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AIOU Solved Assignments 1 & 2 Code 4682 Autumn & Spring 2024

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Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Autumn & Spring 2024 asignments 1 and 2 Introduction to Sociological Theory I (4682) code 4682 spring 2024.

AIOU Solved Assignments 1 & 2 Code 4682 Autumn & Spring 2024

Course: Sociological Theory I (4682) Semester:Autumn & Spring 2024 Level: M. Sc (Sociology) ASSIGNMENT No. 1 Q. 1 Explain the criteria of sociological theory. Does sociological theory is a set of intentionally constructed propositions? Elaborate. Answer: Sociologists develop theories to explain social phenomena. Aÿtheoryÿis a proposed relationship between two or moreÿconcepts. In other words, a theory is explanation for why or how a phenomenon occurs. An example of a sociological theory is the work of Robert Putnam on the decline ofÿcivic engagement.ÿPutnam found that Americans involvement in civic life (e.g., community organizations, clubs, voting, religious participation, etc.) has declined over the last 40 to 60 years. While there are a number of factors that contribute to this decline (Putnam’s theory is quite complex), one of the prominent factors is the increased consumption of television as a form entertainment. Putnam’s theory proposes: The more television people watch, the lower their involvement in civic life will be. This element of Putnam’s theory clearly illustrates the basic purpose of sociological theory: it proposes a relationship between two or more concepts. In this case, the concepts areÿcivic engagementÿandÿtelevision watching.ÿThe relationship is anÿinverseÿone – as one goes up, the other goes down. What’s more, it is an explanation of one phenomenon with another: part of the reason why civic engagement has declined over the last several decades is because people are watching more television. aiou solved assignments code 4682 , In short, Putnam’s theory clearly encapsulates the key ideas of a sociological theory. Sociological theory is developed at multiple levels, ranging fromÿgrand theoryÿto highly contextualized and specificÿmicro-range theories. There are manyÿmiddle-rangeÿandÿmicro-rangeÿtheories in sociology. Because such theories are dependent on context and specific to certain situations, it is beyond the scope of this text to explore each of those theories. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce some of the more well-known and most commonly used grand and middle-range theories in sociology.

AIOU Solved Assignments 1 Code 4681 Autumn & Spring 2024

Importance of Theory In the theory proposed above, the astute reader will notice that the theory includes two components: The data, in this case the findings that civic engagement has declined and TV watching has increased, and the proposed relationship, that the increase in television viewing has contributed to the decline in civic engagement. Data alone are not particularly informative. If Putnam had not proposed a relationship between the two elements of social life, we may not have realized that television viewing does, in fact, reduce people’s desire to and time for participating in civic life. In order to understand the social world around us, it is necessary to employ theory to draw the connections between seemingly disparate concepts. Another example of sociological theorizing illustrates this point. In his now classic work, Suicide, Emile Durkheim was interested in explaining a social phenomenon, suicide, and employed both data and theory to offer an explanation. By aggregating data for large groups of people in Europe, Durkheim was able to discern patterns in suicide rates and connect those patterns with another concept (or variable): religious affiliation. Durkheim found that Protestants were more likely to commit suicide than were Catholics. At this point, Durkheim’s analysis was still in the data stage; he had not proposed an explanation for the different suicide rates of the two groups. It was when Durkheim introduced the ideas of anomie and social solidarity that he began to explain the difference in suicide rates. Durkheim argued that the looser social ties found in Protestant religions lead to weaker social cohesion and reduced social solidarity. The higher suicide rates were the result of weakening social bonds among Protestants. While Durkheim’s findings have since been criticized, his study is a classic example of the use of theory to explain the relationship between two concepts. Durkheim’s work also illustrates the importance of theory: without theories to explain the relationship between concepts, we would not be able to hypothesize cause and effect relationships in social life or outline processes whereby social events and patterns occur. And to propose cause and effect relationships and / or outline processes in social experience are the major components of sociological theory.

