how to improve your research writing skills in quantitative research

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Improving quantitative writing one sentence at a time

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Biology Department, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, United States of America

Roles Formal analysis, Writing – original draft

Roles Data curation, Funding acquisition, Validation, Writing – review & editing

• Tracy Ruscetti, 
• Katherine Krueger, 
• Christelle Sabatier

• Published: September 12, 2018
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109
• Reader Comments

Scientific writing, particularly quantitative writing, is difficult to master. To help undergraduate students write more clearly about data, we sought to deconstruct writing into discrete, specific elements. We focused on statements typically used to describe data found in the results sections of research articles (quantitative comparative statements, QC). In this paper, we define the essential components of a QC statement and the rules that govern those components. Clearly defined rules allowed us to quantify writing quality of QC statements (4C scoring). Using 4C scoring, we measured student writing gains in a post-test at the end of the term compared to a pre-test (37% improvement). In addition to overall score, 4C scoring provided insight into common writing mistakes by measuring presence/absence of each essential component. Student writing quality in lab reports improved when they practiced writing isolated QC statements. Although we observed a significant increase in writing quality in lab reports describing a simple experiment, we noted a decrease in writing quality when the complexity of the experimental system increased. Our data suggest a negative correlation of writing quality with complexity. We discuss how our data aligns with existing cognitive theories of writing and how science instructors might improve the scientific writing of their students.

Citation: Ruscetti T, Krueger K, Sabatier C (2018) Improving quantitative writing one sentence at a time. PLoS ONE 13(9): e0203109. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109

Editor: Mitchell Rabinowitz, Fordham University, UNITED STATES

Received: August 26, 2017; Accepted: August 15, 2018; Published: September 12, 2018

Copyright: © 2018 Ruscetti et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The authors received financial support from Santa Clara University through the Faculty Development Office (T.R.) and the Office of Assessment (T.R. and C.S.).

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Written communication of data is at the core of scholarly discourse among scientists and is an important learning goal for science students in undergraduate education [ 1 ]. For scientists, the currency of scientific dialogue is the research article, which presents essential information required to convince an audience that data are compelling, findings are relevant, and interpretations are valid [ 2 , 3 ]. Writing lab reports that contain the elements of a research article is a widely used method to help students develop critical thinking and quantitative reasoning skills. In our introductory, lab-intensive Cell and Molecular Biology course, we focus on helping students develop the “results” section of their lab report. Students integrate tables, graphs, and text to present and interpret data they have generated in the laboratory. In the text portion, students cannot simply restate previously learned information (“knowledge telling;” [ 4 , 5 ]) or narrate through the data presented visually. Rather, students must mimic the actions of professional researchers by transforming data into knowledge and structuring their arguments to support specific claims/conclusions. This type of inquiry-based writing encourages active participation in the scientific process, enhancing engagement and learning [ 6 , 7 ].

While science instructors recognize the importance of writing in their courses, many do not provide explicit writing instruction [ 8 ]. Instructors may fear that teaching writing skills diverts time from teaching required science concepts, expect that writing is covered in composition courses, or lack the tools and resources to teach writing [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. We wanted to support writing in our course without diverting focus from the conceptual and discipline-specific content of the course. We examined available writing resources (e.g., books, websites) and found substantial resources regarding the macro structure of the report (e.g., describing the sections and broad organization of the lab reports, [ 11 , 12 ]. We also found resources for sentence level support related to emphasis and voice [ 13 ]. However, these resources do not give students explicit guidance as to how to write about quantitative information. Thus, it is not surprising that many students struggle to both construct appropriate quantitative evidence statements and express them in writing [ 14 ].

There are, however, a few important resources that explore the structure of writing about quantitative information. Each describe comparisons as a primary mode of providing quantitative evidence, (e.g., The lifespan of cells grown in the presence of drug is 25% shorter than the lifespan of control cells .). In her book about writing about numbers, Miller discusses “quantitative comparisons” as a fundamental skill in quantitative writing [ 15 ]. Jessica Polito states that many disciplines use comparisons as the basis of quantitative evidence statements that support conclusions [ 14 ], and Grawe uses the presence of a comparison as a measure of sophisticated quantitative writing [ 16 ]. We focused on these types of comparative evidence statements and called them Quantitative Comparative statements (QC). We found this type of statement was commonly used to describe data in the scientific literature, and we decided to emphasize the correct construction of these statements in student writing.

We analyzed over a thousand QC statements from student and professional scientific writing to discover the critical elements of a QC statement and the rules that govern those elements. We found that a QC statement needs to have a comparison, a quantitative relational phrase, and at least one contextual element. These essential elements of the QC statement can be thought of as sentence-level syntax. We then developed a metric to measure writing syntax of the QC statement and by proxy, quantitative writing quality. We examined the effectiveness of different approaches to support writing in a course setting and show that practice writing QC statements with feedback can improve student writing. We also investigated how the circumstances of the writing assignment can change the quality of quantitative writing. Together, these data provide insight into how we might improve undergraduate science writing instruction and the clarity of scientific writing.

Methods and materials

Student population and course structure.

We collected data at Santa Clara University (SCU), a private liberal arts university that is a primarily undergraduate institution. Participants were recruited from BIOL25 –Investigations in Cell and Molecular Biology, a lower-division biology course. Prerequisites include a quarter of introductory physiology, a year (3 quarters) of general chemistry and one quarter of organic chemistry. BIOL25 consists of three interactive lecture periods (65 minutes) and one laboratory period (165 minutes) per week. The lecture periods focus on preparing for the laboratory experience, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. Laboratory sessions focus on data collection, data analysis and peer feedback activities. During the 10-week quarter, two experimental modules (Enzyme Kinetics and Transcription Regulation) culminate in a lab report. Students organize and communicate their analyzed data in tables and graphs and communicate their conclusions and reasoning in written form. We provide a detailed rubric for the lab reports and a set of explicit instructions for each lab report ( S2 Fig ). In addition, students participate in peer feedback activities with an opportunity to revise prior to submission.

The basic structure of the course was unchanged between 2014 and 2016. The students were distributed among two lecture sections taught by the same instructors and 13 laboratory sections led by 5 different instructors. All students included in this study signed an informed consent form (213 of 214). This study was reviewed and approved by the Santa Clara University Institutional Review Board (project #15-09-700).

Instructional support

General writing feedback (2014–2016)..

In all iterations of the course discussed in this article, students received general writing feedback after each lab report. In each lab report, students wrote paragraphs in response to prompting questions regarding the data. Writing feedback was holistic and included phrases such as “not quantitative”, or “inappropriate comparison,” but was not specific to any type of sentence.

Calculation support (2015–2016).

In 2015 and 2016, students were explicitly introduced to strategies for quantifying relational differences between data points such as percent difference and fold change. Students were given opportunities to practice calculating these values during in class activities prior to writing their lab reports. We stressed that phrases such as more than, drastically higher, and vanishingly small were not quantitative.

Explicit QC statement writing support (2016).

In 2016, we introduced and practiced using quantitative comparative statement as the means to communicate quantitative results. In class, we discussed including an explicit comparison of two conditions and the quantitative relationship between them. Before each lab report, we asked students to write quantitative comparative statements related to the data. We provided formative feedback on the accuracy of the statement and general feedback such as, “not quantitative”, or “inappropriate comparison”. Students in this study were never exposed to the concept of 4C annotation or scoring. We used the scoring strategy exclusively to measure their writing progress.

Identification of quantitative comparative statements (QC)

Quantitative comparative statements are a subset of evidence statements. In native writing (scientific articles or student lab reports), we identified QC statements by the presence of 1) a relational preposition (between, among, etc.), or 2) prepositional phrase ("compared to", "faster/slower than", etc.), 3) a statistical reference (p value), or 4) the presence of quantified change (3 fold, 10% different).

Syntactic elements of QC statements

We examined a corpus of over 1000 QC statements to identify and characterize the essential elements of a QC statement and the rules that govern those elements. Quantitative comparative statements generally take the form of “ The activity of the enzyme is 30% higher in condition X compared to condition Y ”. We identified three critical elements of the quantitative comparative statement: the things being compared (Comparison, condition X and condition Y ), the quantitative relationship between those conditions (Calculation, 30% higher ), and the measurement that gave rise to the compared values (Context, enzyme activity ). Finally, all three elements must be in the same sentence with no redundancy or contradiction (Clarity). These rules are collectively called “4C”.

Syntactic rules for quantitative comparative statements

The Calculation must quantify the relationship between the two compared elements and include both magnitude and direction. Fold change or percent difference are common methods of describing quantitative relationships [ 15 ]. Using absolute or raw values are not sufficient to describe the relationship between the compared elements and are not sufficient. If there is no significant difference between the compared elements, then statistical data must be cited. Context provides additional information about the measurement from which the quantitative comparison was derived, such as growth rate, enzyme activity, etc., or the time at which the comparison was made. The context should be the same for both of the compared elements. Comparisons are usually between like elements (e.g. time vs. time, condition vs. condition) and there should be two and only two in a single sentence. Both compared elements must be explicitly stated so that the reader is not guessing the intended comparison of the writer. A QC statement has Clarity when all three elements are present and in the same sentence. We consider a statement to be “unclear” if it contains inconsistencies or redundancies.

Annotation and scoring of QC statements

We use “annotation” to describe the visual marking of the critical elements of the quantitative comparative statement. We use “scoring” to mean the assignment of a score to a quantitative comparative statement. 4C annotation and 4C scoring do not reflect whether the statement or any of its components are correct, but rather they highlight the syntactic structure of the quantitative comparative statement ( Fig 1 ).

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(A) Original quantitative comparative statement. (B) Identify and box the relational phrase with both magnitude and direction. (C) Circle what the relational phrase refers to (context). (D) Underline the comparison. (E) Fully 4C annotated quantitative comparative statement.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g001

Annotation process.

We scanned the results sections of published primary journal articles or student lab reports for relational phrases such as faster than, increased, more than, lower than, etc., and drew a box around the relational phrase , or calculation ( Fig 1B ). If the calculation is an absolute value, a raw value, refers to no particular value, or is missing the magnitude or direction, we would strike through the box. Context . Once the relational phrase, or calculation, was identified, we drew a circle around the information, or context , referred to by the relational phrase ( Fig 1C ). Comparison . The relational phrase and the context helped us identify the comparison and we underlined the compared elements ( Fig 1D ).

4C scoring strategy.

To score an annotated statement, a “1” or a “0” is given to each of the three critical components of the quantitative comparative statement. If all the elements are present in a single sentence, there are no redundancies or inconsistencies, a fourth “1” is awarded for clarity. We call this annotation and scoring strategy “4C” to reflect each of the three critical components and the overall clarity of the statement ( Table 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.t001

Student writing samples

Pre-test/post-test..

In 2016, student writing was assessed using identical pre- and post-tests. The pre-test was administered on the first day of class prior to any writing support. The post-test was administered as part of the final exam. The pre/post assessment consisted of a graph and data table ( S1 Fig ). The prompts asked the students to analyze the data to answer a specific question related to the data and to use quantitative comparative statements.

Student sampling for lab report analysis.

For the lab reports in 2016, we sampled 40 students from a stratified student population (based on overall grade in the course) and 4C scored all of their quantitative comparative statements in each lab report. On average, students wrote 5–6 quantitative comparative statements per results section for a total of over 200 4C scored statements for each lab report. We scored over 100 statements from 17–20 lab reports in 2014 and 2015.

Complexity index

We based complexity on the number of values (data points) students would have to parse to develop a QC statement. The complexity of a given experiment is in part determined by number of conditions tested in an experiment and the different types of measurements used. For example, in lab report #1 (Enzyme Kinetics) students consider 3 experimental conditions (control and two separate variables) and 2 measurements (K m and V max ). Thus we calculated a complexity index of 6 (3 conditions x 2 measurements) for lab report #1. In this measure of complexity index, we assumed that all parameters contributed equally to the complexity of the experiment, and that all parameters were equally likely to be considered by students as they developed their written conclusions. However, by designing specific writing prompts, we could guide students to examine a smaller subset of data points and reduce complexity of the situation. In lab report #1 for example, we can prompt students to consider only the effect of the treatment on a single variable such that they only consider 2 conditions (the control and the single experimental variable described in the prompt) and 2 measurements. Now, students are focused on a subset of data and the complexity of the situation could be considered “4”.

Quantitative comparative statements are universally used to describe data

Having decided to focus on QC statements in student writing, we first wanted to quantify their occurrence in professional writing. We examined the results sections in all the research articles from three issues of pan-scientific journals: Science, Nature, PLOS-One, and PNAS. We identified an average of 7–15 QC statements in each research article, with no significant difference in the mean number of QC statements among the different journals ( Fig 2 , ANOVA, p = 0.194). There was also no difference of the number of QC statements among the different disciplines (Kruskal-Wallis, p = 0.302). Out of the 60 articles examined, we found only one article that did not have a single QC statement to describe the data ( Fig 2 , Nature). These data suggest that QC statements are used in professional forms of quantitative writing to describe data in many different disciplines.

The mean (middle vertical line) ± SD are shown. Physical science papers are denoted in red, Biological sciences are in blue, and Social sciences are in green.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g002

4C scoring used to measure quantitative writing

In 2016, students practiced writing QC statements related to their data and we provided feedback (see Methods ). We measured the effectiveness of the focused writing practice using 4C scoring of QC statements from a pre- and post-test (see Methods and Table 1 ). We observed a 37% increase in student 4C scores on the post-test assessment compared to the pre-test (p < 0.001, Fig 3A ). In addition, we used 4C scoring to interrogate the impact of the writing intervention on each of the required components of the QC statement ( Fig 3B ). We observed improvements in each of the components of QC statements ( Fig 3C ). In the post-test, over 80% of students included a calculation (magnitude and direction), referred explicitly to both items being compared, and referenced the measurement context for their comparison. Only 25% of students produced completely clear statements, meaning that they were not missing any elements, and did not contain redundant or contradictory phrases. Despite the low post-test clarity score, we observed a 40% improvement in students writing completely clear statements in the post-test compared to the pre-test score ( Fig 3C ).

( A) Mean 4C scores of quantitative comparative statements on an identical pre- and post- test. (B) Percent of statements that contain each of the essential components of a QC statement. (C) Percent difference between the pre-test and post-test broken down by essential components of QC statements. (***t-test, p < 0.001) Error bars in A represent Standard Error of the Mean (SEM).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g003

We next asked if we could measure student learning gains in quantitative writing within the context of a lab report. Students write 2 lab reports per term and we provided varying forms of writing feedback over several iterations of the course (see Methods ). We scored QC statements in two lab reports from 2014 (general writing feedback only), 2015 (general writing feedback and calculation support) and 2016 (general writing feedback, calculation support, and sentence-level writing practice) ( Fig 4A ). There was no appreciable impact on writing quality when we added calculation support to general feedback in 2015 compared to feedback alone in 2014 (t test, p = 0.55, Fig 4A ). However, the addition of sentence-level QC writing support in 2016 resulted in a 22% increase in student mean 4C scores on lab report #1 compared to the same report in 2015 ( Fig 4A , t test, p < 0.05). We noticed the same trends in lab report #2 ( Fig 4B ): general writing feedback and calculation support did not improve scores as compared to general feedback alone (t test, p = 0.88). However, we observed an 80% increase in 4C scores on lab report #2 when we provided sentence-level writing practice compared to feedback alone ( Fig 4B , t test, p < 0.001). The mean 4C scores in each year for each assessment, as well as the forms of writing support employed, are summarized in Table 2 . Overall, these data suggest that sentence-level writing practice with feedback is important in helping students improve the syntax of quantitative writing.

(A) Mean 4C scores of QC statements from lab reports (enzyme kinetics). (B) Mean 4C scores of QC statements from second lab reports (transcriptional regulation). (C) Percent difference between the two lab reports within a given year, broken down by essential components (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001) Error bars in A and B represent SEM.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g004

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.t002

We were surprised to find that although the trends in the data were similar between the two lab reports, the mean 4C scores of QC statements in lab report #2 were 40% lower than in lab report #1 in both 2014 and 2015 (t test, p < 0.0001, Fig 4A versus 4B ). We predicted that writing skills would either improve with focused practice, or not change over the course of the quarter. To understand which components of the quantitative comparative statement were differentially impacted in the two lab reports, we calculated the relative frequency with which each component was included in a QC statement. Then, we calculated the difference of those frequencies between the first and second lab report for each year ( Fig 4C ). A column below the x-axis indicates that students made particular mistakes more often in lab report #2 ( Fig 4C ). In 2014, students were able to make comparisons equally well between both lab reports, but students struggled to include a quantitative difference or provide context in their evidence statements ( Fig 4C ). In 2015, in addition to general writing feedback, we also provided instructional support to calculate relative differences. We noted that students were able to incorporate both comparisons and calculations into their QC statements in both reports. However, they often omitted the context ( Fig 4C ). The frequency of mistakes made by students is significantly different between lab report #1 and lab report #2 (Chi squared, p < 0.001). These data suggest that feedback alone is not sufficient to improve quantitative writing. In 2016, we provided targeted practice at the sentence level and observed no significant difference in mean 4C scores between the two lab reports ( Fig 4B , t test, p = 0.0596), suggesting that the writing skills of students did not decrease from one lab report to the next. Additionally, students included the four elements of the QC statement equally well between the two lab reports (Chi squared, p = 0.6530, Fig 4C , 2016). Thus, when students receive targeted, sentence-level writing practice, their ability to write QC statements improves.

