reader).

Both reflective writing and personal narratives are forms of creative writing. But while reflective essays are personal, they don’t need to be written in a narrative format or tell a story. Think about a well-written journal entry — it probably doesn’t tell a story from start to finish, but explores the way something made the writer feel.

Reflective Essay Structure Example

Depending on your topic, reflective essays can be quite structured or more loosely organized. Generally, you can follow a standard format.

Introduction - Introduce the topic with detail and a thesis statement
Body - Reflect on the topic (also including detail)
Conclusion - Restate the thesis statement in a conclusion about the topic

9. Synthesis Essays

Synthesis essays gather opinions, evidence, and proposals from various sources and present it to the reader as one document. They’re similar to argumentative essays (in that they present a claim) and informative essays (in that they present information), but the goal of a synthesis essay is first and foremost to compile a body of evidence.

That evidence may support the writer’s claim, or it may cause them to reexamine their thoughts about the topic. Either way, synthesis essays include a wealth of sources (all of which must be properly cited, of course).

Synthesis Essay Structure Example

You can structure your synthesis essay like an expository essay.

Introduction - Hook the reader with a strong first sentence, then state your position in a thesis statement
Body - Support your thesis with the wealth of evidence you have gathered from different sources
Conclusion - Restate your thesis and summarize how you’ve supported your position

10. Definition Essays

Definition essays define a term or idea. These terms could be vocabulary words, technical terms, abstract concepts, historical words, or any other idea that a writer wants to define for the reader.

It seems like that may only get you a sentence or two, but a well-written definition essay does a lot more than look up word meanings. They can be expository when pointing out little-known facts or implications of the term, reflective when referring to important concepts, and even argumentative if the writer has a stance to defend.

Definition Essay Structure Example

Definition essays have straightforward outlines that make it easy for the reader to understand your meaning.

Introduction - State the word or concept you’re defining in the first sentence, and provide a general definition in the thesis
Body - Elaborate on the thesis statement with support, alternate definitions, and implications of the word or concept
Conclusion - Restate the definition along with the ways you elaborated on it

11. Analytical Essays

Analytical essays analyze a topic with strong detail and critical thinking. Also known as critical analysis essays , they use a balanced approach to thoroughly analyze something, whether it’s a passage in a piece of writing (known as literary analysis or rhetorical analysis ), a an element from a scientific discovery, or an important historical event.

Like reflective writing, analytical writing is very detailed and focused on a single topic. While that topic may have larger implications in the essay (and it should), each sentence should connect back to the core of the analytical essay.

Analytical Essay Structure Example

Analytical essays should follow a strict outline that doesn’t detract from its thesis statement.

Introduction - Introduce the topic and refer to the levels of analysis you’ve done on it
Body - Start with your lowest level of analysis and build up to the highest level (preferably in your last body paragraph), tying every sentence back to the thesis
Conclusion - Restate your thesis and levels of analysis

12. Compare and Contrast Essays

Compare and contrast essays are analytical essays that examine how two subjects are similar and different. These subjects can be two characters, two historical events, two concepts — any two topics that have similarities (compare) and differences (contrast). Compare and contrast essays often use expository writing to present the information in a thoughtful way.

When writing a compare and contrast essay , structure can be just as important as the essay’s thesis statement. Structuring your compare and contrast essay can highlight the ways your topics resemble and differ from each other. Thanks to the many compare and contrast essay topics available, you’ll never run out of things to compare (or contrast).

Compare and Contrast Essay Structure Example

Compare and contrast essays rely on a tight structure to analyze topics — but that structure may differ, depending on your topics.

Introduction - Introduce the topic you’re comparing; find a creative and engaging way to state that they are similar but different in your thesis statement
Body - Either analyze each characteristic in a body paragraph (Characteristic 1 of Topic 1 is different from Characteristic 1 of Topic 2), or analyze one entire topic before comparing and contrasting it with the second entire topic (Here are Characteristics 1, 2, and 3 of Topic 1; now, here are Characteristics 1, 2, and 3 of Topic 2)
Conclusion - Restate your thesis and summarize your points

13. Cause and Effect Essays

Cause and effect essays , another type of analytical essay, use structure to show the relationship between an event and its consequences. These essays often explore historical events or plot points in a story, though cause and effect topics can vary by subject.

Depending on how you write your cause and effect essay , you can use expository writing to explain how one thing led to another, or you can argue a little-known element of the cause and effect relationship (such as a surprising event, or a seemingly unrelated consequence).

Cause and Effect Essay Structure Example

Like compare and contrast essays, the structure of cause and effect essays depend on the topic you’re writing about and how you want to analyze it.

Introduction - Introduce the topic and make your claim about how the event caused the effects in your thesis statement
Body - Discuss the event in a paragraph before you discuss the effect, then defend your claim about how they’re related (or, you can spend the entire body section defending the claim, if that’s more reasonable for your topic)
Conclusion - Restate the thesis and assert how you’ve proven your claim about the relationship between the cause and effect

14. Evaluation Essays

Evaluation essays use a measured, unbiased approach to evaluating a work, topic, product, or another subject. With sound evidence and reasoning, evaluation essays present the writer’s opinion about the subject. Movie reviews, book reviews , and sports columns are all types of evaluation essays.

Though evaluation essays do thoroughly analyze their subject (think of the detail included in a movie review), they go beyond analysis. You would write an evaluation essay to present an educated and considered viewpoint, which should influence the reader when making up their own mind.

Evaluation Essay Structure Example

Your opinion is the claim in an evaluation essay, and just like any other claim, you need to defend it.

Introduction - Introduce what you’re evaluating and state your evaluation in the thesis statement
Body - Give an overview of what you’re evaluating (such as a summary), then defend your opinion with criteria, reasons, and evidence
Conclusion - Restate your opinion and final impressions

15. Process Essays

Process essays are a type of informational essay that explains how to do something (its process). They include a short introduction and conclusion, but the focus of the essay is on its steps and guiding the reader through the process.

Consider the process section of a recipe or instruction manual. A well-written process essay uses technical language to be as clear as possible, refrains from making an argument or claim, and only uses detail when being more specific.

Process Essay Structure Example

Process essays are some of the easiest to structure, since they go from beginning to end (much like narrative essays).

Introduction - Introduce the topic and state your purpose in writing the essay
Body - Write out the steps you need to take to complete the process (each paragraph can be one step, complete with tips and materials needed)
Conclusion - Restate your purpose and what you’ve just taught your reader

Types of Essays Guide

Keeping all 15 types of essays straight can be a challenge. Let us help you keep them all straight with an infographic.

seven types of essays with definitions and outlines from the article in a chart

DESCRIPTION Types of Essays infographic
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You’re on the Write Track

Once you know what type of essay you’re trying to write, there’s only one step left: writing the essay itself. For more tips and reference guides for writing all types of essays, check out:

How to Write an Essay
20 Compelling Hook Examples for Essays
How to Write an Effective Thesis Statement
5 Main Parts of an Essay: An Easy Guide to a Solid Structure
Background Information Examples for Essays and Papers
Types of Evidence to Use in Writing and Essays
10 Simple Tips on Essay Writing for College Students

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Knowledge Base
How to structure an essay: Templates and tips

How to Structure an Essay | Tips & Templates

Published on September 18, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction , a body , and a conclusion . But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body.

