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Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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Definition:

Assignment is a task given to students by a teacher or professor, usually as a means of assessing their understanding and application of course material. Assignments can take various forms, including essays, research papers, presentations, problem sets, lab reports, and more.

Assignments are typically designed to be completed outside of class time and may require independent research, critical thinking, and analysis. They are often graded and used as a significant component of a student’s overall course grade. The instructions for an assignment usually specify the goals, requirements, and deadlines for completion, and students are expected to meet these criteria to earn a good grade.

History of Assignment

The use of assignments as a tool for teaching and learning has been a part of education for centuries. Following is a brief history of the Assignment.

• Ancient Times: Assignments such as writing exercises, recitations, and memorization tasks were used to reinforce learning.
• Medieval Period : Universities began to develop the concept of the assignment, with students completing essays, commentaries, and translations to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.
• 19th Century : With the growth of schools and universities, assignments became more widespread and were used to assess student progress and achievement.
• 20th Century: The rise of distance education and online learning led to the further development of assignments as an integral part of the educational process.
• Present Day: Assignments continue to be used in a variety of educational settings and are seen as an effective way to promote student learning and assess student achievement. The nature and format of assignments continue to evolve in response to changing educational needs and technological innovations.

Types of Assignment

Here are some of the most common types of assignments:

An essay is a piece of writing that presents an argument, analysis, or interpretation of a topic or question. It usually consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Essay structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and thesis statement
• Body paragraphs : each paragraph presents a different argument or idea, with evidence and analysis to support it
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and reiterates the thesis statement

Research paper

A research paper involves gathering and analyzing information on a particular topic, and presenting the findings in a well-structured, documented paper. It usually involves conducting original research, collecting data, and presenting it in a clear, organized manner.

Research paper structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the paper, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the paper’s main points and conclusions
• Introduction : provides background information on the topic and research question
• Literature review: summarizes previous research on the topic
• Methodology : explains how the research was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the research
• Discussion : interprets the results and draws conclusions
• Conclusion : summarizes the key findings and implications

A case study involves analyzing a real-life situation, problem or issue, and presenting a solution or recommendations based on the analysis. It often involves extensive research, data analysis, and critical thinking.

Case study structure:

• Introduction : introduces the case study and its purpose
• Background : provides context and background information on the case
• Analysis : examines the key issues and problems in the case
• Solution/recommendations: proposes solutions or recommendations based on the analysis
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points and implications

A lab report is a scientific document that summarizes the results of a laboratory experiment or research project. It typically includes an introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Lab report structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the experiment, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the purpose, methodology, and results of the experiment
• Methods : explains how the experiment was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the experiment

Presentation

A presentation involves delivering information, data or findings to an audience, often with the use of visual aids such as slides, charts, or diagrams. It requires clear communication skills, good organization, and effective use of technology.

Presentation structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and purpose of the presentation
• Body : presents the main points, findings, or data, with the help of visual aids
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and provides a closing statement

Creative Project

A creative project is an assignment that requires students to produce something original, such as a painting, sculpture, video, or creative writing piece. It allows students to demonstrate their creativity and artistic skills.

Creative project structure:

• Introduction : introduces the project and its purpose
• Body : presents the creative work, with explanations or descriptions as needed
• Conclusion : summarizes the key elements and reflects on the creative process.

Examples of Assignments

Following are Examples of Assignment templates samples:

Essay template:

I. Introduction

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention with a catchy opening sentence.
• Background: Provide some context or background information on the topic.
• Thesis statement: State the main argument or point of your essay.

II. Body paragraphs

• Topic sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Provide evidence or examples to support your point.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your argument.
• Transition: Use a transition sentence to lead into the next paragraph.

III. Conclusion

• Restate thesis: Summarize your main argument or point.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your essay.
• Concluding thoughts: End with a final thought or call to action.

Research paper template:

I. Title page

• Title: Give your paper a descriptive title.
• Author: Include your name and institutional affiliation.
• Date: Provide the date the paper was submitted.

II. Abstract

• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of your research.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct your research.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of your research.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions of your research.

III. Introduction

• Background: Provide some background information on the topic.
• Research question: State your research question or hypothesis.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your research.

IV. Literature review

• Background: Summarize previous research on the topic.
• Gaps in research: Identify gaps or areas that need further research.

V. Methodology

• Participants: Describe the participants in your study.
• Procedure: Explain the procedure you used to conduct your research.
• Measures: Describe the measures you used to collect data.

VI. Results

• Quantitative results: Summarize the quantitative data you collected.
• Qualitative results: Summarize the qualitative data you collected.

VII. Discussion

• Interpretation: Interpret the results and explain what they mean.
• Implications: Discuss the implications of your research.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of your research.

VIII. Conclusion

• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your paper.

Case study template:

• Background: Provide background information on the case.
• Research question: State the research question or problem you are examining.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the case study.

II. Analysis

• Problem: Identify the main problem or issue in the case.
• Factors: Describe the factors that contributed to the problem.
• Alternative solutions: Describe potential solutions to the problem.

III. Solution/recommendations

• Proposed solution: Describe the solution you are proposing.
• Rationale: Explain why this solution is the best one.
• Implementation: Describe how the solution can be implemented.

IV. Conclusion

• Summary: Summarize the main points of your case study.

Lab report template:

• Title: Give your report a descriptive title.
• Date: Provide the date the report was submitted.
• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of the experiment.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct the experiment.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of the experiment.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions
• Background: Provide some background information on the experiment.
• Hypothesis: State your hypothesis or research question.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the experiment.

IV. Materials and methods

• Materials: List the materials and equipment used in the experiment.
• Procedure: Describe the procedure you followed to conduct the experiment.
• Data: Present the data you collected in tables or graphs.
• Analysis: Analyze the data and describe the patterns or trends you observed.

VI. Discussion

• Implications: Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of the experiment.

VII. Conclusion

• Restate hypothesis: Summarize your hypothesis or research question.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your report.

Presentation template:

• Attention grabber: Grab the audience’s attention with a catchy opening.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your presentation.
• Overview: Provide an overview of what you will cover in your presentation.

II. Main points

• Main point 1: Present the first main point of your presentation.
• Supporting details: Provide supporting details or evidence to support your point.
• Main point 2: Present the second main point of your presentation.
• Main point 3: Present the third main point of your presentation.
• Summary: Summarize the main points of your presentation.
• Call to action: End with a final thought or call to action.

Creative writing template:

• Setting: Describe the setting of your story.
• Characters: Introduce the main characters of your story.
• Rising action: Introduce the conflict or problem in your story.
• Climax: Present the most intense moment of the story.
• Falling action: Resolve the conflict or problem in your story.
• Resolution: Describe how the conflict or problem was resolved.
• Final thoughts: End with a final thought or reflection on the story.

How to Write Assignment

Here is a general guide on how to write an assignment:

• Understand the assignment prompt: Before you begin writing, make sure you understand what the assignment requires. Read the prompt carefully and make note of any specific requirements or guidelines.
• Research and gather information: Depending on the type of assignment, you may need to do research to gather information to support your argument or points. Use credible sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.
• Organize your ideas : Once you have gathered all the necessary information, organize your ideas into a clear and logical structure. Consider creating an outline or diagram to help you visualize your ideas.
• Write a draft: Begin writing your assignment using your organized ideas and research. Don’t worry too much about grammar or sentence structure at this point; the goal is to get your thoughts down on paper.
• Revise and edit: After you have written a draft, revise and edit your work. Make sure your ideas are presented in a clear and concise manner, and that your sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly.
• Proofread: Finally, proofread your work for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. It’s a good idea to have someone else read over your assignment as well to catch any mistakes you may have missed.
• Submit your assignment : Once you are satisfied with your work, submit your assignment according to the instructions provided by your instructor or professor.

Applications of Assignment

Assignments have many applications across different fields and industries. Here are a few examples:

• Education : Assignments are a common tool used in education to help students learn and demonstrate their knowledge. They can be used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic, to develop critical thinking skills, and to improve writing and research abilities.
• Business : Assignments can be used in the business world to assess employee skills, to evaluate job performance, and to provide training opportunities. They can also be used to develop business plans, marketing strategies, and financial projections.
• Journalism : Assignments are often used in journalism to produce news articles, features, and investigative reports. Journalists may be assigned to cover a particular event or topic, or to research and write a story on a specific subject.
• Research : Assignments can be used in research to collect and analyze data, to conduct experiments, and to present findings in written or oral form. Researchers may be assigned to conduct research on a specific topic, to write a research paper, or to present their findings at a conference or seminar.
• Government : Assignments can be used in government to develop policy proposals, to conduct research, and to analyze data. Government officials may be assigned to work on a specific project or to conduct research on a particular topic.
• Non-profit organizations: Assignments can be used in non-profit organizations to develop fundraising strategies, to plan events, and to conduct research. Volunteers may be assigned to work on a specific project or to help with a particular task.

Purpose of Assignment

The purpose of an assignment varies depending on the context in which it is given. However, some common purposes of assignments include:

• Assessing learning: Assignments are often used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic or concept. This allows educators to determine if a student has mastered the material or if they need additional support.
• Developing skills: Assignments can be used to develop a wide range of skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, research, and communication. Assignments that require students to analyze and synthesize information can help to build these skills.
• Encouraging creativity: Assignments can be designed to encourage students to be creative and think outside the box. This can help to foster innovation and original thinking.
• Providing feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for teachers to provide feedback to students on their progress and performance. Feedback can help students to understand where they need to improve and to develop a growth mindset.
• Meeting learning objectives : Assignments can be designed to help students meet specific learning objectives or outcomes. For example, a writing assignment may be designed to help students improve their writing skills, while a research assignment may be designed to help students develop their research skills.

When to write Assignment

Assignments are typically given by instructors or professors as part of a course or academic program. The timing of when to write an assignment will depend on the specific requirements of the course or program, but in general, assignments should be completed within the timeframe specified by the instructor or program guidelines.

It is important to begin working on assignments as soon as possible to ensure enough time for research, writing, and revisions. Waiting until the last minute can result in rushed work and lower quality output.

It is also important to prioritize assignments based on their due dates and the amount of work required. This will help to manage time effectively and ensure that all assignments are completed on time.

In addition to assignments given by instructors or professors, there may be other situations where writing an assignment is necessary. For example, in the workplace, assignments may be given to complete a specific project or task. In these situations, it is important to establish clear deadlines and expectations to ensure that the assignment is completed on time and to a high standard.

Characteristics of Assignment

Here are some common characteristics of assignments:

• Purpose : Assignments have a specific purpose, such as assessing knowledge or developing skills. They are designed to help students learn and achieve specific learning objectives.
• Requirements: Assignments have specific requirements that must be met, such as a word count, format, or specific content. These requirements are usually provided by the instructor or professor.
• Deadline: Assignments have a specific deadline for completion, which is usually set by the instructor or professor. It is important to meet the deadline to avoid penalties or lower grades.
• Individual or group work: Assignments can be completed individually or as part of a group. Group assignments may require collaboration and communication with other group members.
• Feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for feedback from the instructor or professor. This feedback can help students to identify areas of improvement and to develop their skills.
• Academic integrity: Assignments require academic integrity, which means that students must submit original work and avoid plagiarism. This includes citing sources properly and following ethical guidelines.
• Learning outcomes : Assignments are designed to help students achieve specific learning outcomes. These outcomes are usually related to the course objectives and may include developing critical thinking skills, writing abilities, or subject-specific knowledge.

Advantages of Assignment

There are several advantages of assignment, including:

• Helps in learning: Assignments help students to reinforce their learning and understanding of a particular topic. By completing assignments, students get to apply the concepts learned in class, which helps them to better understand and retain the information.
• Develops critical thinking skills: Assignments often require students to think critically and analyze information in order to come up with a solution or answer. This helps to develop their critical thinking skills, which are important for success in many areas of life.
• Encourages creativity: Assignments that require students to create something, such as a piece of writing or a project, can encourage creativity and innovation. This can help students to develop new ideas and perspectives, which can be beneficial in many areas of life.
• Builds time-management skills: Assignments often come with deadlines, which can help students to develop time-management skills. Learning how to manage time effectively is an important skill that can help students to succeed in many areas of life.
• Provides feedback: Assignments provide an opportunity for students to receive feedback on their work. This feedback can help students to identify areas where they need to improve and can help them to grow and develop.

Limitations of Assignment

There are also some limitations of assignments that should be considered, including:

• Limited scope: Assignments are often limited in scope, and may not provide a comprehensive understanding of a particular topic. They may only cover a specific aspect of a topic, and may not provide a full picture of the subject matter.
• Lack of engagement: Some assignments may not engage students in the learning process, particularly if they are repetitive or not challenging enough. This can lead to a lack of motivation and interest in the subject matter.
• Time-consuming: Assignments can be time-consuming, particularly if they require a lot of research or writing. This can be a disadvantage for students who have other commitments, such as work or extracurricular activities.
• Unreliable assessment: The assessment of assignments can be subjective and may not always accurately reflect a student’s understanding or abilities. The grading may be influenced by factors such as the instructor’s personal biases or the student’s writing style.
• Lack of feedback : Although assignments can provide feedback, this feedback may not always be detailed or useful. Instructors may not have the time or resources to provide detailed feedback on every assignment, which can limit the value of the feedback that students receive.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Gen ed writes, writing across the disciplines at harvard college.

• Types of Assignments

Gen Ed courses transcend disciplinary boundaries in a variety of ways, so the types of writing assignments that they include also often venture outside the traditional discipline-specific essays. You may encounter a wide variety of assignment types in Gen Ed, but most can be categorized into four general types: 

• Traditional academic assignments include the short essays or research papers most commonly associated with college-level assignments. Generally speaking, these kinds of assignments are "expository" in nature, i.e., they ask you to engage with ideas through evidence-base argument, written in formal prose. The majority of essays in Expos courses fall into this category of writing assignment types.  
• Less traditional academic assignments include elements of engagement in academia not normally encountered by undergraduates. 
• Traditional non-academic assignments include types of written communication that students are likely to encounter in real world situations. 
• Less traditional non-academic assignments are those that push the boundaries of typical ‘writing’ assignments and are likely to include some kind of creative or artistic component.

Examples and Resources

Traditional academic.

For most of us, these are the most familiar types of college-level writing assignments. While they are perhaps less common in Gen Ed than in departmental courses, there are still numerous examples we could examine.

Two illustrations of common types include: 

Example 1: Short Essay  Professor Michael Sandel asks the students in his Gen Ed course on Tech Ethics to write several short essays over the course of the semester in which they make an argument in response to the course readings. Because many students will never have written a philosophy-style paper, Professor Sandel offers students a number of resources—from a guide on writing in philosophy, to sample graded essays, to a list of logical fallacies—to keep in mind. 

Example 2: Research Paper In Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Cares?, a Gen Ed course co-taught by multiple global health faculty members, students write a 12–15 page research paper on a biosocial analysis of a global health topic of their choosing for the final assignment. The assignment is broken up into two parts: (1) a proposal with annotated bibliography and (2) the final paper itself. The prompt clearly outlines the key qualities and features of a successful paper, which is especially useful for students who have not yet written a research paper in the sciences. 

Less Traditional Academic

In Gen Ed, sometimes assignments ask students to engage in academic work that, while familiar to faculty, is beyond the scope of the typical undergraduate experience. 

Here are a couple of examples from Gen Ed courses: 

Example 1: Design a conference  For the final project in her Gen Ed course, Global Feminisms, Professor Durba Mitra asks her students to imagine a dream conference  in the style of the feminist conferences they studied in class. Students are asked to imagine conference panels and events, potential speakers or exhibitions, and advertising materials. While conferences are a normal occurrence for graduate students and professors, undergraduates are much less likely to be familiar with this part of academic life, and this kind of assignment might require more specific background and instructions as part of the prompt. 

Example 2: Curate a museum exhibit In his Gen Ed class, Pyramid Schemes, Professor Peter Der Manuelian's final project offers students the option of designing a virtual museum exhibit . While exhibit curation can be a part of the academic life of an anthropologist or archaeologist, it's not often found in introductory undergraduate courses. In addition to selecting objects and creating a virtual exhibit layout, students also wrote an annotated bibliography as well as an exhibit introduction for potential visitors. 

Traditional Non-academic

One of the goals of Gen Ed is to encourage students to engage with the world around them. Sometimes writing assignments in Gen Ed directly mirror types of writing that students are likely to encounter in real-world, non-academic settings after they graduate.

The following are several examples of such assignments: 

Example 1: Policy memo In Power and Identity in the Middle East, Professor Melani Cammett assigns students a group policy memo evaluating "a major initiative aimed at promoting democracy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)." The assignment prompt is actually structured as a memo, providing context for students who likely lack experience with the format. It also outlines the key characteristics of a good memo, and it provides extensive advice on the process—especially important when students are working in groups. 

Example 2: Letter In Loss, Professor Kathleen Coleman asks students to write a letter of condolence . The letter has an unusual audience: a mother elephant who lost her calf. Since students may not have encountered this type of writing before, Professor Coleman also provides students with advice on process, pointing to some course readings that might be a good place to start. She also suggests a list of outside resources to help students get into the mindframe of addressing an elephant. 

Example 3: Podcast  Podcasts are becoming increasingly popular in Gen Ed classes, as they are in the real world. Though they're ultimately audio file outputs, they usually require writing and preparing a script ahead of time. For example, in Music from Earth, Professor Alex Rehding asks students to create a podcast in which they make an argument about a song studied in class. He usefully breaks up the assignments into two parts: (1) researching the song and preparing a script and (2) recording and making sonic choices about the presentation, offering students the opportunity to get feedback on the first part before moving onto the second. 

Less Traditional Non-academic

These are the types of assignments that perhaps are less obviously "writing" assignments. They usually involve an artistic or otherwise creative component, but they also often include some kind of written introduction or artist statement related to the work.

The following are several examples from recently offered Gen Ed courses: 

Example 1: Movie Professor Peter Der Manuelian offers students in his class, Pyramid Schemes, several options for the final project, one of which entails creating a 5–8 minute  iMovie making an argument about one of the themes of the course. Because relatively few students have prior experience making films, the teaching staff provide students with a written guide to making an iMovie as well as ample opportunities for tech support. In addition to preparing a script as part of the production, students also submit both an annotated bibliography and an artist’s statement. 

Example 2: Calligram In his course, Understanding Islam and Contemporary Muslim Societies, Professor Ali Asani asks students to browse through a provided list of resources about calligrams, which are an important traditional Islamic art form. Then they are required to "choose a concept or symbol associated with God in the Islamic tradition and attempt to represent it through a calligraphic design using the word Allah," in any medium they wish. Students also write a short explanation to accompany the design itself. 

Example 3: Soundscape In Music from Earth, Professor Alex Rehding has students create a soundscape . The soundscape is an audio file which involves layering sounds from different sources to create a single piece responding to an assigned question (e.g. "What sounds are characteristic of your current geographical region?"). Early on, as part of the development of the soundscape, students submit an artist's statement that explains the plan for the soundscape, the significance of the sounds, and the intention of the work. 

• DIY Guides for Analytical Writing Assignments

• Unpacking the Elements of Writing Prompts
• Receiving Feedback

Assignment Decoder

Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove her point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, he or she still has to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and she already knows everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality she or he expects.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Writing Guide: Types of Assignments & Best Practices

• Home & Appointments
• Types of Assignments & Best Practices
• Tables & Figures
• Thesis & Project Guide

The most common types of writing assignments you will encounter at MLTS

• How to approach a writing assignment
• Expository writing & research papers
• Compare & Contrast paper
• Book & Literature Reviews
• Reflective writing
• Online discussion posts
• Thesis/Project

As a graduate student, you will be assigned a variety of types of writing projects.  A good rule of thumb in approaching any writing project is to ask yourself: for whom am I writing and why?  Or, who is my audience and what do they expect from my writing?  Your assignments will almost invariably require you to make one or more arguments.   A good argument is well-written, logical, and supported by evidence.

Expository writing involves understanding, explaining, analyzing, and/or evaluating a topic.  It includes your standard graduate school essay, book review, or research paper where your instructor requires you to analyze and/or study a topic.  In general, your audience for such assignments will be your course instructor. You can think of such writing assignments as your instructor asking you to make an argument.  Your instructor wants to gauge your creative thinking skills and how well you understand the course material by seeing how well you can make an argument related to that material.  Remember: a good argument is well-written, logical, and supported by evidence.

An expository paper is therefore not about you (at least not directly); it is about the facts you have learned and researched and the argument you have built from those facts. Therefore, unless you are quoting someone, you should avoid using first person pronouns (the words I, me, my, we, us, our ) in your writing.  Let your facts and arguments speak for themselves instead of beginning statements with "I think" or "I believe."

A compare & contrast assignment is a type of expository & research paper assignment.  It is important to organize your writing around the themes you are comparing & contrasting.  If, for example, you are assigned to compare & contrast, say, Augustine's Confessions and The Autobiography of Malcolm X , a common mistake students make is to write the first part of their essay strictly about Augustine's Confessions , and the second part of the essay strictly about The Autobiography of Malcolm X .  In a good compare & contrast essay, you instead explore an issue in every paragraph or two, and show how, in this case, both Augustine & Malcolm X share common ground or differ on that issue.  Then, move onto another issue and show how both Augustne and Malcolm X covered it.

Unless your instructor directs you otherwise, you should not use first person pronouns ( I, me, my ) in such a paper.

A book review assignment is meant to be an analysis of a book, not a chapter-by-chapter summary of a book.  Instead of organizing your paper sequentially (the first paragraph is about chapter 1, the second paragraph is about chapter 2, etc.), organize your paragraphs around the themes of the book that are thread throughout the book.  Topics to consider in a book review include (but are not limited to):

• What are the author's arguments, and how successful is she in making those arguments?
• What sort of sources does the author utilize?
• What methodology/methodologies does the author utilize?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the book?

A literature review is similar to a book review assignment in that it is meant to be an analysis of a theme or themes across several books/articles.   What have various authors written about your topic?   That said, as you will typically have less space to talk about each work (perhaps a paragraph or less for each work as opposed to multiple pages), you might end up moving from one author's findings to another.  For a literature review in a thesis, think of a literature review as a mini-essay within your broader thesis with its own mini-introduction, thesis statement, and conclusion.