Quantitative writing quality is negatively impacted by complexity

We were perplexed as to why quantitative writing syntax (as measured by mean 4C scores) declined in lab report #2 compared to lab report #1 in both 2014 and 2015 ( Fig 4A and 4B ). Because we view the essential components of QC statements as analogous to syntactic rules that govern writing of QC statements, we can apply principles and theories that govern writing skills writ large. Research from writing in English Composition shows that writing ability, as measured by sentence level syntax, deteriorates when the writer is struggling with basic comprehension [ 17 , 18 ]. We hypothesized that students’ ability to write about data also might be negatively impacted when students struggled to comprehend the conceptual system they were asked to interrogate. However, we found no correlation between mean 4C scores and any assessment of conceptual material (data not shown). Nor was there an association between mean 4C scores on the lab reports and the related sections of the final (data not shown). Together, these data suggest that conceptual comprehension does not impact writing of a QC statement.

In addition to conceptual understanding, QC statements require that the writer parse through the data set to select the relevant data points to interrogate. We hypothesized that the number of data points (values) in the data set may negatively impact QC statement syntax. We calculated the complexity of different assignments (see methods ) and plotted mean 4C scores as a function of complexity index. We performed linear regression analysis on those mean 4C scores from writing samples occurring prior to formal writing intervention (2014 and 2015 lab reports, and the 2016 pre-test, Fig 5A , closed circles) and those that occur after specific writing intervention (2016 lab reports and 2016 post-test, Fig 5A , open circles). There is a strong inverse correlation between writing as measured by mean 4C scores and complexity (r 2 = 0.9471 for supported and r 2 = 0.9644 for unsupported writing, Fig 5A ). Moreover, the slopes of the lines generated from the regression analysis of mean 4C scores do not vary significantly despite writing interventions (p = 0.3449). Although the task complexity in 2016 was reduced relative to 2015, the negative impact of complexity on writing persisted. Thus, as the complexity of experimental data sets increases, the ability to write clearly decreases regardless of the writing intervention.

(A) Writing syntax as a function of complexity measured by 4C scoring and reported as either unsupported (closed circles) or supported (open circles) by instructional intervention. Linear regression lines are shown (unsupported, R 2 = 0.9644, supported R 2 = 0.9471). (B) Students were stratified based on overall performance in the course. Statements from students within the group were averaged and reported. Error bars represent SEM.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g005

Complexity differentially impacts specific populations of students

Part of the developmental process of analytical reasoning is parsing relevant from irrelevant data [ 1 ]. We asked if subpopulations of our students were more capable of parsing information from larger data sets than others. We stratified 2016 students into quartiles based on overall performance in the course. We measured the mean 4C scores from the post-test and both lab reports, and plotted mean 4C score as a function of “constrained” complexity ( Fig 5B ). At lower complexity levels, there is no significant difference between the highest performing students and the lowest performing students (t test, p >0.05). Increasing complexity also had a negative impact on most of our students. However, students in the top quartile were less affected by increased complexity than the lower 75% of the class (t test, p <0.05, Fig 5B ). These data suggest there are students who are developmentally capable of controlling the complexity of the task to focus on the skill of writing.

We set out to help STEM students write more clearly and we focused on writing a specific but universal form of evidence statement, the quantitative comparative statement ([ 14 , 15 ], Fig 2 ). By analyzing text from student lab reports and professional scientific articles, we defined the syntax of quantitative comparative statements ( Fig 1 , Table 1 ). Based on the syntactic rules we established, we scored individual quantitative comparative statements and measured writing quality (Figs 3 – 5 ). Our data show that writing quality (measured by 4C scoring) can be improved with focused practice and feedback (Figs 3 and 4 ). Finally, our data show that the circumstance, i.e., the complexity of the writing task, influences writing quality. For example, writing quality decreased when students interrogated larger data sets (Figs 4 and 5 ), but was improved when students were directed by the writing prompt to focus on a subset of the data ( Fig 5 and data not shown).

Our findings are consistent with previous research in Writing Studies and English Composition showing that syntax suffers when writers are confronted with complex and unfamiliar conceptual material [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. The Cognitive Process Theory of Writing states that writing is a cognitive endeavor and that three main cognitive activities impact writing, the process of writing (syntax, grammar, spelling, organization, etc.), the task environment (the purpose of the writing task), and knowledge of the writing topic [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. The theory posits that cognitive overload in any of these areas will negatively impact writing quality [ 17 , 18 ]. Consistent with the theory, our data show that writing quality is a function of explicit writing practice ( Fig 3 ), the size of the data set ( Fig 4A compared to 4B ) and scope of the writing prompts ( Fig 4B 2015 compared to 2016).

Explicit sentence level practice improves writing quality

Our data suggest that practicing isolated sentence construction improves writing quality (Figs 3 and 4 ). In every year of this study, we provided students with generalized feedback about their quantitative comparative statements (e.g., “needs quantitation” or “needs a comparison”) within the context of their lab report. In 2016, students practiced writing a QC statement related to their data but separate from the lab report. Although our feedback was the same, we observed improvement only when the feedback was given to QC statements practiced out of the lab report context ( Fig 4A compared to 4B ). Consistent with our data, the Cognitive Process Theory of Writing predicts that practicing specific syntax will increase fluency, lower the cognitive load on the writer’s working memory, and improve writing [ 17 , 18 ]. Our data are also consistent with research in English Composition demonstrating that when instructors support sentence-level syntax, they observe improved sentence level construction, improved overall composition, and higher level critical thinking [ 20 ]. In addition to improved sentence level syntax, we also observed overall quality of lab reports improved 12% in 2016 compared to the same lab report in 2015 (based on rubric scores, data not shown). If students develop a greater facility with the process of writing by practicing sentence level syntax, they have more cognitive resources available to develop and communicate their reasoning (our data, [ 20 , 21 ]).

Complexity of the writing task affects writing quality

We defined the complexity of the writing assignment as the landscape of information students must sample to interpret and communicate their data. In the case of lab reports, that information is the collected and analyzed data set ( Table 2 ). Students interrogating a larger data set produced lower quality QC statements than when they interrogated a smaller data set (compare lab report #2 to lab report #1 in both 2014 and 2015 cohorts, Fig 4 ). In lab report #2, students not only contended with a larger number of values in the dataset compared to lab report #1, but also with two different measurements. These data are consistent with the Cognitive Process Theory of Writing that suggests that when demands on the writer’s knowledge of the topic increase, the writer cannot devote as many cognitive resources to the task environment or process of writing [ 17 , 18 ]. However, we observed that the negative effect of experimental complexity on writing quality can be mitigated by writing prompts that focus students on a smaller, specific subset of the data ( Fig 5A ). More focused writing prompts and smaller data sets reduce the task environment of the assignment and allow more cognitive load to be devoted to the process of writing.

Model for writing quality as a function of complexity

Interestingly, the writing quality of students who finished the course with higher final grades (top quartile) was more resistant to increases in complexity compared to their classmates ( Fig 5B ). These data are consistent with the ideas of McCutchen who posits that as writers become more expert in their field, they have more cognitive resources to devote to clear communication. McCutchen suggests that expert writers have 1) more knowledge of their discipline, 2) more familiarity with the genres of science writing (task environment), and 3) more practice with the process of writing [ 19 ]. Based on research in Writing Studies, the Cognitive Process Theory of Writing, and the data presented here, we developed a predictive model of the impact of complexity (cognitive load) on writing quality ( Fig 6 ). We have hypothesized a linear model in which any increase in complexity negatively impacts writing quality ( Fig 6A ) and a “breakpoint” model in which writers maintain a constant level of writing quality at lower complexity levels writing quality but decline at higher levels of complexity ( Fig 6B ). We hypothesize that our top performing students have moved into a more expert space in the model by developing strategies to parse a complex task environment and ignore irrelevant information. Effectively, these skills allow them to minimize the impact of complexity on their cognitive load and maintain their writing quality even in the face of complex data sets ( Fig 5B ).

(A) Simple linear model of the relationship between writing quality and complexity (cognitive load). (B) Model of the relationship between writing quality and complexity in which low complexity has minimal impact on writing quality but higher complexity negatively impacts writing quality.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g006

4C instruction as a writing intervention

In addition to altering the writing assignment to decrease cognitive load on the students, we also think it will be important to provide students with syntactic structures at the sentence level. In this study, we did not use 4C annotation as an instructional intervention so that 4C scoring would be a more objective measure of writing quality. But, subsequent to this study, we and others have used 4C annotation as an instructional tool and found that student writing improves dramatically (data not shown). Although some argue that using overly structured or templated sentences can stifle creativity, providing basic structure does not necessarily lead to pedantic writing [ 22 ]. A commonly used text in college writing, “They say, I say,” determined that providing templates for constructing opinions and arguments gives students a greater ability to express their thoughts [ 23 ]. Specifically, weaker writers who lack intuitive understanding of how to employ these writing structures benefit from the use of explicit templates, while more advanced writers already employ these writing structures in a fluid and nuanced manner [ 23 ].

4C template as a foundation of quantitative writing

As students become more expert writers and write more complex and sophisticated sentences, they may choose to deviate from the proscribed sentence structure and make editorial decisions about the elements of the quantitative comparison in the context of their argument [ 23 ]. In fact, when we examined the 4C scores of quantitative comparative statements in published literature, we found that, on average, professional scientists write comparisons that are missing one of the three elements (4C score = 1.89 +/- 0.05, n = 281). The expert writer may eliminate an element of the evidence statement because he/she presumes a more sophisticated audience is capable of inferring the missing element from prior knowledge or within the context of the argument. Or, the author may provide all elements of quantitative comparison in their argument but not within a single sentence.

Helping students become expert writers

Based on our research, we think novice writers should write for novice readers and include all of the syntactic elements of a QC statement. As students develop their professional voice, the 4C template will serve as a touchstone to frame their quantitative arguments, and the editorial choices they make will depend on the sophistication of their audience. Students will write clear arguments even if those elements no longer reside within the rigid structure of a single QC statement with a perfect 4C score. We are confident that by supporting student writing at the level of syntax, we are building a solid foundation that will give students greater capacity for reasoning in the face of increasing experimental complexity.

Supporting information

S1 fig. pre test / post test..

Example of the pre- and post-test used to assess the ability to interpret graphical and tabular data and write a quantitative comparative statement.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.s001

S2 Fig. Lab Report Rubric.

A detailed rubric provides students with explicit guidance for each lab report. This rubric corresponds with the experiment exploring enzyme kinetics of β-galactosidase.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.s002

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Dr. Jessica Santangelo for critical feedback on the manuscript and unwavering support for this project. This study was initially developed as part of the Biology Scholars Program (Research Residency) through the American Society for Microbiology and the National Science Foundation (T.R.)

• 1. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Vision and change in undergraduate biology education: a call to action. Brewer Cand Smith D., Eds. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 2011. 1–100. http://visionandchange.org/files/2013/11/aaas-VISchange-web1113.pdf
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• 20. Languis ML, Buffer JJ Martin D, Naour PJ. Cognitive Science: Contributions to Educational Practice Routledge; 2012. 304 p.
• 23. Graff G, Cathy Birkenstein. They say / I say: the moves that matter in academic writing. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.; 2010.

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Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques . Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS . 2nd edition. London: SAGE Publications, 2010.

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Statistics & Data Research Guide

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.

Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].

Its main characteristics are :

• The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
• The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
• The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
• Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
• Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
• Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.
• Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

  Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantitative methods :

• Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this section.
• Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
• Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
• Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure ; provide a rationale for its use and a reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
• Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were not violated.
• When using inferential statistics , provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
• Avoid inferring causality , particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further experimentation.
• Use tables to provide exact values ; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
• Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures .

NOTE:   When using pre-existing statistical data gathered and made available by anyone other than yourself [e.g., government agency], you still must report on the methods that were used to gather the data and describe any missing data that exists and, if there is any, provide a clear explanation why the missing data does not undermine the validity of your final analysis.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Quantitative Research Methods. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Basic Research Design for Quantitative Studies

Before designing a quantitative research study, you must decide whether it will be descriptive or experimental because this will dictate how you gather, analyze, and interpret the results. A descriptive study is governed by the following rules: subjects are generally measured once; the intention is to only establish associations between variables; and, the study may include a sample population of hundreds or thousands of subjects to ensure that a valid estimate of a generalized relationship between variables has been obtained. An experimental design includes subjects measured before and after a particular treatment, the sample population may be very small and purposefully chosen, and it is intended to establish causality between variables. Introduction The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present tense and from the third person point of view. It covers the following information:

• Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state clearly and concisely the research problem being investigated.
• Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes and, if necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and analysis. Note where key gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or clarifies existing knowledge.
• Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or hypothesis underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex terms, concepts, or ideas and provide the appropriate background information to place the research problem in proper context [e.g., historical, cultural, economic, etc.].

Methodology The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study will be achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed assessment of the methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem. The methods section should be presented in the past tense.

• Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust is it; note where gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for their selection;
• Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify the variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data; and, note if the data was pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself. If you gathered it yourself, describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no data set is perfect--describe any limitations in methods of gathering data.
• Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If appropriate, describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research objective, including mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used to manipulate the data.

Results The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format. In quantitative studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual elements to help the reader understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not stand in isolation from the text but are being used to supplement the overall description of the results and to help clarify key points being made. Further information about how to effectively present data using charts and graphs can be found here .

• Statistical analysis -- how did you analyze the data? What were the key findings from the data? The findings should be present in a logical, sequential order. Describe but do not interpret these trends or negative results; save that for the discussion section. The results should be presented in the past tense.

Discussion Discussions should be analytic, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld together your findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed within the context of the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion should be presented in the present tense.

• Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and compare and contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study. Did they affirm predicted outcomes or did the data refute it?
• Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables -- describe any trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated and statistical insignificant findings.
• Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key findings based on the overall results and note findings that you believe are important. How have the results helped fill gaps in understanding the research problem?
• Limitations -- describe any limitations or unavoidable bias in your study and, if necessary, note why these limitations did not inhibit effective interpretation of the results.

Conclusion End your study by to summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the study.

• Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not report any statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings and describe what was learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
• Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings with policy recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.
• Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s limitations or to any remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your study.

Black, Thomas R. Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement and Statistics . London: Sage, 1999; Gay,L. R. and Peter Airasain. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications . 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril Prentice Hall, 2003; Hector, Anestine. An Overview of Quantitative Research in Composition and TESOL . Department of English, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Hopkins, Will G. “Quantitative Research Design.” Sportscience 4, 1 (2000); "A Strategy for Writing Up Research Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper." Department of Biology. Bates College; Nenty, H. Johnson. "Writing a Quantitative Research Thesis." International Journal of Educational Science 1 (2009): 19-32; Ouyang, Ronghua (John). Basic Inquiry of Quantitative Research . Kennesaw State University.

Strengths of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative researchers try to recognize and isolate specific variables contained within the study framework, seek correlation, relationships and causality, and attempt to control the environment in which the data is collected to avoid the risk of variables, other than the one being studied, accounting for the relationships identified.

Among the specific strengths of using quantitative methods to study social science research problems:

• Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of the results;
• Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods are designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative research usually involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure validity and reliability;
• Applying well established standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analyzed and compared with similar studies;
• You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and over time; and,
• Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and using accepted computational techniques .

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Limitations of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research problems, where data is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the causes of behavior. As a consequence, the results of quantitative research may be statistically significant but are often humanly insignificant.

Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study research problems in the social sciences include:

• Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail;
• Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;
• The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead of the participating subject;
• Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
• Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset;
• Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
• The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to "real world results"; and,
• Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in some cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

Research Tip

Finding Examples of How to Apply Different Types of Research Methods

SAGE publications is a major publisher of studies about how to design and conduct research in the social and behavioral sciences. Their SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases database includes contents from books, articles, encyclopedias, handbooks, and videos covering social science research design and methods including the complete Little Green Book Series of Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences and the Little Blue Book Series of Qualitative Research techniques. The database also includes case studies outlining the research methods used in real research projects. This is an excellent source for finding definitions of key terms and descriptions of research design and practice, techniques of data gathering, analysis, and reporting, and information about theories of research [e.g., grounded theory]. The database covers both qualitative and quantitative research methods as well as mixed methods approaches to conducting research.

SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases

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Research Writing and Analysis

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Research Writing: The 5-Step Approach

What is research writing? 

Research writing involves f inding a topic, i dentifying a problem, g athering research, and l ogically presenting the evidence u sing scholarly writing conventions.  

How to improve research writing skills?

Implement a plan before and during the process to develop your research writing skills by following the five-step process.

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The Ultimate Guide: Navigating the Research Process Using Advanced Research Skills

• Research Process

In this ultimate guide, we go show you how to use advanced research skills to navigate the research process.

Updated on March 7, 2024

As an experienced researcher, you're undoubtedly familiar with the mechanics of the research process. It generally looks something like this .

Embedded within the research process framework is the scientific method , a specialized approach that employs techniques like controlled experiments and empirical evidence. It follows this basic outline:

Both are firmly grounded in the development of your research skills. As you progress through the research process, your skills advance, and honing those skills enhances every part of your research journey.

What are advanced research skills?