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The basics of essay structure, chronological structure, compare-and-contrast structure, problems-methods-solutions structure, signposting to clarify your structure, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay structure.

There are two main things to keep in mind when working on your essay structure: making sure to include the right information in each part, and deciding how you’ll organize the information within the body.

Parts of an essay

The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below.

Order of information

You’ll also have to consider how to present information within the body. There are a few general principles that can guide you here.

The first is that your argument should move from the simplest claim to the most complex . The body of a good argumentative essay often begins with simple and widely accepted claims, and then moves towards more complex and contentious ones.

For example, you might begin by describing a generally accepted philosophical concept, and then apply it to a new topic. The grounding in the general concept will allow the reader to understand your unique application of it.

The second principle is that background information should appear towards the beginning of your essay . General background is presented in the introduction. If you have additional background to present, this information will usually come at the start of the body.

The third principle is that everything in your essay should be relevant to the thesis . Ask yourself whether each piece of information advances your argument or provides necessary background. And make sure that the text clearly expresses each piece of information’s relevance.

The sections below present several organizational templates for essays: the chronological approach, the compare-and-contrast approach, and the problems-methods-solutions approach.

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The chronological approach (sometimes called the cause-and-effect approach) is probably the simplest way to structure an essay. It just means discussing events in the order in which they occurred, discussing how they are related (i.e. the cause and effect involved) as you go.

A chronological approach can be useful when your essay is about a series of events. Don’t rule out other approaches, though—even when the chronological approach is the obvious one, you might be able to bring out more with a different structure.

Explore the tabs below to see a general template and a specific example outline from an essay on the invention of the printing press.

Thesis statement
Discussion of event/period
Consequences
Importance of topic
Strong closing statement
Claim that the printing press marks the end of the Middle Ages
Background on the low levels of literacy before the printing press
Thesis statement: The invention of the printing press increased circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation
High levels of illiteracy in medieval Europe
Literacy and thus knowledge and education were mainly the domain of religious and political elites
Consequence: this discouraged political and religious change
Invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg
Implications of the new technology for book production
Consequence: Rapid spread of the technology and the printing of the Gutenberg Bible
Trend for translating the Bible into vernacular languages during the years following the printing press’s invention
Luther’s own translation of the Bible during the Reformation
Consequence: The large-scale effects the Reformation would have on religion and politics
Summarize the history described
Stress the significance of the printing press to the events of this period

Essays with two or more main subjects are often structured around comparing and contrasting . For example, a literary analysis essay might compare two different texts, and an argumentative essay might compare the strengths of different arguments.

There are two main ways of structuring a compare-and-contrast essay: the alternating method, and the block method.

Alternating

In the alternating method, each paragraph compares your subjects in terms of a specific point of comparison. These points of comparison are therefore what defines each paragraph.

The tabs below show a general template for this structure, and a specific example for an essay comparing and contrasting distance learning with traditional classroom learning.

Synthesis of arguments
Topical relevance of distance learning in lockdown
Increasing prevalence of distance learning over the last decade
Thesis statement: While distance learning has certain advantages, it introduces multiple new accessibility issues that must be addressed for it to be as effective as classroom learning
Classroom learning: Ease of identifying difficulties and privately discussing them
Distance learning: Difficulty of noticing and unobtrusively helping
Classroom learning: Difficulties accessing the classroom (disability, distance travelled from home)
Distance learning: Difficulties with online work (lack of tech literacy, unreliable connection, distractions)
Classroom learning: Tends to encourage personal engagement among students and with teacher, more relaxed social environment
Distance learning: Greater ability to reach out to teacher privately
Sum up, emphasize that distance learning introduces more difficulties than it solves
Stress the importance of addressing issues with distance learning as it becomes increasingly common
Distance learning may prove to be the future, but it still has a long way to go

In the block method, each subject is covered all in one go, potentially across multiple paragraphs. For example, you might write two paragraphs about your first subject and then two about your second subject, making comparisons back to the first.

The tabs again show a general template, followed by another essay on distance learning, this time with the body structured in blocks.

Point 1 (compare)
Point 2 (compare)
Point 3 (compare)
Point 4 (compare)
Advantages: Flexibility, accessibility
Disadvantages: Discomfort, challenges for those with poor internet or tech literacy
Advantages: Potential for teacher to discuss issues with a student in a separate private call
Disadvantages: Difficulty of identifying struggling students and aiding them unobtrusively, lack of personal interaction among students
Advantages: More accessible to those with low tech literacy, equality of all sharing one learning environment
Disadvantages: Students must live close enough to attend, commutes may vary, classrooms not always accessible for disabled students
Advantages: Ease of picking up on signs a student is struggling, more personal interaction among students
Disadvantages: May be harder for students to approach teacher privately in person to raise issues

An essay that concerns a specific problem (practical or theoretical) may be structured according to the problems-methods-solutions approach.

This is just what it sounds like: You define the problem, characterize a method or theory that may solve it, and finally analyze the problem, using this method or theory to arrive at a solution. If the problem is theoretical, the solution might be the analysis you present in the essay itself; otherwise, you might just present a proposed solution.

The tabs below show a template for this structure and an example outline for an essay about the problem of fake news.

Introduce the problem
Provide background
Describe your approach to solving it
Define the problem precisely
Describe why it’s important
Indicate previous approaches to the problem
Present your new approach, and why it’s better
Apply the new method or theory to the problem
Indicate the solution you arrive at by doing so
Assess (potential or actual) effectiveness of solution
Describe the implications
Problem: The growth of “fake news” online
Prevalence of polarized/conspiracy-focused news sources online
Thesis statement: Rather than attempting to stamp out online fake news through social media moderation, an effective approach to combating it must work with educational institutions to improve media literacy
Definition: Deliberate disinformation designed to spread virally online
Popularization of the term, growth of the phenomenon
Previous approaches: Labeling and moderation on social media platforms
Critique: This approach feeds conspiracies; the real solution is to improve media literacy so users can better identify fake news
Greater emphasis should be placed on media literacy education in schools
This allows people to assess news sources independently, rather than just being told which ones to trust
This is a long-term solution but could be highly effective
It would require significant organization and investment, but would equip people to judge news sources more effectively
Rather than trying to contain the spread of fake news, we must teach the next generation not to fall for it

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Signposting means guiding the reader through your essay with language that describes or hints at the structure of what follows. It can help you clarify your structure for yourself as well as helping your reader follow your ideas.

The essay overview

In longer essays whose body is split into multiple named sections, the introduction often ends with an overview of the rest of the essay. This gives a brief description of the main idea or argument of each section.