Unless your instructor directs you otherwise, book reviews and literature reviews should be written like expository & research papers.  In particular, you should not use first person pronouns ( I, me, my ).  So, instead of writing: "I think this book is a good analysis of ___," write: "This book is a good analysis of ___."

Reflective essays are especially common in theology courses.  Reflective writing requires that you explicitly write about yourself and your own views.  To put it another way, you typically have two audiences to write for in such an assignment: your instructor and yourself.   As such, and unlike a standard expository paper, such essays require you to write about yourself using first person pronouns ( I, me, my) and use statements like “I think” and “I believe.”  Otherwise, a reflective essay shares a lot with expository writing.  You are still making arguments, and you still need evidence from cited sources!  Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, you should still include a good title, introduction paragraph, thesis statement, conclusion, and bibliography.

For online courses, you will likely have to take part in classroom or group discussions online, in which you will be encouraged or even required to respond to your classmates.  Such writing assignments often include a reflective element. Discussion posts are almost always shorter than essays and as such may not need long introductions or conclusions.  That said, a discussion post is not like a Facebook or social media post!  Good discussion posts are long and well-written enough to convey one or more thoughtful, insightful observations; you cannot just "like" someone else's post or only write "Good job!"  If you decide to challenge or critique a classmate’s post—and you are certainly encouraged to do so!—you should do so in a respectful and constructive manner.   As your main audience for online discussions are your own classmates and, to a lesser extent, your instructor, it is often okay to use relatively more informal language and to refer to yourself using first person pronouns ( I, me, my ).  Finally, as with reflective essays, discussion posts still benefit from evidence.  Even if a discussion post is relatively less formal than an essay, if you quote, paraphrase, or draw ideas from outside sources, you still must cite them!  If the online medium does not allow for footnotes, use parenthetical references for citations (see chapter 19 of Turabian).

Those of you taking preaching courses or earning a DMin degree will have to write and submit your sermons. On one hand, your main audience for such a writing assignment is the congregation to whom you may preach.  The language, tone, message, level of detail, etc. of a good sermon will depend on the precise context of your congregation and the message you want to impart.  Therefore, unlike an expository essay or a reflective essay, you have a lot more freedom in how you chose to organize your sermon, as well as how formal or not you want the language to be.

On the other hand, in submitting such assignments, you also have a secondary audience: your instructor.  As such, you may still need to include citations, even if you would not read them out loud in your sermon.  In submitting a sermon as an assignment, you may also need to include some sort of write up or commentary, which your instructor may require to be expository and/or reflective in nature.

Those of you earning an MAR or DMin will finish your coursework by proposing, researching, writing, and defending a thesis or project.   A thesis/project should be an original contribution to your field of study.  To put it another way, the audience for your thesis/project is not just your advisor, but the broader academic and/or ministerial community.   A good thesis/project can go on to become the first draft of a published academic journal article or a chapter or two of a book.  Your thesis/project should be largely expository, but it may also include reflective sections.

It is never too early to start thinking about what you want to do for your thesis/project! You can try to make your thesis/project writing process easier by writing your course papers on topics within or adjacent to what you think you want to do for your thesis/project; that said, if you do so, you will need to cite these earlier works in your final thesis.   See our citation guide for help with that.

For more information on writing a thesis or project, from choosing a topic to submitting it, check out our Thesis & Project Guide .

Tips for Composing Good Academic Prose

• Proofread, proofread, proofread!
• Find evidence to support your thesis statement from good quality sources
• Use quotations as evidence, not filler
• Be careful not to turn long sentences into run-on sentences
• Relatively longer paragraphs are generally better than short ones
• Make sure your paper flows well from one idea to the next
• When possible, avoid using the passive voice
• Be precise and crystal-clear in your statements and arguments
• Use the present tense when paraphrasing an author or setting up a quotation
• Use repetition of words carefully

First and most importantly: Proofread your paper over before you submit it to make sure that it reads well and is without errors!  Read your paper over as you are writing it.  Check over your work with spell check.  Before you submit it, read it over one last time to catch anything you missed.  If possible, consider reading the work out loud: you will be more likely to spot problems in your writing than if you read it in your head.  If you are able to do so, ask a friend or schedule an appointment with the Writing Center for a review.  Another pair of eyes can often spot a mistake or problem that the writer has overlooked.

Find evidence to support your thesis from good quality sources.   Your research and writing should be based on the study of reputable primary and secondary sources.  Typically, this means books published by academic presses and academic journal articles.  Wikipedia, YouTube, random websites, and dictionary entries are generally not considered to be good sources for academic writing, although there are instances when it is acceptable to use and cite them, like if you were researching how topics in Black theology are represented or misrepresented on Wikipedia.  If you need help in finding good resources for your paper, consult a librarian.

Quotations are meant to be evidence to support your argument; they are not filler to meet a length requirement.   While you must quote and paraphrase sources, you should not quote or paraphrase more than you need.  When possible, consider paraphrasing over quoting.  Keep in mind that your writing assignments are supposed to showcase your thinking and writing, not the thinking and writing of whoever you are citing.

Be careful not to turn long sentences into run-on sentences.   Long sentences are not always bad: when well-written, a long sentence can read better and help convey complex ideas better than a series of short sentences.  A run-on sentence, on the other hand, occurs when multiple sentences are inappropriately lumped into a single sentence.  Therefore, when reading your paper over, keep an eye out for any sentence that you can break into multiple sentences.

Relatively longer paragraphs are generally better than short ones.   If your paragraph is three sentences or less, consider if you can write more about that paragraph's topic or incorporate it into another paragraph.  If a paragraph represents one idea, then a longer paragraph typically shows that you have better considered and flushed out that idea.  That said, if your paragraph is longer than a page, you could probably shorten it or break it into two paragraphs.

Make sure your paper flows well from one idea to the next.   Does your third paragraph make sense following your second paragraph?  Do you drop ideas and only pick them up much later?  Cut and paste sentences and paragraphs around as necessary.

When possible, avoid using the passive voice.   This can be tricky!  The passive voice is when you use the verb “to be” next to and in conjunction with another verb to make the object of the sentence into the subject.  For example, compare the active sentence: “Kate Turabian wrote the book” to its passive equivalent: “The book was written by Kate Turabian.”  Grammatically speaking, in the latter, passive sentence, "The book" is the subject, even though in a real world active sense, it is the object.

Writers consider passive sentences not as good because, like in the above example, they can be wordier than necessary and take the focus off the real subject. There are exceptions in which it is good to use the passive voice. For example, if you were writing an article about Kate Turabian, it would be better to write: “Kate Turabian was born in 1893” instead of “Kate Turabian’s mother gave birth to her in 1893.”  The former sentence keeps Kate Turabian, the focus of the paper, as the subject, while the latter sounds a little weird (maybe English speakers are too squeamish, but we typically do not recount someone's birth in that way).

At its worst, the passive voice can obscure the subject and make facts unclear. Consider the sentence: "Jackie Robinson's signing with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1946 was considered a crucial moment in the Civil Rights movement." With the passive voice, the reader does not know who exactly considered that so?  Did all Americans in 1946 think this?  Did some specific people come to recognize it later?  Compare that sentence to: "Martin Luther King, Jr. considered Jackie Robinson's signing with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1946 a crucial moment in the Civil Rights movement."

Be precise and crystal-clear in your statements and arguments.   Similar to how the passive voice can make facts unclear, overly general language can make for weak arguments.  Consider the argument: "Many people now support same-sex marriage."  Many people?  Which people?  "Many" and "people" are very general terms and do not tell us much in this statement; the more specific you can be, the better your argument:

• Despite official church statements, many American Catholics now support same-sex marriage.
• [Specific number]% of Chicagoans now support same-sex marriage.
• Many South African theologians, including [so-and-so] and [so-and so], now support same-sex marriage.

In general, use the present tense when paraphrasing an author or setting up a quotation.  While you should use the past tense when writing about events in the past, you should in general use the present tense when discussing a scholar's writing.  Scholarship is a ongoing discussion.  When you read and discuss an author's work, that author is making an argument right now in the present, even if she is dead.  So, do not write:

   Carl Jung wrote: "The psyche...    Carl Jung said, "The psyche...    Carl Jung argued that...

but instead:

   Carl Jung writes: "The psyche...    Carl Jung says, "The psyche...    Carl Jung argues that...

Use repetition of words carefully.   When done well, repeating words can sound good and emphasize ideas.  When done poorly, repetition sounds monotonous. Avoid, for example, starting too many sentences or paragraphs with the same word, or overutilizing the same verb.  If you need help in bringing variety to your word choices, purchase a thesaurus or check out thesaurus.com .

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4.3: Types of Assignments

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• Ana Stevenson
• James Cook University via James Cook University

Introduction

As discussed in the previous chapter, assignments are a common method of assessment at university. You may encounter many assignments over your years of study, yet some will look quite different from others. By recognising different types of assignments and understanding the purpose of the task, you can direct your writing skills effectively to meet task requirements. This chapter draws on the skills from the previous chapter, and extends the discussion, showing you where to aim with different types of assignments.

The chapter begins by exploring the popular essay assignment, with its two common categories, analytical and argumentative essays. It then examines assignments requiring case study responses , as often encountered in fields such as health or business. This is followed by a discussion of assignments seeking a report (such as a scientific report) and reflective writing assignments, which are common in nursing, education, and human services. The chapter concludes with an examination of annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.

Different Types of Written Assignments

At university, an essay is a common form of assessment. In the previous chapter Writing Assignments, we discussed what was meant by showing academic writing in your assignments. It is important that you consider these aspects of structure, tone, and language when writing an essay.

Components of an essay

Essays should use formal but reader-friendly language and have a clear and logical structure. They must include research from credible academic sources such as peer reviewed journal articles and textbooks. This research should be referenced throughout your essay to support your ideas (see the chapter Working with Information).

If you have never written an essay before, you may feel unsure about how to start. Breaking your essay into sections and allocating words accordingly will make this process more manageable and will make planning the overall essay structure much easier.

• An essay requires an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Generally, an introduction and conclusion are each approximately 10% of the total word count.
• The remaining words can then be divided into sections and a paragraph allowed for each area of content you need to cover.
• Use your task and criteria sheet to decide what content needs to be in your plan

An effective essay introduction needs to inform your reader by doing four basic things:

An effective essay body paragraph needs to:

An effective essay conclusion needs to:

Common types of essays

You may be required to write different types of essays, depending on your study area and topic. Two of the most commonly used essays are analytical and argumentative . The task analysis process discussed in the previous chapter Writing Assignments will help you determine the type of essay required. For example, if your assignment question uses task words such as analyse, examine, discuss, determine, or explore, then you would be writing an analytical essay . If your assignment question has task words such as argue, evaluate, justify, or assess, then you would be writing an argumentative essay . Regardless of the type of essay, your ability to analyse and think critically is important and common across genres.

Analytical essays

These essays usually provide some background description of the relevant theory, situation, problem, case, image, etcetera that is your topic. Being analytical requires you to look carefully at various components or sections of your topic in a methodical and logical way to create understanding.

The purpose of the analytical essay is to demonstrate your ability to examine the topic thoroughly. This requires you to go deeper than description by considering different sides of the situation, comparing and contrasting a variety of theories and the positives and negatives of the topic. Although your position on the topic may be clear in an analytical essay, it is not necessarily a requirement that you explicitly identify this with a thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, however, it is necessary that you explicitly identify your position on the topic with a thesis statement. If you are unsure whether you are required to take a position, and provide a thesis statement, it is best to check with your tutor.

Argumentative essays

These essays require you to take a position on the assignment topic. This is expressed through your thesis statement in your introduction. You must then present and develop your arguments throughout the body of your assignment using logically structured paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs needs a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, you must reach a conclusion based on the evidence you have presented.

Case study responses

Case studies are a common form of assignment in many study areas and students can underperform in this genre for a number of key reasons.

Students typically lose marks for not:

• Relating their answer sufficiently to the case details.
• Applying critical thinking.
• Writing with clear structure.
• Using appropriate or sufficient sources.
• Using accurate referencing.

When structuring your response to a case study, remember to refer to the case. Structure your paragraphs similarly to an essay paragraph structure, but include examples and data from the case as additional evidence to support your points (see Figure 68). The colours in the sample paragraph below show the function of each component.

The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) Code of Conduct and Nursing Standards (2018) play a crucial role in determining the scope of practice for nurses and midwives. A key component discussed in the code is the provision of person-centred care and the formation of therapeutic relationships between nurses and patients (NMBA, 2018). This ensures patient safety and promotes health and wellbeing (NMBA, 2018). The standards also discuss the importance of partnership and shared decision-making in the delivery of care (NMBA, 2018, 4). Boyd and Dare (2014) argue that good communication skills are vital for building therapeutic relationships and trust between patients and care givers. This will help ensure the patient is treated with dignity and respect and improve their overall hospital experience. In the case, the therapeutic relationship with the client has been compromised in several ways. Firstly, the nurse did not conform adequately to the guidelines for seeking informed consent before performing the examination as outlined in principle 2.3 (NMBA, 2018). Although she explained the procedure, she failed to give the patient appropriate choices regarding her health care.

Topic sentence | Explanations using paraphrased evidence including in-text references | Critical thinking (asks the so what? question to demonstrate your student voice). | Relating the theory back to the specifics of the case. The case becomes a source of examples as extra evidence to support the points you are making.

Reports are a common form of assessment at university and are also used widely in many professions. It is a common form of writing in business, government, scientific, and technical occupations.

Reports can take many different structures. A report is normally written to present information in a structured manner, which may include explaining laboratory experiments, technical information, or a business case. Reports may be written for different audiences, including clients, your manager, technical staff, or senior leadership within an organisation. The structure of reports can vary, and it is important to consider what format is required. The choice of structure will depend upon professional requirements and the ultimate aims of the report. Consider some of the options in the table below (see Table 18.2).

Reflective writing

Reflective writing is a popular method of assessment at university. It is used to help you explore feelings, experiences, opinions, events, or new information to gain a clearer and deeper understanding of your learning.

A reflective writing task requires more than a description or summary. It requires you to analyse a situation, problem or experience, consider what you may have learnt, and evaluate how this may impact your thinking and actions in the future. This requires critical thinking, analysis, and usually the application of good quality research, to demonstrate your understanding or learning from a situation.

Essentially, reflective practice is the process of looking back on past experiences and engaging with them in a thoughtful way and drawing conclusions to inform future experiences. The reflection skills you develop at university will be vital in the workplace to assist you to use feedback for growth and continuous improvement. There are numerous models of reflective writing and you should refer to your subject guidelines for your expected format. If there is no specific framework, a simple model to help frame your thinking is What? So what? Now what? (Rolfe et al., 2001).

The Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle

The Gibbs’ Cycle of reflection encourages you to consider your feelings as part of the reflective process. There are six specific steps to work through. Following this model carefully and being clear of the requirements of each stage, will help you focus your thinking and reflect more deeply. This model is popular in Health.

The 4 R’s of reflective thinking

This model (Ryan and Ryan, 2013) was designed specifically for university students engaged in experiential learning. Experiential learning includes any ‘real-world’ activities, including practice led activities, placements, and internships. Experiential learning, and the use of reflective practice to heighten this learning, is common in Creative Arts, Health, and Education.

Annotated bibliography

What is it.

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of appropriate sources (e.g. books, journal articles, or websites) on a topic, accompanied by a brief summary, evaluation, and sometimes an explanation or reflection on their usefulness or relevance to your topic. Its purpose is to teach you to research carefully, evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. An annotated bibliography may be one part of a larger assessment item or a stand-alone assessment item. Check your task guidelines for the number of sources you are required to annotate and the word limit for each entry.

How do I know what to include?

When choosing sources for your annotated bibliography, it is important to determine:

• The topic you are investigating and if there is a specific question to answer.
• The type of sources on which you need to focus.
• Whether these sources are reputable and of high quality.

What do I say?

Important considerations include:

• Is the work current?
• Is the work relevant to your topic?
• Is the author credible/reliable?
• Is there any author bias?
• The strength and limitations (this may include an evaluation of research methodology).

Literature reviews

Generally, a literature review requires that you review the scholarly literature and establish the main ideas that have been written about your chosen topic. A literature review does not summarise and evaluate each resource you find (this is what you would do in an annotated bibliography). You are expected to analyse and synthesise or organise common ideas from multiple texts into key themes which are relevant to your topic (see Figure 18.10). You may also be expected to identify gaps in the research.

It is easy to get confused by the terminology used for literature reviews. Some tasks may be described as a systematic literature review when actually the requirement is simpler; to review the literature on the topic but do it in a systematic way. There is a distinct difference (see Table 15.4). As a commencing undergraduate student, it is unlikely you would be expected to complete a systematic literature review as this is a complex and more advanced research task. It is important to check with your lecturer or tutor if you are unsure of the requirements.

When conducting a literature review, use a table or a spreadsheet, if you know how, to organise the information you find. Record the full reference details of the sources as this will save you time later when compiling your reference list (see Table 18.5).

Overall, this chapter has provided an introduction to the types of assignments you can expect to complete at university, as well as outlined some tips and strategies with examples and templates for completing them. First, the chapter investigated essay assignments, including analytical and argumentative essays. It then examined case study assignments, followed by a discussion of the report format. Reflective writing , popular in nursing, education, and human services, was also considered. Finally, the chapter briefly addressed annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.

• Not all assignments at university are the same. Understanding the requirements of different types of assignments will assist in meeting the criteria more effectively.
• There are many different types of assignments. Most will require an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• An essay should have a clear and logical structure and use formal but reader-friendly language.
• Breaking your assignment into manageable chunks makes it easier to approach.
• Effective body paragraphs contain a topic sentence.
• A case study structure is similar to an essay, but you must remember to provide examples from the case or scenario to demonstrate your points.
• The type of report you may be required to write will depend on its purpose and audience. A report requires structured writing and uses headings.
• Reflective writing is popular in many disciplines and is used to explore feelings, experiences, opinions, or events to discover what learning or understanding has occurred. Reflective writing requires more than description. You need to be analytical, consider what has been learnt, and evaluate the impact of this on future actions.
• Annotated bibliographies teach you to research and evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. They may be part of a larger assignment.
• Literature reviews require you to look across the literature and analyse and synthesise the information you find into themes.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University.

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection in nursing and the helping professions: A user’s guide . Palgrave Macmillan.

Ryan, M. & Ryan, M. (2013). Theorising a model for teaching and assessing reflective learning in higher education. Higher Education Research & Development , 32(2), 244-257. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2012.661704

Types of Assignments and Assessments

Assignments and assessments are much the same thing: an instructor is unlikely to give students an assignment that does not receive some sort of assessment, whether formal or informal, formative or summative; and an assessment must be assigned, whether it is an essay, case study, or final exam. When the two terms are distinquished, "assignment" tends to refer to a learning activity that is primarily intended to foster or consolidate learning, while "assessment" tends to refer to an activity that is primarily intended to measure how well a student has learned. 

In the list below, some attempt has been made to put the assignments/assessments in into logical categories. However, many of them could appear in multiple categories, so to prevent the list from becoming needlessly long, each item has been allocated to just one category. 

Written Assignments:

• Annotated Bibliography : An annotated bibliography is a list of citations or references to sources such as books, articles, websites, etc., along with brief descriptions or annotations that summarize, evaluate, and explain the content, relevance, and quality of each source. These annotations provide readers with insights into the source's content and its potential usefulness for research or reference.
• Summary/Abstract : A summary or abstract is a concise and condensed version of a longer document or research article, presenting the main points, key findings, and essential information in a clear and brief manner. It allows readers to quickly grasp the main ideas and determine whether the full document is relevant to their needs or interests. Abstracts are commonly found at the beginning of academic papers, research articles, and reports, providing a snapshot of the entire content.
• Case Analysis : Case analysis refers to a systematic examination and evaluation of a particular situation, problem, or scenario. It involves gathering relevant information, identifying key factors, analyzing various aspects, and formulating conclusions or recommendations based on the findings. Case analysis is commonly used in business, law, and other fields to make informed decisions and solve complex problems.
• Definition : A definition is a clear and concise explanation that describes the meaning of a specific term, concept, or object. It aims to provide a precise understanding of the item being defined, often by using words, phrases, or context that distinguish it from other similar or related things.
• Description of a Process : A description of a process is a step-by-step account or narrative that outlines the sequence of actions, tasks, or events involved in completing a particular activity or achieving a specific goal. Process descriptions are commonly used in various industries to document procedures, guide employees, and ensure consistent and efficient workflows.
• Executive Summary : An executive summary is a condensed version of a longer document or report that provides an overview of the main points, key findings, and major recommendations. It is typically aimed at busy executives or decision-makers who need a quick understanding of the content without delving into the full details. Executive summaries are commonly used in business proposals, project reports, and research papers to present essential information concisely.
• Proposal/Plan : A piece of writing that explains how a future problem or project will be approached.
• Laboratory or Field Notes:  Laboratory/field notes are detailed and systematic written records taken by scientists, researchers, or students during experiments, observations, or fieldwork. These notes document the procedures, observations, data, and any unexpected findings encountered during the scientific investigation. They serve as a vital reference for later analysis, replication, and communication of the research process and results.
• Research Paper : A research paper is a more extensive and in-depth academic work that involves original research, data collection from multiple sources, and analysis. It aims to contribute new insights to the existing body of knowledge on a specific subject. Compare to "essay" below.
• Essay : A composition that calls for exposition of a thesis and is composed of several paragraphs including an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. It is different from a research paper in that the synthesis of bibliographic sources is not required. Compare to "Research Paper" above. 
• Memo : A memo, short for memorandum, is a brief written message or communication used within an organization or business. It is often used to convey information, provide updates, make announcements, or request actions from colleagues or team members.
• Micro-theme : A micro-theme refers to a concise and focused piece of writing that addresses a specific topic or question. It is usually shorter than a traditional essay or research paper and requires the writer to present their ideas clearly and concisely.
• Notes on Reading : Notes on reading are annotations, comments, or summaries taken while reading a book, article, or any other written material. They serve as aids for understanding, retention, and later reference, helping the reader recall essential points and ideas from the text.
• Outline : An outline is a structured and organized plan that lays out the main points and structure of a written work, such as an essay, research paper, or presentation. It provides a roadmap for the writer, ensuring logical flow and coherence in the final piece.
• Plan for Conducting a Project : A plan for conducting a project outlines the steps, resources, timelines, and objectives for successfully completing a specific project. It includes details on how tasks will be executed and managed to achieve the desired outcomes.
• Poem : A poem is a literary work written in verse, using poetic devices like rhythm, rhyme, and imagery to convey emotions, ideas, and experiences.
• Play : A play is a form of literature written for performance, typically involving dialogue and actions by characters to tell a story or convey a message on stage.
• Choreography : Choreography refers to the art of designing dance sequences or movements, often for performances in various dance styles.
• Article/Book Review : An article or book review is a critical evaluation and analysis of a piece of writing, such as an article or a book. It typically includes a summary of the content and the reviewer's assessment of its strengths, weaknesses, and overall value.
• Review of Literature : A review of literature is a comprehensive summary and analysis of existing research and scholarly writings on a particular topic. It aims to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge in a specific field and may be a part of academic research or a standalone piece.
• Essay-based Exam : An essay-based exam is an assessment format where students are required to respond to questions or prompts with written, structured responses. It involves expressing ideas, arguments, and explanations in a coherent and organized manner, often requiring critical thinking and analysis.
• "Start" : In the context of academic writing, "start" refers to the initial phase of organizing and planning a piece of writing. It involves formulating a clear and focused thesis statement, which presents the main argument or central idea of the work, and creating an outline or list of ideas that will support and develop the thesis throughout the writing process.
• Statement of Assumptions : A statement of assumptions is a declaration or acknowledgment made at the beginning of a document or research paper, highlighting the underlying beliefs, conditions, or premises on which the work is based. It helps readers understand the foundation of the writer's perspective and the context in which the content is presented.
• Summary or Precis : A summary or precis is a concise and condensed version of a longer piece of writing, such as an article, book, or research paper. It captures the main points, key arguments, and essential information in a succinct manner, enabling readers to grasp the content without reading the full text.
• Unstructured Writing : Unstructured writing refers to the process of writing without following a specific plan, outline, or organizational structure. It allows the writer to freely explore ideas, thoughts, and creativity without the constraints of a predefined format or order. Unstructured writing is often used for brainstorming, creative expression, or personal reflection.
• Rough Draft or Freewrite : A rough draft or freewrite is an initial version of a piece of writing that is not polished or edited. It serves as an early attempt by the writer to get ideas on paper without worrying about perfection, allowing for exploration and creativity before revising and refining the final version.
• Technical or Scientific Report : A technical or scientific report is a document that presents detailed information about a specific technical or scientific project, research study, experiment, or investigation. It follows a structured format and includes sections like abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion to communicate findings and insights in a clear and systematic manner.
• Journal article : A formal article reporting original research that could be submitted to an academic journal. Rather than a format dictated by the professor, the writer must use the conventional form of academic journals in the relevant discipline.
• Thesis statement : A clear and concise sentence or two that presents the main argument or central claim of an essay, research paper, or any written piece. It serves as a roadmap for the reader, outlining the writer's stance on the topic and the key points that will be discussed and supported in the rest of the work. The thesis statement provides focus and direction to the paper, guiding the writer's approach to the subject matter and helping to maintain coherence throughout the writing.