Research skills commonly entail finding answers or solutions by gathering, reviewing, analyzing, and interpreting information. In the realm of academic research, advancing these skills involves :

• Immersing yourself in the principles of research design and analysis
• Understanding the ethics surrounding research
• Navigating scientific controversies
• Mastering the art of scientific critique
• Honing your skills in scientific communication

Here are some actionable steps to help strengthen your research skills:

Strategy 1: Develop information literacy

• Learn to identify reliable sources
• Assess information credibility
• Navigate diverse research databases effectively

Strategy 2: Enhance critical thinking

• Sharpen your ability to analyze information
• Question assumptions and evaluate arguments critically
• Identify biases.
• Consider alternative perspectives

Strategy 3: Master research methodology

• Know the different research methodologies used in your field
• Thoroughly understand the strengths and limitations of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research

Strategy 4: Improve time management

• Dedicate time and effort to each stage of the research process
• Use project management software
• Delegate tasks to those with expertise

Strategy 5: Embrace collaboration

• Engage in discussions, share ideas, and actively seek feedback
• Attend conferences and symposiums to expand your network
• Offer mentorship opportunities to gain new perspectives

Strategy 6: Update your knowledge

• Stay abreast of the latest developments and advancements in your field
• Regularly read scholarly articles
• Follow reputable sources to stay current with research trends

How can I apply these skills to the research process?

Countless benefits, from increased efficiency to improved outcomes, arise from implementing these advanced research skills throughout the research process. Let’s explore how your expertise can both streamline and bolster every step.

1. Developing a problem statement and research questions (checklist)

By guiding the reader towards a compelling question, a well-executed problem statement enhances engagement and serves as a catalyst for further investigations. It ultimately provides the framework for the introduction of your final manuscript.

Here are some tips for How to Write a Statement of the Problem for Your Research Proposal :

Do: Ensure the research problem is challenging, original, and offers new scientific insight.

Don’t: Adopt incremental problems that lack new answers.

Do : Develop a problem statement with systematic planning and realistic objectives.

Don't : Overlook the need for clear feasibility and realistic achievability.

Do : Apply feasible research methods suitable for the research question.

Don't : Use impractical or unusable research methods.

Do : Conduct literature work, drawing ideas from discussions, conferences, or papers read.

Don't : Select problems that are not thoroughly investigated and lack clarity.

Once you have identified a solid research problem, compose specific questions that precisely address that problem. Search existing literature to determine the relevance and complexity of your questions. Don’t be afraid to refine the problem statement based on these insights.

2. Composing a hypothesis that translates your research questions into predictions

The effectiveness of a study's conclusion hinges on the quality of the research hypothesis; it predicts the outcome. By proposing a relationship between an independent variable ( the part that is changed ) and a dependent variable ( the part that is measured ), a strong hypothesis offers clarity and reproducibility for the project team and the readers.

While there are various types of hypotheses , most research utilizes two broad categories:

• Null Hypothesis : Often denoted by H0, it presents no relationship between variables and is opposite of the alternative hypothesis. 
• Alternative Hypothesis : Denoted as H1 or Ha, it states that the variables have a relationship and is the proposed answer to your research question.

The null and alternative hypotheses serve as contrasting perspectives, collaboratively establishing a foundation for an experiment by providing a baseline for testing. Incorporating mathematical symbols , they read like this:

• H0: No more than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p ≤ 30
• Ha: More than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p > 30

To ensure effectiveness, use this checklist when writing your hypothesis:

1. Testability : Is there a method for proving or disproving your claim?

2. Variables : Have you included at least one independent and one dependent variable?

3. Clarity : Is the language concise and easy to understand?

4. Relevance : Is the hypothesis clearly aligned with your research topic?

3. Constructing a project design for answering research questions and testing your predictions using empirical data

When starting a new project, you need a solid strategy for effectively navigating the complexities of the research process. By outlining how all the components work together, your project design serves as the blueprint that ensures the chosen methods match your objectives. 

While the actual layout varies with each project, all project designs incorporate these elements : 

• A clear purpose based on well-defined research questions and hypotheses
• A sensical research methodology that determines the overall approach of the project
• A thorough understanding of the target population and sampling method
• A realistic approach to data collection to gather, record, and organize information
• A data analysis plan that is specific to the project’s objectives and requirements
• A careful consideration of the resources needed to carry out the project

Delineating the various facets of your research project at the outset helps it run smoothly and efficiently by reducing errors and unnecessary busywork. As you go through this process of designing your research project, keep these key recommendations in mind:

Do : Maintain neutrality throughout study setup.

Don’t : Allow pre-conceptions to influence findings.

Do : Ensure consistent measurement for reliable results.

Don’t : Overlook random errors that may affect reliability.

Do : Minimize systematic errors for valid outcomes.

Don’t : Use measurement tools that compromise the accuracy of results.

Do : Ensure broader relevance for the larger population.

Don’t : Limit applicability of results to a small sample.

Do : Adapt research plans based on collected data.

Don’t : Stick rigidly to initial plans without considering new information.

4. Choosing data collection methods that match the goals, scope, and resources of the project

Given the abundance of available information and the various perspectives to consider when addressing questions, it is crucial to devise a specialized plan for data collection.

First, consider whether your project demands a qualitative or quantitative research approach as identified in your design. Remember:

• If you are testing a hypothesis to understand the causal or correlational relationship between variables, your overall approach is quantitative.
• If, however, your project seeks to understand a phenomenon in a real-world environment, it is using a qualitative approach.

As guidelines to help focus your efforts, these approaches are not mutually exclusive. They’re complimentary with one simply more emphasized. Overlapping your corresponding data collection methods, therefore, may lead to more comprehensive study outcomes.

Consider a combination of techniques drawn from both primary and secondary sources like these:

Primary data

Surveys and questionnaires : collecting data from individuals or groups.

Interviews : direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent.

Observations : researchers observe and record behaviors, actions, or events in their natural setting.

Experiments : manipulating variables to observe their impact on outcomes.

Focus groups : small groups of individuals discuss specific topics in a moderated setting.

Secondary data

Published sources : reading published materials that contain relevant data.

Online sources : platforms available for consuming and downloading from the internet.

Government and institutional sources : records, statistics, and other pertinent information to access and purchase.

Publicly available data : shared by individuals, organizations, or communities on public stages.

Past research : studies and results available through communal archives.

5. Employing the data analysis tactics that will extract maximum value from your collected data

When determining which data analysis strategies to use, look again at your project’s goals and objectives, revisit your proposed research questions and hypotheses, and examine the data your project has collected. Next, ask yourself and your team:

• Do we thoroughly understand the data, its structure, sources, and quality? If yes, move forward. If not, return to the data collection phase.
• What are we trying to achieve with this data, which answers are we seeking and as they relate to whom or what? Be mindful of the project’s overarching purpose.
• Which methods best fit the project’s time constraints and our team’s capabilities? Only accurate analysis that is produced on time will benefit your outcomes.

To choose the most accurate data analysis tools and techniques for your current project, evaluate how your research questions coincide with these four broad categories:

Descriptive analysis : summarizes data to reveal patterns, particularly useful for examining changes over time through data aggregation and mining techniques.

Example : Counting the number of species of trees in a forest ecosystem

Diagnostic analysis : examines data to understand the root causes, using tools like drill-down, data discovery, data mining, and correlations to identify patterns, trends, and connections.

Example : Tracking past weather patterns to understand a decrease in crop yields

Predictive analysis : utilizes statistical algorithms and machine learning to analyze historical data and forecast future events or trends by analyzing variables and their relationships.

Example : Following student attendance to predict grade outcomes

Prescriptive analysis :  provides actionable recommendations based on possible scenarios to optimize outcomes by suggesting the best course of action to achieve desired results.

Example : considering patient demographics to optimize treatment for diabetes

6. Representing data in a structured, understandable, and accessible format

Next, after carefully choosing the best methods for collecting and analyzing data, present it in a way that tells your story. To make sure this message comes across clearly, consider the data’s characteristics, your project’s goals, and the intended audience.

While you may have initial ideas about how to present your project's findings, explore various methods to ensure clarity and readability. Experimenting with different presentation approaches can help you determine the most effective way to convey the information.

Here are some conventional and more contemporary options for representing research data:

Device : Tables

Function : Organize and present numerical data in a structured format

Device : Charts and graphs

Function : Visual representations illustrating trends, patterns, and relationships in data

Device : Diagrams and illustrations

Function : Graphical representations conveying complex concepts, processes, or relationships

Device : Maps

Function : Spatial representations of geographical data, distribution patterns, and spatial relationships

Device : Infographics

Function : Combination of text, images, and graphical elements presenting information in a visually appealing and easy-to-understand format

Device : Heatmaps

Function : Graphical representations using color gradients to visualize patterns, density, and correlations in large datasets

Device : Interactive visualizations

Function : Dynamic data exploration through interactive dashboards, exploration tools, and web-based visualizations

Device : Statistical Models

Function : Mathematical representations for analyzing and interpreting data

Device : Network diagrams

Function : Represent complex relationships and interactions between entities in a network

Device : Word clouds

Function : Visualize the frequency or importance of words in text by varying the size or color of each word based on its frequency or relevance

Determining the most suitable and effective method among these approaches can be challenging, especially when patterns are not readily apparent or are influenced by preconceived expectations. It is also quite daunting and time-consuming to experiment with diverse ways of representing your data.

Fortunately, there are numerous AI visualization tools built specifically to analyze datasets and present your results visually. By using advanced algorithms, they can quickly convert raw data into easy to understand formats, like graphs and diagrams.

This not only helps you identify patterns and trends that may not have been obvious but also saves time and resources that you can commit to other aspects of the project. Consider these questions when choosing an AI visualization tool:

• Is it easy to use and can I use it right away?
• Is it capable of handling the amount of data for this project?
• Can I customize the results to fit the project’s format and scale?
• Can I efficiently share with and get feedback from other team members?

These are some of the most popular options :

7. Reporting the project’s findings in a responsible and accessible way

Ultimately, all the hard work you put into this research project will culminate into a written manuscript. This comprehensive document encapsulates your experience, methodologies, and conclusions to function as your own record and a resource for others.

By communicating your project’s processes and insights with a broader audience, this manuscript paves the way for your research to positively impact the existing body of knowledge. Paying close attention to the quality of each section is vital. Here are some tips :

Title and abstract

Do : Use descriptive phrases for headings and titles, setting clear expectations for the scope of the paper.

Don't : Overextend on the content of your title, avoid excessive length or brevity. 

Do : Make sure you know the type of abstract required for your selected journal.

Don't : Assume the requirements or ignore the guidelines .

Do : Put the main points about your paper’s importance up front, summarize only the main points.

Don't : Include a long lead-in or go into needless detail.

Introduction

Do : Treat the introduction as the actual start of the paper, assuming no one reads the abstract.

Don’t : Assume that the abstract adequately covers all necessary information.

Do : Provide background information explaining the problem with recent references.

Don’t : Leave readers without context, unanswered questions, or gaps in knowledge.

Do : End the introduction with a clear hypothesis/objective statement and a brief description of how you addressed the question.

Don’t : Conclude the introduction ambiguously, leaving readers uncertain about the study's direction.

Materials and methods

Do : Thoroughly answer the question, "How did my experiments lead me to answer my questions?"

Don’t : Provide vague or incomplete descriptions of experimental methods.

Do : Check journal requirements for specific statements regarding ethics.

Don’t : Omit key ethical items like inclusion/exclusion criteria.

Do : Ensure experimental methods are explained in sufficient detail by focusing on the most relevant.

Don’t : Offer vague or incomplete descriptions of experimental methods, hindering reproducibility.

Discussion and conclusions

Do : Give a clear interpretation of the data that addresses the project’s objectives.

Don’t : Overgeneralize the discussion of results or make claims not supported by current data.

Do : Base conclusions directly on the data presented as it relates to the research questions.

Don’t : Leave readers wondering about the relevance or significance of your research.

Do : Ensure conclusions relate to the broader application and highlight the advancement achieved in the field.

Don’t : Make statements without clear proof or avoid seeking critical feedback from colleagues before submission.

This process solidifies the credibility of your work and fosters collaboration, discussion, and further advancements in your field.

8. Proofreading, editing, and revising to create a polished manuscript

The final step to telling a compelling and understandable story of your research project is one that is often overlooked and underrated. However, navigating all phases of the research process with equal vigor, including proofreading, editing, and revising, is pivotal to success.

Taking the time to polish your manuscript provides numerous benefits (I didn’t find a blog or content from AJE for this but it may exist) and improvements, such as:

• Error correction : Proofreading helps identify and correct spelling, grammar, punctuation, and typographical errors, ensuring clarity and professionalism in the manuscript.
• Clarity enhancement : Editing improves coherence and flow by refining language, restructuring sentences, and eliminating redundant or ambiguous phrases.
• Content improvement : Revising clarifies arguments, expands ideas, and addresses inconsistencies or gaps in logic to refine and strengthen the content of your manuscript.
• Audience engagement : Polishing your manuscript makes it more engaging and accessible to readers.

Through these processes, the manuscript reflects your attention to detail, commitment to quality, and dedication to accuracy throughout the entire project.

Final thoughts

The importance and impact of advanced research skills on the research process cannot be overstated. While they are the linchpin holding together the intricate tapestry of your project, mastering these skills takes time, effort, and a willingness to embrace new perspectives.

As you delve deeper into the world of research, remember that honing these skills is a journey, not a destination . Each time you work through the research process, from developing a problem statement to choosing data collection methods, your understanding and expertise grows.

By embracing advanced research skills and implementing these strategies, you're not only staying ahead of the curve, but ensuring your research remains impactful and relevant in an ever-evolving landscape. So, embrace the challenges, relish the victories, and never stop learning.

Armed with the tools and insights from this guide, it's time to embark on your next research adventure. Let curiosity be your compass, skills be your guide, and your manuscript be your legacy. 

The world is waiting for your discoveries. Dive in, explore, and let your commitment to continuous learning propel your research endeavors to new heights. What will you uncover next?

Charla Viera, MS

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What Are Research Skills, and How You Can Improve Them

• Posted on March 9, 2022

Original research is an arduous task, no matter how you slice it. Conducting extensive research and collecting relevant information for an original idea is complicated. It involves much more than just reading several recently published papers.

Good research will help you develop a data collection that provides accurate and relevant information to your topic. So, is research a skill that you can develop and improve? What are research skills?

Research skills are the abilities and techniques needed to conduct research. This includes finding and assessing information and properly citing all research. Research skills are fundamental to academic success, and the more you practice, the better you will become.

Research Skills vs. Research Methods

Some people use the terms research skills and research methods interchangeably. Although they relate closely, they are different.

Research skills are a part of the process, but they also take a lot of time to master. Research methods are what you use during the research stages.

For example, one research method may be a literature review. Research skills would involve learning how to conduct the best possible literature review.

You can practice research skills and improve your speed, accuracy, and reliability. Critical thinking, project management, effective note-taking, and time management are great examples of research skills.

How To Improve Your Research Skills

Conducting high-quality research requires mastering several skills. Some of the best skills for good academic research come with practice and experience. You can improve your research skills by using outlines, sources and practicing.

Use Outlines to Your Advantage

An outline is a great way to keep yourself organized and on topic. By paying close attention to the outline you craft, you set yourself up to conduct good research that lends itself to a well-written paper. After all, an outline makes it easier to write your first draft, and a structured approach will improve your writing.

Before you even begin your research, outline what you need to do to complete your paper on time. Start with an introduction, add your first point and then supporting evidence, a second point with its supporting evidence, and then a third, fourth, or fifth, depending on how in-depth your paper will be. The last step will be your conclusion or a summary of your content.

Often outlining will give you ideas for research methods that you may not have considered before. Data collection can be challenging, but devising an outline can make the process much easier.

Because an outline allows you to think about all the topics you need to cover in your paper, you’ll be better prepared when you begin researching.

Dig Into Your Sources

It’s daunting to determine relevant information, especially if it’s a topic that you’re not knowledgeable about. It’s important to know when your sources are reliable for academic research . It’s also imperative to use different sources when finding relevant information, or you may display a bias. This also helps you avoid plagiarism by relying on multiple points of reference.

For example, you should know that an article published in a peer-reviewed journal will be more reliable than an article found on Wikipedia. Wikipedia, though often sourced, is open to be edited by anyone. The sources supplied themselves are not always credible, as the organization largely relies on unpaid editors to donate time to review articles.

A peer-reviewed journal will be fact-checked multiple times, demonstrate a history of credibility, and use reputable sources to support any arguments or claims.

Your sources should also answer the question that you are trying to ask. You should perform a light critical analysis of your source materials to determine their value. This requires investigative thinking and research itself. You need to discover:

• Who wrote the source?
• What was their agenda?
• Who sponsored the publication, if anyone?
• What was the agenda of the publisher?
• Does the publisher have a notable bias?
• Does the author have a notable bias?
• What year was the material published, and has it become outdated?

Try Advanced Search Techniques

Google and other search engines aren’t the only way to find information for your research paper. Library resources offer a wealth of services and tools, such as full-text journals and databases. Your local university library is another excellent place to start.

Often, librarians will be able to assist you with your research and can help you utilize advanced research methods you may not have thought of. They can direct you to the correct database and demonstrate how to best use it to find information about your subject. They may know of specific journals or other literature that could be a good starting point to get your footing.

During your research process, seek a different point of view and new ways to find reliable sources for your paper. When you rely on a single viewpoint or only one credible source, you not only develop a bias by showing just one side of your topic, but you run the risk of plagiarism. Where will your source’s argument end and yours begin? It may appear that you’re simply copying someone else’s hard work.

Practice Makes Perfect

Research isn’t a skill that people learn overnight. But you’d be surprised how fast these skills develop every time you conduct research. Once you get used to collecting data from reliable sources, you can become a master at it by learning from your own research paper mistakes.