The overview allows the reader to immediately understand what will be covered in the essay and in what order. Though it describes what comes later in the text, it is generally written in the present tense . The following example is from a literary analysis essay on Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

Transitions

Transition words and phrases are used throughout all good essays to link together different ideas. They help guide the reader through your text, and an essay that uses them effectively will be much easier to follow.

Various different relationships can be expressed by transition words, as shown in this example.

Because Hitler failed to respond to the British ultimatum, France and the UK declared war on Germany. Although it was an outcome the Allies had hoped to avoid, they were prepared to back up their ultimatum in order to combat the existential threat posed by the Third Reich.

Transition sentences may be included to transition between different paragraphs or sections of an essay. A good transition sentence moves the reader on to the next topic while indicating how it relates to the previous one.

… Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while representing a step backwards in others.

However , considering the issue of personal interaction among students presents a different picture.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Ad hominem fallacy
Post hoc fallacy
Appeal to authority fallacy
False cause fallacy
Sunk cost fallacy

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The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

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Guide to Different Kinds of Essays

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An essay is a paper that discusses, describes or analyzes one topic. It can discuss a subject directly or indirectly, seriously or humorously. It can describe personal opinions, or just report information. An essay can be written from any perspective, but essays are most commonly written in the first person ( I ), or third person (subjects that can be substituted with the he, she, it, or they pronouns).

There are many different kinds of essays. The following are a some of the most common ones:

Descriptive Cause/Effect Argumentative Definition Narrative Critical Compare/Contrast Process

Descriptive:

Examples: A descriptive essay could describe . . .

The descriptive essay provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or sounds. It can also describe what something is, or how something happened. These essays generally use a lot of sensory details. The essay could be a list-like description that provides point by point details. Or, it could function as a story, keeping the reader interested in the plot and theme of the event described.

Definition:

Examples: A definition essay may try and define . . .

A definition essay attempts to define a specific term. It could try to pin down the meaning of a specific word, or define an abstract concept. The analysis goes deeper than a simple dictionary definition; it should attempt to explain why the term is defined as such. It could define the term directly, giving no information other than the explanation of the term. Or, it could imply the definition of the term, telling a story that requires the reader to infer the meaning.

Compare/Contrast:

Examples:A compare/contrast essay may discuss . . .

The compare/contrast essay discusses the similarities and differences between two things, people, concepts, places, etc. The essay could be an unbiased discussion, or an attempt to convince the reader of the benefits of one thing, person, or concept. It could also be written simply to entertain the reader, or to arrive at an insight into human nature. The essay could discuss both similarities and differences, or it could just focus on one or the other. A comparison essay usually discusses the similarities between two things, while the contrast essay discusses the differences.

Cause/Effect:

Examples:A cause/effect essay may explain . . .

The cause/effect essay explains why or how some event happened, and what resulted from the event.

This essay is a study of the relationship between two or more events or experiences. The essay could discuss both causes and effects, or it could simply address one or the other. A cause essay usually discusses the reasons why something happened. An effect essay discusses what happens after a specific event or circumstance.

The example below shows a cause essay, one that would explain how and why an event happened.

If this cause essay were about a volcanic eruption, it might go something like this: “Pressure and heat built up beneath the earth’s surface; the effect of this was an enormous volcanic eruption.”

The next example shows an effect essay, one that would explain all the effects that happened after a specific event, like a volcanic eruption.

If this effect essay were about a volcanic eruption again, it might go something like this:

“The eruption caused many terrible things to happen; it destroyed homes, forests, and polluted the atmosphere.”

Examples:A narrative essay could tell of . . .

The narrative essay tells a story. It can also be called a “short story.” Generally, the narrative essay is conversational in style and tells of a personal experience. It is most commonly written in the first person (uses I ). This essay could tell of a single, life-shaping event, or simply a mundane daily experience.

Examples: A process essay may explain . . .

A process essay describes how something is done. It generally explains actions that should be performed in a series. It can explain in detail how to accomplish a specific task, or it can show how an individual came to a certain personal awareness. The essay could be in the form of step-by-step instructions, or in story form, with the instructions/explanations subtly given along the way.

Argumentative:

Examples: An argumentative essay may persuade a reader that . . .

An argumentative essay is one that attempts to persuade the reader to the writer’s point of view. The writer can either be serious or funny, but always tries to convince the reader of the validity of his or her opinion. The essay may argue openly, or it may attempt to subtly persuade the reader by using irony or sarcasm.

Examples: A critical essay may analyze . . .

A critical essay analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, and methods of someone else’s work. Generally, these essays begin with a brief overview of the main points of the text, movie, or piece of art, followed by an analysis of the work’s meaning. It should then discuss how well the author/creator accomplishes his/her goals and makes his/her points. A critical essay can be written about another essay, story, book, poem, movie, or work of art.

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What are the Different Types of Argumentative Essays? (Answered)

by Antony W

April 7, 2022

Argumentative writing is by far one of the moist common types of essay assignments that you’ll have to complete in college.

It requires you to look at an issue, present each side of the issue, but make a strong case for one side in particular.

We’ve covered quite a lot on argumentative essay writing already.

Our goal with this guide is to give you more insight on the different types of argumentative essays, which your instructor may ask you to base your assignment on.

What are the Main Types of Argumentative Essays?

There are three types of argumentative essay that your instructor may require you to make.

These are as follows:

1. Classical Argumentative Essay

Developed by Aristotle , a classical argument convinces a reader to look into a specific point of view.

In an argumentative essay, the classical model requires you to look into both sides of an argument. As you analyze each side, you’ll pick one and use clear authenticity academic and statistical evidence to prove it right.

A classical argument doesn’t require you to prove if something is factual or otherwise. Instead, it invites the utilization of authenticity, emotion, time and logic to persuade an audience to agree with your point of view and accept your side on an issue.

The elements of a classical argument include an introduction to the essay, a presentation of your perspective on a claim, an explanation for and against the other side of the argument, evidence that your claim is true, and an overall conclusion.

Parts of a Classical Argument in an Argumentative Essay

A classical argumentative essay has five parts.

Introduction

Center the introduction on the subject of the argument . Make sure you provide sufficient background information to create awareness of the problem you’d like to address in the essay.

More importantly, the introduction should communicate your specific position on a claim.

And don’t forget to write a thesis statement for the argument as you close up this section.

The Confirmation

Your audience expects more than just a reason to accept your side of the argument. Using both artistic and inartistic arguments to support your position can be enough to meet the expectation of the kind of proof your audience needs.

If your audience must consider your position, you must present arguments that support your thesis in a way that will get them to agree with your claim(s).

As you provide your artistic and inartistic proof to defend your side, try to focus on the evidence that they can respond well to.

The Concession/Refutation

This is a two-part section where you have to agree and counter argue the subject under discussion.

For concession, include points that will draw your audience’s attention and make them want to listen to you. Only make sure the points you provide don’t come close to weakening your own side of the argument.

To make a solid concession, you’ll have to implement pathos and ethos to create a conducive environment for not only listening but also learning.