Visual Representation

• Brochure : A brochure is a printed or digital document used for advertising, providing information, or promoting a product, service, or event. It typically contains a combination of text and visuals, such as images or graphics, arranged in a visually appealing layout to convey a message effectively.
• Poster : A poster is a large printed visual display intended to catch the attention of an audience. It often contains a combination of text, images, and graphics to communicate information or promote a particular message, event, or cause.
• Chart : A chart is a visual representation of data or information using various formats such as pie charts, bar charts, line charts, or tables. It helps to illustrate relationships, trends, and comparisons in a concise and easy-to-understand manner.
• Graph : A graph is a visual representation of numerical data, usually presented using lines, bars, points, or other symbols on a coordinate plane. Graphs are commonly used to show trends, patterns, and relationships between variables.
• Concept Map : A concept map is a graphical tool used to organize and represent the connections and relationships between different concepts or ideas. It typically uses nodes or boxes to represent concepts and lines or arrows to show the connections or links between them, helping to visualize the relationships and hierarchy of ideas.
• Diagram : A diagram is a visual representation of a process, system, or structure using labeled symbols, shapes, or lines. Diagrams are used to explain complex concepts or procedures in a simplified and easy-to-understand manner.
• Table : A table is a systematic arrangement of data or information in rows and columns, allowing for easy comparison and reference. It is commonly used to present numerical data or detailed information in an organized format.
• Flowchart : A flowchart is a graphical representation of a process, workflow, or algorithm, using various shapes and arrows to show the sequence of steps or decisions involved. It helps visualize the logical flow and decision points, making it easier to understand and analyze complex processes.
• Multimedia or Slide Presentation : A multimedia or slide presentation is a visual communication tool that combines text, images, audio, video, and other media elements to deliver information or a message to an audience. It is often used for educational, business, or informational purposes and can be presented in person or virtually using software like Microsoft PowerPoint or Google Slides.
• ePortfolio : An ePortfolio, short for electronic portfolio, is a digital collection of an individual's work, accomplishments, skills, and reflections. It typically includes a variety of multimedia artifacts such as documents, presentations, videos, images, and links to showcase a person's academic, professional, or personal achievements. Eportfolios are used for self-reflection, professional development, and showcasing one's abilities to potential employers, educators, or peers. They provide a comprehensive and organized way to present evidence of learning, growth, and accomplishments over time.

Multiple-Choice Questions : These questions present a statement or question with several possible answer options, of which one or more may be correct. Test-takers must select the most appropriate choice(s). See CTE's Teaching Tip "Designing Multiple-Choice Questions."  

True or False Questions : These questions require test-takers to determine whether a given statement is true or false based on their knowledge of the subject.

Short-Answer Questions : Test-takers are asked to provide brief written responses to questions or prompts. These responses are usually a few sentences or a paragraph in length.

Essay Questions : Essay questions require test-takers to provide longer, more detailed written responses to a specific topic or question. They may involve analysis, critical thinking, and the development of coherent arguments.

Matching Questions : In matching questions, test-takers are asked to pair related items from two lists. They must correctly match the items based on their associations.

Fill-in-the-Blank Questions : Test-takers must complete sentences or passages by filling in the missing words or phrases. This type of question tests recall and understanding of specific information.

Multiple-Response Questions : Similar to multiple-choice questions, but with multiple correct options. Test-takers must select all the correct choices to receive full credit.

Diagram or Image-Based Questions : These questions require test-takers to analyze or interpret diagrams, charts, graphs, or images to answer specific queries.

Problem-Solving Questions : These questions present real-world or theoretical problems that require test-takers to apply their knowledge and skills to arrive at a solution.

Vignettes or Case-Based Questions : In these questions, test-takers are presented with a scenario or case study and must analyze the information to answer related questions.

Sequencing or Order Questions : Test-takers are asked to arrange items or events in a particular order or sequence based on their understanding of the subject matter.

Projects intended for a specific audience :

• Advertisement : An advertisement is a promotional message or communication aimed at promoting a product, service, event, or idea to a target audience. It often uses persuasive techniques, visuals, and compelling language to attract attention and encourage consumers to take specific actions, such as making a purchase or seeking more information.
• Client Report for an Agency : A client report for an agency is a formal document prepared by a service provider or agency to communicate the results, progress, or recommendations of their work to their client. It typically includes an analysis of data, achievements, challenges, and future plans related to the project or services provided.
• News or Feature Story : A news story is a journalistic piece that reports on current events or recent developments, providing objective information in a factual and unbiased manner. A feature story, on the other hand, is a more in-depth and creative piece that explores human interest topics, profiles individuals, or delves into issues from a unique perspective.
• Instructional Manual : An instructional manual is a detailed document that provides step-by-step guidance, explanations, and procedures on how to use, assemble, operate, or perform specific tasks with a product or system. It aims to help users understand and utilize the item effectively and safely.
• Letter to the Editor : A letter to the editor is a written communication submitted by a reader to a newspaper, magazine, or online publication, expressing their opinion, feedback, or comments on a particular article, topic, or issue. It is intended for publication and allows individuals to share their perspectives with a broader audience.

Problem-Solving and Analysis :

• Taxonomy : Taxonomy is the science of classification, categorization, and naming of organisms, objects, or concepts based on their characteristics, similarities, and differences. It involves creating hierarchical systems that group related items together, facilitating organization and understanding within a particular domain.
• Budget with Rationale : A budget with rationale is a financial plan that outlines projected income and expenses for a specific period, such as a month or a year. The rationale provides explanations or justifications for each budget item, explaining the purpose and reasoning behind the allocated funds.
• Case Analysis : Case analysis refers to a methodical examination of a particular situation, scenario, or problem. It involves gathering relevant data, identifying key issues, analyzing different factors, and formulating conclusions or recommendations based on the findings. Case analysis is commonly used in various fields, such as business, law, and education, to make informed decisions and solve complex problems.
• Case Study : A case study is an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, organization, or situation. It involves thorough research, data collection, and detailed examination to understand the context, challenges, and outcomes associated with the subject of study. Case studies are widely used in academic research and professional contexts to gain insights into real-world scenarios.
• Word Problem : A word problem is a type of mathematical or logical question presented in a contextual format using words rather than purely numerical or symbolic representations. It challenges students to apply their knowledge and problem-solving skills to real-life situations.

Collaborative Activities

• Debate : A debate is a structured discussion between two or more individuals or teams with differing viewpoints on a specific topic or issue. Participants present arguments and counterarguments to support their positions, aiming to persuade the audience and ultimately reach a resolution or conclusion. Debates are commonly used in academic settings, public forums, and formal competitions to foster critical thinking, communication skills, and understanding of diverse perspectives.
• Group Discussion : A group discussion is an interactive conversation involving several individuals who come together to exchange ideas, opinions, and information on a particular subject. The discussion is typically moderated to ensure that everyone has an opportunity to participate, and it encourages active listening, collaboration, and problem-solving. Group discussions are commonly used in educational settings, team meetings, and decision-making processes to promote dialogue and collective decision-making.
• An oral report is a form of communication in which a person or group of persons present information, findings, or ideas verbally to an audience. It involves speaking in front of others, often in a formal setting, and delivering a structured presentation that may include visual aids, such as slides or props, to support the content. Oral reports are commonly used in academic settings, business environments, and various professional settings to share knowledge, research findings, project updates, or persuasive arguments. Effective oral reports require clear organization, articulation, and engaging delivery to effectively convey the intended message to the listeners.

Planning and Organization

• Inventory : An inventory involves systematically listing and categorizing items or resources to assess their availability, quantity, and condition. In an educational context, students might conduct an inventory of books in a library, equipment in a lab, or supplies in a classroom, enhancing their organizational and data collection skills.
• Materials and Methods Plan : A materials and methods plan involves developing a structured outline or description of the materials, tools, and procedures to be used in a specific experiment, research project, or practical task. It helps learners understand the importance of proper planning and documentation in scientific and research endeavors.
• Plan for Conducting a Project : This learning activity requires students to create a detailed roadmap for executing a project. It includes defining the project's objectives, identifying tasks and timelines, allocating resources, and setting milestones to monitor progress. It enhances students' project management and organizational abilities.
• Research Proposal Addressed to a Granting Agency : A formal document requesting financial support for a research project from a granting agency or organization. The proposal outlines the research questions, objectives, methodology, budget, and potential outcomes. It familiarizes learners with the process of seeking funding and strengthens their research and persuasive writing skills.
• Mathematical Problem : A mathematical problem is a task or question that requires the application of mathematical principles, formulas, or operations to find a solution. It could involve arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, or other branches of mathematics, challenging individuals to solve the problem logically and accurately.
• Question : A question is a sentence or phrase used to elicit information, seek clarification, or provoke thought from someone else. Questions can be open-ended, closed-ended, or leading, depending on their purpose, and they play a crucial role in communication, problem-solving, and learning.

More Resources

CTE Teaching Tips

• Personal Response Systems
• Designing Multiple-Choice Questions
• Aligning Outcomes, Assessments, and Instruction

Other Resources

• Types of Assignments . University of Queensland.

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help.  View the  CTE Support  page to find the most relevant staff member to contact.

Catalog search

Teaching tip categories.

• Assessment and feedback
• Blended Learning and Educational Technologies
• Career Development
• Course Design
• Course Implementation
• Inclusive Teaching and Learning
• Learning activities
• Support for Student Learning
• Support for TAs
• Assessment and feedback ,

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Writing Assignments

Kate Derrington; Cristy Bartlett; and Sarah Irvine

Introduction

Assignments are a common method of assessment at university and require careful planning and good quality research. Developing critical thinking and writing skills are also necessary to demonstrate your ability to understand and apply information about your topic.  It is not uncommon to be unsure about the processes of writing assignments at university.

• You may be returning to study after a break
• You may have come from an exam based assessment system and never written an assignment before
• Maybe you have written assignments but would like to improve your processes and strategies

This chapter has a collection of resources that will provide you with the skills and strategies to understand assignment requirements and effectively plan, research, write and edit your assignments.  It begins with an explanation of how to analyse an assignment task and start putting your ideas together.  It continues by breaking down the components of academic writing and exploring the elements you will need to master in your written assignments. This is followed by a discussion of paraphrasing and synthesis, and how you can use these strategies to create a strong, written argument. The chapter concludes with useful checklists for editing and proofreading to help you get the best possible mark for your work.

Task Analysis and Deconstructing an Assignment

It is important that before you begin researching and writing your assignments you spend sufficient time understanding all the requirements. This will help make your research process more efficient and effective. Check your subject information such as task sheets, criteria sheets and any additional information that may be in your subject portal online. Seek clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you are still unsure about how to begin your assignments.

The task sheet typically provides key information about an assessment including the assignment question. It can be helpful to scan this document for topic, task and limiting words to ensure that you fully understand the concepts you are required to research, how to approach the assignment, and the scope of the task you have been set. These words can typically be found in your assignment question and are outlined in more detail in the two tables below (see Table 19.1 and Table 19.2 ).

Table 19.1 Parts of an Assignment Question

Make sure you have a clear understanding of what the task word requires you to address.

Table 19.2 Task words

The criteria sheet , also known as the marking sheet or rubric, is another important document to look at before you begin your assignment. The criteria sheet outlines how your assignment will be marked and should be used as a checklist to make sure you have included all the information required.

The task or criteria sheet will also include the:

• Word limit (or word count)
• Referencing style and research expectations
• Formatting requirements

Task analysis and criteria sheets are also discussed in the chapter Managing Assessments for a more detailed discussion on task analysis, criteria sheets, and marking rubrics.

Preparing your ideas

Brainstorm or concept map:  List possible ideas to address each part of the assignment task based on what you already know about the topic from lectures and weekly readings.

Finding appropriate information: Learn how to find scholarly information for your assignments which is

See the chapter Working With Information for a more detailed explanation .

What is academic writing?

Academic writing tone and style.

Many of the assessment pieces you prepare will require an academic writing style.  This is sometimes called ‘academic tone’ or ‘academic voice’.  This section will help you to identify what is required when you are writing academically (see Table 19.3 ). The best way to understand what academic writing looks like, is to read broadly in your discipline area.  Look at how your course readings, or scholarly sources, are written. This will help you identify the language of your discipline field, as well as how other writers structure their work.

Table 19.3 Comparison of academic and non-academic writing

Thesis statements.

Essays are a common form of assessment that you will likely encounter during your university studies. You should apply an academic tone and style when writing an essay, just as you would in in your other assessment pieces. One of the most important steps in writing an essay is constructing your thesis statement.  A thesis statement tells the reader the purpose, argument or direction you will take to answer your assignment question. A thesis statement may not be relevant for some questions, if you are unsure check with your lecturer. The thesis statement:

• Directly  relates to the task .  Your thesis statement may even contain some of the key words or synonyms from the task description.
• Does more than restate the question.
• Is specific and uses precise language.
• Let’s your reader know your position or the main argument that you will support with evidence throughout your assignment.
• The subject is the key content area you will be covering.
• The contention is the position you are taking in relation to the chosen content.

Your thesis statement helps you to structure your essay.  It plays a part in each key section: introduction, body and conclusion.

Planning your assignment structure

When planning and drafting assignments, it is important to consider the structure of your writing. Academic writing should have clear and logical structure and incorporate academic research to support your ideas.  It can be hard to get started and at first you may feel nervous about the size of the task, this is normal. If you break your assignment into smaller pieces, it will seem more manageable as you can approach the task in sections. Refer to your brainstorm or plan. These ideas should guide your research and will also inform what you write in your draft. It is sometimes easier to draft your assignment using the 2-3-1 approach, that is, write the body paragraphs first followed by the conclusion and finally the introduction.

Writing introductions and conclusions

Clear and purposeful introductions and conclusions in assignments are fundamental to effective academic writing. Your introduction should tell the reader what is going to be covered and how you intend to approach this. Your conclusion should summarise your argument or discussion and signal to the reader that you have come to a conclusion with a final statement.  These tips below are based on the requirements usually needed for an essay assignment, however, they can be applied to other assignment types.

Writing introductions

Most writing at university will require a strong and logically structured introduction. An effective introduction should provide some background or context for your assignment, clearly state your thesis and include the key points you will cover in the body of the essay in order to prove your thesis.

Usually, your introduction is approximately 10% of your total assignment word count. It is much easier to write your introduction once you have drafted your body paragraphs and conclusion, as you know what your assignment is going to be about. An effective introduction needs to inform your reader by establishing what the paper is about and provide four basic things:

• A brief background or overview of your assignment topic
• A thesis statement (see section above)
• An outline of your essay structure
• An indication of any parameters or scope that will/ will not be covered, e.g. From an Australian perspective.

The below example demonstrates the four different elements of an introductory paragraph.

1) Information technology is having significant effects on the communication of individuals and organisations in different professions. 2) This essay will discuss the impact of information technology on the communication of health professionals.   3)  First, the provision of information technology for the educational needs of nurses will be discussed.  4)  This will be followed by an explanation of the significant effects that information technology can have on the role of general practitioner in the area of public health.  5)  Considerations will then be made regarding the lack of knowledge about the potential of computers among hospital administrators and nursing executives.  6)   The final section will explore how information technology assists health professionals in the delivery of services in rural areas .  7)  It will be argued that information technology has significant potential to improve health care and medical education, but health professionals are reluctant to use it.

1 Brief background/ overview | 2 Indicates the scope of what will be covered |   3-6 Outline of the main ideas (structure) | 7 The thesis statement

Note : The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 licence.

Writing conclusions

You should aim to end your assignments with a strong conclusion. Your conclusion should restate your thesis and summarise the key points you have used to prove this thesis. Finish with a key point as a final impactful statement.  Similar to your introduction, your conclusion should be approximately 10% of the total assignment word length. If your assessment task asks you to make recommendations, you may need to allocate more words to the conclusion or add a separate recommendations section before the conclusion. Use the checklist below to check your conclusion is doing the right job.

Conclusion checklist 

• Have you referred to the assignment question and restated your argument (or thesis statement), as outlined in the introduction?
• Have you pulled together all the threads of your essay into a logical ending and given it a sense of unity?
• Have you presented implications or recommendations in your conclusion? (if required by your task).
• Have you added to the overall quality and impact of your essay? This is your final statement about this topic; thus, a key take-away point can make a great impact on the reader.
• Remember, do not add any new material or direct quotes in your conclusion.

This below example demonstrates the different elements of a concluding paragraph.

1) It is evident, therefore, that not only do employees need to be trained for working in the Australian multicultural workplace, but managers also need to be trained.  2)  Managers must ensure that effective in-house training programs are provided for migrant workers, so that they become more familiar with the English language, Australian communication norms and the Australian work culture.  3)  In addition, Australian native English speakers need to be made aware of the differing cultural values of their workmates; particularly the different forms of non-verbal communication used by other cultures.  4)  Furthermore, all employees must be provided with clear and detailed guidelines about company expectations.  5)  Above all, in order to minimise communication problems and to maintain an atmosphere of tolerance, understanding and cooperation in the multicultural workplace, managers need to have an effective knowledge about their employees. This will help employers understand how their employee’s social conditioning affects their beliefs about work. It will develop their communication skills to develop confidence and self-esteem among diverse work groups. 6) The culturally diverse Australian workplace may never be completely free of communication problems, however,   further studies to identify potential problems and solutions, as well as better training in cross cultural communication for managers and employees,   should result in a much more understanding and cooperative environment. 

1  Reference to thesis statement – In this essay the writer has taken the position that training is required for both employees and employers . | 2-5 Structure overview – Here the writer pulls together the main ideas in the essay. | 6  Final summary statement that is based on the evidence.

Note: The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 licence.

Writing paragraphs

Paragraph writing is a key skill that enables you to incorporate your academic research into your written work.  Each paragraph should have its own clearly identified topic sentence or main idea which relates to the argument or point (thesis) you are developing.  This idea should then be explained by additional sentences which you have paraphrased from good quality sources and referenced according to the recommended guidelines of your subject (see the chapter Working with Information ). Paragraphs are characterised by increasing specificity; that is, they move from the general to the specific, increasingly refining the reader’s understanding. A common structure for paragraphs in academic writing is as follows.

Topic Sentence 

This is the main idea of the paragraph and should relate to the overall issue or purpose of your assignment is addressing. Often it will be expressed as an assertion or claim which supports the overall argument or purpose of your writing.

Explanation/ Elaboration

The main idea must have its meaning explained and elaborated upon. Think critically, do not just describe the idea.

These explanations must include evidence to support your main idea. This information should be paraphrased and referenced according to the appropriate referencing style of your course.

Concluding sentence (critical thinking)

This should explain why the topic of the paragraph is relevant to the assignment question and link to the following paragraph.

Use the checklist below to check your paragraphs are clear and well formed.

Paragraph checklist

• Does your paragraph have a clear main idea?
• Is everything in the paragraph related to this main idea?
• Is the main idea adequately developed and explained?
• Do your sentences run together smoothly?
• Have you included evidence to support your ideas?
• Have you concluded the paragraph by connecting it to your overall topic?

Writing sentences

Make sure all the sentences in your paragraphs make sense. Each sentence must contain a verb to be a complete sentence. Avoid sentence fragments . These are incomplete sentences or ideas that are unfinished and create confusion for your reader. Avoid also run on sentences . This happens when you join two ideas or clauses without using the appropriate punctuation. This also confuses your meaning (See the chapter English Language Foundations for examples and further explanation).