One of the most overlooked aspects of research is a person’s time management skills. Those who wait until the last minute to start research run the risk of not finding adequate sources and producing a sub-par product. By giving yourself extra time, especially as you develop your research skills, you allow yourself to thoroughly investigate your sources, find appropriate support for your arguments, and develop a conclusion based on research, rather than trying to scramble to find research to support a specific conclusion.

6 Steps for Conducting Research

Conducting research isn’t easy, and many people find it frustrating. It can be like solving a puzzle to uncover the best information about the topic you’re researching. Here are 5 steps to help with your research strategy.

• Clearly define your research question. Precisely formulate your question so you know exactly which information sources are relevant to your research. This will save you lots of time.
• Draft a solid outline. Put your research question at the top of the document, then write out each of your supporting points or arguments. Include a few thoughts that go with each of those points.
• Determine the research methods you’ll use. Depending on the type of research paper you’re writing, you may need primary or secondary research. Your research will likely be either qualitative, quantitative, descriptive, or experimental.
• Find data from reliable sources. Make sure your resources are reliable by looking for things like the date of publication, author credentials, and publisher.
• Focus on your note-taking. Take detailed notes in whatever format you’re most comfortable with, whether that’s on your computer, tablet, or by hand in your notebook or on index cards.
• Draft your research paper. Combine your notes with a solid outline, and put it all together. Don’t forget to cite all of your sources . Give your paper a final review, then you’re done!

Final Thoughts

Conducting research can be a frustrating assignment. Here is the good news: the above steps and tools will make research report writing more effective.

By clearly defining your research question, determining the type of research methods you’ll use, and finding data from reliable sources, you’ll be on your way to conducting successful research.

Your last steps should be using a plagiarism detector and a citation generator, to double-check your work. Quetext is an online plagiarism checker with a built citation generator, so you can easily cite everything that you read.

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

• Identify reasons to research writing projects.
• Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

• Medical laboratory technician
• Small business owner
• Information technology professional
• Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

• Choose a topic.
• Plan and schedule time to research and write.
• Conduct research.
• Organize research and ideas.
• Draft your paper.
• Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

• In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
• In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
• What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

• People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
• The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What are Research Skills? How to Improve Your Skills in Research

Learn strategies and techniques to improve your research skills. Avoid common mistakes and implement proven methods for efficient research. This article offers practical tips to enhance your ability to find and evaluate high-quality information.

Are you struggling to find relevant and reliable information for your research? Do you want to avoid getting lost in a sea of sources and needing help knowing where to start? Improving your research skills is essential for academic success and professional growth.

In today's information age, effectively conducting research has become more important than ever. Whether you are a student, a professional, or simply someone who wants to stay informed, knowing how to find and evaluate information is crucial.

Fortunately, some strategies and techniques can help you improve your research skills and become a more efficient and effective researcher. By avoiding common mistakes and implementing proven methods, you can enhance your ability to find high-quality information and make the most of your research endeavors. This article will explore some practical tips and tricks to help you improve your research skills and achieve better results.

What is Research?

Research is a critical part of learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. It is an essential process used in every field for both the individual and collective’s mutual benefit and success. Research involves systematically gathering data from primary or secondary sources, analyzing it, interpreting it, and communicating its findings to researchers and other interested parties.

Research can be divided into two main categories: quantitative research, which uses numerical data to describe phenomena, and qualitative research, which seeks to understand people's beliefs, opinions, values, or behaviors. Quantitative research often involves applying model-based approaches that can predict outcomes based on observations. It is one of the most powerful methods of discovering information about the world, as it allows for testing hypotheses in a systematic manner. Qualitative research is more exploratory in nature by focusing on understanding the motivations behind what people do or think rather than developing models or producing statistics in order to conclude behavior and relationships between variables. This type of research usually relies more on observation and engagement with people instead of using statistical models.

What are Research Skills?

Research skills are the abilities and talents required to focus on an objective, gather the relevant data linked to it, analyze it using appropriate methods, and accurately communicate the results. Taking part in research indicates that you have acquired knowledge of your subject matter, have digested that knowledge, and processed, evaluated, and analyzed it until you can resolve a problem or answer a query. It is highly beneficial for employers to hire people with strong research skills since they can provide valuable insights and add value to the company’s performance. Therefore, researching effectively has become crucial to securing a job in most industries.

Why Do Research Skills Matter?

Research skills are essential if one intends to succeed in today's competitive world. With technology ever-evolving and a need to stay ahead of the competition, employees who possess research skills can prove invaluable to their employers. These skills include researching, analyzing, and interpreting data and making informed decisions based on that information.

Employers value workers who can quickly develop a thorough understanding of any changes or trends in their field of work through accurate research. Knowing how to assess customer needs, recognize competition, write reports, improve productivity, and advise on investments can also benefit any business. With the help of research skills, companies can uncover ways to adapt their services or products that better serve their customers’ needs while helping them save money at the same time. This makes overall operations more efficient as well as helps a company remain ahead of its competitors.

Essential Research Skills :

Here is a list of essential research skills:

Data Collection

Data collection is an important part of comprehending a certain topic and ensuring reliable information is collected while striving to answer complex questions. Every situation differs, but data collection typically includes surveys, interviews, observations, and existing document reviews. The data collected can be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the nature of the problem at hand. As students advance through university and other educational institutions, they will need to read extensively into a particular field and may even need to undertake comprehensive literature reviews to answer fundamental questions.

The skills acquired through data collection during university are invaluable for future roles and jobs. Gaining experience in understanding complex topics, reading widely on a given subject matter, collecting relevant data, and analyzing findings - all these activities are integral when dealing with any type of project within the corporate sector. Therefore, embarking on various research projects enhances a person's education level and brings about significant professional experience.

Goal-Setting

Setting goals is an important skill for any successful research project. It allows you to stay focused and motivated throughout the process. Goals are also essential in helping with direction: they provide a path to organize our thoughts, narrow our focus, and prioritize the tasks we need to undertake to achieve our desired result. The concept of goal-setting is inherent in most research processes, as everything needs to have something to strive for — whether that’s gaining knowledge about a particular topic or testing a theory.

When it comes to creating and setting goals during the research process, you must have clear and specific objectives in mind from the outset. Writing down your thoughts helps define these objectives, which can inform the data collection process; moreover, thinking about short-term and long-term goals can help you create manageable steps toward achieving them. Learning how to break up larger projects into smaller “mini-goals effectively” can make all the difference when tackling complex investigations — allowing researchers to monitor their progress more easily and culminate results further down the line.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is an integral part of the modern workplace. To succeed, one must be able to look at a situation objectively and make decisions based on evidence. The information examined needs to come from various sources, such as data collection, personal observation, or analysis. The goal should then be to take all this information and form a logical judgment that informs an action plan or idea.

Someone who displays strong critical thinking skills will not just accept proposed ideas at face value but instead can understand how these ideas can be applied and challenged. Accepting something without consideration means making the wrong decision due to a lack of thought. Critical thinkers understand how brainstorming works, assessing all elements before forming any decision. From negotiating with colleagues or customers in adversarial scenarios to analyzing complex documents such as legal contracts in order to review business agreements - critical dedicated apply their knowledge effectively and are able to back up their evaluation with evidence collected from multiple sources.

Observation Skills

Observation skills are necessary for conducting any form of research, whether it be in the workplace or as part of an investigative process. It is important to be able to pick up on the details that might otherwise pass unnoticed, such as inconsistencies in data or irregularities in how something is presented, and to pay careful attention to regulations and procedures that govern the company or environment. This can help researchers to ensure their processes are accurate and reliable.

As well as analyzing what we see around us directly, many research methodologies often involve calculated statistical analyses and calculations. For this reason, it’s important to develop strong observation skills so that the legitimacy of information can be confirmed and checked before conclusions are formed. Improving this skill requires dedication and practice, which could include keeping a journal reflecting on experiences, posing yourself questions about what you have observed, and seeking out opportunities in unfamiliar settings to test your observations.

Detail Orientation

Detail orientation is an important research skill for any scientific endeavor. It allows one to assess a situation or problem in minute detail and make appropriate judgments based on the information gathered. A detail-oriented thinker can easily spot errors, inconsistencies, and vital pieces of evidence, which can help lead to accurate conclusions from the research. Additionally, this skill allows someone to evaluate the quality and accuracy of data recorded during an experiment or project more efficiently to ensure validity.

Spotting small mistakes that may otherwise have been overlooked is a crucial part of conducting detailed research that must be perfected. Individuals aiming for superior outcomes should strive to develop their skill at detecting details by practicing critical analysis techniques, such as breaking down large bodies of information into smaller tasks to identify finer points quickly. Moreover, encouragement should also be made for elaborate comparison and analysis between different pieces of information when solving a complex problem, as it can help provide better insights into problems accurately.

Investigative Skills

Investigative skills are an essential component when it comes to gathering and analyzing data. In a professional setting, it is important to determine the accuracy and validity of different sources of information before making any decisions or articulating ideas. Generally, effective investigation requires collecting different sets of reliable data, such as surveys and interviews with stakeholders, employees, customers, etc. For example, if a company internally assesses possible challenges within its business operations environment, it would need to conduct more profound research involving talking to relevant stakeholders who could provide critical perspectives about the situation.

Data-gathering techniques such as comparison shopping and regulatory reviews have become more commonplace in the industry as people strive for greater transparency and more accurate results. Knowing how to identify reliable sources of information can give individuals a competitive advantage and allow them to make sound decisions based on accurate data. Investing time in learning different investigative skills can help recruiters spot applicants dedicated to acquiring knowledge in this field. Developing these investigative skills is also valuable for those looking for executive positions or starting their own business. By familiarizing themselves with their application process, people can become adept at collecting high-quality data they may use in their research endeavors.

Time Management

Time management is a key skill for any researcher. It's essential to be able to allocate time between different activities so you can effectively plan and structure your research projects. Without good time management, you may find yourself hastily completing tasks or feeling stressed out as you rush to complete an analysis. Ultimately, managing your time allows you to stay productive and ensure that each project is completed with the highest results.

Good time management requires various skills such as planning ahead, prioritizing tasks, breaking down large projects into smaller steps, and even delegating some activities when possible. It also means setting realistic goals for yourself in terms of the amount of research that can be achieved in certain timestamps and learning how to adjust these goals when needed. Becoming mindful of how you spend the same hours each day will propel your productivity and see positive results from your efforts. Time management becomes especially relevant regarding data collection and analysis – it is crucial to understand precisely what kind of resources are needed for each task before diving into the research itself. Knowing how much time should be dedicated to each step is essential for meeting deadlines while still retaining accuracy in the final outcomes of one’s study.

Tips on How to Improve Your Research Skills

Below are some tips that can help in improving your skills in research:

Initiate your project with a structured outline

When embarking on any research project, creating an outline and scope document must first ensure that you remain on the right track. An outline sets expectations for your project by forming a detailed strategy for researching the topic and gathering the necessary data to conclude. It will help you stay organized and break down large projects into more manageable parts. This can help prevent procrastination as each part of the project has its own timeline, making it easier to prioritize tasks accordingly.

Using an outline and scope document also allows for better structure when conducting research or interviews, as it guides which sources are most relevant, what questions need to be answered, and how information should be collected or presented. This ensures that all information received through research or interviews stays within the confines of the chosen topic of investigation. Additionally, it ensures that no important details are overlooked while minimizing the chance that extraneous information gets included in your results. Taking this time upfront prevents potential problems during analysis or reporting of findings later.

Acquire expertise in advanced data collection methods

When it comes to collecting data for research purposes, a range of advanced data collection techniques can be used to maximize your efficiency and accuracy. One such technique is customizing your online search results with advanced search settings. By adding quotation marks and wildcard characters to the terms you are searching for, you are more likely to find the information you need from reliable sources. This can be especially useful if, for instance, you are looking for exact quotes or phrases. Different search engines require different advanced techniques and tactics, so learning these can help you get more specific results from your research endeavors.

Aside from using online searches, another standard methodology when conducting research is accessing primary information through libraries or other public sources. A specific classification system will likely be in place that can help researchers locate the materials needed quickly and easily. Knowing and understanding this system allows one to access information much more efficiently while also giving them ample opportunity to increase their knowledge of various topics by browsing related content in the same category groups. Thus, by learning about advanced data collection techniques for both online and offline sources, researchers can make substantial progress in their studies more efficiently.

Validate and examine the reliability of your data sources

Collecting reliable information for research can be a challenge, especially when relying on online sources. It is essential to remember that not all sources are created equal, and some sites may contain false or inaccurate data. It is, therefore important to verify and analyze the data before using it as part of your research.

One way to start verifying and analyzing your sources is to cross-reference material from one source with another. This may help you determine if particular facts or claims are accurate and, therefore, more valid than others. Additionally, trace where the data is coming from by looking at the author or organization behind it so that you can assess their expertise in a particular field and authority on the topic at hand. Once these steps have been completed, you can confidently use this trusted information for your project.

Structure your research materials

Organizing your research materials is an integral part of any research process. When you’re conducting a project or study and trying to find the most relevant information, you can become overwhelmed with all the data available. It’s important to separate valid from invalid materials and to categorize research materials by subject for easy access later on. Bookmarking websites on a computer or using a digital asset management tool are two effective methods for organizing research information.

When researching, it’s critical to remember that some sources have limited value and may be outside the scope of your topic. Recognizing reliable material versus trustworthy resources can be complex in this sea of information. However, sorting data into appropriate categories can help narrow down what is necessary for producing valid conclusions. This method of classifying information helps ensure that vital documents aren't overlooked during the organization process as they are placed in folders shortcutted for quick access within one centralized source whenever needed. Separating valuable sources also makes it easier to reference later on when writing reports or giving presentations - material won't get lost among irrelevant data, and conclusions will be backed by sound evidence.

Enhance your research and communication capabilities

Developing research and communication skills is essential for succeeding academically and professionally in the modern world. The key to improving these skills lies in rigorous practice, which can begin with small projects such as resolving common issues or completing a research task that can be made into a personal project. One way to do this is to volunteer for research projects at work and gain experience under the guidance of experienced researchers. This will improve your research skills and help you develop communication skills when working with others on the project. Another option is to turn a personal project into a research task. For example, if you plan on taking a holiday soon, you could create an objective method to select the best destination by conducting online research on destinations and making informed decisions based on thorough analysis. Practicing in this way enables you to complete any research task confidently and communicate efficiently with ease.

How to Articulate Research Skills on Your Resume

Research projects require commitment and perseverance, making it an important skill to include on a resume. Even if you have had limited research experience throughout your education or previous job, including this in your resume assesses these qualities to potential employers. It's important to consider the extent of your research experience when deciding how to add this part of your background to your resume. If you have been involved with multiple in-depth research projects, it might be best to highlight this by including it as its own section. On the other hand, if the amount of research you have completed is more limited, then try including it in the skills section instead.

When adding research experience and accomplishments into either section of your resume, be sure to emphasize any specific roles or contributions you made during the process instead of just describing the project itself. Furthermore, remember to quantify any successes where possible - this showcases both communication and technical proficiency strengths, which can help make your resume stand out even more. By properly articulating research skills within a resume, employers will likely be more interested in what job seekers have accomplished in their careers.

How to Apply Research Skills Effectively in Your Workplace

Research skills are an invaluable set of abilities to bring to your workplace. To make sure you use them properly, a good place to start is by taking time to plan the project you have been assigned. Whether it’s writing a report or analyzing data, mapping out what tasks you need to do and how long they should take helps to understand the project timeline better. This also makes setting aside dedicated time for research easier too.

To ensure that the decisions made are sound and informed, reading up on the subject area related to the project remains one of the premier ways of doing this. This will help to ensure that any problems arising can be solved quickly and effectively, as well as provide answers before any decisions are actually put into practice. By arming yourself with knowledge gathered through reading about a particular topic, it can give you more confidence when formulating plans or strategies in which direction to take your work in.

Final Thoughts

Research skills are increasingly important in the modern world, and gaining proficiency in this area can significantly benefit a person's career. Research skills are essential for success in many different roles and fields, including those within business and industry, education, science, and medicine. Developing a deep understanding of research allows us to identify problems better and critically evaluate potential solutions. It also bolsters our problem-solving abilities as we work to find creative solutions that meet our efforts' objectives.

By improving your research capabilities, you can impress employers during an application process or when joining a team at work. Research skills are considered soft skills by potential employers since they signal that you have attention to detail while simultaneously demonstrating your ability to learn new things quickly. Employers regard these skills highly, making them one of the key graduate career skills recruiters seek. Furthermore, being able to add ‘research skills’ to your CV will be looked upon favorably by employers and help drive up your employability significantly. Demonstrating that you possess these sought-after traits makes it easier for recruiters to give you the opportunity you've been looking for, so it's worth investing the time into developing these life-long learning tools today.

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Institute for Employment Research National Guidance Research Forum

Developing your research skills.

Developing Your Research Skills

Contribution from Jenny Bimrose, Warwick Institute for Employment Research (2003).

The following materials provide an introduction to some key issues for designing and progressing a research project in guidance through to successful completion.

Links to subsections: Contents

STAGE 1: Identifying a research need within a guidance (or related) context

Stage 2: reading for research, stage 3: selecting appropriating methods and procedures, stage 4: research models, traditions and approaches, stage 5: writing a research report.

Bibliography

Research in Practice website

Harvard Reference Style

This section will help you plan your research project.