For refutation , use facts, reasons, and even testimony to show that the opposing points are inaccurate or based on insufficient evidence.

The Conclusion

A classical argument without a good conclusion, or no conclusion at all, isn’t going to be nearly as helpful. It makes sense to learn how to conclude an argument so that you can do it properly.

To be clear, the conclusion isn’t the section to restate the thesis or repeat your topic sentence. Rather, your focus should be on answering the "so what" question without introducing a new topic to the argument.

You may have to spend some time in this section before you come up with a relevant conclusion for the classical argument.

2. Rogerian Argumentative Essay

Named after the famous American psychologist, Carl Rogers , the Rogerian type of argument is the ideal structure to use if you want to discuss the most controversial subjects.

Using this approach, you can easily discuss sensitive matters and get the audience to agree with or against your position without creating an environment for hostility.

This type of argument seeks to present an issue in a respectful way and find a compromise without hurting any person’s emotions.

Unlike with the middle ground argument, the Rogerian presents an optimal position for the opposing side and, at the same time, finds a compromise that both parties can agree with.

The Rogerian argument has a structure that’s completely different from the classical argument.

The outline should highlight the following sections:

The Introduction : give your audience a reason to care about the subject in question
Opposing view : give a summary of the opposing view, making sure you clearly cover why the audience care about the subject.
Your position’s statement : make your audience understand why you care about the issue you wish to discuss in the subject
Resolution : should consider all sides, try to give objective suggestions on what you think should be done to resolve the issue at hand

3. Toulmin Argumentative Essay

With the Toulmin approach, you’ll break your arguments into claims, backing, rebuttal, grounds, warrant and qualifier.

You’ll start with the primary argument, provide factual evidence to support the claim, and then link a warrant to the claim in question.

While backing, rebuttal, and qualifier elements aren’t quite common in the Toulmin argument, it doesn’t mean they aren’t important. You’re free to add them when and if necessary.

Do keep in mind that by using these elements fully, with claim, grounds, and warrant being the most significant options to focus on, you can easily come up with a well-constructed argument that your audience will easily agree with.

About the author

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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3.4: What are the Different Types of Argument in Writing?

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Kirsten DeVries

Throughout this chapter, you have studied the definition of argument, parts of argument, and how to use logic in argument. This section brings all of the previous material together and tackles arguments in writing. Foremost on most students’ minds when taking college composition courses is this question: “How do I write an argument paper?” The answer is not a simple one because, as mentioned previously, arguments come in a variety of packages. This means that written arguments–whether in essay or some other form–also come in many different types.

Arguments of the Rhetorical Modes

Most arguments involve one or more of the rhetorical modes . Once again, rhetoric is the study and application of effective writing techniques. There are a number of standard rhetorical modes of writing—structural and analytical models that can be used effectively to suit different writing situations. The rhetorical modes include, but are not limited to, narrative, description, process analysis, illustration and exemplification, cause and effect, comparison, definition, persuasion, and classification. These modes will be covered in detail in Chapter 5, “Rhetorical Modes.” They are mentioned here, however, to make clear that any and all rhetorical modes can be used to pursue an argument. In fact, most professors will insist upon it.

Remember that when writing arguments, always be mindful of the point of view you should use. Most academic arguments should be pursued using third person. For more on this issue, see Chapter 4, “The Writing Process.”

Arguments of Persuasion

One of the most common forms of argument is that of persuasion , and often standardized tests, like the SOL, will provide writing prompts for persuasive arguments. On some level, all arguments have a persuasive element because the goal of the argument is to persuade the reader to take the writer’s claim seriously. Many arguments, however, exist primarily to introduce new research and interpretation whereas persuasive arguments expressly operate to change someone’s mind about an issue or a person.

A common type of persuasive essay is an Op-Ed article . Included in the opinion section of a newspaper, these articles are more appropriately called argument essays because most authors strive not only to make explicit claims but also to support their claims, sometimes even with researched evidence. These articles are often well-designed persuasive essays, written to convince readers of the writer’s way of thinking.

In addition to essays, other forms of persuasive writing exist. One common and important example is the job letter , where you must persuade others to believe in your merits as a worker and performer so that you might be hired.

In a persuasive essay, you should be sure to do the following:

Clearly articulate your claim and the main reasons for it. Avoid forming a thesis based on a negative claim. For example, “The hourly minimum wage is not high enough for the average worker to live on.” This is probably a true statement, but persuasive arguments should make a positive case because a negative is hard to prove. That is, the thesis statement should focus on how the hourly minimum wage is too low or insufficient.
Anticipate and address counterarguments. Think about your audience and the counterarguments they would mostly likely have. Acknowledging points of view different from your own also has the effect of fostering more credibility between you and the audience. They know from the outset that you are aware of opposing ideas and that you are not afraid to give them space.
Make sure your support comes in many different forms. Use logical reasoning and the rhetorical appeals, but also strive for concrete examples from your own experience and from society.
Keep your tone courteous, but avoid being obsequious. In other words, shamelessly appealing to your readers’ vanity will likely ring false. Aim for respectful honesty.
Avoid the urge to win the argument. On some level, we all want to be right, and we want others to see the error of their ways. More times than not, however, arguments in which both sides try to win end up producing losers all around. The more productive approach is to persuade your audience to consider your claim as a sound one, not simply the right one.

Because argument writing is designed to convince readers of an idea they may not have known before or a side of an issue they may not agree with, you must think carefully about the attitude you wish to convey as you advance your argument. The overall attitude of a piece of writing is its tone , and it comes from the words you choose (for more on the importance of word choice, see Chapter 10, “Working with Words”) In argument writing, strive for the following:

Confidence —The reader needs to know that you believe in what you say, so be confident. Avoid hedgy and apologetic language. However, be careful not to cross the line from confidence to overconfidence. Arrogance can rebuff your readers, even if they agree with you.
Neutrality —While you may advocate for one side or way of thinking, you still must demonstrate that you are being as objective as you can in your analysis and assessment. Avoid loaded terms, buzzwords, and overly emotional language.
Courtesy and fairn ess—Particularly when dealing with any counterarguments, you want your tone to reveal that you have given other points of view due consideration. Avoid being smug, snide, or harshly dismissive of other ideas.

Sample Writing Assignment 1

Find an Op-Ed article from one of the major US newspapers: The New York Times , The Wall Street Journal , The Washington Post , The Boston Globe , or the LA Times . Then, do the following:

Prewriting Work: Read the article carefully, taking notes or annotating it. Be sure to find the main argument and map the support used by the author, i.e., how the author is trying to persuade you. Note any use of rhetorical appeals, expert testimony, and research. (For tips about note-taking and annotating reading material, see Chapter 1for a review of the rhetorical appeals, seeChapter 2.
Write a paragraph summary of the article. Include the main argument and its support. Explain the different types of support used by the author (rhetorical appeals, expert testimony, and research).
In a paragraph, devise and explain your own counterargument(s) to the author’s thesis.
In a paragraph, explain what kind of support you would use for your counterargument. What rhetorical appeals would you use? What experts might you call on? Do you think you would need to do research and if so, on what?