Use transitions (linking words and phrases) to connect your ideas between paragraphs and make your writing flow. The order that you structure the ideas in your assignment should reflect the structure you have outlined in your introduction. Refer to transition words table in the chapter English Language Foundations.

Paraphrasing and Synthesising

Paraphrasing and synthesising are powerful tools that you can use to support the main idea of a paragraph. It is likely that you will regularly use these skills at university to incorporate evidence into explanatory sentences and strengthen your essay. It is important to paraphrase and synthesise because:

• Paraphrasing is regarded more highly at university than direct quoting.
• Paraphrasing can also help you better understand the material.
• Paraphrasing and synthesising demonstrate you have understood what you have read through your ability to summarise and combine arguments from the literature using your own words.

What is paraphrasing?

Paraphrasing is changing the writing of another author into your words while retaining the original meaning. You must acknowledge the original author as the source of the information in your citation. Follow the steps in this table to help you build your skills in paraphrasing (see Table 19.4 ).

Table 19.4 Paraphrasing techniques

Example of paraphrasing.

Please note that these examples and in text citations are for instructional purposes only.

Original text

Health care professionals   assist people often when they are at their most  vulnerable . To provide the best care and understand their needs, workers must demonstrate good communication skills .  They must develop patient trust and provide empathy   to effectively work with patients who are experiencing a variety of situations including those who may be suffering from trauma or violence, physical or mental illness or substance abuse (French & Saunders, 2018).

Poor quality paraphrase example

This is a poor example of paraphrasing. Some synonyms have been used and the order of a few words changed within the sentences however the colours of the sentences indicate that the paragraph follows the same structure as the original text.

Health care sector workers are often responsible for vulnerable  patients.   To understand patients and deliver good service , they need to be excellent communicators .  They must establish patient rapport and show empathy if they are to successfully care for patients from a variety of backgrounds  and with different medical, psychological and social needs (French & Saunders, 2018).

A good quality paraphrase example

This example demonstrates a better quality paraphrase. The author has demonstrated more understanding of the overall concept in the text by using the keywords as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph. Note how the blocks of colour have been broken up to see how much the structure has changed from the original text.

Empathetic   communication is a vital skill for health care workers.   Professionals in these fields   are often responsible for patients with complex medical, psychological and social needs. Empathetic   communication assists in building rapport and gaining the necessary trust   to assist these vulnerable patients  by providing appropriate supportive care (French & Saunders, 2018).

The good quality paraphrase example demonstrates understanding of the overall concept in the text by using key words as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph.  Note how the blocks of colour have been broken up, which indicates how much the structure has changed from the original text.

What is synthesising?

Synthesising means to bring together more than one source of information to strengthen your argument. Once you have learnt how to paraphrase the ideas of one source at a time, you can consider adding additional sources to support your argument. Synthesis demonstrates your understanding and ability to show connections between multiple pieces of evidence to support your ideas and is a more advanced academic thinking and writing skill.

Follow the steps in this table to improve your synthesis techniques (see Table 19.5 ).

Table 19.5 Synthesising techniques

Example of synthesis

There is a relationship between academic procrastination and mental health outcomes.  Procrastination has been found to have a negative effect on students’ well-being (Balkis, & Duru, 2016). Yerdelen, McCaffrey, and Klassens’ (2016) research results suggested that there was a positive association between procrastination and anxiety. This was corroborated by Custer’s (2018) findings which indicated that students with higher levels of procrastination also reported greater levels of the anxiety. Therefore, it could be argued that procrastination is an ineffective learning strategy that leads to increased levels of distress.

Topic sentence | Statements using paraphrased evidence | Critical thinking (student voice) | Concluding statement – linking to topic sentence

This example demonstrates a simple synthesis. The author has developed a paragraph with one central theme and included explanatory sentences complete with in-text citations from multiple sources. Note how the blocks of colour have been used to illustrate the paragraph structure and synthesis (i.e., statements using paraphrased evidence from several sources). A more complex synthesis may include more than one citation per sentence.

Creating an argument

What does this mean.

Throughout your university studies, you may be asked to ‘argue’ a particular point or position in your writing. You may already be familiar with the idea of an argument, which in general terms means to have a disagreement with someone. Similarly, in academic writing, if you are asked to create an argument, this means you are asked to have a position on a particular topic, and then justify your position using evidence.

What skills do you need to create an argument?

In order to create a good and effective argument, you need to be able to:

• Read critically to find evidence
• Plan your argument
• Think and write critically throughout your paper to enhance your argument

For tips on how to read and write critically, refer to the chapter Thinking for more information. A formula for developing a strong argument is presented below.

A formula for a good argument

What does an argument look like?

As can be seen from the figure above, including evidence is a key element of a good argument. While this may seem like a straightforward task, it can be difficult to think of wording to express your argument. The table below provides examples of how you can illustrate your argument in academic writing (see Table 19.6 ).

Table 19.6 Argument

Editing and proofreading (reviewing).

Once you have finished writing your first draft it is recommended that you spend time revising your work.  Proofreading and editing are two different stages of the revision process.

• Editing considers the overall focus or bigger picture of the assignment
• Proofreading considers the finer details

As can be seen in the figure above there are four main areas that you should review during the editing phase of the revision process. The main things to consider when editing include content, structure, style, and sources. It is important to check that all the content relates to the assignment task, the structure is appropriate for the purposes of the assignment, the writing is academic in style, and that sources have been adequately acknowledged. Use the checklist below when editing your work.

Editing checklist

• Have I answered the question accurately?
• Do I have enough credible, scholarly supporting evidence?
• Is my writing tone objective and formal enough or have I used emotive and informal language?
• Have I written in the third person not the first person?
• Do I have appropriate in-text citations for all my information?
• Have I included the full details for all my in-text citations in my reference list?

There are also several key things to look out for during the proofreading phase of the revision process. In this stage it is important to check your work for word choice, grammar and spelling, punctuation and referencing errors. It can be easy to mis-type words like ‘from’ and ‘form’ or mix up words like ‘trail’ and ‘trial’ when writing about research, apply American rather than Australian spelling, include unnecessary commas or incorrectly format your references list. The checklist below is a useful guide that you can use when proofreading your work.

Proofreading checklist

• Is my spelling and grammar accurate?
•  Are they complete?
• Do they all make sense?
• Do they only contain only one idea?
• Do the different elements (subject, verb, nouns, pronouns) within my sentences agree?
• Are my sentences too long and complicated?
• Do they contain only one idea per sentence?
• Is my writing concise? Take out words that do not add meaning to your sentences.
• Have I used appropriate discipline specific language but avoided words I don’t know or understand that could possibly be out of context?
• Have I avoided discriminatory language and colloquial expressions (slang)?
• Is my referencing formatted correctly according to my assignment guidelines? (for more information on referencing refer to the Managing Assessment feedback section).

This chapter has examined the experience of writing assignments.  It began by focusing on how to read and break down an assignment question, then highlighted the key components of essays. Next, it examined some techniques for paraphrasing and summarising, and how to build an argument. It concluded with a discussion on planning and structuring your assignment and giving it that essential polish with editing and proof-reading. Combining these skills and practising them, can greatly improve your success with this very common form of assessment.

• Academic writing requires clear and logical structure, critical thinking and the use of credible scholarly sources.
• A thesis statement is important as it tells the reader the position or argument you have adopted in your assignment. Not all assignments will require a thesis statement.
• Spending time analysing your task and planning your structure before you start to write your assignment is time well spent.
• Information you use in your assignment should come from credible scholarly sources such as textbooks and peer reviewed journals. This information needs to be paraphrased and referenced appropriately.
• Paraphrasing means putting something into your own words and synthesising means to bring together several ideas from sources.
• Creating an argument is a four step process and can be applied to all types of academic writing.
• Editing and proofreading are two separate processes.

Academic Skills Centre. (2013). Writing an introduction and conclusion . University of Canberra, accessed 13 August, 2013, http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/conclusions

Balkis, M., & Duru, E. (2016). Procrastination, self-regulation failure, academic life satisfaction, and affective well-being: underregulation or misregulation form. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31 (3), 439-459.

Custer, N. (2018). Test anxiety and academic procrastination among prelicensure nursing students. Nursing education perspectives, 39 (3), 162-163.

Yerdelen, S., McCaffrey, A., & Klassen, R. M. (2016). Longitudinal examination of procrastination and anxiety, and their relation to self-efficacy for self-regulated learning: Latent growth curve modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16 (1).

Writing Assignments Copyright © 2021 by Kate Derrington; Cristy Bartlett; and Sarah Irvine is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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2. Written assignments

Writing and researching, writing tools and techniques, editing and proofreading, grammar and spelling, audience, tone and purpose.

There are many different types of written assignments, including essays, reports and reviews.  Student Services  has resources to help you understand different types of written assignments and how to structure your work:

• Assignment types  — outlines the purpose, audience, tone of writing and structural features of some written assignment types, including research essays, reports, annotated bibliographies and reflective journals
• Steps for writing assignments  — breaks the assignment writing process into a series of manageable tasks
• During semester  Student Services offers workshops  to help improve your study and assignment writing skills.

Online tools and courses to improve your skills:

• The  Academic Phrasebank  — provides examples of phrases to use in academic writing, including writing introductions, describing methods, reporting results, discussing findings and writing conclusions
• Writing research papers (LinkedIn Learning course, 1h56m)  — a UQ login is required. This course covers understanding different types of research papers, researching the topic, brainstorming your focus, developing a thesis statement, writing topic sentences, composing a title, using a style guide and formatting your paper
• Improving writing through corpora (UQx free online course, 8h)   — this course aims to provide you with the tools, knowledge and skills to become a ‘language detective’, using special software to improve your academic writing. Boost your knowledge of academic words and phrases to improve your vocabulary and written fluency.

• Writing and referencing tools  has information on different tools and software to use for your written assignments
• Beginner to advanced  training in Microsoft Word  is available at the Library, including using styles, sections and tables. Knowing all the shortcuts and tricks can save you a lot of time when you are writing your document
• LinkedIn Learning has many Word tutorials. Choose one that covers the version of word you use. You may like to start with  Word Essential Training (Office 365) (LinkedIn Learning, 2h33m)  — a UQ login is required.

 Check your knowledge

Sometimes when we read aloud we say the words that should be there, even if they are not. A  text-to-speech tool  is a good way of checking the accuracy and flow of your assignment. The tool will only read what actually is written on the page.  Study hacks lists text-to-speech tools .

Student Support has information on  finding a proofreader .

You can use the spelling and grammar features in your word processing tool (e.g.  Microsoft Word  and  Google Docs ) to check what you have written.  Grammarly  is a browser extension that you can install to check your spelling and grammar.

Use the  Macquarie Dictionary and Thesaurus  if you are unsure about any words. It is regarded as the standard reference on Australian English.

To write effectively, you should think carefully about the intended audience and purpose of your assignment. Adjust your tone to suit your audience and the medium you are using.

The  Communication Learning in Practice for Scientists (CLIPS) website  outlines how the audience, context and purpose affects how you should communicate. The website was developed to help undergraduate science students develop their communication skills but is relevant for students in all fields.

Types of Assignments Copyright © 2023 by The University of Queensland is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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1-College Writing

Common Types of Writing Assignments

While much of the writing you did in high school may have been for an English or literature class, in college, writing is a common form of expression and scholarship in many fields and thus in many courses.

You may have to write essays, reflections, discussion board posts, or research papers in your history, biology, psychology, art history, or computer science classes.

Writing assignments in college vary in length, purpose, and the relationship between the writer (you) and the topic.  Sometimes you may be asked to gather information and write a report on your findings .  Sometimes you may be asked to compare opinions expressed by experts.  You might be asked to answer a question or state your position and defend it with evidence .  Some assignments require a mixture of several of these tasks.

When a writing assignment is mentioned in the syllabus of a course, make sure you understand the assignment long before you begin to do it.   The university’s Writing Center recommends that you note the vocabulary used in assignment descriptions and make sure you understand what actions certain words suggest or require.  You should also talk to peers in your class to compare understandings and expectations.

The university’s Writing Center consultants will help you with questions about an assignment and how to ask your instructor for more information if necessary. They will help you strengthen your writing, give you feedback on your ideas, and offer suggestions for organizing your content.  They can tell you if you are appropriately using sources.

The Writing Center is not only for students who have questions or are puzzled about assignments.  It offers support to experienced writers, too.  Faculty and graduate students routinely schedule sessions with Writing Center consultants.

Strong, experienced writers enjoy conversation about their writing decisions and find it helpful to have an outside reader for their work. 

Conferences with a writing consultant can be face-to-face or online.

If you are uneasy about talking with your instructor, make an appointment at the Writing Center:  https://cstw.osu.edu/writing-center

Common characteristics of writing in college: 

• Based on evidence
• Is written for a very or moderately knowledgeable audience rather than general public
• Style is formal, objective, often technical
• Uses conventional formatting
• Documents evidence using a professional citation style

                                                                                                                                                        (From:  Lunsford & Ruszkiewicz, p. 367)

An Introduction to Choosing & Using Sources Copyright © 2015 by Teaching & Learning, Ohio State University Libraries is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Types of Assignment: Creative and Different Academic

Assignments in the academic world come in various forms and serve different purposes. They can be broadly categorized into different types of assignments written assignments, practical or experimental assignments, presentations, and group projects. Each type of assignment has its unique requirements and aims to evaluate specific skills and knowledge of students.

Academic assignments are an integral part of education and play a crucial role in assessing a student’s understanding, knowledge, and skills in various subjects. Assignments are designed to challenge students , enhance their critical thinking abilities, and encourage creativity. In this article, we will delve into the different types of assignments, and their definitions, and focus on creative writing assignments and reflective journal or diary entry assignments. Additionally, we will explore how group projects differ from individual assignments and shed light on the diverse landscape of academic assignments. 

What is Assignment?

An assignment refers to a specific task or project given to individuals or groups with designated objectives and a set timeframe for completion. These tasks are a fundamental component of academic, professional, and personal development , serving distinct purposes in each context. In academics, assignments assess students’ comprehension and application of course materials through various forms such as essays, research papers, exams, or group projects. On the professional front, assignments align with job roles, contributing to organizational objectives. These tasks may range from individual projects to collaborative endeavors, often involving reports, proposals, or presentations. 

Assignments serve several key purposes. Grades or performance evaluations often stem from these assessments. The structure of an assignment typically encompasses an introduction that clearly outlines the objectives, a body that presents the main content or analysis, a conclusion summarizing key points, and a reference section listing sources used, following a specified citation style. To excel in assignments, adhering to best practices is essential. This includes understanding the assignment requirements thoroughly, planning and organizing tasks effectively, conducting comprehensive research, drafting and revising iteratively, seeking feedback for improvement, and rigorously reviewing and editing before final submission. 

What is a Creative Writing Assignment?

A creative writing assignment is a task that prompts individuals to engage in expressive and imaginative writing, often with the aim of fostering creativity, exploring personal thoughts, and honing literary skills. These assignments are prevalent in educational settings, particularly in courses focused on creative writing or literature. They can also be given in workshops, writing groups, or as personal projects. The essence of a creative writing assignment lies in the freedom and flexibility it offers to the writer, encouraging the use of their unique voice, perspective, and creativity.

These assignments can take various forms, such as short stories, poetry, essays, plays, or even experimental prose. The topic or theme is usually broad, allowing for interpretation and creative exploration. The instructions may involve specific elements like character development, setting, dialogue, or the incorporation of certain literary techniques . 

In crafting a creative writing assignment, instructors or supervisors often consider the objectives they aim to achieve. They design prompts that stimulate creativity, challenge the writer’s skills, or align with a specific theme or literary genre. The assessment of creative writing assignments typically focuses on the writer’s ability to develop a captivating narrative, use language effectively, portray emotions, and adhere to the guidelines while embracing creativity.

Types of Assignment

• Essays: Essays are a common form of academic assignment, requiring students to articulate their ideas, arguments, and insights on a specific topic. Essays can range from persuasive, descriptive, narrative, or expository, and often follow a structured format with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Reports: Reports are detailed documents that present information, findings, or analyses related to a particular subject or research. They typically include an introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.
• Case Studies: Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a particular case, situation, or individual. They aim to demonstrate a student’s ability to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios.
• Experiments and Practical Assignments: These assignments require students to perform experiments or practical tasks related to a subject, record observations, analyze results, and draw conclusions.
• Literature Reviews: Literature reviews involve summarizing and analyzing existing research and literature on a specific topic. It helps in understanding the current state of knowledge in a particular field.

What are the Different Academic Types of Assignments?

Academic assignments vary based on the subject, level of study, and specific course requirements. Some common types of academic assignments include:

• Research Papers: Research papers involve a deep investigation and analysis of a topic, supported by scholarly sources and evidence. They demonstrate a student’s ability to conduct comprehensive research and present their findings coherently.
• Thesis and Dissertations: Theses and dissertations are extensive research projects completed at the undergraduate, graduate, or doctoral levels. They require original research and contribute new knowledge to the academic field.
• Book Reviews: Book reviews assess a student’s understanding and critical evaluation of a particular book. They typically involve summarizing the book’s content, analyzing its themes, and providing an informed opinion.
• Homework Assignments: These are short tasks assigned regularly to reinforce learning and understanding of class material. Homework assignments are usually completed outside of regular class hours.

How do Group Projects Differ from Individual Assignments?

Group projects and individual assignments differ in several aspects, including the nature of work, collaboration, and individual responsibility.

– Nature of Work: In group projects, the work is distributed among team members, leveraging each member’s strengths. In contrast, individual assignments require a single student to complete the entire task independently.

– Collaboration: Group projects encourage collaboration and teamwork, where members contribute their ideas and skills to achieve a common goal. Individual assignments, on the other hand, rely solely on the efforts and capabilities of a single student.

– Decision Making: Group projects involve collective decision-making and consensus building, considering the input from all team members. Individual assignments allow for personal decision-making without the need for external input.

– Accountability: In group projects, team members are collectively accountable for the project’s success or failure. In individual assignments, the student is solely responsible for the outcome.

What is a Reflective Journal or Diary Entry Assignment?

A reflective journal or diary entry assignment is a structured or unstructured task that prompts individuals to record their thoughts, experiences, and reflections on a specific topic, event, or period of time in a personal journal-like format. This assignment encourages introspection, critical thinking, and the exploration of personal growth, emotions, and learning through written expression. Reflective journal entries can vary in terms of length, frequency, and format based on the assignment’s guidelines or the individual’s preferences.

The primary purpose of a reflective journal or diary entry assignment is to encourage self-awareness and deeper understanding. It provides a platform to articulate and organize thoughts and emotions, helping individuals make sense of their experiences and connect them to broader concepts or theories. This reflective process often leads to personal insights, enhanced learning , and an improved ability to deal with future situations.

The structure of a reflective journal entry typically involves recording the experience or event, followed by a thoughtful reflection on how the experience made the individual feel, what was learned from it, and how it relates to past experiences or future actions. The reflection may include self-assessment, analysis of strengths and weaknesses, and considerations of alternative perspectives or approaches.

In educational contexts, instructors may assign reflective journal entries to students in various disciplines such as psychology, education, nursing, or business. The topics for reflection can range from practical experiences in a field or clinical setting to responses to readings, lectures, or specific assignments. The assessment of reflective journal entries often focuses on the depth of reflection, the ability to connect experiences to relevant concepts or theories, and the clarity and coherence of the writing.

Conclusion: Types of Assignment

Assignments serve a dual purpose: assessing academic knowledge and fostering a spectrum of critical skills crucial for a well-rounded education. Beyond being tools of evaluation, they are platforms for the development of critical thinking, research abilities, effective communication, and creativity. Each type of assignment offers a unique avenue for students to demonstrate their understanding and enhance specific skills. Understanding the diverse types of academic assignments is fundamental for students embarking on their educational journey.

Creative writing assignments stand as the epitome of fostering creativity and self-expression. These tasks invite students to venture into the realms of imagination, shaping characters, plots, and narratives. Through these assignments, students not only get to showcase their literary prowess but also refine their ability to craft engaging stories that captivate readers. Moreover, they encourage originality and innovation, nurturing an environment where unique voices and styles can flourish.

Approaching each assignment with diligence is paramount. Students should carefully analyze the requirements, align their efforts with the objectives, and adopt effective planning and organizational strategies. Assignments should not be viewed merely as tasks to be completed but as opportunities for learning and personal development. By dedicating time and effort to each assignment, students can extract maximum educational benefits, ultimately enriching their academic journey.

In essence, academic assignments, in their varied forms, are essential components of the educational process. They are not only gateways to academic success but also catalysts for the development of critical life skills. Encouraging students to embrace these assignments with enthusiasm, creativity, and introspection can significantly enhance their overall learning experience and equip them for the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in their academic and professional pursuits.

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Academic writing skills guide: understanding assignments.

• Key Features of Academic Writing
• The Writing Process
• Understanding Assignments
• Brainstorming Techniques
• Planning Your Assignments
• Thesis Statements
• Writing Drafts
• Structuring Your Assignment
• How to Deal With Writer's Block
• Using Paragraphs
• Conclusions
• Introductions
• Revising & Editing
• Proofreading
• Grammar & Punctuation
• Reporting Verbs
• Signposting, Transitions & Linking Words/Phrases
• Using Lecturers' Feedback

Below is a list of interpretations for some of the more common directive/instructional words. These interpretations are intended as a guide only but should help you gain a better understanding of what is required when they are used. 

Communications from the Library:  Please note all communications from the library, concerning renewal of books, overdue books and reservations will be sent to your NCI student email account.

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• Last Updated: Dec 15, 2023 10:00 AM
• URL: https://libguides.ncirl.ie/academic_writing_skills

Academic Writing - Education & CCSC students: Assignment Genre

• Publication Style
• Assignment Question

Assignment Genre

• Literature Searches
• Referencing
• Anthropomorphism

Definitions of genre

There are different types of assignments. ​Correctly identifying the genre, or type, of an assignment is a key step in successful completion of the assignment.

Definitions of  genre

• A kind or style, especially of art or literature (e.g. novel, drama, satire). ( Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary,  1997)
• A style, especially in the arts, that involves a particular set of characteristics. ( Cambridge Dictionary)  

There are significant differences between the characteristics of, say, an essay and an annotated bibliography. The characteristics of the assignment genre (e.g. structure, level of formality) are an important component of the assessment. Below is a broad (but not exhaustive) list of assignment genres. Each genre is linked to an explanation below.