1.1 Introduction

To carry out research, you will need to carry out a variety of tasks. Robson (1993:pxvii) identifies the main ones as:

deciding on the focus; developing the research question(s); choosing a research strategy; selecting the method(s); arranging the practicalities; collecting the data; preparing for, and carrying out analysis; reporting what you have found; and possibly acting on your findings There is no shortage of advice in books on how to approach your research (see the References and Bibliography sections - though, please note, that there are many other standard texts which contain the same type of general information). It is worth spending time reviewing the advice and suggestions contained in a selection of these texts, since learning from the experience of the experts who have written these texts can often save you time and effort in the longer term.

1.2 Objective: stage 1

The first stage in conducting successful research involves identifying a realistic and achievable research need which is relevant to your professional area, then undertaking some initial planning of your project.

By the end of this stage of your research project, you should have:

gathered and selected information from a variety of sources which is appropriate to your broad area of interest; synthesised this information to identify a research need; identified constraints associated with your chosen research focus together with possible solutions to potential problems they represent; considered likely trends related to the prospective research area; written a brief research proposal outlining your ideas for research (see 1.8 below).

1.3 Keeping a research diary

It is usual for initial ideas to change as you become more and more involved with the process of research. Because of this, it is worth keeping some informal notes about your progress, like a personal diary, which keeps a reasonably accurate record of key issues. These could include:

how and why you selected the particular focus for your study; difficulties anticipated and actually encountered; how and when difficulties are overcome; sources of inspiration; thoughts and feelings; insights and anxieties; critical turning points, etc. To ensure you do actually keep a diary, it’s important to select an approach to keeping a diary with which you feel comfortable. A small notebook would suffice or, alternatively, Blaxter et al (1996) suggest that diaries can also be kept on tape or a word processor. Whichever method of recording your choose, try to keep it readily accessible, so that ideas can be jotted down as and when they arise.

1.4 Models of research process

‘A rationale for the methods used to gather and process data, in what sequence and on what samples, taken together, constitutes a research methodology.’ Cryer, 1996: 45

The task of carrying out a research inquiry is complicated by the fact that there is no consensus about the way this should be done (Robson, 1993). A fundamental difference relates to the sequence and relationship of activities involved. One model says that you collect all the data before analysing it. One other model requires that data collection and analysis are intertwined. Another difference relates to views about the role of theory. Such differences can be categorised into two main traditions: quantitative (positivist, natural-science based, hypothetico-deductive) and qualitative (interpretative, ethnographic). The implications of adopting one as opposed to the other of these models are discussed later (4.5 and 4.6 below). However, whichever of these approaches (or combination of approaches) you decide to adopt, you will still need to develop your focus at an early stage of your research.

1.5 Selecting a topic

If you are reading this information, it is likely that you already have one (maybe several) idea(s) or a particular area of interest that you would like to research. To help you make your final selection, try to find out just how much has been written each topic. You probably won't have time to read extensively on each topic, so using a library catalogue can be a useful way of identifying relevant material. For example, try the catalogue linked to the careers library that can be accessed through this Forum). Additionally, talk to colleagues and others who might be interested. Discussing ideas about possible topics and the associated problems is an essential part of planning your research. Views may differ from (even conflict) with your own and you may be able to identify alternative approaches as a result of this process. For example, colleagues may be aware of sensitive aspects of certain topics that could cause difficulties at some stage. Use the discussion facility of the Forum to test out your ideas. If you are hoping to carry out research in your own employing organisation, early consultation with relevant individuals is essential to avoid later difficulties.

In selecting a topic, there is often a tendency to be over-ambitious. With limited resources (including time) at your disposal it’s important to prepare the ground carefully. Discussions and inquiries will help you select a topic which is likely to be of interest, which you have a good chance of completing and which may well have some practical application in a guidance context.

1.6 Ethical considerations

At a very early stage of your preparations to carry out research it is vital that you give serious thought to the ethical aspects of the enquiry you are proposing. Ethics refers to rules of conduct, and adopting an ethical approach involves conformity to a code or set of principles. Ethical problems can start at the very beginning of study. Some issues, which may be relevant to your research, are identified by Robson (1993:31):

Do individuals have the right not to take part? Even if they do, are there any overt or covert penalties for non-participation (e.g. 'it will look good on your reference if you have taken part in this study'). Do they know what they are letting themselves in for? Is their consent fully informed? Will individuals participating be protected, not only from any direct effects of the intervention, but also by the investigator ensuring that the reporting of the study maintains confidentiality? Is confidentiality always appropriate? If people have done something praiseworthy and put extra effort and time, should they get credit for this? Conversely, if inefficiency or malpractice is uncovered in your study, should the guilty ones be permitted to hide? What responsibility do investigators have for the knowledge they have acquired? Should those undertaking applied research target their knowledge and take responsibility for the consequences? These are just some examples. Each needs careful thought for your particular situation. Robson (1993: 32) lists ten questionable practices in social science research, relevant to a guidance context. These are:

Involving people without their knowledge or consent. Coercing them to participate. Withholding information about the true nature of the research. Otherwise deceiving the participant. Inducing them to commit acts diminishing their self-esteem. Violating rights of self-determination (e.g. in studies seeking to promote individual change). Exposing participants to physical or mental stress. Invading their privacy. Withholding benefits from some participants (e.g. in comparison groups). Not treating participants fairly, or with consideration, or with respect. He goes on to identify ethical principles relevant for 'action research' - one approach that you may choose to adopt, relevant to a guidance context, characterised by a collaborative effort between researcher and 'researched'. Ethical guidelines for this type of research emphasise the need for negotiation and involvement in the research process. These include:

Observe protocol: Ensure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have been consulted and informed and that the necessary permission and approval has been obtained. Involve participants: Encourage those who have a stake in the improvement you envisage, shape the form of the work. Negotiate with those affected: Remember that not everyone will want to be directly involved. Your research should respect this. Report progress: Keep the work visible and remain open to suggestions to that both anticipated and unanticipated developments can be dealt with. All involved must have the opportunity to raise concerns with you. Negotiate descriptions of people's work. Always allow those described in your research to challenge your accounts on the grounds of fairness, relevance and accuracy. Negotiate reports for various levels of release. Different audiences demand different levels of reports. 1.7 Planning your research project

Bell (1993:23) provides a useful checklist for planning your project, which identifies the following stages:

Draw up a short list of topics; Select a broad topic for investigation; Refine the precise focus of the study; Decide on the aims and objectives; Draw up an initial project outline; Read enough to ensure you’re on the right lines; Devise a timetable to enable you to check that all stages will be covered and time allowed for writing. By the time you have completed all of these planning phases, you will be ready to write your Research Proposal.

1.8 Research proposal

It is good practice to produce a brief research proposal after your preliminary investigations. This need not be long or complicated, but helps order thoughts and organise subsequent action. It is also good preparation for when you may wish to submit a formal application for funding for research. It should include:

a statement of the research (including, aims and objectives), sources to be examined and identification of any potential ethical issues; a provisional timetable for carrying out the research and writing the report; a rationale for the research, which identifies probable outcomes (what you hope to achieve); a provisional outline of your research report, which can be expanded as your research progresses. Cryer (1996:51) identifies some examples of research outcomes, which are relevant to a guidance context:

A new product e.g. a book, a video, worksheets, etc. A development of or an improvement on something that already exists. A new theory. A reinterpretation of an existing theory. A new research tool or technique. A new model or perspective. An in-depth study. A critical analysis e.g. an analysis of the effects of a particular policy. A collection of general findings or conclusions.

Once you have written your research proposal, you are ready to move on to second stage of your research.

This section will help you focus on identifying and managing the reading materials for your research project.

2.1 Introduction

Carrying out any worthwhile research project will involve a significant amount of reading. The purpose of research is to extend and develop knowledge and understanding. Reading is an integral part of this process. Reading for research in guidance will probably involve reviewing or refreshing your current knowledge base (e.g. theories on which practice is based) as well as undertaking new reading. The types of skills required with reading for research (e.g. how to read, deciding what to read, how to interpret your reading) can be a source of anxiety, so the following sections have been designed to support and/or develop these skills.

2.2 Objective: stage 2

By the end of the second stage of your research you will be able to:

communicate effectively and clearly with others in the discipline area; develop information storage and retrieval strategies; develop skills relevant to library and resource use; develop skills relating to the organisation of reading, research time and tasks; use information to construct a rationale for your research project. 2.3 Information storage and retrieval strategies

For successful research, you will need to be familiar with the sound methods of keeping records and making notes. Whilst locating information for the first time can be difficult, re-locating it can be even more of a problem unless you have developed systematic record-keeping procedures. As well as keeping a record of useful sources, you should also keep a record of sources that proved to be of no interest (and why) to save valuable time later if you come across the same reference again. Remember that for all your sources, you need to record sufficient information for constructing your bibliography (see 2.7 below).

A number of texts on research suggest adopting a card index system (e.g. Bell, 1993 and Cryer, 1996). The merits of using different size cards are discussed (e.g. to contain more or less information) and the potential for keeping cards for various sources in different sections (e.g. cards on books in one section, cards on articles in another, etc.). Other methods could include using part of your 'Research Diary' (see 2.3 above), or using a computer to develop systems of recording.

Adopting a system may prove challenging because breaking off from reading an interesting report, article or chapter to record the necessary details requires a good deal of self-discipline – especially when you’re working under pressure. It is, however, worth persevering since your recording system will undoubtedly be a key feature of producing a high quality research report.

2.4 Reading for research

You may already have been involved in research connected with your professional role and this may have been undertaken without much direct reading (e.g. if you have been involved in administering questionnaires on someone's behalf). However, for research requiring more in-depth involvement, reading is essential since it will both be stimulated and informed by the knowledge acquired by your reading. Blaxter et al (1996:94) usefully suggest that reading should be undertaken at different stages of your research and for different purposes, as follows:

At the beginning of your research: to check what other research has been done, to focus your ideas and to explore the context for your project. During your research: to keep you interested and up to date with developments, to help you better understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching, and as a source of data. After your research: to see what impact your own work has had and to help you develop ideas for further research projects. Purposes of reading for your research are to familiarise yourself with:

research which has been undertaken on topics similar to your own; research methods being applied in ways which are similar to your own plans; accounts of the context relating to your project 2.5 Potential difficulties

One common difficulty is getting hold of relevant books, reports or journal articles. The careers library which can be accessed through this website, is one obvious source of relevant materials. However, remember that there is often competition for popular and scarce resources, so careful planning may be necessary to ensure you manage to access key texts for your research when you need them. It may also be necessary to negotiate access to libraries near to where you live. Local libraries can be very helpful - ordering specialist books on request – and you may be lucky enough to live near a University library, which often allow access to researchers. Wherever you access literature, you probably need to give some careful thought and planning to how and when you will access the material you wish to read.

Apart from libraries, you will need to use a wide variety of other sources for your reading. Your employer, colleagues, supervisors, friends, relations - even clients and research subjects - can prove to be a rich source of relevant material. The Internet can also produce relevant information and can be invaluable for identifying and locating possible material.

Blaxter et al (1996) identify four common concerns about reading for research:

the volume of literature: how do you get to grips with this? the variety of literature: how do you go about using the vast range of sources available? lack of boundaries: how do you decide which areas of literature are relevant? conflicting arguments: how do you assess and evaluate competing explanations? If you can identify with any, or all, of these concerns it is probably worth spending some time developing strategies for reading for research. Again, a number of texts that are readily available provide helpful hints on dealing with these sorts of problems. Some of these are summarised next.

2.6 Basic reading strategies

What to read Read as much as possible from as many sources as possible - books, journals, computer-based materials, reports, the popular media (daily and weekly press, magazines), memos, minutes, internal reports and even letters.

Remember that, even though it is important to be as up-to-date as possible, this does not preclude older sources like classic texts. Edited texts and literature reviews are also particularly useful for research purposes. The careers library accessed through this website is a rich source of this type of material since it contains historical collections of guidance materials. They can provide invaluable overviews of an area as well as excellent introductions to an area – though try to balance these with references to original materials where possible. Methodological accounts are also valuable sources.

Make sure you understand the extent to which the texts that you are using make use of original data:

primary sources: contain original data; secondary sources: contain discussions and interpretations of data, in which the author typically argues for a particular point of view; tertiary sources: presents information and references to the sources of that information. It’s best to try to draw from a mix of sources for your research report.

Making selections Familiarise yourself with key texts relevant to your research topic and then supplement with a broader, but selective, reading around the topic. Develop a selective approach by, for example:

Taking advice from available sources: for example from your colleagues or manager at work. Use the discussion section of this website under different section headings (e.g. Equal Opportunties; Improving Practice; Impact Analysis). Locating books or journals that appear relevant in a careers library by asking, browsing or using a catalogue. Keyword searches on computer-based catalogues are very useful. Following up interesting references from your original sources. Identifying key texts by noting those that are referred to repeatedly. Selective reading If you haven’t already done so, you will need to develop the skill of selective reading because you will not have time to read thoroughly all the written sources with which you need to be familiar. The following tips can help develop this skill:

record the author(s), title, publisher and date of the book, report or articles. Keep this safely and any notes you make on the content; look for an introduction, concluding chapter, abstract or executive summary. If it exists, read quickly, scanning the contents. If the book or report has a cover, the information printed there can be useful; with books and reports, look for the contents page. Identify any chapters that you think may be of particular relevance and focus on them, again starting from the introduction and/or conclusion. You can find your way through a chapter or section by using the sub-headings; in the text itself, key points will often be highlighted, or in the first or last paragraphs. Similarly, the first and last sentences of paragraphs are often used to indicate and summarise their contents. Remember - you should be able to understand the key points of a book or article in no more than five minutes. This should enable you to decide you need go no further, or decide which parts of the book or article you need to read in depth.

Critical reading This requires careful examination of what others have written (or said) on a particular subject. It is a difficult skill to develop but important for successful research. The types of questions you will need to ask as you are reading: does the author present convincing arguments or evidence to support assertions? Is information easy to find? Are the views expressed consistent? Are clear distinctions made between fact and opinion?

Blaxter et al (1996:106) suggest that critically sound sources:

go beyond mere descriptions by arguing their position - making a personal response to what has been written; relate different writings to each other, indicating their differences and contradictions, and highlighting what they are lacking; do not take what is written at face value; are explicit about the values and theories which inform and colour reading and writing; view research writing as contested terrain, within which alternative views and positions may be taken up; show an awareness of the power relations involved in research, and of where writers are coming from; use a particular language (e.g. the author asserts, argues, states, concludes or contends). 2.7 Referencing

There are several acceptable ways of recording sources and other information. The Harvard method is a common method that has various advantages. For example, it avoids footnotes and all sources mentioned appear at the end of your dissertation rather than at the end of each chapter. When sources are referred to in the text, only the name(s) of author(s) and year of publication appear. Even though there are different styles of referencing, they will probably contain the information identified below.

Books For all books you wish to include in your Bibliography, you will need the following information:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication (in brackets) Title (underlined) Edition, if relevant (in brackets) Place of publication Name of publisher

For example: Hodkinson, P., Sparkes, A.C. & Hodkinson, H. (1996) Triumphs and Tears: young people, markets and the transition from school to work, London, David Fulton Publishers.

References in the text should be given as follows:

Smith and Brown (1998:175) or (Smith and Brown, 1998:175)

Where there are three or more authors, only give the name of the first:

Smith et al. (1997:203) or (Smith et al., 1997:203)

When an author has published two or more items in one year, the references should be distinguished by:

Smith (1996a) Smith (1996b) and so on.

Where more than one reference has to be given at a single point in the text, they should be listed chronologically:

Brown (1986:47), Jones (1992:106) and Kaput (1997:427)

Articles and Chapters in Books quote the following:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication (in brackets) Title (in inverted commas or italics) Source of journal or book, that is: ~ Title of journal or book (underlined) ~ Volume number, issue and page numbers in journals

For example: Savickas, M.L. (1995) Current Theoretical Issues in Vocational Psychology: Convergence, Divergence, and Schism in Walsh, W.B. and Osipow, S.H. Handbook of Vocational Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice, (2nd ed) Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Articles in Journals quote the following:

Author's surname and initials Year of publication Title (inverted commas or italics) Title of journal (underlined) Volume number, issue and page numbers

For example: Betz, N.E., Harmon, L.W. & Borgen, F.H. (1996) The Relationships of Self-Efficacy for the Holland Themes to Gender, Occupational Group Membership, and Vocational Interests in Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 1, p90-98.

Citing Web Pages As with printed references, the title should be either in Italics or underlined. Note that round brackets are used for (year) and (edition). Where there is no year given on the web material, your would record this as (no date).

Note also that square brackets are used for [medium] and [access date]. The access date is the date you last accessed that reference. This is important, given the volatility of web material, because it offers some indication of the currency of the reference. Without your access date, there might be no intention of how old the material is.

Author/editor. (Year). Title (edition).[Type of medium].Producer (optional). Available Protocol (if applicable):Site/Path/File[Access date].

For example: Equal Opportunities Commission (2003) ‘The Development of Gender Roles in Young Children’. [Online]. Available: http://www.eoc.org.uk/PDF/gender_roles.pdf [2003, May 22].

Whichever method you select for your Bibliography and referencing, remember that it is important to be consistent.

This section will help you to decide how to collect the evidence you require for your research project.

3.1 Introduction

Once you have decided on a research topic, you will be able to decide how to collect the evidence you require. This section will be concerned with general issues associated with the selection of methods and appropriate procedures for the project.