Sample Writing Assignment 2

Write a job letter. As you design it, be sure to do the following:

Use formal letter format. Be sure to include these elements: your address, the address of the job you’re applying to (or the department you are applying to), the date you send the letter, a greeting, the letter content in coherent paragraphs (single-spaced paragraphs with a double space in between paragraphs), a sign off, any additional information (your phone and/or email address). For some visual examples of what this would look like, do a Google image search for “job letter format.”
Prewriting Work 1: Imagine a job you would like to apply for. Ask yourself the following questions and brainstorm answers to them: “What skills would I need to have for this job, and which of those skills do I have?” “What educational background would be required, and can I show that I fulfill the requirements?” “What experience might the hiring committee want to me to have, and do I have any experience that would be relevant?”
Prewriting Work 2: Take the notes you have come up with and add as many specific details as you can. If you believe you do have relevant skills, what are they, specifically? Where did you get those skills, specifically? How long have you had those skills, specifically? Do you have examples where you have shown excellence with those skills, specifically?
Drafting: Shape your details into three paragraphs organized by issue: skills, education, and experience. Be specific, include a couple examples per paragraph, and be succinct in your delivery.
Proofread carefully. First of all, excellent sentence composition, punctuation, and spelling communicate your seriousness to those who might hire you. Mistakes make you look sloppy and make it easy for them to toss your letter on the rejection pile. Second, watch word choice. Choose specific over general words as much as possible (you say you are a hard worker, but what does that mean, practically speaking?). Make sure you avoid clichés and overly gushy sentiment (“I’m passionate about people!”). Finally, proofread for tone. Strive for courteousness and objectivity. Make it seem like you are being objective about your own abilities.

Arguments of Evaluation

If you have ever answered a question about your personal take on a book or movie or television show or piece of music, you have given a review . Most times, these reviews are somewhat hasty and based on initial or shallow impressions. However, if you give thought to your review, if you explain more carefully what you liked or didn’t like and why, if you bring in specific examples to back up your points, then you have moved on to an argument of evaluation. Reviews of film, books, music, food, and other aspects of taste and culture represent the most familiar type of argument of evaluation. The main objective of an argument of evaluation is to render a critical judgment on the merits of something.

Another common argument of evaluation is the performance review . If you have ever held a job, you know what it feels like to be on the receiving end of such a review; your timeliness and productivity and attitude are scrutinized to determine if you have been a good worker or need to worry about looking for another job. If you are in any sort of supervisory position, you will be the one writing and delivering those reviews, and your own supervisor will want to know that you have logical justification and evidence for your judgements.

For all types of reviews or evaluation arguments, make sure to plan for the following:

Declare your overall judgment of the subject under review—good, bad, or somewhere in between. This is your conclusion or thesis.
Lay out the criteria for your judgment. In other words, your review must be based on logical criteria—i.e., the standards by which you evaluate something. For example, if you are reviewing a film, reasonable criteria would include acting, writing, storytelling, directing, cinematography, music, and special effects. If you are evaluating an employee, that criteria will change and more likely involve punctuality, aspects of job performance, and overall attitude on the job.
Make sure to evaluate each criteria and provide evidence. Draw your evidence from what you are reviewing, and use as many specific examples as you can. In a movie review in which you think the acting quality was top notch, give examples of a particular style that worked well or lines delivered effectively or emotions realistically conveyed.
Use concrete language. A review is only an argument if we can reasonably see—from examples and your explanations—how you arrived at your judgment. Vague or circular language (“I liked it because it was just really good!”) will keep your evaluation at the opinion level only, preventing it from being taken seriously as an argument.
Keep the tone respectful—even if you ultimately did not like the subject of your review. Be as objective as you can when giving your reasons. Insulting language detracts from the seriousness of your analysis and makes your points look like personal attacks.

Roger Ebert (1942-2013), a movie reviewer for the Chicago Sun-Times , was once one of the most famous movie critics in America. His reviews provide excellent examples of the argument of evaluation.

Consider his review( https://tinyurl.com/y82ylaav ) of the 2009 film Avatar and note how clearly he declares his judgments, how he makes his reader aware of just what standards he uses for judgement (his criteria), and how he uses a wealth of examples and reasons to back his critiques (although he is careful to avoid spoilers, the review went to print as the movie was coming out).

Sample Writing Assignment 3

Write a brief review of your first job. How would you rate that experience, and what would your rating be based on?

Declare your overall judgment of your job experience. This is your main claim.
Come up with at least four criteria for evaluation. Give your judgment for each criteria. Include at least two specific examples to support each evaluation, and explain the logic of your support.
Proofread for tone, making sure to look for any words that would cause a reader to think your critique was unfair or hostile. For example, even if you loathed your first job, treat it dispassionately, like you are a social scientist putting that work experience under a microscope. (This might allow you to say, for example, that although the job was dull and repetitive, it gave you some useful experience.)

Sample Writing Assignment 4

Evaluate a source that you plan to use for a research project. Explain what type of source you have (website? journal article? book? newspaper article?), and declare your source to be credible or not, using the following criteria:

Author’s credentials. First of all, are the authors named? Can you find out anything about them, like degrees and professional information? If you cannot find anything, how does that affect credibility? If you can find information, how does that information show credibility or lack of it?
Publication information and process. Was the article or book peer reviewed? Was it online or in print? Did you find it through a database or a Google search? Who funded publication? Explain what the results of these questions tell you about the source’s credibility.
The use of support. Does the source have footnotes or endnotes? A bibliography? Links to different articles? In other words, how carefully is the author trying to back up his or her claims?

Arguments of Fact and Explanation

In the beginning of this chapter, arguments were shown to be distinct from facts. Facts are not arguable, they do not have “two sides,” and they are not up for debate. However, as we well know, people disagree with facts all the time. We wouldn’t have a nonsense term like “alternative facts” otherwise. We do, however, have arguments that deal with this scenario: arguments of fact and explanation . Arguments of fact seek to establish, often in the face of doubters, that a fact is indeed true. Arguments of explanation establish why that fact is true. Not surprisingly, these arguments often go hand in hand, and they lie primarily in the domain of the research paper. For more detail on the research process, refer to Chapter 6, “Research ” ; this section will clarify these two types of argument.

Arguments of Fact : Many times, the goal of giving an argument is simply to establish that the conclusion is true. For example, to convince someone that obesity rates are rising in the US, the writer should cite evidence such as studies from the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The studies cited would function as premises for the conclusion that obesity rates are rising:

Obesity is on the rise in the US because multiple studies carried out by the CDC and NIH have consistently shown a rise in obesity over the last four decades.

Putting this simple argument into standard form would look like this:

Multiple studies by the CDC and NIH have consistently shown a rise in obesity over the last four decades. ( premises )
Therefore, obesity is on the rise in the US. ( conclusion )

The standard form argument clearly distinguishes the premise from the conclusion and shows how the conclusion is supposed to be supported by the evidence offered in the premise. Again, the goal of this simple argument would be to convince someone that the conclusion is true . However, sometimes we already know that a statement or claim is true, and we are trying to establish why it is true rather than that it is true.