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.).

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). 

Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary . (1997). Oxford University Press.

Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved 2019, from  https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/genre

McMahon-Coleman, K., & Draisma, K. (2016).  Teaching university students with autism spectrum disorder: A guide to developing academic capacity and proficiency.  Jessica Kingsley Publishers. (Quotations and adapted material from pp. 105-110.)

"An essay is a structured argument about a particular topic. It will contain a thesis/argument throughout that addresses a set question and will require critical material and/or primary materials to support the points made" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 105).

A typical essay structure includes an introduction with a statement of the assignment question and an outline of the content and structure of the essay. The body of the essay contains paragraphs, each with a topic expressed in the opening sentence (the topic sentence ) followed by description, explanation and supporting evidence (i.e. references to the relevant academic literature). In t he conclusion, the assignment question is restated, and the argument and evidence that have been presented are summarised. 

In education essays, it is acceptable to use headings to indicate the structure of the essay, although this is optional unless specified.  

As a guide, paragraphs should be three to eight sentences long. The first sentence is the topic sentence.  The remaining sentences are used to present explanation, description and supporting evidence.

The supporting evidence for an essay topic is drawn from the academic literature, which consists of authorative works by authors whose work has been peer-reviewed. Peer-reviewed research papers, both qualitative and quantitative, provide the highest form of evidence. Researchers and academics with recognised expertise may proceed to publish books based on their research or areas of expertise, including responses to, and critiques of, work by other experts in their field. Such books also form part of the academic literature for a topic. The publication dates of works are significant as more recent research in a field may contain further developments not covered in earlier works.

The textbooks and readings within units of study have been selected as authorative and reliable sources. The biblical framework and worldview for your essay writing should draw upon authorative literature from authors with recognised expertise and experience in biblical theology and Christian education .

The APA Publication Manual (2020) identified several types of essays (p. 10). Expository and persuasive essays are the types most commonly associated with academic essay writing in education:

• Cause-and-effect essays
• Comparative essays
• Expository essays
• Narrative essays
• Persuasive essays

McMahon-Coleman, K., & Draisma, K. (2016). Teaching university students with autism spectrum disorder: A guide to developing academic capacity and proficiency. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 

Plan or essay schemata

"Sometimes lecturers will set a plan or schemata as a scaffolded learning activity prior to submission of a major essay. The advantage of this is that students receive some feedback on their arguments and how they intend to present them before putting them together ... This will be anathema, however, to those students who like to 'write their way into a topic' and find pre-planning to be an extremely difficult task ... plans are adaptable and can--and should--be changed if marker feedback suggests that the intended path is not optimal" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 106).

Wiki, blog and forum posts

"Wiki posts are posts made in an online forum and are designed to be informative .... Theoretically, they should be able to be edited by others, but few online teaching platforms seem to have this capability" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 108).

"Blog posts are similar to Wiki posts, but typically are less factual and more in the realm of opinion writing. Many subjects with online discussion spaces now ask students to blog or contribute to online discussion as part of their participation and assessment within courses" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 108).

Forum posts

In online learning environments, forums are used as a discussion and participation space. Usually, the topic or question will be posed by the lecturer as part of the course content and students may be required to post a response or series of responses, and perhaps post a response to other students' posts. Whether the student posts should be informative or opinion depends on the question or assignment posted by the lecturer. If the intention of the forum is unclear, ask your lecturer for clarification.

Literature review

See also Conducting a Literature Search

Literature reviews are important for a number of reasons:

• they are utilised to report results of similar studies 
• they relate the current study to the wider literature of the field
• they show how the current study will fill a gap in the research and/or extend previous research
• they help to establish the significance of the current study
• they tell the reader that the researcher is aware of the existing literature and the most recently published research on the topic
• they provide a benchmark for comparing the results of the current study with other related work (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

In qualitative research, a review of the literature is also a means of providing definitions and conceptual understanding, and the literature may be employed to develop an interpretive framework for inductive studies.

The literature review usually follows the introduction in a research paper, proposal or thesis. However, it is necessary, in order to avoid plagiarism, to cite or reference the work of other people to acknowledge their ideas and quotations throughout other sections of the paper. 

Literature reviews can take a number of different forms:

"(a) integrate what others have done and said (b) criticise previous scholarly works (c) build bridges between related topics (d) identify the central issues in a field" (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 26).

Literature reviews usually organise the literature of interest into a series of related topics or themes and highlight the common issues.

Creswell, J. D., & Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: qualitative, quantitative & mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage.

Further Resources

More information about literature reviews: www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/write/writing-well/litreview.html

What is a literature Review? www.scribbr.com/methodology/literature-review/

How to write a Literature Review (3 mins) www.youtube.com/watch?v=zIYC6zG265E

4 tips for writing a Literature Review (4 mins) www.youtube.com/watch?v=kW6Uzn-8uMI

Writing the Literature Review (University of Melbourne) (10 mins)

www.youtube.com/watch?v=70n2-gAp7J0

Example plan for a 3,000 word literature review

A suggested plan is below. The words lengths are for guidance only. As long as the whole literature review is 3,000 words (plus or minus 10%, i.e. 2,700-3,300 words), that is fine.

Example Literature Review Plan

1. Introduction (150-300 words)

• State the assignment topic/question
• Briefly introduce the main topic for discussion and the sub-topics you will discuss
• State what your aim(s) for the assignment is (e.g. "In this assignment, I will review some of the literature on...")

2. Topic 1 (500-700 words)

• Briefly describe the topic and how it relates to the main topic under review
• Write about the research that you have read on the topic, citing each article and book, and listing each reference in your reference list .

3. Topic 2 (700 words)

4. Topic 3 (700 words)

5. Biblical Worldview (500 words)

• Explain how a biblical worldview relates to the main topic under discussion. The biblical worldview can be included with each of the topics if appropriate and in that case this section would not be required.

6. Conclusion (100-200 words)

• Provide a summary of the main points you have identified throughout the literature review.

"A report is similar to an essay in content and tone, but is typically organised under designated headings and sub-headings. These may vary according to the discipline--for example, a scientific report will look quite different from a company report in a Business subject" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 106).

Further Information

For more information about report writing, see  Monash University: Writing a report . While this page does not specifically address report-writing in Education, it provides excellent general advice. However, always check the assignment-task wording. If you have any questions, email your lecturer.

Monash University: Writing a report

What is a report?

Four things you need to know about report writing

Identify your target audience and purpose of your report

Apply the structure of a report

Check for discipline specific requirements

Use tables and figures to present numerical data

Differences between a report and an essay 

Book Review/Report

Book review/report.

"A university-level book report will typically not only summarise the plot, but will move beyond that to discuss key themes or issues, as well as any 'silences' (for example, are women's voices heard in the text? Or Indigenous voices?). It may also include some preliminary critical commentary, since reading the critical responses of others often offers insight. In Social Science faculties, a book report or a similar report on a journal article will often require the student to focus on the research topic that is the subject of the book or article, making comments about the rationale for the research, the methodology and methods of research, and the validity and perhaps transferability of the results" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, pp. 106-107).

"Students may be well aware of decorative posters, but within the university context, posters are more like the primary school assignments completed on cardboard! They are a visual representation of the most important points. Selection of visual images is therefore as important as the content and references. While there are specialist software programs available, merely arranging the information on a single PowerPoint slide and printing it to A3 size is likely the easiest solution" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 108).

Brochure/booklet

[As for the creation of posters] "... there are specialist software programs, but using the 'Booklet' template within Word may prove to be the easiest option. As with posters, the inclusion and clear layout of information is important" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 109).

Lesson plan/unit plan/teaching resources

Lesson plan

"...typically used in Education, there are subtle differences between these. Lesson plans are used to programme a particular class or activity; unit plans are the broader plan for a number of weeks, into which the lesson plan fits. Teaching resources are worksheets, games, activities, apps and so on that are used within those lessons. Unit and lesson plan proformas are readily available online. Typically, student-teachers would need to think about: what they want to teach, how they will teach it, how they will know if the students have learned what they have been taught, and how that lesson fits in to the sequence of other lessons within the unit" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 110).

Tutorial Presentation

Tutorial presentation .

Tutorial presentation (with or without PowerPoint or similar) and/or tutorial paper

"Tutorial presentations involve summarising a particular text or topic, including some critical commentary, and pointing out the strengths or limitations of approaches to that topic. Very often, there is a written component as well, and these are usually due the week after the presentation. The idea behind this is that any ideas or debate that arose in class after the presentation can be included in the write-up. Despite this, it is surprising how many students hand in the exact transcript from their presentation, with no editing or amendments. Some disciplines expect that a tutorial paper will be in the form of an essay; others, that it will be in the form of a report or summary" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 107).

"Reflective pieces can be confronting... The idea of reflective practice popularised by Donald Schon (Schon,1983) focused on reflecting  in  practice (while doing it) and  on  practice (after doing it). Some assessment tasks require students to write a 'Reflective Diary' [or journal] throughout the semester, commenting on theory that has been read or discussed in class and on the relationship between theory and any practical experience gained in the subject (such as in Education, Nursing, Medicine, Law, Sport Science, Psychology). When students are asked to do reflection, markers are typically expecting to see not only a summary of what they did, but some insight into how they felt about it or how their thinking has been changed or modified as a result" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 107).

"Similar to a book report, students may be asked to complete a reading and critique it for its strengths and limitations" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 108).

Annotated bibliography

An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation (usually about 150 words) . The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited. 

Creating an annotated bibliography calls for the application of a variety of critical skills: concise exposition; critical analysis on the choice of references; and, informed library research.

Cornell University Library,  How to prepare an annotated bibliography: The annotated bibliography. Retrieved from   https://guides.library.cornell.edu/

Reproduced and adapted with with permission

Olin Library Reference Research & Learning Services Cornell University Library Ithaca, NY, USA

Research proposal

There are variations in the format of research proposals between institutions, publication styles and across disciplines. You will generally be given a template or an example to follow.  Some overall guidance about research proposals -- https://www.uts.edu.au

Critical review

"Critically reviewing something involves or requires making judgments as to the truth, merit, relevance, effectiveness, breadth, or contribution to a particular field, as well as its informational structure" (University of Technology). Refer to the resources on the UTS website for more information. 

University of Technology Sydney. (n.d.).  Critical Thinking Skills.   https://www.uts.edu.au/current-students/support/helps/self-help-resources/academic-writing/critical-thinking-skills

Abstract and executive summary

Abstract and executive summaries have distinct purposes. An abstract is included at the beginning of academic journal articles and is a concise summary of the entire article, including the research findings. The purpose of an abstract is to provide material for indexing in library collections, and to allow the reader to make an informed decision about the relevance and nature of the research before investing the time to digest the research that the article reports. An executive summary is a section at the beginning of business and government papers that provides an overview of the paper with information on where to find more detail. An executive summary is normally longer than an abstract. Both abstracts and executive summaries are written after the main paper is completed.

More information -- www.uts.edu.au

"Groupwork may be structured (with assigned roles) or unstructured (where it is up to the members to decide who will do which tasks). Most times, they are marked as a group activity so that everyone gets the same mark, but increasingly this is being modified to a hybrid model where a portion of the marks are awarded to the individual student (often based on a reflective piece of writing on how the activity went). This is designed to promote fairness and assuage students who worry about being 'marked down' because of a 'lazy' group member, or who end up doing more than their fair share in order to not be penalised" (McMahon-Coleman & Draisma, 2016, p. 109).

Case studies are "reports of case materials obtained while working with an individual, a group, a community, or an organization" (APA, 2010, p. 11). "Case studies illustrate a problem in depth; indicate a means for solving a problem; and/or shed light on needed research, clinical applications, or theoretical matters" (APA, 2020, p. 5).

For general advice (not tailored to education) on writing a case study for a university assignment see the following resources. 

UTS:HELPS Higher Education Language and Presentation Support. (2017).  Case study writing.  Retrieved 13 September, 2018, from  https://www.uts.edu.au/current-students/support/helps/self-help-resources/academic-writing/case-study-writing

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Understanding the different types of assignments in detail, rachel r.n..

• November 30, 2023
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As students advance in their academics studies, their academic knowledge increases thus increasing the level of assignments issue by their lecturers. Students are given academic assignments to test their level of understanding in a particular topic or subject.

Are you a student struggling to understand the various types of assignments you encounter during your academic journey? Look no further! In this article, I will provide you with a comprehensive overview of the different assignment types commonly found in universities. By gaining a better understanding of these assignment categories , you will be better equipped to meet the requirements and excel in your academics.

Assignments come in different forms and serve different purposes. Some of the most common types of assignments you may encounter include essays, case study responses, reports, reflective writing assignments , annotated bibliographies , and literature reviews . Let’s explore each of these assignment types in detail!

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What You'll Learn

Essay Assignments

One of the most frequently assigned tasks in university is the essay. Essays require you to present your ideas and arguments in a formal and structured manner. They demand clear and logical thinking, as well as the use of credible academic sources to support your claims. Essays can be further categorized into analytical essays , where you thoroughly examine a topic, and argumentative essays , where you take a stance on an issue and provide supporting evidence.

How to Format Essay Assignments

The following is a general list of sections you should include in your essay assignment:

A good essay title tells people what your essay is about. It helps them know what to expect from your essay, especially if they’re reading it for their own research. If the essay title is interesting, it can also make people curious and want to read your essay.

How important a catchy title is depends on the type of essay you’re writing. If it’s for a class assignment and your teacher is the only one reading it, the title doesn’t have to be super exciting. But if you’re entering a contest, applying to college or grad school, or trying to get it published, a catchy title is crucial. This is because the title is the first thing the editor or admissions committee will see, and it might decide whether they read your essay or not.

In short, a strong essay title gives a clear idea of what your essay is about. It doesn’t have to reveal everything, but it should give a general sense of what to expect and make people want to keep reading.

• Introduction

Your introduction is like the hello of your paper. It’s the first thing your reader sees, and it gives them an idea of how your writing will be. It helps them know what to expect in terms of tone, voice, and style.

Think of it as a warm-up for your reader. It shares some important info about your paper, so your reader understands what you’re talking about and why it matters.

But the introduction is not just about facts. It’s also a chance to grab your reader’s interest. If you start with something cool or make them think, they’ll be more excited to read the rest.

Here’s what you should include in your introduction, no matter what kind of paper you’re writing:

• A hook to get attention : Something that makes your reader go, “Hmm, this is interesting!”
• Background information : The basics your reader needs to understand your paper.
• A clear main point or thesis statement : What your paper is all about in one sentence.

Think of paragraphs as small parts of a bigger piece of writing. Each paragraph is like a mini version of the whole thing, with its own introduction, body, and conclusion in the form of sentences.

Now, let’s break it down. A good paragraph has four important parts, and you might already know some of them from our guide:

• Transitions: These are just a few words at the start or end of a paragraph that link it to the others. They help the writing flow smoothly.
• Topic sentence: This is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. It tells you what the whole paragraph is about.
• Supporting sentences: These sentences make up the main part of your paragraph. There are usually one to three of them, and they give more information or reasons to support the topic sentence.
• Conclusion (Summary): This is the last sentence of your paragraph. It sums up or repeats your main point in light of the evidence you provided.

Many people find writing conclusions in essays tough. But, they are super important because they make things clear and give you a better understanding of the topic.

To make a good ending for your essay, follow these steps:

Restate the thesis : A good ending reminds the reader about the main idea of your essay. But don’t just repeat it word for word. Say it in a different way while keeping the main point.

Repeat the important points : Besides talking again about your main idea, also go over the key points you made to support it. Instead of saying the same things you said before, summarize the main ideas.

Connect the beginning and ending statements : It’s helpful to go back to what you talked about at the start of your essay. This gives the reader a clear ending. You can do this by using similar ideas, going back to a story you started with, or using the same images.

Give some new thoughts Your ending should give the reader something to think about. It could be a solution, a new idea, questions for more thinking, or a call to do something. Explain why your ideas matter and why people should care. Answer these kinds of questions to leave your reader with something important to ponder.

• References.

You should include a list of sources (including module materials) that are mentioned in the essay. Find out more in the ACADEMIC STYLE GUIDE

Analytical Essays

Argumentative essays.

Essay assignment example: Applying the Concepts of Epidemiology and Nursing Research on Measles Nursing Paper Essay

Case Study Assignments

In certain fields like health or business, case study assignments are commonly assigned. These assignments require students to analyze a scenario in a particular field and respond to it guided by specific questions posed concerning the situation. In many cases, the scenario or case study involves a number of issues or problems that must be dealt with in a professional workplace.

To effectively respond to a case study, it is important to refer to the case itself, structure your analysis effectively, and use examples and data from the case as evidence to support your points.

Types of Case Studies

Illustrative case study: employed to provide a descriptive portrayal of a particular situation without aiming for generalizations. Often used for educational purposes, it offers readers a tangible example, fostering a clearer understanding of concepts.

Exploratory case studies: serve the purpose of exploring a subject or phenomenon, collecting preliminary insights before conducting a more extensive study. Ideal for gaining an understanding of the scope, scale, and potential variables associated with a problem, these studies help researchers refine their focus and approach.

Explanatory case studies : focus on establishing cause-and-effect relationships. They investigate why and how a specific situation occurred and explore its impact. This type is valuable when researchers seek to uncover underlying principles or factors contributing to a particular outcome, providing a deeper understanding of complex issues.

Critical instance case studies : concentrate on instances deemed uniquely interesting or significant. By delving into cases of exceptional relevance, researchers can extract insights that might be applicable to broader contexts. This type is particularly useful when studying rare or extreme cases that offer a distinctive perspective on an issue or challenge.

Prospective or longitudinal case studies: involve tracking the development of a situation over time. This approach necessitates repeated observations and data collection to analyze changes and patterns, making it well-suited for studying processes, developments, or changes in individuals, groups, or organizations over an extended period.

Steps to writing an answer to a case study assignment

• Carefully read the case study and questions
• Identify the issues being raised in the case study
• Link theory to practice
• Draft your answer
• Start writing your case study
• Proofread and edit

Analyzing Case Studies

When analyzing a case study, consider the following aspects:

• Context: Understand the background and setting of the case.
• Key Issues: Identify the main problems or challenges within the case.
• Analysis: Apply relevant theories or concepts to examine the case in depth.
• Recommendations: Offer practical solutions or suggestions for addressing the issues.

Example Case Study Analysis

“The case study presents a real-world scenario in the healthcare industry, focusing on the challenges faced by a hospital in improving patient satisfaction. Through a detailed analysis of patient feedback and hospital data, I identified the key issues contributing to low satisfaction scores, such as long wait times and inadequate communication. Based on this analysis, I recommended implementing strategies to streamline processes, enhance communication between staff and patients, and improve overall patient experience. This case study provided valuable insights into the complexities of healthcare management and the importance of patient-centered care.” – Student, Health Management Program

Case Study Structure

A well-structured case study analysis typically includes the following sections:

• Introduction: Provide a brief overview of the case and its importance.
• Background: Present relevant background information about the case.
• Analysis: Analyze the case, addressing the key issues identified.
• Findings: Summarize your findings based on the analysis.
• Conclusion: Provide a concise conclusion that ties everything together.

Related blog article: Case Study on Moral Status .

Report Assignments

Reports are a common form of assessment in various professions. They serve as a means of communicating information and analysis to a specific audience. Report assignments can take different structures and formats, depending on the professional requirements and the purpose of the report.

In general, a report consists of several sections that provide a comprehensive overview of the topic being discussed. This may include an executive summary, introduction, methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusion.

The specific sections of a report can vary depending on the field and purpose of the assignment. For example, a business report may include sections on market analysis, financial analysis, and recommendations, while a scientific research report may include sections on hypothesis, methodology, results, and discussion.

When working on a report assignment, it is important to carefully follow the given guidelines and structure the report in a logical and coherent manner. Each section should be clearly labeled and organized, making it easy for the reader to navigate and understand the content.

Additionally, reports often require the use of visual aids such as tables, charts, and graphs to present data and support findings. These visual elements should be properly formatted and referenced within the text.

Overall, report assignments require careful planning, research, and analysis to effectively present information and make informed recommendations. By understanding the structure and components of reports, you can ensure that your assignments meet the requirements and effectively convey your findings and insights to the intended audience.

Report assignment essay: Term-Long Project Nursing Paper Example

Reflective Writing, Annotated Bibliographies, and Literature Reviews

Reflective writing assignments , annotated bibliographies, and literature reviews are important types of assignments that you may encounter in your academic journey. They each serve a unique purpose and require specific approaches to effectively complete them. These assignments encourage self-reflection and exploration of personal experiences and thoughts on a particular topic.

Reflective Writing Assignments

Reflective writing assignments provide an opportunity for self-reflection and personal exploration. In fields such as nursing, education, and human services, these assignments encourage you to think critically about your experiences, thoughts, and emotions related to a particular topic. By analyzing your own reactions and considering the impact of these experiences, you can gain deeper insights and develop a greater understanding of the subject matter.

Annotated Bibliographies

Annotated bibliographies are valuable resources that provide a comprehensive list of sources accompanied by brief descriptions and evaluations. These assignments require you to carefully select relevant sources and provide thoughtful annotations that summarize the key points, strengths, and weaknesses of each source. By creating an annotated bibliography, you demonstrate your ability to critically analyze and evaluate existing literature on a particular topic.

Literature Reviews

Literature reviews involve a thorough examination of existing literature on a specific subject. They aim to identify current trends, research gaps, and areas for further investigation. By conducting a comprehensive review of scholarly articles, books, and other relevant sources, you can contribute to the existing knowledge base and showcase your ability to synthesize information from multiple sources.

Now that you have a better understanding of the different types of assignments , you can confidently tackle any task that comes your way. Remember, at StudyingHq.com, you can find thousands of free essay examples, samples, guides, topics, and research papers to inspire your own work. And if you need writing assistance, our team of expert writers is ready to help you within 2-3 hours. Good luck with your assignments!

What are the different types of assignments in university?

Some common types of assignments include essays, case study responses, reports, reflective writing assignments, annotated bibliographies, and literature reviews.

What do essays require and how can they be categorized?

Essays require formal language, a clear and logical structure, and the use of credible academic sources. They can be categorized into  analytical essays , which involve examining a topic thoroughly, and  argumentative essays , which require taking a position on an issue and presenting arguments supported by evidence.

What are case study assignments and how should I respond to them?