3.2 Objectives: stage 3

By the end of this stage of your research project, you will be able to:

identify appropriate criteria by which to judge the validity of a guidance project; approximate and estimate time involved, necessary materials and the quantities in which they are required, costs of the research, etc.; identify design principles relevant to the chosen research area; identify the major issues or problems in the specific research area; demonstrate the ability to re-formulate research design in response to unexpected circumstances; synthesise material, evidence and arguments to select appropriate methods and procedures for the project. 3.3 Validity, Reliability and Relevance

When judging the quality of any research, reliability, validity and relevance are important.

The validity of research refers to the credibility of the results. Has the research actually done the things it claims to do? Does an item measure or describe what it is supposed to measure or describe? In considering these issues, it needs to be acknowledged that discussions about validity provoke controversy amongst researchers. Some have rejected the concept of validity as inapplicable since it implies the possession of knowledge that is absolutely certain and, in this sense, knowledge can never be certain. McLeod (1999) argues that the concepts of validity and reliability that have been developed for use in quantitative research can’t be applied in the same way in qualitative studies. Nevertheless, in deciding the value of our own and other research, we need to be able to make reasoned judgements about it as a new contribution to knowledge.

Measuring the extent of validity can become extremely involved and there are different levels at which the question of validity can be considered. Put simply, if your research is valid, then you are observing, identifying or measuring what you say you are. A rough guide would be to ask the question: ‘would another researcher using my research instrument get the same responses?’ Additionally, ask other people whether the questions or items you have devised are likely to achieve what you want. Three different aspects of validity are discussed below:

Plausibility:

How plausible is this claim: that is, do we judge it to be likely to true, given our existing knowledge? Some claims may be so plausible that we can reasonably accept them at face value without needing to know anything else.

Credibility:

Does it seems likely that the researcher's judgement of matters relating to the claim is accurate, given the nature of the phenomena concerned, the circumstances of the research, the characteristics of the researcher, etc.?

Where a claim is neither sufficiently plausible, nor sufficiently credible, then we require evidence. When examining the evidence, we need to employ much the same means to assess its validity as we applied to the claim itself (plausibility and credibility) - and may require even more evidence!

McLeod (1999:101) outlines nine criteria suitable for evaluating the validity of qualitative research, which include:

Sufficient contextualisation of the study: Since qualitative research is more concerned with developing knowledge that is relevant and useful at particular times and places, it is necessary to contextualise the study in its historical, social and cultural location.

Credibility of the researcher (reflexivity):A reflexive account of internal processes of research, covering, for example, how contact was made with informants, issues of trust and rapport, how mistakes and misconceptions were dealt with, whether there was agreement over goals and tasks.

Catalytic validity: Defined as the degree to which the research process reorients, focuses and energies participants. Implicit in this is the idea that research should empower those who take part in it.

McNiff (1992) discusses the issue of validity in relation to action research, and distinguishes three types: 1) self validation, 2) peer validation and 3) learner validation. Action research is an approach that often has particular appeal to researchers working on issues related to professional practice. Because much of what McNiff (1992) discusses is applicable to a careers guidance and counselling context, a summary of some of the points she makes on validity follows.

Self-validation: If you are researching within the broad area of guidance and counselling, you are likely to be involved in interpreting your own practice and in making decisions about improving it. The implication of self-validation in this context refers to the potential of these interpretations of your own practice being recognised. McNiff (1992:133) discusses how certain criteria justify an individual's claim to knowledge. They include:

Practice as a realisation of values: where guidance and counselling research starts with a declaration (spoken or written) of values – for example, 'my clients have a right to self-determination'. Often the research inquiry is stimulated because those values are being denied in practice. If clients are being denied the service you think they deserve, this is where a cycle of imagined solutions, implementation, observation, evaluation, re-planning is enacted. Intentional critical reflection: where research inquiry occurs as a result of critical reflection, a desire to explore an intuitive understanding of practice and communicate it to others. Disciplined enquiry: where a researcher demonstrates publicly that s/he has followed a system of disciplined enquiry in arriving at a hypothesis. Personal interpretation as a basis for dialogue: where individuals recognise the potential in their interpretations of their own practice. Peer validation: This relates to the notion that a claim to knowledge or expertise derived from practice must be validated externally. It is the process whereby your findings are made available to and scrutinised by others who can agree that these findings are of interest and could be useful to their own practice. This external validation can come from a number of sources, including colleagues, manager or supervisor, the wider guidance and counselling community, other students, etc. Peer validation can be effective in moving your ideas forward. Questions may be asked which provide new insights and ways of thinking about your research, and invariably you will gain more confidence to progress your research from the process of peer validation.

Client validation: It is particularly useful to get the reactions of the clients themselves. This may be presented in short, written statements, recordings (tape or video), reports, etc. For example, data about the use of labour market information by guidance practitioners could be collected during focus group discussions. This could be written up into a report that was circulated to the practitioners who were asked to validate the accuracy of the reports. The findings could then be circulated more widely to the guidance community who are asked to comment on the relevance of these findings to their own experiences. This represents a powerful chain of validation.

Overall, validation of research findings in a guidance and counselling or related context is likely to involve the development of self-knowledge followed by a genuine attempt to share that knowledge with others.

Reliability

Whatever procedure is used for collecting data for research, it should always be examined critically to assess to what extent it is likely to be reliable, as well as valid. Reliability is the extent to which a test or procedure produces similar results under constant conditions on all occasions. Bell (1993:65) suggests two questions to ask yourself when checking items on a questionnaire or interview schedule you may devise to collect data. They are:

would two interviewers using the schedule or procedure get a similar results? would an interviewer obtain a similar picture using the procedures on different occasions? There are a number of devices for checking reliability in scales and tests. For example:

test-retest method: administering the same test some time after the first; alternate forms method: where equivalent versions of the same items in the test are given and results correlated; split-half method: where the items in the test are split into two matched halves and scores then correlated. These methods are not always feasible or necessary, and there are disadvantages and problems associated with all three. Such mechanisms are not usually necessary unless you are attempting to produce a test or scale. The check for reliability will come at the stage of wording questions and piloting your research instrument(s).

A third criterion for judging research in the area of guidance and counselling is relevance. Since the purpose of any research inquiry is to extend knowledge and understanding, it follows that this must be communicated to a wider audience. When we communicate with people, they assume that we are telling them something that is likely to be of significance to them. It follows that what is communicated should be relevant in some way to the chosen audience. Who are the appropriate audiences for your research and what sort of relevance should your research have for them? Audiences for research reports vary. If you are undertaking a research project within your employing organisation, its primary audience is likely to be members of that organisation. Additionally, your research findings should have some relevance to other audiences. These may include other researchers, a particular practitioner audience or even a more general audience. Whatever audience(s) you select as your target(s), you will need to consider two aspects of the relevance of your research:

importance of the topic: must relate to an issue of importance to the intended audience; contribution to existing: must add something to our knowledge of the issue to knowledge which they relate. Research that merely confirms what is already beyond reasonable doubt makes no contribution to the existing knowledge base. 3.4 Access

No researcher can demand access to an institution, an organisation or to materials. People will be doing you a favour if they agree to help, and will need to know exactly what they will be asked to do, how much time they will be expected to give and what use will be made of the information they provide. They will have to be convinced of your integrity and of the value of your research before they decide whether or not to cooperate. Bell (1993:58) provides a useful checklist of points to consider when negotiating access, including:

Clear official channels by formally requesting permission to carry out your research as soon as you have an agreed project outline. Speak to the people who will be asked to co-operate. Maintain strict ethical standards at all times. Submit the project outline to the principal, senior staff member. Decide what you mean by anonymity and confidentiality. Decide who will receive a copy of the report and/or see drafts of interview transcripts. Inform participants what is to be done with the information they provide. Prepare an outline of intentions and conditions under which the study will be carried out to hand to participants. Be honest about the purpose of the study and about the conditions of the research. Remember that people who agreed to help are doing you a favour. Even when strict protocol is adhered to, things can go wrong. Blaxter et al identify the following strategies to consider if access is denied (1996:144):

approach other individuals. If one person refuses to be interviewed or answer a questionnaire, try approaching another person in a similar position or sharing similar characteristics; approach another institution; approach another individual within the same institution (more risky because of possible communication with the institution); try again later, when people are less busy. Attitudes may have changed, people may have moved on, and you may have more to show to demonstrate the value of your research; change your research strategy. This is probably something you should be prepared to do, and plan for, throughout the research process. It may involve using other, perhaps less sensitive, methods for collecting data, or focusing on a slightly different set of issues, or studying alternative groups or organisations. 3.5 Managing your research project

Constraints operate on any research process. This section discusses time and costs, as well as identifying some others which may well be relevant for the type of research you are planning.

Inevitably, the nature and extent of your data collection will be constrained by your access to various resources – in particular time. Whatever the competing demands for your time and attention, it is important to think about what strategies you need to develop to manage the new demands of your research project in parallel with all the established demands.

A key strategy for managing your time effectively is to be realistic, initially, about the methods you are going to use to collect data and the amount of data needed. One common problem with new researchers is over-ambition. Since it’s likely that you will have a limited timescale to complete and write up your research, it follows that the methods you select will have to be informed by these (and other) considerations. For example, time available will limit the amount of any cross-checking you can undertake, and the size of your research sample.

The costs of research can mount up, so it is advisable to undertake a rough costing of the methods of data collection and analysis that you have considered to make sure they are affordable. The process of costing research activities will be very useful if you are, at any stage of your professional career, ever likely to apply for research funding. For applications for external funding, a detailed costing has to be submitted, and if successful, it is likely that you will have to adhere fairly closely to the original costing submitted.

The costs of your research project could include:

travel costs to your research sites and/or libraries; costs of consumables, such as paper, tapes, batteries, etc.; equipment purchase or hire costs (e.g. word processor, tape recorder, software); book, report and journal purchases; photocopying, printing and binding costs; postage and email/telephone costs. Other constraints

In addition to time and costs, there are bound to be other constraints you need to take into account when designing your research: for example, the willingness of people to be interviewed or observed. If you need to observe meetings or training sessions, you will be limited by the schedule of meetings or training events that will take place during the data-collection phase of your project. If you need to research some aspect of guidance and counselling that requires involvement with schools, colleges or universities, you are likely to be constrained by examination timetables and vacations.

To manage your research project successfully, you will need to anticipate routine constraints affecting the research process. This will help you to develop strategies to cope with these limitations and avoid difficult situations arising in the first place.

3.6 Overcoming obstacles

The process of successful research will, inevitably, involve developing problem-solving techniques. Problems that may arise can range from those relating directly to the research process (for example, the response rate is very low), to problems in other areas in your life (for example, changing your job or falling ill). Blaxter et al (1996: 137) suggest the following ways of coping with difficulties:

remind yourself that the purpose of carrying out research, particularly as a new researcher, may be as much to develop your understanding of the research process and/or the use of particular research methods as to explore substantive issues; remember that it may be just as valid to write up your research in terms of, for example, the problems of gaining access to a particular group, or of getting an adequate response from that group once access has been gained; as part of writing your research report, reflect on your research strategy, explore what went wrong and why and include recommendations for improvement; view research as being about the skills you have learnt and developed on the way. Part of doing research is about appreciating what is involved and where it may be leading you; if you have time and resources, you may choose to redirect your research strategy when you become stuck.

This section will help you understand the broader context of guidance research including consideration of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

4.1 Introduction

This section examines the two major traditions of research methods: qualitative and quantitative. It discusses the dominant effect that one of these traditions (quantitative research) has had on current careers guidance and counselling practice and considers the value of piloting research.

4.2 Objectives: stage 4

distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research; outline some key issues from current practice which link with research method; describe the main features of qualitative research; describe the main features of quantitative research; pilot your research project. 4.3 Models of Research

The most common way of conceptualising the diversity of approaches to research is to distinguish between quantitative and qualitative models. It is this distinction that will be adopted here, though it should be stressed that this is a rather crude distinction that can be misleading. In reality, much social scientific research combines methods from the two traditions. So how are these two approaches different? Most obviously, quantitative research involves measurement on some numerical basis and usually employs statistical techniques, whereas qualitative research does not (at least to the same degree). Various other features of the research process are also associated with the different traditions. For example, quantitative research favours structured forms of data, which can consist of frequency counts or other types of measurements. In contrast, the data that qualitative researchers typically deal with are verbal descriptions in natural language often collected from an interview or some type of recorded conversation (for example, using audio tapes). They deal more in meanings, experiences and descriptions. This type of data cannot be directly subjected to counting or measuring, though, of course, they can subsequently be presented so that they can be analysed quantitatively.

Other differences have already been identified in 1.4 above. For example, the sequence and relationship of activities involved. A quantitative approach requires that the researcher collects all the data before analysing it. A qualitative approach requires that data collection and analysis are intertwined. One other important difference relates to views about the role of theory. These and other differences will be discussed in more detail later.

Methods of data collection are also varied. Some are clearly associated with quantitative research (for example, the scientific experiment) and other with qualitative research (for example, participant observation). Others are shared by both traditions (for example, questionnaires and interviews) though the precise design of the research instrument and the approach adopted by the researcher are likely to differ. There is a vast literature available on research methods. You will need to spend time reading about different methods and, once you have an idea of your research focus and methods, you will need to spend time researching issues related to different designs (for example, of questionnaires). Whichever approach (or combination of approaches) you choose to adopt for your research project and whatever methods, remember the underlying purpose is to extend knowledge and understanding about some aspect of careers guidance and counselling. As May (1996:3) expresses it more generally, the purpose of all research is:

'to understand and explain social phenomena, to focus attention on particular issues and to challenge conventionally held beliefs about the social and natural worlds'.

4.4 Research Traditions in Guidance and Counselling

Current Practice

The theories which underpin current careers guidance and counselling practice have come mainly from North America. Varied accounts exist which identify the main influences in the development of this body of knowledge (for example, Arthur et al,1989, Brown et al, 1990, Seligman, 1994, Scharf, 1997 and Zunker, 1998,). Despite disagreements about the particular strands of influence, there is agreement that Frank Parsons was the founding father of the vocational guidance movement. A seminal work by Parsons entitled Choosing a Vocation was published posthumously in 1909. His ideas about how people choose jobs came from differential psychology and were initially referred to as the 'talent matching' approach. They later developed into what became known as the 'trait and factor' theory of occupational choice, and were developed by theorists who had a major impact on practice such as John Holland (1966,1973, 1992) and Alec Rodger (1952). Parsons' core concept was that of 'matching'. He suggested that occupational choice occurs when people have achieved:

an accurate understanding of their individual traits (e.g. personal abilities, aptitudes, interests, etc.); a knowledge of jobs and the labour market and then made a rational and objective judgement about the relationship between these two groups of facts. A key assumption is that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs which can then be matched to achieve a 'good fit'. It is when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities, they perform best, and productivity is highest.

This theory of occupational choice has dominated careers guidance and counselling practice for nearly a century, partly because of its practical appeal. It provides careers guidance and counselling practitioners with a clear rationale and framework for practice. Additionally, the underlying philosophy has suited policy makers since it lends itself to the servicing of labour market requirements. Consequently, it has been embraced enthusiastically by policy makers and barely questioned by the majority of practitioners.

The theory contains, however, fatal flaws. Scharf (1997) reminds us that:

There is little research supporting or refuting trait and factor theory itself as a viable theory of career development. Rather, the research that has been done, of which there is a large amount, has related traits and factors to one another or has established the validity and reliability of measurements of traits and factors.' (p26).

There was no viable theoretical alternative during the first half of this century to this 'best fit' theory of occupational choice, and it was not until the 1950's and 1960's that theories originating from other academic disciplines such as sociology, and other branches of psychology like developmental psychology emerged as serious alternatives. Theories which were developed from these academic disciplines emphasised the context in which occupational 'choice' occurred and the importance of the maturation process of individuals, respectively. Since this time, the theories careers guidance practitioners have used to inform their practice have expanded dramatically. Whichever theories actually inform current practice, there is emerging consensus around the inadequacies of these theories. In particular, researchers are questioning the relevance of current theory for particular sectors of society.

Adequacy of Current Practice

There is a growing critique of the current practice of careers guidance and counselling which is based on theory derived from quantitative research methods. For example, Osipow and Littlejohn (1995) discuss serious weaknesses in applying current theory to Minority ethnic groups. They argue that a major problem is the manner in which all current theories use concepts which 'assume cultures that are relatively affluent and have good opportunities for education, upward mobility and family support and encouragement' (p255). Many members of minority ethnic groups, they argue, do not have access to these privileges.

Hackett (1997) identifies several problems in trying to apply current theory to girls and women: 'I am suggesting the need for formal testing of competing models as well as attempts at unification and integration....we also need to incorporate issues of sexism, racism and their interaction, along with considerations of relational orientation, support and barriers into all our developing conceptions of women's career psychology’ (p187).

Savickas (1995) relates current problems with theory to the more fundamental issue of different philosophical origins reflected in the two approaches to research. He identifies inherent tensions which arise from the academic traditions of different theories: 'sharp lines have been drawn on which philosophy of science to choose' (p15). He concludes that 'vocational psychology could benefit simultaneously from refinements forged within the distinct career theories, from advances produced by convergence among career macrotheories and from break-throughs induced by divergence in work-role microtheory' (p29).

Implications for Research Methods

Theories informing current guidance and counselling policy practice have been developed mainly by psychologists operating from scientific positivist paradigms of research using quantitative methods. What, then, are the concerns now being expressed about the limitations of this research method?

Taking just one example of careers guidance and counselling for girls and women, Harmon & Meara (1994) discuss the limitations of experimentally designed empirical inquiry that meets the criterion of internal validity for both policy and practice. They argue that 'those who are interested in career counselling for women seem to be swimming against this tide in an attempt to integrate science and practice' (p362).