Arguments of Explanation : An argument that attempts to show why its conclusion is true is an explanation. Contrast the previous example with the following:

The reason that the rate of obesity is on the rise in the US is that the foods we most often consume over the past four decades have increasingly contained high levels of sugar and low levels of dietary fiber. Because eating foods high in sugar and low in fiber triggers the insulin system to start storing those calories as fat, it follows that people who consume foods high in sugar and low in fiber will tend to store more of the calories consumed as fat.

This passage gives an explanation for why obesity is on the rise in the US. Unlike the earlier example, here it is taken for granted that obesity is on the rise in the US. That is the claim whose truth the author must explain. The obesity explanation can also be put into standard form just like any other argument:

Over the past four decades, Americans have increasingly consumed foods high in sugar and low in fiber. ( premise )
Consuming foods high in sugar and low in fat triggers the insulin system to start storing those calories as fat. ( premise )
When people store more calories as fat, they tend to become obese. ( premise )
Therefore, the rate of obesity is on the rise in the US. ( conclusion )

Notice that in this explanation, the premises (1-3) attempt to explain why the conclusion is true, rather than a reason for thinking that the conclusion is true. That is, in an argument of explanation, we assume that what we are trying to explain (i.e., the conclusion) is true. In this case, the premises are supposed to show why we should expect or predict that the conclusion is true. Explanations often give us an understanding of why the conclusion is true.

Arguments of Interpretation

Arguments of interpretation come mainly in the form of critical analysis writing. Scholars and students use critical analysis to understand a text more deeply; therefore, it is common in disciplines in which texts are the main objects of study—literature, philosophy, and history. However, we can also think of critical analysis as any analysis where someone takes raw data—from texts, from objects and images, from laboratory experiments, from surveys of people—and analyzes that data to come up with what they mean. The “what it all means” is an interpretation . The argument in critical analysis writing is the interpretation of the data. This must be a logical interpretation with the data also used to support the interpretation through reasoning and examples.

The guidelines for analyzing data are determined by the experts in those areas. Scholars of the life, earth, and physical sciences; the social sciences; and the humanities gather all sorts of different data. When writing up an interpretation of that data, writers and researchers should follow the models and standards provided by experts in those fields of study. In college, professors are important sources of these models and standards.

In the humanities, particularly in literature, there are generally four ways (or perspectives) for analyzing a text: writing from the perspective of a reader , writing as if the text were an object of study , writing about or from the perspective of an author , and writing about where a text fits into a particular context .

Rogerian Argument

The Rogerian argument, inspired by the influential psychologist Carl Rogers, aims to find compromise or common ground about an issue. If, as stated in the beginning of the chapter, academic or rhetorical argument is not merely a two-sided debate that seeks a winner and a loser, the Rogerian argument model provides a structured way to move beyond the win-lose mindset. Indeed, the Rogerian model can be employed to deal effectively with controversial arguments that have been reduced to two opposing points of view by forcing the writer to confront opposing ideas and then work towards a common understanding with those who might disagree.

The following are the basic parts of a Rogerian Argument:

1. Introduction : Introduce the issue under scrutiny in a non-confrontational way. Be sure to outline the main sides in the debate. Though there are always more than two sides to a debate, Rogerian arguments put two in stark opposition to one another. Crucially, be sure to indicate the overall purpose of the essay: to come to a compromise about the issue at hand. If this intent is not stated up front, the reader may be confused or even suspect manipulation on the part of the writer, i.e., that the writer is massaging the audience just to win a fight. Be advised that the Rogerian essay uses an inductive reasoning structure, so do not include your thesis in your introduction. You will build toward the thesis and then include it in your conclusion. Once again, state the intent to compromise, but do not yet state what the compromise is.

2. Side A : Carefully map out the main claim and reasoning for the opposing side of the argument first. The writer’s view should never really come first because that would defeat the purpose of what Rogers called empathetic listening , which guides the overall approach to this type of argument. By allowing the opposing argument to come first, you communicate to the reader that you are willing to respectfully consider another’s view on the issue. Furthermore, you invite the reader to then give you the same respect and consideration when presenting your own view. Finally, presenting the opposition first can help those readers who would side against you to ease into the essay, keeping them invested in the project. If you present your own ideas first, you risk polarizing those readers from the start, which would then make them less amenable to considering a compromise by the end of the essay. You can listen to Carl Rogers himself discuss the importance of empathy onYouTube( https://youtu.be/2dLsgpHw5x0 , transcript here ).

3. Side B : Carefully go over your side of the argument. When mapping out this side’s claim and support, be sure that it parallels that of Side A. In other words, make sure not to raise entirely new categories of support, or there can be no way to come to a compromise. Make sure to maintain a non-confrontational tone; for example, avoid appearing arrogant, sarcastic, or smug.

4. The Bridge : A solid Rogerian argument acknowledges the desires of each side and tries to accommodate both. In this part, point out the ways in which you agree or can find common ground between the two sides. There should be at least one point of agreement. This can be an acknowledgement of the one part of the opposition’s agreement that you also support or an admittance to a shared set of values even if the two sides come to different ideas when employing those values. This phase of the essay is crucial for two reasons: finding common ground (1) shows the audience the two views are not necessarily at complete odds, that they share more than they seem, and (2) sets up the compromise to come, making it easier to digest for all parties. Thus, this section builds a bridge from the two initial isolated and opposite views to a compromise that both sides can reasonably support.

5. The Compromise : Now is the time to finally announce your compromise, which is your thesis. The compromise is what the essay has been building towards all along, so explain it carefully and demonstrate the logic of it. For example, if debating about whether to use racial profiling, a compromise might be based on both sides’ desire for a safer society. That shared value can then lead to a new claim, one that disarms the original dispute or set of disputes. For the racial profiling example, perhaps a better solution would focus on more objective measures than race that would then promote safety in a less problematic way.

Sample Writing Assignment 5

Find a controversial topic, and begin building a Rogerian argument. Write up your responses to the following:

The topic or dilemma I will write about is…
My opposing audience is…
My audience’s view on the topic is…
My view on the topic is…
Our common ground–shared values or something that we both already agree on about the topic–is…
My compromise (the main claim or potential thesis) is…

The Toulmin Argument Model

Stephen Edelston Toulmin (born March 25, 1922) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Toulmin devoted his works to analyzing moral reasoning. He sought to develop practical ways to evaluate ethical arguments effectively. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components, was considered Toulmin’s most influential work, particularly in the fields of rhetoric, communication, and computer science. His components continue to provide useful means for analyzing arguments, and the terms involved can be added to those defined in earlier sections of this chapter.

The following are the parts of a Toulmin argument:

1. Claim : The claim is a statement that you are asking the other person to accept as true (i.e., a conclusion) and forms the nexus of the Toulmin argument because all the other parts relate back to the claim. The claim can include information and ideas you are asking readers to accept as true or actions you want them to accept and enact. One example of a claim:

My grandfather should wear a hearing aid.