AIOU Solved Assignments 2 Code 4681 Autumn 2019

Types of Sociological theory: Every sociologist has its own classification but most of them are agreed on the following various types of sociological theory. Formal & Informal Theories Formal theories are based on the structured and organized set of assumptions and propositions which are derived through systematic and Scientific Methods. Formal theories are open for verification in the field. In formal social theories are unstructured and unorganized based on the individual personal thinking and likes and dislikes. No strict logic and scientific methods are used in informal theories. Descriptive & Explanatory Theories The descriptive theories are simple and theoretical which gives answer to the questions, what, how, and where. Explanatory theories are clear, specific and logical. It gives explanatory theories are clear, specific and logical. It gives explanation through cause and effect relationship between two independent and dependent variables. These theories gives full explanation of the concepts. Ideological & Scientific Theories Ideological theories are based on some ideologies. It is a biased type of theories and qualifies the philosophy of biasness. It have its own aims and contents those particular contents which are in favour and support the some ideology while it does not contain. The propositions which goes against its philosophy. Scientific theories are empirically testable, objective and neutral and also is a source of information. These theories are based on scientific observations and philosophy. Intuitive & Objective Theories Intuitive means immediate understanding without reasoning. These theories are based on the personal experience and long concentration of the scholar. In intuitive theory the contents cannot be repeated by scholar in a particular discipline. Intuition has been a source of many discoveries and inventions both in natural and social services but this cannot be repeated by an average researcher. The objective theories maintain the fundamental requirements of objectivity of all costs. The researcher or scholar does not include his personal feelings and attitudes into the theory. The researcher remains a neutral person and deeps the objectivity of the theory in mind. These are basically the experimental theories. Inductive & Deductive Theories In sociology the inductive theories are used commonly. These are based on observations. Inductive theories focus on from particular to general. Deductive theories are based on classical logic and self-evident truth. It focus on from general to particular. Microscopic & Macroscopic Theories The microscopic theories study the minutes things. These theories focus on a few individuals, small groups, role, status etc. These theories goes into depth and study the small things thoroughly. While the macroscopic theories are general theories which covering all human societies. These study things at large and high level. These theories work on the global basis and making generalization. Structural Functional & Conflict Theories Structural functional theories are the explanation of functionalist who are trying to bring order, integration, equilibrium and harmony in the social structure. These theories gives explanation about the structural aspects of a social situation and describes that how the normative order is functioning is that social structure. Dynamic aspects of the social phenomena. The normative order is consider as a problem and social system is not based on harmony, peace and order. There exists opposition, conflict and tension in the social structure. So, these theories defines the conflict aspect and situation of the social system. We conclude from the above discussion that every types of sociological theory is workable in a given time and place. All types of social theories are very important for the structure and function of a social system. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Sociological Theory I Code 4681 Autumn & Spring 2024

Q. 2 Define Functionalism. Discuss organismic analogy by structural functionalist theorists. Answer; Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make up society (e.g., government, law, education, religion, etc). The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures, which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social structures give shape to our lives – for example, in families, the community, and through religious organizations. And certain rituals, such as a handshake or complex religious ceremonies, give structure to our everyday lives. Each social structure has social functions, or consequences for the operation of society as a whole. Education, for example, has several important functions in a society, such as socialization, learning, and social placement. Thus, one of the key ideas in Structural Functionalism is that society is made-up of groups or institutions, which are cohesive, share common norms, and have a definitive culture.[1] Robert K. Merton argued that functionalism is about the more static or concrete aspects of society,[1] institutions like government or religions. However, any group large enough to be a social institution is included in Structural Functionalist thinking, from religious denominations to sports clubs and everything in between. Structural Functionalism asserts that the way society is organized is the most natural and efficient way for it to be organized. Gender inequality offers a good illustration. According to Structural Functionalist thought, women being subordinate to men allows the cogs of society to function smoothly as everyone in the society knows his or her respective position in the hierarchy. The implication, of course, is that, because society is functioning smoothly with gender stratification, such stratification is acceptable and efforts should not be made to change the arrangement. This example illustrates that Structural Functionalism is generally seen as being supportive of the status quo. Another key characteristic of Structural Functionalism is that it views society as constantly striving to be at a state of equilibrium, which suggests there is an inherent drive within human societies to cohere or stick together. This is known as the cohesion issue.[1] Societies strive toward equilibrium, not through dictatorial mandate by the leaders of society but rather because the social structure of societies encourages equilibrium. For example, Jim Crow laws in the southern United States were a formalized version of informal structural advantages that empowered whites. Because of the history of slavery in the southern United States, whites had amassed more wealth than blacks. During slavery, whites controlled the government and all of the major institutions in the South. After slavery ended, whites continued to control many of these institutions, but because they were outnumbered in some areas by blacks, threatening their dominance, they instituted formal laws, Jim Crow laws, that allowed them to maintain their structural advantages. And whites were able to pass these laws because they already controlled many of the social institutions instrumental in the passage of laws (e.g., courts, government, businesses, etc.). Thus, the advantages whites had prior to a change in society allowed them to maintain their advantages after the change through both informal and formal means because of the structure of society. Structural Functionalism does much to explain why certain aspects of society continue as they always have, despite some phenomena being clearly less beneficial for society as a whole (e.g., Jim Crow laws). However, Structural Functionalism falls short in explaining opposition to social institutions and social structure by those being oppressed. Organismic analogy by Herbert Spencer: It is said that Spencer undertook to create what Comte envisaged to do. It means he made sociology an all encompassing Science. Spencer was a self-thought man and hence his learning was highly selective. According to Herbert Spencer, Society is not merely a collection of individuals; it is more than that; just as an organism is more than a mere collection of cells. He established the hypothesis that society is like a biological organism and then proceeded to defend it against all objections with great logical force. The Organic analogy which is a staple of ancient and medieval thought was reformulated by Spencer. He regarded the recognition of the similarity between society and organism as the first step towards a general theory of evolution. The same definition of life applies to both biological and social organism. ?Only when one sees that the transformation passed through during the growth, maturity and decay of a society, conforms to the same principles as do the transformations passed through by aggregates of all orders, in-organic, organic is there reached the concept of sociology as a science.? Spencer maintains that we can understand society best, if we compare it with an organism. He thinks that society is like a biological system, a greater organism, alike in its structure and its functions. Like an organism society is subject to the same process of gradual growth or development from a simple to complex state. Like any organism, society also exhibits ?differentiation in functions and integration structure.? In this connection, it must be noted that Spencer does not subscribe to the view that society is an organism; he maintains it only as an analogy. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Sociological Theory I Autumn & Spring 2024