Case study assignments  involve analyzing a specific situation, problem, or organization over a selected period of time. When responding to a case study, it is important to refer to the case, structure your paragraphs effectively, and use examples and data from the case as evidence to support your points.

What are the different types of report assignments?

Reports can take different structures, such as business reports or scientific and research reports. The structure of a report depends on professional requirements and the purpose of the report. It typically includes sections like an executive summary, introduction, process, findings, and conclusion.

What are reflective writing assignments, annotated bibliographies, and literature reviews?

Reflective writing assignments involve self-reflection and exploring personal experiences or thoughts on a particular topic. Annotated bibliographies are lists of sources with brief descriptions and evaluations. Literature reviews examine existing literature on a topic, highlighting current trends and identifying research gaps.

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Types of Assignments

Cristy Bartlett and Kate Derrington

Introduction

As discussed in the previous chapter, assignments are a common method of assessment at university. You may encounter many assignments over your years of study, yet some will look quite different from others. By recognising different types of assignments and understanding the purpose of the task, you can direct your writing skills effectively to meet task requirements. This chapter draws on the skills from the previous chapter, and extends the discussion, showing you where to aim with different types of assignments.

The chapter begins by exploring the popular essay assignment, with its two common categories, analytical and argumentative essays. It then examines assignments requiring case study responses , as often encountered in fields such as health or business. This is followed by a discussion of assignments seeking a report (such as a scientific report) and reflective writing assignments, common in nursing, education and human services. The chapter concludes with an examination of annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of  your assignment writing skills.

Different Types of Written Assignments

At university, an essay is a common form of assessment. In the previous chapter Writing Assignments we discussed what was meant by showing academic writing in your assignments. It is important that you consider these aspects of structure, tone and language when writing an essay.

Components of an essay

Essays should use formal but reader friendly language and have a clear and logical structure. They must include research from credible academic sources such as peer reviewed journal articles and textbooks. This research should be referenced throughout your essay to support your ideas (See the chapter Working with Information ).

If you have never written an essay before, you may feel unsure about how to start.  Breaking your essay into sections and allocating words accordingly will make this process more manageable and will make planning the overall essay structure much easier.

• An essay requires an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• Generally, an introduction and conclusion are approximately 10% each of the total word count.
• The remaining words can then be divided into sections and a paragraph allowed for each area of content you need to cover.
• Use your task and criteria sheet to decide what content needs to be in your plan

An effective essay introduction needs to inform your reader by doing four basic things:

Table 15.1 An effective essay

[table “17” not found /]

An effective essay body paragraph needs to:

[table “18” not found /]

An effective essay conclusion needs to:

[table “19” not found /]

Common types of essays

You may be required to write different types of essays, depending on your study area and topic. Two of the most commonly used essays are analytical and argumentative .  The task analysis process discussed in the previous chapter Writing Assignments will help you determine the type of essay required. For example, if your assignment question uses task words such as analyse, examine, discuss, determine or explore, you would be writing an analytical essay . If your assignment question has task words such as argue, evaluate, justify or assess, you would be writing an argumentative essay . Despite the type of essay, your ability to analyse and think critically is important and common across genres.  

Analytical essays

These essays usually provide some background description of the relevant theory, situation, problem, case, image, etcetera that is your topic. Being analytical requires you to look carefully at various components or sections of your topic in a methodical and logical way to create understanding.

The purpose of the analytical essay is to demonstrate your ability to examine the topic thoroughly. This requires you to go deeper than description by considering different sides of the situation, comparing and contrasting a variety of theories and the positives and negatives of the topic. Although in an analytical essay your position on the topic may be clear, it is not necessarily a requirement that you explicitly identify this with a thesis statement, as is the case with an argumentative essay. If you are unsure whether you are required to take a position, and provide a thesis statement, it is best to check with your tutor.

Argumentative essays

These essays require you to take a position on the assignment topic. This is expressed through your thesis statement in your introduction. You must then present and develop your arguments throughout the body of your assignment using logically structured paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs needs a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, you must reach a conclusion based on the evidence you have presented.

Case Study Responses

Case studies are a common form of assignment in many study areas and students can underperform in this genre for a number of key reasons.

Students typically lose marks for not:

• Relating their answer sufficiently to the case details
• Applying critical thinking
• Writing with clear structure
• Using appropriate or sufficient sources
• Using accurate referencing

When structuring your response to a case study, remember to refer to the case. Structure your paragraphs similarly to an essay paragraph structure but include examples and data from the case as additional evidence to support your points (see Figure 15.5). The colours in the sample paragraph below show the function of each component.

The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) Code of Conduct and Nursing Standards (2018) play a crucial role in determining the scope of practice for nurses and midwives. A key component discussed in the code is the provision of person-centred care and the formation of therapeutic relationships between nurses and patients (NMBA, 2018). This ensures patient safety and promotes health and wellbeing (NMBA, 2018). The standards also discuss the importance of partnership and shared decision-making in the delivery of care (NMBA, 2018, 4). Boyd and Dare (2014) argue that good communication skills are vital for building therapeutic relationships and trust between patients and care givers. This will help ensure the patient is treated with dignity and respect and improve their overall hospital experience. In the case, the therapeutic relationship with the client has been compromised in several ways. Firstly, the nurse did not conform adequately to the guidelines for seeking informed consent before performing the examination as outlined in principle 2.3 (NMBA, 2018). Although she explained the procedure, she failed to give the patient appropriate choices regarding her health care. 

Topic sentence | Explanations using paraphrased evidence including in-text references | Critical thinking (asks the so what? question to demonstrate your student voice). | Relating the theory back to the specifics of the case. The case becomes a source of examples as extra evidence to support the points you are making.

Reports are a common form of assessment at university and are also used widely in many professions. It is a common form of writing in business, government, scientific, and technical occupations.

Reports can take many different structures. A report is normally written to present information in a structured manner, which may include explaining laboratory experiments, technical information, or a business case.  Reports may be written for different audiences including clients, your manager, technical staff, or senior leadership within an organisation. The structure of reports can vary, and it is important to consider what format is required. The choice of structure will depend upon professional requirements and the ultimate aims of the report. Consider some of the options in the table below (see Table 15.2).

Table 15.2 Explanations of different types of reports

[table “20” not found /]

Reflective writing

Reflective writing is a popular method of assessment at university. It is used to help you explore feelings, experiences, opinions, events or new information to gain a clearer and deeper understanding of your learning. A reflective writing task requires more than a description or summary.  It requires you to analyse a situation, problem or experience, consider what you may have learnt and evaluate how this may impact your thinking and actions in the future. This requires critical thinking, analysis, and usually the application of good quality research, to demonstrate your understanding or learning from a situation. Essentially, reflective practice is the process of looking back on past experiences and engaging with them in a thoughtful way and drawing conclusions to inform future experiences. The reflection skills you develop at university will be vital in the workplace to assist you to use feedback for growth and continuous improvement. There are numerous models of reflective writing and you should refer to your subject guidelines for your expected format. If there is no specific framework, a simple model to help frame your thinking is What? So what? Now what?   (Rolfe et al., 2001).

Table 15.3 What? So What? Now What? Explained.

[table “21” not found /]

The Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle

The Gibbs’ Cycle of reflection encourages you to consider your feelings as part of the reflective process. There are six specific steps to work through. Following this model carefully and being clear of the requirements of each stage, will help you focus your thinking and reflect more deeply. This model is popular in Health.

The 4 R’s of reflective thinking

This model (Ryan and Ryan, 2013) was designed specifically for university students engaged in experiential learning.  Experiential learning includes any ‘real-world’ activities including practice led activities, placements and internships.  Experiential learning, and the use of reflective practice to heighten this learning, is common in Creative Arts, Health and Education.

Annotated Bibliography

What is it.

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of appropriate sources (books, journals or websites) on a topic, accompanied by a brief summary, evaluation and sometimes an explanation or reflection on their usefulness or relevance to your topic. Its purpose is to teach you to research carefully, evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. An annotated bibliography may be one part of a larger assessment item or a stand-alone assessment piece. Check your task guidelines for the number of sources you are required to annotate and the word limit for each entry.

How do I know what to include?

When choosing sources for your annotated bibliography it is important to determine:

• The topic you are investigating and if there is a specific question to answer
• The type of sources on which you need to focus
• Whether they are reputable and of high quality

What do I say?

Important considerations include:

• Is the work current?
• Is the work relevant to your topic?
• Is the author credible/reliable?
• Is there any author bias?
• The strength and limitations (this may include an evaluation of research methodology).

Literature Reviews

It is easy to get confused by the terminology used for literature reviews. Some tasks may be described as a systematic literature review when actually the requirement is simpler; to review the literature on the topic but do it in a systematic way. There is a distinct difference (see Table 15.4). As a commencing undergraduate student, it is unlikely you would be expected to complete a systematic literature review as this is a complex and more advanced research task. It is important to check with your lecturer or tutor if you are unsure of the requirements.

Table 15.4 Comparison of Literature Reviews

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Generally, you are required to establish the main ideas that have been written on your chosen topic. You may also be expected to identify gaps in the research. A literature review does not summarise and evaluate each resource you find (this is what you would do in an annotated bibliography). You are expected to analyse and synthesise or organise common ideas from multiple texts into key themes which are relevant to your topic (see Figure 15.10). Use a table or a spreadsheet, if you know how, to organise the information you find. Record the full reference details of the sources as this will save you time later when compiling your reference list (see Table 15.5).

Overall, this chapter has provided an introduction to the types of assignments you can expect to complete at university, as well as outlined some tips and strategies with examples and templates for completing them. First, the chapter investigated essay assignments, including analytical and argumentative essays. It then examined case study assignments, followed by a discussion of the report format. Reflective writing , popular in nursing, education and human services, was also considered. Finally, the chapter briefly addressed annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.

• Not all assignments at university are the same. Understanding the requirements of different types of assignments will assist in meeting the criteria more effectively.
• There are many different types of assignments. Most will require an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• An essay should have a clear and logical structure and use formal but reader friendly language.
• Breaking your assignment into manageable chunks makes it easier to approach.
• Effective body paragraphs contain a topic sentence.
• A case study structure is similar to an essay, but you must remember to provide examples from the case or scenario to demonstrate your points.
• The type of report you may be required to write will depend on its purpose and audience. A report requires structured writing and uses headings.
• Reflective writing is popular in many disciplines and is used to explore feelings, experiences, opinions or events to discover what learning or understanding has occurred. Reflective writing requires more than description. You need to be analytical, consider what has been learnt and evaluate the impact of this on future actions.
• Annotated bibliographies teach you to research and evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. They may be part of a larger assignment.
• Literature reviews require you to look across the literature and analyse and synthesise the information you find into themes.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford.

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection in nursing and the helping professions: a user’s guide . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ryan, M. & Ryan, M. (2013). Theorising a model for teaching and assessing reflective learning in higher education.  Higher Education Research & Development , 32(2), 244-257. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2012.661704

Academic Success Copyright © 2021 by Cristy Bartlett and Kate Derrington is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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11 Types of Assignments You’ll Write In College This Year

by  Antony W

February 2, 2024

This is the complete list of the types of assignments that you will come across in high school, college, and university this year and beyond.

Types of Assignments: The Complete List for High School and College Students

The following is the complete list of the types of assignments that you will do in school. Whether you’re in high school, college, or university, this list is worth checking.

1. Essay Assignments

Essay assignments give students a chance to express and back up their thought with explanations, statements, facts, and analysis.

Although an essay can have as many paragraphs to express various ideas, the basic format is the 5-paragraph structure, which already includes the introduction, body, and conclusion. 

Other than the structure, it’s also important to know about the types of essays . These include argumentative, persuasive, analytic, and expository essays.

An analytic essay will disintegrate issues into solutions. An expository essay provides explanations to things. Then an argumentative essay attests topics to give proof.

2. Memo Assignments

Memos are assignments that require students to provide short reports such as a monthly sales report. Memorandum assignments are good because they help cultivate conciseness in students.

That’s so because a memo should be short and precise providing only what is important to the reader.

In addition, memos can either request or share important information, and is therefore important to keep it clear.

3. Presentation Skills Assignments

Your instructor may ask you, as an individual or in a group, to go in front of the class and present certain ideas. They do this to see how well students can be at representing ideas to a crowd.

Adequate preparation is the key when it comes to creating presentations. At the end of the day, the last thing you ever want to do is to get nervous in front of other students.

More importantly, presenting ideas as a group is good because it helps you to cultivate collaborative skills.

4. Flowchart Assignments

Flowcharts represent processes or workflow of events using boxes connected together with arrow. Students will use flowcharts to show step-by-step procedures to solve given tasks.

For example, they can use flowcharts to represent service or administrative processes, manufacturing processes, or project plans.

5. Project Report Assignments

Project report assignments are to be written in future tense if the goals intended are yet to be met and in past tense where the intended goal has been achieved.

This assignment provides stakeholders with a brief preview of the projects at hand and clues whether a given project will be a success or will need improvement to meet the set goal. Students should also draft their reports with factual details.

A report should have the following arrangement:

• Acknowledgements
• Table of content
• Introduction

The body should not feature any subtitles. The conclusion, on the other hand, should feature recommendations, references, and appendices.

The aim of having project reports is to ensure students are capable of organizing both their works and goals.

6. Reflective Journal Assignments

A reflective journal is one of the types of assignments that require students to write what they understand according to what they think.

Most students who find reflective assignments hard to do can always request academic writing help from the experts in their areas of study.

7. Research Paper Assignments

With research paper assignments, students are supposed to choose topics they can explore as they come up with explanations to support their investigation.

In this assignment, students are to survey their research to understand the study that they carry out. A good research paper will feature findings that check and marge with the hypothesis .

A good example of a research paper assignment that your teacher may ask you to write is a theology paper .

8. Case study Assignments

The goal of the case study assignment is to find out whether or not students can investigate situations.

The assignment will suggest scenarios to students for a given study and provide secondary or subordinate questions. It is the work of the student to treat the scenario as real. That way, they can get the right answers for the given case study within the shortest time possible.

A case study response should be authentic, reasonable, and based on facts. In a case study assignment, students are at liberty of having politicians, the public, and professionals as their audiences.

When it comes to writing, you have to avoid the use of a massive block of words instead but make the findings should be precise and direct to the point.

8. Wiki Assignments

Wiki assignments involve putting together information modified to about any imaginary audience. Wikis let students share their ideas and provide supportive pieces of evidence to illustrate amalgamation of understanding.

Wiki is another way of telling students the importance of collaborating with fellow students, as it allows them to come up with their own posts on given studies.

Students are at liberty of creating a list, writing research questions, or starting discussions. They are also able to comment and edit any document shared. Or they can collaborate and come up with a single well-researched and detailed post.

This is one of the simplest assignments you will ever come across in school. You can get wiki free and inexpensive wikis on websites like Wikispaces, PBwiki and Wetpaint.

Lastly, a wiki is among the tools used in colleges to help students get to an immense diversification of instructional targets.

9. Literature Review Assignments

A literature review assignment is an important pedagogical tool for students in college. Depending on the given scenario or topic, students have to validate answers by studying given literatures.

Students are supposed to use the official language and maintain high levels of literature as they prepare literature reviews.

While writing this assignment, you are encouraged to have an introduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction grabs the attention of the reader, the body explains the main idea and the conclusion tells the reader the overall summary of your study. 

Apart from providing similarities and differences after evaluating more than one source, you are still supposed to give their conclusive judgments.

10. Personal Narrative Assignments

Most lecturers allocate 5% to 10% of their overall grade to personal narrative assignments.

Personal narrative essays are two pages long, which means students should always provide brief answers to the topic.

Most lecturers use this assignment to get to know their students as the semester kicks off.

11. Annotated Bibliography Assignments

Annotated Bibliography is a type of college assignment that requires students to gather related findings relevant to the topic under investigation arranged alphabetically.

Annotated bibliography assignment also requires students to use the official language and be as objective as possible.

A good annotated bibliography should have a summary of the assignment in the first section. The assignment checks whether students are collect and recognize literature relating to given topics.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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• Knowledge Base

The Beginner's Guide to Writing an Essay | Steps & Examples

An academic essay is a focused piece of writing that develops an idea or argument using evidence, analysis, and interpretation.

There are many types of essays you might write as a student. The content and length of an essay depends on your level, subject of study, and course requirements. However, most essays at university level are argumentative — they aim to persuade the reader of a particular position or perspective on a topic.

The essay writing process consists of three main stages:

• Preparation: Decide on your topic, do your research, and create an essay outline.
• Writing : Set out your argument in the introduction, develop it with evidence in the main body, and wrap it up with a conclusion.
• Revision:  Check your essay on the content, organization, grammar, spelling, and formatting of your essay.

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Table of contents

Essay writing process, preparation for writing an essay, writing the introduction, writing the main body, writing the conclusion, essay checklist, lecture slides, frequently asked questions about writing an essay.

The writing process of preparation, writing, and revisions applies to every essay or paper, but the time and effort spent on each stage depends on the type of essay .

For example, if you’ve been assigned a five-paragraph expository essay for a high school class, you’ll probably spend the most time on the writing stage; for a college-level argumentative essay , on the other hand, you’ll need to spend more time researching your topic and developing an original argument before you start writing.

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Before you start writing, you should make sure you have a clear idea of what you want to say and how you’re going to say it. There are a few key steps you can follow to make sure you’re prepared:

• Understand your assignment: What is the goal of this essay? What is the length and deadline of the assignment? Is there anything you need to clarify with your teacher or professor?
• Define a topic: If you’re allowed to choose your own topic , try to pick something that you already know a bit about and that will hold your interest.
• Do your research: Read  primary and secondary sources and take notes to help you work out your position and angle on the topic. You’ll use these as evidence for your points.
• Come up with a thesis:  The thesis is the central point or argument that you want to make. A clear thesis is essential for a focused essay—you should keep referring back to it as you write.
• Create an outline: Map out the rough structure of your essay in an outline . This makes it easier to start writing and keeps you on track as you go.

Once you’ve got a clear idea of what you want to discuss, in what order, and what evidence you’ll use, you’re ready to start writing.

The introduction sets the tone for your essay. It should grab the reader’s interest and inform them of what to expect. The introduction generally comprises 10–20% of the text.

1. Hook your reader

The first sentence of the introduction should pique your reader’s interest and curiosity. This sentence is sometimes called the hook. It might be an intriguing question, a surprising fact, or a bold statement emphasizing the relevance of the topic.

Let’s say we’re writing an essay about the development of Braille (the raised-dot reading and writing system used by visually impaired people). Our hook can make a strong statement about the topic:

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

2. Provide background on your topic

Next, it’s important to give context that will help your reader understand your argument. This might involve providing background information, giving an overview of important academic work or debates on the topic, and explaining difficult terms. Don’t provide too much detail in the introduction—you can elaborate in the body of your essay.

3. Present the thesis statement

Next, you should formulate your thesis statement— the central argument you’re going to make. The thesis statement provides focus and signals your position on the topic. It is usually one or two sentences long. The thesis statement for our essay on Braille could look like this:

As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness.

4. Map the structure

In longer essays, you can end the introduction by briefly describing what will be covered in each part of the essay. This guides the reader through your structure and gives a preview of how your argument will develop.

The invention of Braille marked a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by blind and visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

Write your essay introduction

The body of your essay is where you make arguments supporting your thesis, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. Its purpose is to present, interpret, and analyze the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.

Length of the body text

The length of the body depends on the type of essay. On average, the body comprises 60–80% of your essay. For a high school essay, this could be just three paragraphs, but for a graduate school essay of 6,000 words, the body could take up 8–10 pages.

Paragraph structure

To give your essay a clear structure , it is important to organize it into paragraphs . Each paragraph should be centered around one main point or idea.

That idea is introduced in a  topic sentence . The topic sentence should generally lead on from the previous paragraph and introduce the point to be made in this paragraph. Transition words can be used to create clear connections between sentences.

After the topic sentence, present evidence such as data, examples, or quotes from relevant sources. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how it helps develop your overall argument.

Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education.

See the full essay example

The conclusion is the final paragraph of an essay. It should generally take up no more than 10–15% of the text . A strong essay conclusion :

• Returns to your thesis
• Ties together your main points
• Shows why your argument matters

A great conclusion should finish with a memorable or impactful sentence that leaves the reader with a strong final impression.

What not to include in a conclusion

To make your essay’s conclusion as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid. The most common mistakes are:

• Including new arguments or evidence
• Undermining your arguments (e.g. “This is just one approach of many”)
• Using concluding phrases like “To sum up…” or “In conclusion…”

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

Write your essay conclusion

Checklist: Essay

My essay follows the requirements of the assignment (topic and length ).

My introduction sparks the reader’s interest and provides any necessary background information on the topic.

My introduction contains a thesis statement that states the focus and position of the essay.

I use paragraphs to structure the essay.

I use topic sentences to introduce each paragraph.

Each paragraph has a single focus and a clear connection to the thesis statement.

I make clear transitions between paragraphs and ideas.

My conclusion doesn’t just repeat my points, but draws connections between arguments.

I don’t introduce new arguments or evidence in the conclusion.

I have given an in-text citation for every quote or piece of information I got from another source.

I have included a reference page at the end of my essay, listing full details of all my sources.

My citations and references are correctly formatted according to the required citation style .

My essay has an interesting and informative title.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (e.g. font, page numbers, line spacing).

Your essay meets all the most important requirements. Our editors can give it a final check to help you submit with confidence.

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An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates.

In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills.

Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

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Reflective writing: Types of reflective assignments

• What is reflection? Why do it?
• What does reflection involve?
• Reflective questioning
• Reflective writing for academic assessment

Types of reflective assignments

• Differences between discursive and reflective writing
• Sources of evidence for reflective writing assignments
• Linking theory to experience
• Reflective essays
• Portfolios and learning journals, logs and diaries
• Examples of reflective writing
• Video summary
• Bibliography

On this page:

“Reflection in a programme of study or professional context is a purposeful activity. It drives learning and change...” Williams et al., Reflective thinking

What do you reflect on as part of assignments?

While you should be reflecting on all of your studies and assignments, the previous page introduced some aspects of courses that often explicitly require reflection. This page will consider what issues you should address when reflecting on each area of your course - especially as part of an assessment.