This claim both asks the reader to believe an idea and suggests an action to enact. However, like all claims, it can be challenged. Thus, a Toulmin argument does not end with a claim but also includes grounds and warrant to give support and reasoning to the claim.

2. Grounds : The grounds form the basis of real persuasion and includes the reasoning behind the claim, data, and proof of expertise. Think of grounds as a combination of premises and support . The truth of the claim rests upon the grounds, so those grounds should be tested for strength, credibility, relevance, and reliability. The following are examples of grounds:

Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty.

Hearing aids raise hearing quality.

Information is usually a powerful element of persuasion, although it does affect people differently. Those who are dogmatic, logical, or rational will more likely be persuaded by factual data. Those who argue emotionally and who are highly invested in their own position will challenge it or otherwise try to ignore it. Thus, grounds can also include appeals to emotion, provided they aren’t misused. The best arguments, however, use a variety of support and rhetorical appeals.

3. Warrant : A warrant links data and other grounds to a claim, legitimizing the claim by showing the grounds to be relevant . The warrant may be carefully explained and explicit or unspoken and implicit. The warrant answers the question, “Why does that data mean your claim is true?” For example,

A hearing aid helps most people hear better.

The warrant may be simple, and it may also be a longer argument with additional sub-elements including those described below. Warrants may be based on logos , ethos or pathos , or values that are assumed to be shared with the listener. In many arguments, warrants are often implicit and, hence, unstated. This gives space for the other person to question and expose the warrant, perhaps to show it is weak or unfounded.

4. Backing : The backing for an argument gives additional support to the warrant. Backing can be confused with grounds, but the main difference is this: Grounds should directly support the premises of the main argument itself, while backing exists to help the warrants make more sense. For example,

Hearing aids are available locally.

This statement works as backing because it gives credence to the warrant stated above, that a hearing aid will help most people hear better. The fact that hearing aids are readily available makes the warrant even more reasonable.

5. Qualifier : The qualifier indicates how the data justifies the warrant and may limit how universally the claim applies. The necessity of qualifying words comes from the plain fact that most absolute claims are ultimately false (all women want to be mothers, e.g.) because one counterexample sinks them immediately. Thus, most arguments need some sort of qualifier, words that temper an absolute claim and make it more reasonable. Common qualifiers include “most,” “usually,” “always,” or “sometimes.” For example,

Hearing aids help most people.

The qualifier “most” here allows for the reasonable understanding that rarely does one thing (a hearing aid) universally benefit all people. Another variant is the reservation, which may give the possibility of the claim being incorrect:

Unless there is evidence to the contrary, hearing aids do no harm to ears.

Qualifiers and reservations can be used to bolster weak arguments, so it is important to recognize them. They are often used by advertisers who are constrained not to lie. Thus, they slip “usually,” “virtually,” “unless,” and so on into their claims to protect against liability. While this may seem like sneaky practice, and it can be for some advertisers, it is important to note that the use of qualifiers and reservations can be a useful and legitimate part of an argument.

6. Rebuttal : Despite the careful construction of the argument, there may still be counterarguments that can be used. These may be rebutted either through a continued dialogue, or by pre-empting the counter-argument by giving the rebuttal during the initial presentation of the argument. For example, if you anticipated a counterargument that hearing aids, as a technology, may be fraught with technical difficulties, you would include a rebuttal to deal with that counterargument:

There is a support desk that deals with technical problems.

Any rebuttal is an argument in itself, and thus may include a claim, warrant, backing, and the other parts of the Toulmin structure.

Even if you do not wish to write an essay using strict Toulmin structure, using the Toulmin checklist can make an argument stronger. When first proposed, Toulmin based his layout on legal arguments, intending it to be used analyzing arguments typically found in the courtroom; in fact, Toulmin did not realize that this layout would be applicable to other fields until later. The first three elements–“claim,” “grounds,” and “warrant”–are considered the essential components of practical arguments, while the last three—“qualifier,” “backing,” and “rebuttal”—may not be necessary for all arguments.

Find an argument in essay form and diagram it using the Toulmin model. The argument can come from an Op-Ed article in a newspaper or a magazine think piece or a scholarly journal. See if you can find all six elements of the Toulmin argument. Use the structure above to diagram your article’s argument.

Key Takeaways: Types of Argument

Arguments in the Rhetorical Modes —models of writing that can be used for an argument, including the rhetorical modes: narration, comparison, causal analysis, process, description, definition, classification, and exemplification.
Arguments of Persuasion —used to change someone’s thinking on a topic or person.
Arguments of Evaluation —critical reviews based on logical evaluation of criteria and evidence for that evaluation.
Arguments of Fact and Explanation —establishes that a fact is true (the former) or why it is true (the latter).
Arguments of Interpretation —critical analysis writing in which one makes an argument about what data mean. Data can come from texts, objects, surveys, and scientific experiments.
The Rogerian Argument Model —an argument model designed to bring about consensus and mutual understanding rather than conflict.
Toulmin’s Argument Model —six interrelated components used to diagram an argument, drawn from both rhetorical and academic argument.

IMAGES

outstanding argumentative essays topics
The 8 Elements of an Argument Posters (CCSS)
How to Write an Argumentative Essay
How to Write an Argumentative Essay Step By Step
3.4: What are the Different Types of Argument in Writing?
Three Types of Argument

VIDEO

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Essay Geo Economics: An Insatiable Desire by Dr. Ahtisham Jan Butt
Can't Read, Can't Vote? The DIRE PERIL of Illiteracy in Modern Democracies
IELTS WRITING TASK 2: How to structure an argument