Hackett (1997) reviews some of the criticisms made about the existing literature on women's career development which include research methodologies which have been used. In particular, she argues that there is a need to move beyond 'simple correlational designs' (p184) and suggests that qualitative research methods 'are highly appropriate in attempts of this sort to truly understand the experiences of a group that has received insufficient attention' (p185). She discusses the need to triangulate across different data sources using focus groups, diaries, archival documents, or observations, concluding that 'future research on this model will also benefit from the integration of qualitative and quantitative methods' (p186).

Others have also discussed the type of research methods which should be used for future research inquiry. For example, Rainey and Borders (1997) advocate the use of narratives, constructivist methods or other qualitative approaches to examine environmental factors for girls and women (p169). Edwards and Payne (1997) state simply that there is a need 'to embrace ideas from a wider moorland of study than is presently the case' (p537).

Overall, then, there is a growing consensus that scientific research methods from within a positivist paradigm have been found to be wanting in several respects. Knowledge and understanding built up from a particular approach to research needs to be complemented with knowledge and understanding derived from different ways of investigating social phenomenon.

4.5 Quantitative Research

'Quantitative research is concerned with the collection and analysis of data in numeric form. It tends to emphasise relatively large-scale and representative sets of data, and is often........... presented or perceived as being about the gathering of facts.' (Blaxter et al (1996:60).

Quantitative or traditional experimental approaches set out to quantify and measure the contributions of different factors to phenomenon (for example, occupational choice behaviour). It can be useful if you want to compare things, like test scores under different conditions or behaviour under different conditions. However, this approach to research has certain disadvantages for small scale studies. For example, you would need a large enough sample to ensure your data is statistically significant. Additionally, your sample must be representative so that you can be confident of getting the same pattern of results again when you repeat the same procedures on a different population. Only then would you be able to generalise your findings to a wider sample than the one you are testing.

Robson (1993:19) summarises the five sequential steps which are commonly regarded as typifying the 'scientific' or quantitative approach to research. These involve:

Deducing a hypothesis (a testable proposition about the relationship between two or more events or concepts) from theory. Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms (i.e. ones indicating exactly how the variables are to be measured) which propose a relationship between two specific variables. Testing this operational hypothesis. This will involve an experiment or some other form of empirical enquiry. Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry. It will either tend to confirm the theory or indicate the need for its modification. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings. An attempt is then made to verify the revised theory by going back to the first step and repeating the whole cycle. So, adopting a quantitative approach to research involves searching for causal relationships which are conceptualised in terms of the interaction of 'variables', some of which (independent variables) are seen as the cause of other (dependent variables). It will invariably involve designing and using standardized research instruments (for example, tests, questionnaires, attitude scales) so that numerical data can be collected which will then be manipulated using statistical techniques.

Some suitable data for this research method already exists in the form of published or unpublished statistics. Often, though, researchers have to produce the data they need for analysis themselves. For example, from a laboratory experiment or from psychometric or personality tests which have been administered to relatively large groups of participants. As previously indicated, if responses to unstructured questionnaires can be coded and then counted in some way, this may also be a source of quantitative data.

4.6 Qualitative research

'Qualitative research is concerned with collecting and analysing information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric, as possible. It tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of instances or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to achieve 'depth' rather than 'breadth'.' (Blaxter et al.,1996:60).

Qualitative research is concerned with life as it is lived, things as they happen or situations as they are constructed in the day-to-day course of events. Qualitative researchers seek lived experiences in real situations, try not to disturb the scene and to be unobtrusive in their methods. This is to ensure that data and analysis will closely reflect what is happening. Qualitative researchers are also interested in 'natural' experiments. For example, when ordinary processes are disrupted, basic rules and norms are thrown into relief. Usually, these types of rules and norms are tacit and understood, perhaps subconsciously, by people in a particular situation. A recent example relevant to guidance in the UK is the recent is the introduction of Personnel Advisers to work with disaffected young people in the Connexions service. Reformed organisational structures, different relations with schools, colleges, Youth Services, Social Services, Youth Offending Teams, and Educational Welfare Officers, different working practices with clients (e.g. over a two year period) are all examples of natural experiments which would be legitimate areas for research inquiry using a qualitative approach.

When studying in this way, it is important not to start off with too many preconceptions about what you might find. It is necessary to maintain an openness, not pre-judging issues and not even settling for the first (even second) impressions formed. Guesses might be made, tested along the way and abandoned, changed or revised in the light of later discoveries. This mode of study will have implications for the relationship fostered with the subjects in the research (refer to 'ethics' in 1.6, and 'access' in 3.4).

Six characteristics of qualitative research are identified by Blaxter et al (1996:61):

Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. A qualitative researcher therefore immerses her/himself in the setting. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural; nothing is predefined or taken for granted. Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives. Qualitative researchers attend to the experience as a whole, not as separate variables. The aim of qualitative research is to understand experience as unified. Qualitative methods are appropriate to the above statements. There is no one general method. For many qualitative researchers, the process entails appraisal about what was studied. This approach to research, therefore, involves considered selection and interpretation. It is therefore important to make the choice of focus for study principled and clear as well as being careful to make only reasonable claims in the research report or dissertation. In addition to making the basis of selections and methods clear, the researcher needs to include some biographical information because s/he cannot be regarded as an objective recorder of absolute truths, but rather a participant in the research process.

4.7 Piloting

Piloting is the process whereby you try out the research techniques and methods you have in mind to see how well they work in practice. This enables you modify your plans before you commit too much time to one procedure. If you have spent time thinking about and planning your research project, you may be tempted to believe that you are clear about what you are doing. However, the value of piloting research cannot be overestimated. Things rarely work out the way you expect - respondents can answer a questionnaire or interpret an interview question in ways that you can never anticipate! Taking time to run a pilot can save you time, frustration and even anguish in the end.

In a small scale study, even an informal pilot can prove invaluable. Try out a couple of interviews, get some friends to fill out your questionnaires, go and observe some organisational activities - or whatever else you have in mind for the data collection phase of your project. You will almost certainly gain from doing this, even if it is a more accurate idea of the time collecting data can take. If you do this early enough, you can change your strategy before it's too late!

This section provides guidelines to help structure a research report.

When writing the main body of your research report, the following points may help with the structure:

Introduction:

Use your introduction to: set the context of your study (including information about your own role); explain why you approached your study in the way you did; what you hope to demonstrate by your results; and justify your approach with reasoned argument based on relevant theory and research evidence.

Literature Review:

The literature review should employ a critical, analytical approach with an understanding of (relevant) competing perspectives. It must go beyond a descriptive account and should be logically and coherently organised. Your review should demonstrate a detailed knowledge of original sources and the field together with your understanding of main theoretical and methodological issues. Do not be afraid to add your own ideas, especially if your study challenges established wisdom.

Research Method:

The purpose of this section is to enable your reader to understand exactly what you did as part of the research process, together with the results and your interpretation of their meaning. It should include sufficient details to enable the reader to understand:

the overall design of the study; details of participants (e.g. age, gender, experience, occupational role, etc.); research instruments used; procedures used in the study. This section should also contain a description of the overall purpose, summary of content, structure and justification of why this particular approach was used. If an instrument (e.g. questionnaire) was designed especially for your study, you should also include details of its piloting and include the final version as an appendix. Issues of validity and reliability should also be addressed.

Your results should be presented in a form that enables the reader to understand exactly what your data consists of and sources. It should also identify any trends that have emerged and (where relevant) statistical techniques used as well as the results of these analyses. Finally, this section should address the way(s) in which the data illuminate your research question(s).

It is likely that the results section will be the most difficult to write. If your have undertaken a qualitative study or have huge quantities of data, then you may need to include some discussion and not just description in this section. You should not include extensive ‘raw’ data and the results must be organised, summarised and selective. Where appropriate, tables or diagrams should be used to summarise your results. It may not even be possible to include all the results, as this may overwhelm your reader and obscure your main findings.

Discussion:

The purpose of this section is to:

present your interpretation of your results; justify your interpretation by anticipating counter arguments; and urge caution in accepting your interpretation where there are defects in the design and execution of the study. Few applied studies can be perfect, so demonstrate your awareness of flaws and weaknesses in your work and your understanding of how you might improve on your research. It is also important to comment on any practical difficulties you may have encountered, especially those out of your control. In summary, adopt a ‘reflective practitioner’ approach in reviewing the research process as a whole.

Your discussion should also highlight links between your own research and the literature review and evaluate your study's contribution to professional guidance practice.

Conclusion:

Your conclusion should present a summary of what you have achieved in your research project, without containing any new material. It should also suggest the implications of the findings, identify future related research and emphasise issues which require further research or investigation.

The 'Harvard Reference Style' is one system of referencing sources used internationally by scholars and researchers. At Coventry University the Centre for Academic Writing have produced a website and downloadable guide to this system which may be of interest. It includes sections on referencing new technology sources such as websites and emails. The link address is: http://home.ched.coventry.ac.uk/caw/harvard/index.htm

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Formulating research questions

The role of researchers in any field of study, is to produce new knowledge either in areas where there is a lack of knowledge or by bringing a new interpretation to bear on established understandings in a particular field. In order to do this, a researcher (or a team of researchers) will pose a research question.

Beginning with a research question is important because it focuses your work and helps keep a researcher on track. A research question is just that; a question that exists in relation to a gap in what we know or understand of a particular topic. Research questions can have different forms, but the function is the same.

Consider these common research question forms :

• Does vitamin D enhance immune system function? (does X impact on Y?)
• Why do so few women seek a career in the construction industry? What are the main barriers to career advancement? (reason plus explanation)
• Can nanotechnology replace traditional methods of prototyping in industry? ( can X influence Y to benefit z)
• How can AI improve interventions during disaster management efforts especially during a bushfire? (can A enhance B, especially C)

Before formulating a research question to guide your work, you should understand how premises and claims shape the questions we ask. This is because good research questions are informed by sound premises and claims.

Here is Professor James Arvanitakis speaking about the importance of formulating an effective research question.

How research questions can make or break your research project (8:36 mins)

​ How research questions can make or break your research project (8:36 mins) by Graduate Research School Western Sydney University ( YouTube )

Research and Writing Skills for Academic and Graduate Researchers Copyright © 2022 by RMIT University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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10 Research Skills and How To Develop Them

• Updated December 25, 2023
• Published August 8, 2023

Are you looking to learn more about Research skills? In this article, we discuss Research skills in more detail and give you tips about how you can develop and improve them.

What are Research skills?

Research skills refer to the ability to effectively and efficiently gather, analyze, and synthesize information to answer questions, solve problems, or contribute to a body of knowledge. These skills are essential for various fields and disciplines, ranging from academic and scientific research to business, journalism, and beyond. Effective research skills involve several key components:

Information Retrieval

Source evaluation.

• Critical Thinking

Data Analysis

Problem formulation, organization and note-taking, synthesis and writing, ethical considerations, time management.

• Adaptability

Top 10 Research Skills

Below we discuss the top 10 Research skills. Each skill is discussed in more detail, and we will also give you tips on improving them.

Information Retrieval is all about mastering the art of finding relevant and credible sources of information to support your research goals. This skill involves using various online and offline tools to locate the data, articles, studies, and materials that are most pertinent to your research topic. It’s like being a detective for knowledge – you’re trying to uncover valuable insights that will contribute to your research project.

To excel in Information Retrieval, you must become adept at effectively using search engines, databases, libraries, and other resources. It’s not just about typing keywords into a search bar; it’s about understanding how to refine your searches, use advanced search operators, and explore different databases and sources.

You’ll need to evaluate the quality and reliability of sources to ensure that the information you gather is trustworthy and accurate. This skill also requires critical thinking, as you’ll need to assess the relevance of sources to your research objectives.

How to Improve Information Retrieval

Improving your Information Retrieval skills involves a combination of practice, strategy, and awareness. Start by familiarizing yourself with different research databases and libraries relevant to your field. Experiment with various search terms and use advanced search operators to narrow down results. Take the time to evaluate the credibility of sources – look for peer-reviewed articles, authoritative authors, and reliable institutions. Keep track of your searches and results to refine your strategies over time.

Stay updated with the latest developments in search technology and research databases to optimize your information retrieval process. Remember, the more you practice and fine-tune your approach, the better you’ll become at uncovering valuable gems of information for your research endeavors.

Source Evaluation is about becoming a discerning judge of the information you encounter during your research journey. It involves assessing the credibility, reliability, and relevance of the sources you come across, ensuring that you’re building your work on a foundation of trustworthy and accurate information. Think of yourself as a gatekeeper, using only the most reliable and relevant sources to support your research.

You need to develop a critical eye to enhance your Source Evaluation skills. Begin by examining the authorship – who wrote the source, and what are their credentials? Peer-reviewed articles from established researchers are more reliable than anonymous blog posts. Consider the publication source – is it a reputable journal or website in your field?

Next, look for citations and references within the source – a well-researched work will often cite other credible sources. Additionally, evaluate the publication date – while older sources can provide historical context, ensure you’re using recent information for up-to-date insights.

How to Improve Source Evaluation

Improving your Source Evaluation skills requires a combination of awareness and practice. As you encounter new sources, ask questions about their credibility and relevance. Do evidence and references support the information? Does the author have any potential biases? Take advantage of critical thinking to analyze the source’s overall quality.

To further refine your skills, seek guidance from mentors, professors, or librarians who can provide valuable insights into evaluating sources. The more you engage with this skill, the better you’ll become at building a solid foundation for your research with credible and reliable materials.

Critical Thinking is the intellectual toolset that empowers you to analyze information objectively, discern patterns, and draw well-informed conclusions based on evidence. It’s like being a detective for ideas – you sift through data, identify biases, and unravel complexities to make informed judgments that drive your research forward with clarity and precision.

To hone your Critical Thinking skills, you need to cultivate a curious and analytical mindset. Start by questioning assumptions and biases in both your own thinking and the information you encounter.

When evaluating sources, consider multiple viewpoints and sources of evidence before forming conclusions. Develop the ability to identify logical fallacies or weak arguments that may distort the validity of your findings. Embrace open-mindedness and be willing to adapt your ideas when faced with compelling evidence that challenges your initial perspective.

How to Improve Critical Thinking

Improving your Critical Thinking skills requires practice and deliberate effort. Engage in discussions and debates within your field and beyond to expose yourself to diverse perspectives and sharpen your ability to analyze complex issues. Regularly challenge yourself to critically evaluate information, whether it’s a news article, a research paper, or a colleague’s argument.

Seek feedback from mentors or peers to refine your critical thinking process and identify areas for improvement. Remember, Critical Thinking is an ongoing journey that can be developed over time – the more you engage with it, the more adept you’ll become at navigating the intricate landscape of ideas in your research endeavors.

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Data Analysis is the art of processing, interpreting, and extracting meaningful insights from the raw information you’ve collected during your research journey. Think of it as deciphering a puzzle – you’re transforming numbers, observations, or qualitative data into a coherent narrative that answers your research questions and adds value to your work.

To excel in Data Analysis, you need to develop both quantitative and qualitative skills. For quantitative data, embrace statistical tools and techniques that help you identify trends, correlations, and patterns in your data sets. Practice using software like Excel, SPSS, or specialized tools for your field to perform statistical tests and visualize results effectively. For qualitative data, immerse yourself in the details, coding and categorizing themes to distill rich insights from textual or visual sources.

How to Improve Data Analysis

Improving your Data Analysis skills involves a combination of practice, learning, and refining your techniques. Start by immersing yourself in the basics of statistics and data analysis methodologies relevant to your research field. Engage in tutorials and online courses to familiarize yourself with various tools and software. As you analyze data, maintain clear documentation of your process and decisions, which will be crucial when presenting your findings.

Collaborate with peers or mentors who are experienced in data analysis to gain insights and feedback on your techniques. Remember, Data Analysis is about transforming data into knowledge – the more you engage with this skill, the better you’ll become at uncovering valuable insights that contribute to the depth and impact of your research.

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Problem Formulation is like setting the compass for your research journey – it involves defining clear and focused research questions or hypotheses that guide your entire investigation. Consider it the foundation of your work, as it shapes your approach, methods, and the ultimate impact of your research.

To master Problem Formulation, you need to become skilled in asking the right questions. Begin by thoroughly understanding the topic you’re exploring. What gaps or uncertainties do you notice in the existing knowledge? What specific aspect of the topic piques your interest? Craft research questions that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

If you’re developing hypotheses, ensure they are testable and grounded in existing theories or observations. Your skills in Problem Formulation also extend to identifying the scope and boundaries of your research – understanding what you’re including and excluding from your study.

How to Improve Problem Formulation

Improving your Problem Formulation skills requires practice and iterative refinement. Start by conducting a comprehensive literature review to understand the existing research landscape in your area. This will help you identify potential gaps and formulate questions that build upon existing knowledge.

Discuss with peers, mentors, or experts in your field to gain different perspectives and insights into potential research problems. As you develop your skills, be open to revising and refining your research questions based on new information or insights. Remember, Problem Formulation is the compass that guides your research journey – the more you invest in crafting clear and well-defined questions, the more impactful and focused your research will be.

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Imagine these skills as your research toolkit for maintaining order amidst the vast sea of information you encounter. Organization involves structuring and managing your research materials, while Note-Taking ensures you capture valuable insights and details for future reference. Together, they help you stay on track and prevent valuable information from slipping through the cracks.

To excel in Organization and Note-Taking, you need to develop strategies that work best for you. Start by creating a systematic folder structure on your computer to store digital documents, articles, and data sets. For physical materials, consider using labeled folders or binders. As you gather information, employ tools like reference management software to keep track of your sources and generate citations efficiently.