There are two different kinds of reflection that you may encounter at university and the sections below consider each. If the focus of your assignment is to look at theory in practice, you are likely to be looking at reflection focused on theory and academic evidence . This is often the case for disciplines where reflective practice is an important part of the profession (Social Work, Nursing and Education are good examples). If you are being asked to reflect as part of your learning or as personal development, you are likely to be looking at reflection focused on you and your development . This is also the case for students reflecting as part of their Hull Employability Awards.

Reflection focused on theory and academic evidence

In this kind of reflection, the aim is to relate theory and academic evidence to practice (and vice versa ). This is achieved by comparing your experiences to theory and exploring the relationships between both. This will enable you discuss to what extent they are comparable or not. Theory can also be used to reflectively interpret your experiences. See the video on our Linking theory to experience page   for examples of how to do this.

For any kind of reflection, you should consider:

The event or experience

How does the event or experience relate to theory or academic evidence?

Theory and/or academic evidence

What is the relationship between the theory/evidence and your event/experience?

The relationship between

This is the relationship between the event/experience and theory/academic evidence. To what extent are the two comparable? Why is this?

As with all academic writing you must consider evidence. In this context your experiences, reflections and academic evidence can be used.

Your understanding

Can you apply theory or academic evidence to your reflection to increase your understanding of it?

Your development

All the ideas in developmental reflection below are often applicable to an academic context. (See below)

Reflection focused on you and your development:

In this kind of reflection, the focus is on you. You need to reflect on your experiences to highlight the learning and development you have achieved. You need to use your experiences as reflective learning points to inform future events.

What you are learning

It's why you are here after all! (In assignments, only a brief description needs to be written about what you are learning as your lecturer knows the topic already.)

• How you are learning it

We do not simply absorb information. Reflect on how you learn best so you can keep doing it

• How you are using what you are learning

Seeing the use and value of what you are learning is a fantastic motivator

• What your strengths and weaknesses in learning are

Knowing your strengths and weaknesses can help you identify areas to focus on. This can be for both improving your weaknesses and maximising your strengths.

• What your learning priorities are

There are many aspects to defining your learning priorities. You may wish to focus on certain areas to achieve your desired grade. You could be matching requirements for your future career goals. Perhaps you're sticking to your strengths or interests?

• How you can improve and build upon your learning process

The more time you put into figuring out how you learn and what works for you - the easier you will find your studies.

• How well you are working toward your short-, medium- and long-term goals.

There is no point in setting yourself goals if you do not have any checks in place to see if you are succeeding. Use reflection to keep checking on your progress and revise your goals if you need to.

How your reflection can inform future practice

Reflection is all about improving for the future. Use your reflection to inform future practice. This works for all disciplines - from scientists devising a new approach for experimentation to nurses devising ways to improve their patient care.

• What you are learning (only a brief description need be written about this - your lecturer knows the topic already)

Do not forget to also consider:

• your motivation
• your attitudes and ideas, and changes in these
• the skills you need for different components of your study and learning
• if anything is blocking your learning
• the gaps in your knowledge and skills
• how you might address any of these gaps.
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A More Efficient and Productive Way to Conduct Math Assessments

Here’s how to assign graded work that more accurately assesses elementary students’ learning and saves time.

Many elementary math teachers I work with have a love/hate relationship with graded work and assessments. Teachers need data that will drive instruction, but it can seem like students are constantly being assessed, and there’s too much to sift through. There is a way to work smarter and consolidate this process to maximize student learning and the purpose of this practice.  

Throughout this exploration of the components of graded work, I want to acknowledge and validate that I repeatedly hear from teachers that they want students to build stamina, they want students to be able to show their thinking independently (not just when they’re with the teacher), and there’s not enough time.

I agree with all of that, and the considerations below can be a starting place for refining current practices. 

How much work

Consider how much work you’re asking students to do. Teachers often have the dilemma of how to give grades while keeping the parents’ perspectives in mind. Parents use grades to measure mastery, indicating whether they should be worried about their children academically. This can make teachers want to assign students 10 to 20 questions so that they don’t get a 75 percent for missing one question.

This is problematic for many reasons. We need to assess what we value and communicate that to students and parents. When students see that they’re only getting credit if an answer is correct, the answer is all they value, and their parents follow suit.

So, what is the goal of an assignment? The goal is not to get the right answer. A calculator can do that. We want to create critical, flexible thinkers who can think computationally and efficiently. To be a future-ready learner and a critical thinker, students must communicate and think thoughtfully about the content they’re learning. They must learn how to get the thoughts swirling in their mind onto paper so that when a problem is too difficult, they know how to process it thoroughly.

Type of work

Consider the type of work you’re asking students to do. Students need to be able to communicate their thinking through speaking and writing. That’s not only what good mathematicians do but also a skill that students will use daily throughout their lives.

When we assign multiple-choice questions to students, we can’t see much of their thinking or the process of how they reached the circled answer. We don’t know if they got lucky, guessed, used deductive reasoning, or truly understood the problem. The answer choices give the student a starting place, placing the question at a lower level of rigor. This is why some states are going away from multiple-choice tests.

Assessing students this way makes it very difficult to respond accurately to their needs, and it reminds me of a quote from one of the most highly respected math educators, author Marilyn Burns : “Correct answers can mask confusion, just like incorrect answers can hide understanding.” Students need to show mastery of the mathematical practices or process standards, not only the content or computation. 

Here are some parameters to keep in mind to understand components of student thinking systematically.

• Include only two or three questions.
• Use questions from recent and spiraled essential standards, so that students must use their problem-solving skills more heavily. When students know what concept an entire assignment is about, they don’t have to productively struggle as much.
• In upper grades, provide a checklist of student behaviors you’d like to assess. In lower grades, providing labeled boxes or the representations you wish to see is helpful for organization and guidance. Anticipate misconceptions when choosing the skills to assess so that you have current data to drive small group instruction. 
• Scaffold skills that are harder to grasp until students get the hang of it. Students will need guidance for the level of expected rigor.

When students get used to this system, they will have fewer questions about what’s expected, and this deep level of thinking will become habitual. Here are lower-grade and upper-grade examples. You can give points for each part of the checklist to communicate that student thinking is valued as much as the answer. 

Graded work as an assessment

Consider using graded work as an assessment that drives part of your small group instruction. When we value student thinking, we can get to the root of misunderstandings because they have been thoroughly exposed. Some teachers feel that students need to practice more questions to gain stamina and do well on other tests. Thinking this deeply about problems does develop stamina.

There are other parts of the math block that allow students to answer many problems, such as learning stations. Since you’re already sitting down to grade student work possibly weekly or even more often, use this work for multiple purposes. You can use it to get grades and gain insight for small group instruction as you create groups based on problem-solving and content misconceptions while grading instead of using multiple sources. This will eliminate some exit tickets or other assessments from your weekly routine.

As you see common misunderstandings, think about a specific skill you can teach students to clear up that misconception, and group those students together or use a tool like this one as you grade each paper. You walk away from a grading session with intentional groups that will last for a week or maybe longer. 

These slight adjustments to make student work more open-ended have countless benefits. Not only can these moves help all students grow and show visible next steps, but also this streamlined approach can create more consistency in communication about academic progress among students, teachers, and parents. It can save teachers time by allowing them to grade fewer problems and feel more in tune with student needs. And not only will you end up with grades in the gradebook, but also you’ll be prepared with intentional small groups for upcoming instruction. Students will become more independent and targeted in their thinking, helping teachers to know them better as learners and grow them as mathematicians. 

• Implementing Product Management

Example of Assigning Organizations Using Item Rules

You can define assignment rules that automatically assign items to one or more organizations when a condition is satisfied. The condition can be based on attribute values, another organization assignment, or a catalog assignment.

The following table summarizes an example of an item rule that:

Is defined in an assignment rule set.

Tests whether an item has a product type of In-house . If the result of the test is true, then assign the item to the organizations M2 and M3 .

Tests whether an item has a product type of Bought-outside . If the result of the test is true, then assign the item to the organization T1 .

Note that this rule has more than one THEN expression. You add THEN expressions by using the Add Row action. The expressions are evaluated in the sequence of the rows, and the execution is halted when the first THEN expression evaluates to True. You can add additional rows of Then Expressions by clicking Add Row .

Related Topics

• Rules and Rule Sets
• Define Rule Sets and Item Rules
• Item Rule Syntax

• Open access
• Published: 27 November 2023

The construction of a testis transcriptional cell atlas from embryo to adult reveals various somatic cells and their molecular roles

• Najmeh Salehi 1 &
• Mehdi Totonchi 2  

Journal of Translational Medicine volume  21 , Article number:  859 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The testis is a complex organ that undergoes extensive developmental changes from the embryonic stage to adulthood. The development of germ cells, which give rise to spermatozoa, is tightly regulated by the surrounding somatic cells.

To better understand the dynamics of these changes, we constructed a transcriptional cell atlas of the testis, integrating single-cell RNA sequencing data from over 26,000 cells across five developmental stages: fetal germ cells, infants, childhood, peri-puberty, and adults. We employed various analytical techniques, including clustering, cell type assignments, identification of differentially expressed genes, pseudotime analysis, weighted gene co-expression network analysis, and evaluation of paracrine cell–cell communication, to comprehensively analyze this transcriptional cell atlas of the testis.

Our analysis revealed remarkable heterogeneity in both somatic and germ cell populations, with the highest diversity observed in Sertoli and Myoid somatic cells, as well as in spermatogonia, spermatocyte, and spermatid germ cells. We also identified key somatic cell genes, including RPL39, RPL10, RPL13A, FTH1, RPS2, and RPL18A, which were highly influential in the weighted gene co-expression network of the testis transcriptional cell atlas and have been previously implicated in male infertility. Additionally, our analysis of paracrine cell–cell communication supported specific ligand-receptor interactions involved in neuroactive, cAMP, and estrogen signaling pathways, which support the crucial role of somatic cells in regulating germ cell development.

Conclusions

Overall, our transcriptional atlas provides a comprehensive view of the cell-to-cell heterogeneity in the testis and identifies key somatic cell genes and pathways that play a central role in male fertility across developmental stages.

Testis undergoes significant changes in both physiology and morphology from fetal life to adulthood, driven by complex hormonal and molecular adjustments that promote the maturation of somatic cells and the initiation of spermatogenesis [ 1 , 2 ]. The primordial germ cells, which are the primary undifferentiated stem cells, migrate to the gonadal ridge during embryonic development and differentiate into gonocytes in male embryos [ 3 ]. These gonocytes, along with other embryonic precursors of sperms called fetal germ cells (FGCs) [ 4 ], eventually give rise to spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) after birth [ 5 ]. SSCs have the unique ability to self-renew, maintaining the stem cell pool throughout life while also differentiating into spermatocytes (SPCs) through active mitosis. SPCs undergo two meiotic cell divisions, giving rise to haploid cells called spermatids (SPTs), which differentiate into mature sperm through the complex process of spermatogenesis [ 6 ]. Somatic cells such as Sertoli cells, peritubular myoid cells, and Leydig cells play an essential role in testis formation and spermatogenesis [ 7 , 8 ]. However, our understanding of somatic cell heterogeneity and their precise roles in spermatogenesis remains limited.

Male fertility and puberty rely on spermatogenesis within the seminiferous epithelium of the testis to facilitate the production of millions of sperm in normal men [ 9 , 10 ]. Regrettably, 17.5% of couples worldwide face infertility, and half of these cases are related to male factors [ 11 ]. Male infertility is typically caused by spermatogenesis abnormalities with unknown causes, making it difficult to treat [ 12 , 13 ]. Meanwhile, between 1500 to 2000 genes play a role in spermatogenesis, and any changes in these genes could disturb male fertility [ 10 , 14 ]. Genetic diagnosis of male infertility involves screening a small number of candidate genes, mainly based on case reports [ 13 , 15 ]. High-resolution profiles of gene expression in spermatogenesis can disclose new insights and identify many key genes involved in this process [ 16 ].

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) approaches can provide high-resolution profiles to explore the difference within and between cell types, find rare cell types, track the trajectories of cells in development, uncover the function of each cell type, and show regulatory relationships between genes [ 17 ]. In this regard, scRNA-seq analysis of FGCs and their gonadal niche cells in male and female human embryos was performed, revealing multiple developmental stages [ 4 ]. In some studies, alterations in spermatogenic cell types were evaluated during age changes [ 2 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Most of the scRNA-seq studies investigated the process of spermatogenesis in fertile adult men [ 2 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. However, few studies have explored scRNA-seq in men with infertility disorders [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. All of these studies have attempted to find heterogeneity between and within spermatogenic cell types by clustering, identifying differentially expressed genes (DEGs), and performing enrichment analysis.

Studies have demonstrated the essential role that somatic cells play in promoting spermatogenesis. These cells facilitate complex cell-to-cell interactions, transport proteins, express crucial genes in the spermatogenesis process, and produce enzymes and regulatory factors [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. However, most studies have focused on the various types of Sertoli cells and their interactions with germ cells [ 2 , 26 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ] with less attention given to other somatic cells. Therefore, a thorough investigation of somatic cells is necessary to fully comprehend the effects and contributions of these cells on spermatogenesis. So, in this study, we constructed a transcriptional cell atlas of the testis from embryo to adult to gain a more comprehensive understanding of somatic cell diversity and their contributions to male fertility. To characterize cell heterogeneity in this atlas, various analyses including clustering, cell type assignments, identification of DEGs, enrichment analysis, and pseudotime trajectory analysis were conducted. In addition, a gene co-expression network and cell–cell communication network were generated, and their topological analysis identified important genes in somatic cells associated with male infertility in this fertile data.

Data retrieval and processing

Raw scRNA-seq data for male fetal gonads (1187 cells) were retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) [ 36 ] repository through accession number GSE86146 [ 4 ]. This data was collected from twelve male embryos of 4 to 25 weeks old (W e ) which were classified as “Fetal” data in this study. The scRNA-seq data for 2 and 7 days old, “Infancy” data, was selected from GSE124263 [ 19 ] which contains 8789 unfractionated cells from the testes of two neonatal. For the “Childhood” data collection, 1341, 1968, and 4176 cells from about 1 year old (GSE120506) [ 18 ], 7, and 11 years old (GSE134144) [ 2 ] donors were downloaded from GEO. Also, the scRNA-seq data of 13- and 14-years old donors in the GSE134144 data series containing 4051 and 2722 cells, respectively, were used for “Peri-puberty”. To have a comprehensive comparison, the steady state spermatogenic cells of GSE109037 and GSE106487 data series were gathered in this study with 7134 and 3046 cells, respectively [ 21 , 22 ]. The dataset names, age of donors, scRNA-seq methods, GEO ID, and the initial number of cells in each dataset were summarized in Additional file 1 : Table S1. The Seurat4.0.0 R package [ 37 ] was used for scRNA-seq data analysis. In each data, cells with less than 500 expressed genes and genes with less than 3 cells expression were removed. Also, cells with a high or low number of genes, and cells with more than 25% of mitochondrial genes were filtered. For each data, the “LogNormalize” method was used for normalization and highly variable features were identified. Finally, 26,642 cells were gathered for integration.

Data integration and analysis

In order to relate different data from different groups of donors and across different scRNA-seq technologies, the anchor strategy was used. In this strategy, an unsupervised method is implemented to find an anchor set with a common biological state for data integration. 35 dimensions were used in the anchor weighting procedure. Then a linear transformation (scaling), and dimensional reduction (principal component analysis (PCA)) were performed on the new integrated dataset. The Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) [ 38 ], as a non-linear dimensional reduction technique, was used to visualize and explore this integrated dataset. The number of dimensions was set to 35 according to the ranking of principal components based on the percentage of variance, and other parameters of UMAP implementation were set by default. To cluster the cells, the graph-based clustering approach implemented in the Seurat R package was used. The dimensionality and the resolution parameters to construct a shared nearest neighbor graph and clustering were set to 35 and 0.3, respectively. The specific markers of testicular germ and somatic cells were collected from the literature and evaluated to assign the cell type of clusters.

Differentially expressed genes and enrichment analysis

The integrated dataset was used to find DEGs between different clusters. The Seurat R package uses the non-parametric Wilcoxon rank sum test [ 39 ] to identify the positive and negative markers of each cluster compared to all other clusters. The minimum percentage (min.pct) and the log fold-change of the average expression (logfc.threshold) were set to 0.25 and 0.5, respectively. The Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) v6.8 [ 40 ] was used for gene enrichment analysis. The up-regulated genes of somatic cells with an averaged log fold-change > 0.7 and adjusted p-value (based on Bonferroni correction) < 0.05 were considered for enrichment analysis. The biological processes (BPs) terms were filtered based on the Benjamini correction score (adjusted p-value).

Pseudotime analysis

Monocle3 R package was used for pseudotime analysis [ 41 ]. In this regard, the integrated data, dimension reduction, and clustering information were imported from Seurat to the Monocle3 package. Monocle learns the sequence of gene expression changes of each cell as part of a dynamic biological process and places each cell at its proper position in the trajectory.

Co-expression network construction and analysis

To identify groups of genes that tend to be expressed together in a coordinated manner across various cells and developmental stages, a weighted gene co-expression network (WGCN) was created by the WGCNA R package [ 42 ]. Various values of soft thresholding power β were evaluated to create the WGCN with a scale-free topology. The value of 5 was ultimately chosen. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to measure the correlation between the expression of each pair of genes and the signed network option was used to maintain only positive correlations. The topological overlap measure (TOM) was used to uncover modules in the WGCN. This measure assesses the similarities between gene pairs by counting the number of shared neighbors in the network. The modules were visualized in the network by assigning different colors to each group of co-expressed genes. Any genes that lack significant co-expression with other genes were placed in a gray module and were removed from further analysis. The relationships between the different modules were illustrated by utilizing module eigengenes, which represent the first principal component of gene expression within each module. Constructed WGCN was exported to Cytoscape [ 43 ] and CytoNCA [ 44 ] was used for centralities measurements. To measure the p-value for each gene, the random gene label permuting was used for 100,000 steps.

Cell communication inference

The SingleCellSignalR R package [ 45 ] is utilized to infer intercellular signaling communications. This approach profiles the ligand-receptor (L-R) interaction from scRNA-seq data based on a comprehensive database of known L-R interactions using a new regularized product score. The paracrine interactions between cell clusters were computed, and the s.score (LRscore) and logFC were set to 0.7 and 1.5, respectively. The cell–cell communication network was exported to Cytoscape [ 43 ] and CytoNCA[ 44 ] was used for centralities measurements.

Testis transcriptional cell atlas from embryo to adult.

Raw scRNA-seq data of fetal gonad cells and testis cells from individuals aged from two days to adulthood, a total of 34,414 cells, were collected from the GEO database (Fig.  1 A, Additional file 1 : Table S1). Each dataset was independently filtered and normalized as mentioned in the method section. These scRNA-seq data were classified into five datasets: fetal (4–25 w e ), infancy (2, 7 days), childhood (1, 7, 11 years), peri-puberty (13, 14 years), and adulthood (> 27 years). After pre-processing, 26,642 cells were integrated to construct a testis transcriptional cell atlas from embryo to adult. Representation of the integrated datasets in the low-dimensional space of UMAP (Fig.  1 B) showed that similar cells in different datasets were well-aligned, while most adult cells appeared separately and did not align with cells in other datasets, consistent with testis development. The representation of each dataset’s cells in the integrated low-dimensional space of UMAP is presented in Additional file 1 : Fig. S1. Unsupervised graph-based clustering revealed 18 clusters in this integrated data, some of which are continuous and others in isolated clusters in the UMAP graph plot (Fig.  1 C).

Profiling and integrating scRNA-seq data of male fetal gonad cells to adult testis cells. A Datasets information such as name, age, GEO ID, the number of cells for each data set, and total cells were listed. B , C UMAP plot of integrated testis transcriptional cell atlas from male fetal gonad cells to adult testis cells. Cells are colored based on B the classified datasets, C clustering results

Cell type assignment shows heterogeneity among testicular cells.

Known markers of somatic and germ cells were selected, and their expressions were evaluated to determine the cell type of each cluster. According to the expression pattern of AMH , GATA4 , and SOX9 [ 46 ], clusters 2, 11, and 13 correspond to the Sertoli cells (Fig.  2 A, B, Additional file 1 : Fig. S2). ARX and C7 [ 4 , 47 ] as Leydig markers were expressed in cluster 1 (Fig.  2 A, B, Additional file 1 : Fig. S3). Clusters 17 and 18 with high expression of MYH11 and ACTA2 represent myoid cells [ 22 , 48 ] (Fig.  2 A, B, Additional file 1 : Fig. S4). ALDH1A1 was expressed as a common marker between Sertoli, Leydig, and Myoid cells in all these clusters (1, 2, 11, 13, 17, and 18) [ 49 ] (Additional file 1 : Fig. S3). Macrophage ( CD68 , CD163 , and MSRC1 ) [ 50 , 51 ] and Endothelial ( VWF and SOX17 ) [ 18 , 52 ] markers showed high expression in Cluster 12 and 3, respectively (Fig.  2 A, B, Additional file 1 : Figs. S5, S6). PIWIL4 is one of the key genes for SSC maintenance expressed in cluster 4 [ 18 ]. MAGEA4 and HMGA1 are markers for undifferentiated and differentiating SSCs expressed in both clusters 4 and 8, indicating cluster 8 as differentiating SSCs [ 22 , 53 ] (Fig.  2 A, B, Additional file 1 : Fig. S7). It is worth noting that FGCs and SSCs exhibit a high degree of similarity, particularly in their gene expression patterns [ 54 ], which has led them to be grouped together in the same cluster. DMC1 is a mitotic gene and Leptotene SPC marker [ 22 ] is expressed in cluster 15. PIWIL1 shows the highest expression level in zygotene and pachytene SPC cells while it is expressed from spermatocyte to spermatid cells [ 55 ]. SYCP3 expression starts from differentiating SSCs and continues to early round SPT cells [ 56 ]. OVOL2 is a common marker between zygotene, pachytene, and diplotene SPC cells correlated to the presence of the sex body during male meiosis in mammals [ 57 ]. Thus, Clusters 10, 16, and 9 correspond to zygotene, pachytene, and diplotene SPC cells, respectively (Fig.  2 A, B, Additional file 1 : Fig. S8). Clusters 6 and 14 with high expression of TEX29 and SUN5 markers were identified as round SPT cells [ 22 ]. ACR and PGK2 are markers for zygotene to round spermatids and elongating spermatids, respectively [ 58 , 59 ]. SPEM1 is expressed in both round and late SPT [ 60 ], suggesting that cluster 7 belongs to elongating SPT cells (Fig.  2 A, B, Additional file 1 : Fig. S9). Finally, the expression pattern of VIM as a somatic and DDX4 as a germ cell marker [ 61 , 62 ] confirm all these cell type assignments. These cluster assignments were depicted in the UMAP space in Fig.  2 C. The number of cells from each dataset in each cluster and related cell type assignments is summarized in Additional file 1 : Table S2.