COMMENTS

3 Different Types of Argument: Definition and Examples
3 Main Types of Argument. There are 3 types of arguments that you'll most likely encounter while writing an argumentative essay.These are: Classical Argument . The Classical or Aristotelian model of argument is the most common type of argument. It was developed by the Greek philosopher and Rhetorician Aristotle.
The Four Main Types of Essay
Learn the definition, skills, and structure of argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive essays. See how to write each type of essay with examples and tips from Scribbr. Find out the difference between argumentative and textual analysis essays and how to test your skills in close reading and interpretation.
How to Write an Argumentative Essay
Make a claim. Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim. Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim) Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives. The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays.
Argument
This handout will define what an argument is and explain why you need one in most of your academic essays. Arguments are everywhere. ... Unlike negotiating for the use of your parents' car, a college paper is not the place for an all-out blitz of every type of argument. You can often use more than one type of evidence within a paper, but make ...
9.3: The Argumentative Essay
In an academic argument, you'll have a lot more constraints you have to consider, and you'll focus much more on logic and reasoning than emotions. Figure 1. When writing an argumentative essay, students must be able to separate emotion based arguments from logic based arguments in order to appeal to an academic audience.
6.5: Different Types of Arguments
Written arguments-whether in essay or some other form-come in many different types. Most arguments involve one or more of the rhetorical modes. Once again, rhetoric is the study and application of effective writing techniques. There are a number of standard rhetorical modes of writing—structural and analytical models that can be used ...
How to Write an A+ Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay attempts to convince a reader to agree with a particular argument (the writer's thesis statement). The writer takes a firm stand one way or another on a topic and then uses hard evidence to support that stance. An argumentative essay seeks to prove to the reader that one argument —the writer's argument— is the ...
How to Write a Standout Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that uses factual evidence and logical support to convince the reader of a certain way of thinking. Although many types of essays aim at persuading the reader to believe a specific point of view, argumentative essays rely heavily on hard evidence, drawing on other studies and sources to prove their argument is best.
Types of Argument
Types of Argument. Just as there many types of essays you will write in college and many types of writing in general, argumentative essays come in many forms as well. There are three basic structures or types of argument you are likely to encounter in college: the Toulmin argument, the Rogerian argument, and the Classical or Aristotelian argument.
Kinds of argumentative academic essays and their purposes
Expository essay. Purpose. Role of author. to present an original view on a topic. supports this view with good reasons. shows ability to invent and support an argumentative view. shows ability to think critically about this view. must show how the reasons provided establish your view as a convincing one.
Argumentative Essay: Guide on How to Write
In fact, to accommodate different types of argumentative essay styles, three methods have emerged as the go-to formats: Classical (Aristotelian), Rogerian, and Toulmin, explained below. No matter the format or topic, a strong argumentative essay outline makes it easier to organize your thoughts and present your case in the best possible way.
Organizing Your Argument
First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in The Uses of Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims. The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows: Claim: In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.
8 Intro to Researched-Based Types of Arguments
Often arguments with a particular kind of purpose will share common features. Below we will describe four kinds of research-based essays, each of which we will explore in more depth in a later section of this chapter. One note: these basic strategies also can be a part of another type of essay.
Three Types Of Argumentative Essays
Key Takeaways: There are three main types of argumentative essays: classical, Toulmin, and Rogerian. The classical argument relies on ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade the audience. The Toulmin argument focuses on justifying claims with evidence. The Rogerian argument aims to find common ground between opposing parties.
Basic Types of Argument and How to Use Them?
The classical or Aristotelian argument is a form of argument developed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. The goal is to convince the audience using strategies about a certain side of the issue. The classical argument uses ethos, pathos, and logos in the most persuasive way possible. If you are drafting an essay using the classical argument ...
The 7 Types of Essays Every Student Needs to Know
6 Argumentative essays. In an argumentative essay, you . . . well . . . argue. Specifically, you argue for or against a particular position. For example, your assignment might be to take a position about your school's policy of not allowing a student to take more than two AP courses per year and support your position with data.
3 Strong Argumentative Essay Examples, Analyzed
Argumentative Essay Example 2. Malaria is an infectious disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through female Anopheles mosquitoes. Each year, over half a billion people will become infected with malaria, with roughly 80% of them living in Sub-Saharan Africa.
15 Types of Essays (and What You Need To Know About Them)
Though you're likely not to encounter every single type of essay that exists, sometimes it's necessary to know about them. Learn about 15 different types here. ... Argumentative essays (also called argument essays) investigate topics fairly and thoroughly to present the writer's argument to the reader. The writer makes a claim and argues ...
How to Structure an Essay
The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body. This article provides useful templates and tips to help you outline your essay, make decisions about your structure, and ...
Guide to Different Kinds of Essays
Argumentative: Examples: An argumentative essay may persuade a reader that . . . * he or she should use public transportation instead of driving. * cats are better than dogs. An argumentative essay is one that attempts to persuade the reader to the writer's point of view. The writer can either be serious or funny, but always tries to convince ...
What are the Different Types of Argumentative Essays? (Answered)
There are three types of argumentative essay that your instructor may require you to make. These are as follows: 1. Classical Argumentative Essay. Developed by Aristotle, a classical argument convinces a reader to look into a specific point of view. In an argumentative essay, the classical model requires you to look into both sides of an argument.
8 Types of Arguments and Their Importance
Type of arguments. The following are the primary types of arguments used in daily life: 1. Causal argument. A causal argument is a type of argument used to persuade someone or a group of people that one thing has caused something else. This type of argument focuses on how something occurred and how a problem arose as a result of that occurrence.
3.4: What are the Different Types of Argument in Writing?
A common type of persuasive essay is an Op-Ed article. Included in the opinion section of a newspaper, these articles are more appropriately called argument essays because most authors strive not only to make explicit claims but also to support their claims, sometimes even with researched evidence.
5 Main Essay Types & Guide with Examples
TL; DR. Essays are a type of academic writing that aims to inform or persuade the reader about a certain topic or thesis. The five types of essays that you will encounter most frequently throughout your academic life are argumentative, descriptive, narrative, expository, and persuasive. When writing an argumentative, persuasive essay or ...

Learn the 3 Different Types of Argument and Multiple Argument Claims

3 Main Types of Argument

Classical Argument

Toulmin Argument

Rogerian Argument

Types of Argument Claims

Factual Claims

Value Claims

Policy Claims

Causal Claims

Definitional Claims

Steps to Structure an Argumentative Essay

Keep reading

What this handout is about

Arguments are everywhere

Making a claim

Counterargument

Critical reading

Works consulted

Types of Argument

Organizing Your Argument

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

How can I effectively present my argument?

Toulmin Method

Example of the Toulmin Method:

Rogerian Method

Example of the Rogerian Method:

Classical Method

Example of the Classical Method:

8 Intro to Researched-Based Types of Arguments

Purposes for research papers

Definition argument examples

Evaluation argument examples

Causal argument examples

Proposal argument examples

Comparing and contrasting for different purposes

Tailoring an Argument to an Audience

Audience Awareness in the Writing Process

The Effect of Audience on Style

Reaching Out to the Audience

Addressing a Diverse Audience

Attribution

Chapter Attribution

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Key Takeaways:

The Classical Argument: Persuasion through Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

The Toulmin Argument: Justifying Claims with Evidence

The Structure of a Toulmin Argument

The Rogerian Argument: Finding Common Ground

Different Types of Argument Claims

Factual Claims

Value Claims

Policy Claims

Causal Claims

Definitional Claims

Steps to Structure an Argumentative Essay

1. Choose a Controversial Topic

2. Decide the Type of Claim and Argument Structure

3. Collect Facts and Evidence

4. Develop an Outline

5. Study Examples

6. Write a Compelling Introduction

7. Present Logical Arguments with Evidence

8. Address Counterarguments

9. Conclude with a Restatement and Call to Action

What are the three main types of argumentative essays?

What is the structure of a classical argument essay?

What is the Toulmin argument and its structure?

What is the structure of a Rogerian argument?

What are the different types of argument claims?

What are the steps to structure an argumentative essay?

How can understanding the types of argumentative essays improve my writing?

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Basic Types of Argument and How to Use Them?

Types of Arguments

Classical Argument

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