Simultaneously, practice effective Note-Taking during your readings and research. Jot down key points, ideas, and relevant quotes in a structured format, whether you’re using a physical notebook or a digital note-taking app.

How to Improve Organization and Note-Taking

Improving your Organization and Note-Taking skills requires a mix of discipline and adaptability. Establish consistent routines for organizing research materials, updating folders, and managing citations. Regularly review and reorganize your notes to keep them relevant and accessible. Experiment with different note-taking techniques, such as outlining, summarizing, or mind mapping, to find the approach that aligns with your learning style.

Remember, Organization and Note-Taking are your allies in navigating the sea of information – the more you refine these skills, the smoother your research journey will become and the more confident you’ll be in tackling complex topics.

Synthesis and Writing are your means of weaving together the threads of information and insights you’ve collected into a coherent and impactful narrative. Think of it as crafting a masterpiece from the puzzle pieces of your research – you’re presenting your findings, analysis, and conclusions in a way that informs and engages your audience.

To excel in Synthesis and Writing, you must become a data and idea storyteller. Begin by outlining your research paper or report. Organize your findings logically, building a structured framework that guides your reader through your research journey. Ensure each section flows smoothly, connecting the dots between concepts and evidence. While writing, focus on clarity and conciseness – avoid jargon and convoluted language that may confuse your readers. Use effective transitions to guide them from one point to the next.

How to Improve Synthesis and Writing

Improving your Synthesis and Writing skills requires both practice and revision. Start by breaking down the writing process into manageable steps – drafting, revising, and editing. Give yourself time between drafting and revising to approach your work with fresh eyes. Critically evaluate your writing for clarity, coherence, and accuracy during revision.

Consider seeking feedback from peers, mentors, or writing centers to gain insights into improving your writing style. Study well-written papers in your field to observe how experienced researchers present their ideas effectively. Remember, Synthesis and Writing are your tools for communicating your research’s impact – the more you refine these skills, the more effectively you’ll share your discoveries and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.

Ethical Considerations encompass the principles and guidelines that ensure your research is conducted with integrity, respect for participants’ rights, and a commitment to transparency. Think of it as the moral compass that guides your research journey, ensuring that your work upholds ethical standards and contributes positively to society.

To excel in Ethical Considerations, you need to become a guardian of ethical integrity in your research. Begin by understanding the ethical guidelines and regulations specific to your field and your research type. This involves respecting participants’ autonomy by obtaining informed consent, protecting their privacy and confidentiality, and ensuring they’re treated with dignity. Additionally, uphold intellectual honesty by properly attributing sources, avoiding plagiarism, and disclosing any potential conflicts of interest.

How to Improve Ethical Considerations

Improving your Ethical Considerations skills involves a combination of awareness and vigilance. Regularly educate yourself on the ethical codes and regulations relevant to your field and research methods. When designing your research, carefully plan how you will address ethical concerns and potential risks.

As you conduct your research, stay attuned to any ethical dilemmas that may arise and be prepared to address them appropriately. Remember, Ethical Considerations are at the heart of responsible research – the more you cultivate these skills, the more your work will contribute positively to both your field and society as a whole.

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Time Management involves the art of effectively allocating your time to different research tasks, ensuring that you meet deadlines, stay on track, and maintain a balanced workflow. Think of it as your compass for navigating the often-intricate landscape of research – it helps you stay organized, productive, and in control of your research journey.

To excel in Time Management, you need to become a master of planning and prioritization. Start by breaking down your research project into manageable tasks and setting realistic goals for each stage. Create a schedule that allocates research, data collection, analysis, writing, and revision time. Be mindful of your energy levels – tackle complex tasks during your most productive hours. Embrace tools like to-do lists, calendars, and time-tracking apps to keep yourself accountable and stay aware of your progress.

How to Improve Time Management

Improving your Time Management skills requires consistent practice and self-awareness. Continuously assess your progress against your planned schedule, adjusting as needed to accommodate unexpected challenges or new insights. Develop the skill of saying no to distractions and non-essential tasks that can derail your focus.

Break larger tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks to prevent feeling overwhelmed. Regularly reflect on your time allocation and efficiency – what strategies are working well, and where can you improve? Remember, Time Management is a skill that can significantly impact your research journey – the more you refine it, the more you’ll find yourself navigating your work with greater ease and achieving your research goals with greater success.

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Adaptability is the ability to flex and evolve in response to changing circumstances, unexpected findings, and new information that arise during your research journey. Think of it as your compass for navigating the dynamic and ever-changing landscape of research – it empowers you to embrace uncertainty and adjust your course to ensure the best outcomes for your work.

To excel in Adaptability, you need to cultivate a mindset that embraces change and seeks opportunities within challenges. Start by acknowledging that research is often full of surprises and plans might need to shift. Develop a sense of resilience by staying open to revising your research questions, altering methodologies, or exploring unanticipated angles.

Being adaptable also means being resourceful – finding alternative approaches when things don’t go as planned. Embrace feedback from peers, mentors, or unexpected results, and be ready to integrate this feedback to improve the quality of your research.

How to Improve Adaptability

Improving your Adaptability skills involves practicing flexibility and embracing a growth mindset. Regularly reassess your research plan and objectives in light of new information or developments. Embrace failures and setbacks as opportunities for learning and growth rather than roadblocks. Seek out interdisciplinary perspectives and engage with new ideas that challenge your assumptions.

As you navigate through unexpected turns, continuously reflect on what you’ve learned and how you’ve adapted, so you can refine your approach in the future. Remember, Adaptability is the key to thriving in the dynamic landscape of research – the more you foster this skill, the better equipped you’ll be to tackle unforeseen challenges and emerge stronger from your research journey.

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Research Skills Conclusion

In the pursuit of knowledge and discovery, honing research skills is the linchpin that sets the stage for success. Throughout this exploration of various research skills and how to nurture them, one thing becomes evident: deliberate practice and continuous improvement are the bedrock of growth. Developing research skills is not merely a checkbox to mark; it’s a journey that empowers you to excel in your field, make meaningful contributions, and amplify the impact of your work.

Improving these skills isn’t just an option – it’s a necessity in today’s job market. The ability to gather information effectively, critically evaluate sources, analyze data, formulate problems, synthesize findings, and more, transforms the research process from a mere task into a dynamic and transformative experience. These skills serve as the pillars that uphold the credibility and validity of your work, ensuring that your contributions stand the test of scrutiny and time.

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How to Improve Research Skills?

Table of Contents

Master the Art of Research: 6 Effective Strategies to Improve Your Skills

Research skills are crucial to professional success, and they can greatly benefit your resume. However, it’s not always easy to know where to start with improving these abilities. That’s why we’ve compiled six effective strategies to help you master the art of research.

Why Research Skills Matter and How to Develop Them

Research skills are vital for success in any career that requires critical thinking and problem-solving. The ability to locate and analyze information effectively can help employees make informed decisions, solve complex problems, and develop innovative solutions.

Developing research skills involves more than just conducting a simple Google search. It requires a combination of analytical, organizational, and time-management skills. Here are some practical tips to develop research skills effectively:

• Define your research question:  Start by identifying your research question or what you want to know. This helps to narrow your focus and save time.
• Identify credible sources:  Look for credible sources that provide reliable information. These could include academic journals, government publications, or reputable websites.
• Read critically:  Don’t just skim through the text; read carefully, analyze the arguments presented, and evaluate the evidence.
• Organize your findings:  Keep your research organized by using tools such as notetaking apps or spreadsheets. This can help prevent information overload and ensure you have all the necessary information at hand.
• Practice time management:  Research can be a time-consuming process, so it’s essential to manage your time effectively. Set realistic deadlines, prioritize tasks, and avoid procrastination.
• Collaborate with others:  Collaboration with colleagues or subject matter experts can help broaden your knowledge and provide different perspectives on the subject matter.

By implementing these strategies, you can improve your research skills and become more efficient and effective in your work. Additionally, highlighting your research skills on your resume can help you stand out to potential employers and showcase your abilities.

Teaching Research Skills to Elementary Students: Tips and Strategies

Developing research skills in elementary students helps to lay a foundation for academic success and lifelong learning. Here are some tips and strategies to teach research skills to your young learners:

• Introduce age-appropriate research concepts:  Start by explaining the concept of research in simple language that your students can understand. This can include discussing the purpose of research, how to conduct research, and the importance of verifying information.
• Engage your students:  Encourage curiosity by creating a research question or topic that your students are interested in. Engage them in hands-on activities that involve exploring different sources of information, such as books, articles, and websites.
• Teach them how to navigate and evaluate sources:  Teach your students how to navigate different sources of information, including books, articles, and websites. Show them how to evaluate the credibility of sources by examining the author, date, and publisher.
• Encourage note-taking:  Teach your students how to take effective notes by highlighting key points and recording important information in their own words. This helps to develop their critical thinking skills and ensures they understand the information they are researching.
• Teach them how to cite their sources:  Introduce your students to basic citation rules and teach them how to properly credit the sources they use in their research.
• Provide feedback:  Offer constructive feedback to your students on their research skills and projects. This helps them to identify areas of strength and areas for improvement.

By implementing these tips and strategies, you can help to develop the research skills of your elementary students and set them up for academic success.

Enhancing Research Writing Skills in Quantitative Research

While research skills encompass a broad range of abilities, one critical aspect is the ability to communicate findings effectively through writing. This is especially important in quantitative research, which often involves complex data analysis and interpretation.

To improve research writing skills in quantitative research, consider the following tips:

• Practice summarizing key points:  In quantitative research, it’s essential to be able to distill complex data into concise, meaningful insights. Practice summarizing key findings and observations in a single sentence or paragraph, without losing the main points.
• Utilize clear and concise language:  Avoid using technical jargon or convoluted phrasing in your writing. Instead, use clear and concise language that is easy for your intended audience to understand.
• Simplify complex data:  When presenting complex data, use tables, charts, and graphs to simplify the information. This not only makes it easier to understand but also makes your writing more visually appealing.
• Proofread and edit:  Always take the time to proofread and edit your writing carefully. Look for grammatical errors, typos, and inconsistencies, and make sure that your writing is logically structured and easy to follow.

By implementing these tips, you can enhance your research writing skills and effectively communicate your findings in quantitative research.

The Link Between Research and Critical Thinking Skills

Research and critical thinking skills are closely interconnected. Engaging in research activities such as reading articles, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions requires individuals to think critically and logically.

Research allows individuals to gather information and develop a deeper understanding of a topic. As they evaluate sources, assess arguments, and analyze data, they build their ability to think critically. Research also requires individuals to identify gaps in knowledge, ask questions, and seek out additional information, which helps to further develop their critical thinking skills.

Engaging in research can also hone an individual’s problem-solving abilities. In order to conduct research effectively, individuals must be able to break down complex issues into smaller components, identify potential solutions, and evaluate the pros and cons of each option.

Additionally, researching requires individuals to be open-minded and objective. It requires them to approach a topic without bias and to evaluate evidence objectively. This cultivates a deeper understanding of the topic at hand and strengthens critical thinking skills.

In summary, research and critical thinking skills are closely intertwined. Engaging in research activities can enhance an individual’s critical thinking abilities and help them to develop problem-solving skills and an objective mindset.

Demonstrating Research Skills on Your Resume

When it comes to showcasing your research skills on your resume, there are a few things to keep in mind. First, make sure you list your research abilities clearly and concisely. Use a bullet point format to make them stand out.

One effective way to showcase your research skills is by providing examples of your work. If you have conducted research projects in the past, mention them on your resume and provide a brief summary of the methodology and findings. This will demonstrate your research abilities in action.

Another way to demonstrate your research skills is by highlighting your proficiency in relevant research tools and software. For example, if you are skilled in using statistical analysis software, such as SPSS or SAS, make sure you mention it on your resume.

Using action verbs can also help you showcase your research skills. Words like “investigated,” “analyzed,” and “evaluated” can demonstrate that you have experience conducting research and effectively communicating your findings.

Remember to tailor your resume to the specific position and highlight the research skills that are most relevant to the job. By following these tips, you can effectively showcase your research skills to potential employers and stand out in the job market.

Improving Research Skills for Students: Tips and Strategies

Research skills are essential for students at all levels, from elementary school to graduate programs. Developing strong research abilities can not only help students succeed academically but also prepare them for their future careers. Here are some practical tips and strategies for students to improve their research skills:

• Plan ahead:  Effective research requires careful planning. Start by identifying the scope of your research project and breaking it down into manageable tasks. Create a timeline for completing each task, taking into account any deadlines or other commitments.
• Use credible sources:  When conducting research, it’s important to use reliable sources. Look for information from reputable websites, academic journals, and other trustworthy sources. Avoid relying on information from biased or unreliable sources.
• Take good notes:  As you conduct research, be sure to take thorough and accurate notes. Keep track of your sources, including the author, title, and publication date. Make note of any key ideas or quotes that you might want to use later in your project.
• Organize your research:  Once you’ve gathered all of your research material, it’s important to organize it in a way that makes sense to you. Create an outline or use a mind-mapping tool to help you see how all the different pieces of information fit together.
• Practice time management:  Research projects can be time-consuming, so it’s important to manage your time effectively. Break your project down into smaller tasks and allocate specific amounts of time to each one. Try to work on your research project for a set amount of time each day or week.
• Take advantage of resources:  There are many resources available to help students improve their research skills. Check with your school or local library to see what resources they offer, such as workshops or online tutorials. Ask your professors or librarians for advice on conducting research in your field of study.

By implementing these strategies, students can develop strong research skills that will serve them well throughout their academic and professional careers.

Learning Research Skills Online: Platforms and Resources

Thanks to the internet, learning and improving research skills can be done from anywhere with online courses and resources available for free or at minimal cost. Here are some of the top platforms and resources to check out:

Coursera is a popular platform that offers online courses from top universities and institutions. They have a variety of courses related to research skills, including academic writing, research methods, and data analysis. Most courses are self-paced, allowing learners to set their own schedule and progress through the material at their own pace.

edX is another popular platform that offers courses from top universities and institutions. They have a variety of courses related to research skills, including critical thinking, research ethics, and data analysis. Most courses are self-paced, allowing learners to set their own schedule and progress through the material at their own pace.

Google Scholar

Google Scholar is a search engine that specializes in peer-reviewed articles, theses, books, and other academic sources. It’s a great resource for finding high-quality sources for research projects and staying up-to-date on current research in your field.

Research Methods Knowledge Base

The Research Methods Knowledge Base is a comprehensive textbook that covers a wide range of research methods, from quantitative to qualitative approaches. It’s a valuable resource for anyone looking to improve their research skills, whether you’re a student or a professional.

Udemy is an online learning platform that offers a wide range of courses, including research skills. They have courses on topics such as research writing, data analysis, and research methods. Most courses offer lifetime access to the material, allowing learners to revisit the content at any time.

ResearchGate

ResearchGate is a social networking site that connects researchers from around the world. It’s a great platform to share and discover research, ask for advice from other researchers, and connect with potential collaborators. It’s also a great way to stay up-to-date on current research in your field.

With so many resources available online, it’s never been easier to learn and improve research skills. Whether you’re a student or a professional, taking advantage of these resources can help you stay ahead in your field and achieve your research goals.

Frequently Asked Questions about Research Skills

Research skills are essential for success in many fields, and it’s important to have a good understanding of how they can be developed and improved. Below are some common questions that people often have about research skills.

How can I teach research skills to my students?

There are many ways to teach research skills to students, and the most effective techniques will depend on the age and skill level of your students. In general, it’s important to start by emphasizing the importance of research and showing them how to use different types of sources to find information. You can also provide guidance on note-taking, outlining, and other strategies that can help them organize their research effectively.

What are some good resources for learning research skills?

There are many great online resources available for people who want to improve their research skills. Some good options include online courses, instructional videos, and research guides from reputable universities and academic institutions. It’s also a good idea to look for books and other resources that are specifically geared toward the type of research you’re interested in.

How can I improve my research skills online?

There are many ways to improve your research skills online, including taking online courses, participating in forums and discussion groups, and using online databases and search engines to find information. It’s also a good idea to stay up-to-date on the latest research tools and techniques by reading blogs and articles from reputable sources.

How can I improve my research skills as a professional?

If you’re looking to improve your research skills as a professional, there are several steps you can take. Start by setting specific research goals and identifying areas where you need to improve. You can also attend conferences and training sessions to learn from experts in your field, and seek feedback from colleagues and mentors to help identify areas for improvement.

How can research skills help me in my career?

Research skills are essential in many different fields, and can provide a significant advantage for professionals who know how to use them effectively. By developing strong research skills, you can improve the quality of your work, identify new opportunities for growth and innovation, and demonstrate your expertise and credibility to clients and colleagues.

What are some common mistakes to avoid when conducting research?

Some common mistakes to avoid when conducting research include failing to define your research question clearly, relying too heavily on a single source or piece of data, and failing to consider alternative explanations for your findings. It’s also important to be aware of potential sources of bias, and to take steps to minimize their impact on your research.

eSoft Management Consultants, a team of seasoned professionals with vast expertise in business strategy, operations, leadership, and management, are devoted to empowering businesses to evolve and thrive. Their well-researched, meticulous content offers invaluable insights on management principles, leadership styles, and industry trends. Upholding strict editorial guidelines, they ensure accurate, relevant, and timely knowledge dissemination. As trusted advisors, they not only provide insights but also act as partners in growth, helping organizations unlock their full potential through strategic understanding and action.

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