Cell type assignment of clusters. A Gene markers of male testis were categorized based on different somatic, spermatogonia, spermatocyte, and spermatid cells, B gene expression patterns of these markers were shown on the UMAP space and colored based on the A part categorization, C cell type assignment of clusters based on gene markers expression patterns

The developmental timeline of all cells in the 2D UMAP space shows that the germ cell formed in an unbroken, continuous way which is consistent with the developmental order of spermatogenesis, but somatic cells were represented as independent islands (Fig.  3 A). The percentage of dataset cells in each cell type showed the presence of undifferentiated and differentiating SSCs in all datasets from fetal to adulthood. However, the later developmental germ cells, SPCs, and SPTs are mainly present in the peri-puberty and adulthood datasets (Fig.  3 B). Different somatic cell types were present from fetal to adulthood in various percentages. Sertoli-2, -1, and -3 are mostly present in Fetal-, Infancy-, and Childhood-related datasets, respectively. A relatively high proportion of Moyid-2 cells belong to the Fetal dataset, while this proportion is reduced for Myoid-1. These results led us to focus on somatic cells. The DEGs in all clusters were presented in Additional file 2 . The top BPs of up-regulated genes in Sertoli-1 are “aerobic respiration”, “ATP synthesis coupled electron transport”, “cellular response to steroid hormone stimulus”, and “male gonad development”, while Sertoli-2 was enriched with “very-low-density lipoprotein particle clearance”, “positive regulation of cholesterol esterification”, “phospholipid efflux” and Sertoli-3 BPs were “cellular respiration”, “mitochondrial electron transport, cytochrome c to oxygen”, “mitochondrial ATP synthesis” (Fig.  3 C). According to these results, the top BPs of up-regulated genes in Sertoli-1 are related to energy metabolism and male gonad development, while Sertoli-2 is enriched with BPs related to cholesterol metabolism, and Sertoli-3 is associated with BPs related to cellular respiration and mitochondrial function. Myoid-1 and -2 cells are involved in different BPs. Myoid-1 cells are involved in “platelet aggregation”, “angiogenesis”, and “muscle contraction”, while Myoid-2 cells are involved in “detoxification of copper ion”, “negative regulation of growth”, and “cellular oxidant detoxification” (Fig.  3 C). The number of up- and down-regulated genes in somatic cell types indicated the most changes in Endothelial, Macrophage, Leydig, and Sertoli-1 (Fig.  3 D).

Developmental ordering of testicular cells and somatic cells enrichment. A The pseudotime analysis of testicular cells on the UMAP space, B the percent of datasets cells in each cell type, C the biological processes enrichment for up-regulated genes of somatic cells, D the number of up- and down-regulated genes in somatic cell types

Gene co-expression network analysis uncovers cell-specific modules in spermatogenesis.

The clustering dendrogram analysis of the WGCN uncovered the presence of 6 distinct modules (Fig.  4 A). The eigengene adjacency heatmap presented a strong correlation between the red-yellow, red-blue, turquoise-brown, and turquoise-green modules (Fig.  4 B). The concentration of gene expression in the yellow module on the UMAP space was found to be higher in clusters 4 and 8, indicating that this module is associated with co-expressed genes in spermatogonia cells (Fig.  4 C, D). The location of the red module eigengenes on the UMAP space and the presence of higher values in clusters 15, 16, 10, and 9 suggest that this module is connected to the spermatocyte cells, as shown in Fig.  4 C, D. The analysis of the blue module showed a correlation between it and spermatid cells, with higher expression levels found in clusters 5, 14, 6, and 7. The green module was found to be related to the expression of genes in both endothelial and macrophage cells, while the brown module was related to the expression of genes in Sertoli cells. Meanwhile, the turquoise module comprised gene expression from all somatic cells (Fig.  4 C, D). Figure  5 A displays the WGCN of the integrated data using Cytoscape and is color-coded according to their related modules. The nodes that have high degree values and low p-value are identified in Additional file 3 and their expressions are shown in Fig.  5 B, which belong to the blue and turquoise modules. Furthermore, the expression of these genes was assessed in various cell types, revealing that the majority of these genes were expressed in pachytene spermatocytes to elongating spermatids, while some of them were expressed in somatic cells (Fig.  5 C). The top-degree genes with high expression in somatic cells were RPL39 , RPL10 , RPL13A , FTH1 , RPS2 , and RPL18A .

Weighted gene co-expression network analysis. A The clustering dendrogram of the weighted gene co-expression network (The resulting modules are depicted in different colors), B the eigengene adjacency heatmap displays the relationship between these modules, C the gene expression patterns for each module are shown on the UMAP space with their corresponding colors, D the eigengene of each module in each cluster

The topological analysis of the weighted gene co-expression network. A The presentation of the weighted gene co-expression network, B The subgraph of genes with the highest degree centralities. C The expressions of these top-degree centrality genes along different cell types

Assessment of paracrine cell–cell communication exposed top ligand-receptor (L-R) interactions between somatic and germ cells.

Paracrine cell–cell communication was assessed among all cell types in scRNA-seq profiles (Additional file 4 ). The number of interactions between each pair of cells as ligand and receptor was depicted in Fig.  6 A, which shows that somatic cells such as Myoid-1 and -2, Macrophage, and Sertoli-3 cells have the most ligands interacting with germ cells as the receptors. The most frequent L-R interactions were between the Myoid-1 and undifferentiated SSC and round SPT-1 (Fig.  6 B). Additional file 1 : Fig. S10 displays the details of other common paracrine somatic-germ cell communications, in addition to the ones mentioned in Fig.  6 B. The details of all somatic and germ cells L-R interactions were reported in Additional file 5 , sorted based on the LRscore. The top ten L-R pairs involving somatic-to-germ cell paracrine communication, ranked by their scores, were HLA-C-SLC9C2, CALM1-MIP, CALM2-ADCY8, CALM2-GRM5, B2M-CD3D, CALM1-ADCY8, CALM1-CRHR1, CALM1-GRM5, CALM1-SCTR, and PTMA-VIPR1. The weighted L-R interaction network between somatic and germ cells uncovered that the largest module (Fig.  6 C) was enriched with the “Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction” “cAMP signaling pathway,” and “Estrogen signaling pathway”. Additionally, the most influential nodes (hub nodes) in this weighted L-R interaction network were CALM1, B2M, CALM2, GNAS, and CALM3 as the ligand, and LRP2, ADCY8, VIPR1, ADRB2, and CD3D as the receptor (Fig.  6 C, Additional file 6 ).

Paracrine cell–cell communication network. A Heatmap showing the number of ligand-receptor (L-R) interactions between different cell types. B L-R interactions between Myoid-1 and undifferentiated SSC, and Myoid-1 and Round SPT-1. C Paracrine cell–cell communication network between somatic and germ cells. Ligands and receptors are shown with oval and rectangle nodes, and they colored based on the degree from yellow to purple

Male germ cell development is a complex process, encompassing various stages from FGCs to SSCs and culminating in spermatogenesis, which produces mature sperm cells. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of this process and create a transcriptional cell atlas of the testis, scRNA-seq datasets from male fetal gonad cells to adult testis cells were integrated [ 2 , 4 , 16 , 18 , 19 , 21 , 22 ]. These datasets were grouped into five categories based on developmental stage: fetal (4–25 weeks), infancy (2–7 days), childhood (1, 7, 11 years), peri-puberty (13, 14 years), and adulthood (> 27 years). Integrating diverse datasets from various developmental stages, even with limited sample sizes, has the potential to provide valuable insights by allowing information from one experiment to inform the interpretation of another [ 63 ]. By aligning samples across different studies using common highly variable genes, we were able to identify shared subpopulations across studies, resulting in the inclusion of similar cell types in different datasets and providing a comprehensive overview of the integrated data.

Through clustering, marker expression, and cell type assignment of integrated data, various somatic and germ cell types in the testis can be identified which are not present in individual datasets. While somatic cells provide essential support and protection to developing germ cells, our understanding of the somatic microenvironment is limited [ 26 , 32 ]. Sertoli cells are the most abundant somatic cell type in the testis that play a crucial role in orchestrating spermatogenesis and supporting germ cell development, as well as regulating other somatic cells [ 33 ]. Previous studies have proposed that Sertoli cells undergo two developmental stages, pre- and post-puberty [ 31 , 34 ]. However, a scRNA-seq study has reported that there are two immature Sertoli cell states that converge into a single mature state [ 2 ]. Another scRNA-seq study has also introduced three stages of Sertoli cell development, with two present during infancy and puberty and all three present in adulthood [ 26 ]. In our study, also three different Sertoli cell types were identified that were present in varying proportions across five different studied developmental stages. These variations in Sertoli cell types in different studies may be due to inadequate sampling. Interestingly, the up-regulated genes in each of the three Sertoli cell types were associated with distinct biological process sets. For example, the up-regulated genes in Sertoli-1 were primarily associated with energy metabolism, male gonad development, and steroid hormone stimuli, which is consistent with the critical role of Sertoli cells in the development and function of the testes, maintenance of male reproductive physiology, and their high metabolic activity and energy demands [ 35 , 64 , 65 ]. Sertoli-2 showed enrichment in biological processes related to lipid and cholesterol metabolism, which is known to be a crucial function of Sertoli cells for spermatogenesis and male fertility [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. The enrichment of biological processes related to Sertoli-3 suggests that these cells may have high mitochondrial activity and energy metabolism, which is also essential for the high metabolic activity of Sertoli cells [ 69 , 70 ]. Conversely, the relative abundance of Sertoli-2 cells during the Fetal development stage is closely linked to their active role in lipid and cholesterol metabolism. This suggests that these cells are actively involved in laying the foundation for future sperm production and the promotion of male fertility [ 71 ]. The enrichment of Sertoli-1 cells in biological processes, linked to their active role in energy metabolism, and their high prevalence during the Infancy development stage supports spermatogenesis and the development of the male reproductive system [ 72 ]. Additionally, Sertoli-1 cells’ role in male gonad development and responsiveness to steroid hormones emphasize their critical role in establishing and maintaining male reproductive function as the individual progresses from infancy into subsequent developmental stages [ 35 , 73 ]. The present of Sertoli-3 cells during the Childhood stage, particularly in processes related to mitochondrial activity and energy metabolism, signifies their role in providing the energy necessary for growth, development, and the ongoing maturation of the male reproductive system [ 74 ]. Heterogeneity was also found among Myoid cells. Enrichment analysis indicated Myoid-1 cells play a pivotal role in muscle function and vascularization, providing structural and functional support that is essential for testis and spermatogenesis [ 75 , 76 ]. On the other hand, enrichment analysis suggested Myoid-2 cells are involved in cellular detoxification and growth regulation, crucial processes that maintain cellular homeostasis and function in the testicular cells [ 77 , 78 ]. These cells which are highly present during Fetal stage, are likely involved in detoxification and growth regulation, contributing to the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and the establishment of the proper cellular environment necessary for the development and function of the male reproductive system as the fetus progresses towards later stages of development [ 78 ].

A comprehensive collection of co-expression linkages among genes, which can be inferred from scRNA-seq data, is known as a gene co-expression network. It is a powerful tool to comprehend the intricate interplay between genes in biological systems [ 79 ]. By performing WGCN analysis, six modules of co-regulated genes were identified, which, when adapted to cell clusters, were attributed to the main stages of testicular cells, including all somatic, Endothelial, Sertoli, SSC, SPC, and SPT cells. This approach, known as “guilt by association,” was in agreement with the identified co-expressed gene modules [ 79 , 80 ]. Identifying highly connected genes in a WGCN, also known as hub genes, can help identify essential genes within each module that are more relevant to the network's functionality than other nodes [ 80 ]. In this study, most hub genes of the WGCN were expressed in pachytene spermatocytes to elongating spermatids, with some of them also being expressed in somatic cells. These somatic hub genes included RPL39 , RPL10 , RPL13A , FTH1 , RPS2 , and RPL18A . RPL39 is a gene that is expressed at very high levels in the testis and embryonic stem cells. It is also up-regulated in many cancer cell lines, particularly in hepatocellular carcinoma tumors [ 81 ]. Recent studies have suggested that RPL39 and its associated proteins that participate in ribosome biogenesis and protein synthesis may be correlated with human infertility [ 82 ]. Furthermore, the deficiency of Rpl10l , a gene with testis-specific expression, can disturb ribosome biogenesis in late-prophase spermatocytes and prohibit the transition from prophase into metaphase of the first meiotic division, resulting in male infertility [ 83 ]. Moreover, RPL13 is a potential dominant effector that can decrease sperm storage efficiency [ 84 ]. A study found significant correlations between the percentage of post-thaw motile sperm and RPL13 [ 85 ]. Additionally, RPL18A is identified as a differentially expressed gene in infertile endometriosis [ 86 ]. These findings suggest that protein synthesis is a critical process in these somatic cells and dysregulation of this process could lead to testicular disorders. FTH1 , a gene encoding ferritin heavy chain protein, has been found to be down-regulated in granulosa and cervical cells of infertile women, suggesting its potential role in female infertility [ 87 ]. In contrast, FTH1 has been shown to be overexpressed in the unilateral varicocele group compared to the fertile group, indicating its association with male infertility [ 88 ]. These findings suggest that FTH1 may play a crucial role in the regulation of reproductive processes.

By secreting signaling molecules, paracrine signaling can affect nearby cells [ 89 ]. Analyzing scRNA-seq data for the expression of ligands and receptors involved in paracrine signaling enables the identification of cell–cell interactions involved in specific biological processes [ 45 ]. Paracrine signaling is used in various cellular processes and can be dysregulated in diseases. Identifying dysregulated paracrine signaling molecules in a disease state can help identify potential therapeutic targets for drug development [ 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 ]. Paracrine signaling can influence cell behavior, including differentiation or migration [ 89 , 94 ]. Moreover, cell-to-cell communications between somatic and germ cells are fundamental requirements of normal spermatogenesis [ 29 ]. Assessment of paracrine cell–cell communication on this scRNA-seq integrated revealed the effect of somatic cells as ligands on the germ cells as receptors. Most interactions were detected between Myoid, Macrophage, Sertoli cells with SSCs cells as the ligands and receptors, respectively. Myoid and Sertoli cells play a signaling role in the regulation of undifferentiated SSCs, thus contributing to their maintenance in male mice [ 76 , 95 ]. Decoding the spermatogonial stem cell niche under physiological and recovery conditions in adult mice and humans showed niche is composed of multiple cell types, including Sertoli and Myoid cells. The interaction between SSCs and the niche is essential for maintaining SSC homeostasis [ 96 ]. An unexpected role for macrophages within the spermatogonial niche in the testis has emerged, as they express actors like CSF1 and enzymes involved in retinoic acid (RA) biosynthesis, known to influence spermatogonial proliferation and differentiation [ 97 ]. Our results showed the largest module in the L-R interaction network enriched the Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction which plays an important role in both the nervous system and reproduction system to regulate testicular function [ 98 , 99 ]. The cAMP signaling pathway is another enriched pathway that plays a crucial role in male fertility by regulating spermatogenesis, sperm motility, and capacitation [ 100 , 101 ]. Furthermore, phosphodiesterase inhibitors have been used as treatments for male infertility as they act as cAMP-level modulators [ 102 ]. Estrogen signaling is one of the essential pathways for normal spermatogenesis, testicular development, and sperm motility [ 103 , 104 , 105 ]. While the importance of enriched signaling pathways in fertility is clear, the role of all top-scored L-R pairs or highly influential nodes in the L-R interaction network in male infertility is not well understood. However, there is evidence to support their involvement in spermatogenesis and infertility. It has been reported that there is an association between HLA-C alleles and semen hyperviscosity and oligozoospermia [ 106 ], as well as a potential role in reproductive failures [ 107 ]. CALM1 , CALM2 , and CALM3 are genes that encode for calcium signaling pathways, regulating many cellular processes, including spermatogenesis [ 108 ]. High CALM1 expression is reported in women with polycystic ovary syndrome disorder [ 109 ]. B2M , a gene involved in immune responses and apoptosis triggered by an elevation in antigen presentation, was found to be up-regulated in Klinefelter syndrome patients [ 110 ]. GNAS is involved in G protein-coupled receptor signaling, and differentially methylated regions in GNAS may be associated with idiopathic male infertility [ 111 ]. Low methylation at GNAS has also been reported to be more prevalent in idiopathic infertile males, particularly in oligozoospermic males [ 112 ]. A case report showed that a GNAS -activating mutation caused a Leydig cell tumor and hypertestosteronemia [ 113 ]. The impact of stress on sperm function and ADRB2 expression has been reported, indicating a reduction in spermatozoa functionality [ 114 ]. The SLC9C2 gene product is localized to the head of mature mammalian sperm and is suggested to have an important role in male fertility [ 115 ]. A reduced expression of CRHR1 in asthenozoospermic patients compared to controls with progressive sperm motility lower than 15% is reported [ 116 ]. Also, the role of CRHR1 in the autocrine/paracrine pathway of eutopic and ectopic endometrium has been demonstrated, which is suggested to potentially affect the pathogenesis of endometriosis and the infertility profile of affected women [ 117 ].

In summary, this study integrated more than 26,000 cells from different testicular scRNA-seq datasets, from embryos to adults, to construct a testis transcriptional cell atlas, which grouped the cells into human FGC, infants, childhood, peri-puberty, and adults. Clustering, cell type assignments, DEG analysis, and enrichment analysis revealed three and two different types of Sertoli and Myoid cells, respectively, present in varying proportions across the five developmental stages. Additionally, two different SSC and Round SPT cell types were identified. The topological analysis of the WGCN of the testis transcriptional cell atlas highlighted important somatic genes in this network, including RPL39 , RPL10 , RPL13A , FTH1 , RPS2 , and RPL18A , which have been reported to be associated with infertility. Paracrine cell–cell communication also highlighted the effects of somatic cells as ligands on germ cells as receptors. The “Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction,” “cAMP signaling pathway,” and “Estrogen signaling pathway” were found to be the most influential pathways. The top-scoring L-R pairs and more influential nodes in the cell–cell communication network were identified, and evidence to support their involvement in spermatogenesis and infertility suggests that they could serve as potential markers for infertility. Therefore, our study provides insights into the cellular heterogeneity of somatic and germ cells and identifies key genes in somatic cells that may impact germ cells during normal spermatogenesis, potentially playing significant roles in male infertility disorders. These findings may serve as a basis for further experimental research to explore the functions of these genes in male infertility.

Availability of data and materials

The gene expression datasets analyzed in this study were extracted from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and is available under Accession Numbers GSE86146, GSE124263, GSE120506, GSE134144, GSE109037, GSE106487. Codes are available at https://github.com/nasalehi/scRNAseq_testis_cell_atlas .

Abbreviations

Biological process

Differentially expressed gene

Gene Expression Omnibus

Fetal germ cell

Ligand-receptor

Principal component analysis

• Single-cell RNA sequencing

Spermatocyte

Spermatogonial stem cells

Weighted gene co-expression network

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This study was supported by Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) (Grant Number: 99013926), and Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences (IPM).

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Najmeh Salehi

Department of Genetics, Reproductive Biomedicine Research Center, Royan Institute for Reproductive Biomedicine, ACECR, Tehran, Iran

Mehdi Totonchi

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NS designed the study, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript; MT designed the study, and proofread the manuscript.

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Additional file 1.

: Supplementary figures and tables.  Table S1. Dataset information is listed in detail: Dataset names, the age of donors, scRNA-seq methods, GEO IDs, and number of cells collected for each dataset. Fig. S1. Representation of data and datasets in the UMAP space of integrated data. In the left panel, the cells of each dataset and in the right panel cells of each data are colored and shown in the low-dimensional UMAP space of integrated data. Each row in the left panel represents the sum of that row in the right panel. Table S2. Characteristics of clusters. The numbers of cells for each dataset, cluster, and cell type assignment for each cluster were specified. The rows related to somatic, SSC, SPC, and SPT are colored gray, blue, red, and green, respectively. Fig. S2. Expression pattern of Sertoli markers. A Gene expression patterns of Sertoli markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. Fig. S3. Expression pattern of Leydig markers. A Gene expression patterns of Leydig markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. ALD1H1 is a common marker for Sertoli and Leydig cells. Fig. S4. Expression pattern of Myoid markers. A Gene expression patterns of Myoid markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. Fig. S5. Expression pattern of Macrophage markers. A Gene expression patterns of Macrophage markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. Fig. S6. Expression pattern of Endothelial markers. A Gene expression patterns of Endothelial markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. Fig. S7. Expression pattern of spermatogonia cell markers. A Gene expression patterns of spermatogonia cell markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. Fig. S8. Expression pattern of spermatocyte cell markers. A Gene expression patterns of spermatocyte cell markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. Fig. S9. Expression pattern of spermatid cell markers. A Gene expression patterns of spermatid cell markers in the UMAP space. B Dot-plot presentation of markers expression. Fig. S10. L-R interactions between somatic-germ cells. A Myoid-2 as ligand, Undifferentiated SSC, and Round SPT-1 as receptors, B macrophage as ligand, Undifferentiated SSC, and Round SPT-1 as receptors, C Sertoli-3 as ligand, Early round SPT, and Round SPT-1 as receptors.

Additional file 2

: The differentially expressed genes for each of cell-type clusters

Additional file 3

: Degree centrality and p-values for each node of WGCN of the integrated data

Additional file 4

: Paracrine cell-cell communication among all cell types in scRNA-seq profiles

Additional file 5

: The details of all somatic and germ cells L-R interactions

Additional file 6

: Degree centrality in the weighted L-R interaction network

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Salehi, N., Totonchi, M. The construction of a testis transcriptional cell atlas from embryo to adult reveals various somatic cells and their molecular roles. J Transl Med 21 , 859 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-023-04722-2

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Received : 25 June 2023

Accepted : 13 November 2023

Published : 27 November 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-023-04722-2

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• Male infertility
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