Q. 3 What is the AGIL scheme of Talcott Parsons? Elaborate and discuss with reference to the progress and development of Pakistani society. Answer: Talcott Parsons has suffered from his success. He was the chief exponent of the US-style structural-functionalism that has come closest yet to constituting a Kuhnian dominant paradigm for sociology. HisÿThe Social Systemÿwasÿtheÿtext through the 1950s and ?60s. The rejection of his work since has in my view been overdone: to fly high is to risk falling fast. Who reads Parsons now? As with most theorists, Parsons? work evolved, his early work merely sowing the seeds for later displays. We are all of us entitled to learn and amend or revise our stances. From the outset Parsons opposed positivist social science, primarily because it failed to recognize the purposeful nature of human action. He sought an approach that acknowledged that people are both ?goal-oriented? and ?constrained?. The notion ofÿsocial systemÿbecame central to his thought and provides the focus for this blog. A social system denotes a durable organization of interaction between ?actors? and ?contexts?; and its reach extends from mundane or everyday micro-systems to macro-level systems like the nation-state and global society. Social systems are structured, Parsons maintained in 1951 inÿThe Social System, by ?value patterns? without which actors? behaviour would be directionless. Value patterns, in turn, are structured by ?pattern variables?.ÿPattern variables refer to universal dichotomies that represent the basic choices underlying social interaction.ÿThere are four of these dichotomies:

universalism versus particularism: actors relate to others on the basis of general criteria or criteria unique or specific to the individual concerned;

performance versus quality: actors relate to others on the basis of criteria of performance or ?achievement? or criteria of some form of endowment of ?ascription?;

specificity versus diffuseness: actors relate to others for a specific, restricted purpose or in a general or holistic manner;

affective neutrality versus affectivity: actors relate to each other in a detached or instrumental fashion or with the engagement of affect and emotion. Parsons argued that modern society or ?modernity? has seen a general shift in favour of universalism, performance, specificity and affective neutrality. Social systems are also characterized by needs of ?functional prerequisities?. If the notion of pattern variables addresses the voluntaristric dimension in Parsons? work, that of functional prerequisities refers to the extent to which people?s relations to others are embedded in or constrained by social subsystems. Social systems can only exist, Persons contends, if four functional prerequisities are satisfied:

adaptationÿ(A): that is, to the external or natural environment;

goal-attainmentÿ(G): or the mobilization of resources to meet relevant ends;

integrationÿ(I): or the achievement of regulation and coordination for coherence and stability;

latencyÿor ?pattern maintenance?(L): or the provision of means to sustain the motivational energy of actors. This is Parsons?ÿAGIL? scheme. Social systems that develop institutions capable of performing all four AGIL functions enjoy an evolutionary advantage over their rivals. This is nowhere near the end of Parsons? ?Germanic? predisposition for schema or typologies! He argues that in modernity the macro-level social system of the nation-state can be divided into four subsystems as follows:

theÿeconomicÿsubsystem is concerned withÿadaptation;

theÿpoliticalÿsubsystem is concerned withÿgoal-attainment;

theÿsocial communityÿsubsystem is concerned withÿintegration;

theÿculturalÿsubsystem is concerned withÿlatencyÿor pattern maintenance. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Furthermore, the AGIL-scheme and the patterns variables are interrelated. To take an example, subsystems like the economy, where adaptation is the functional prerequisite, are characterized by universalism, performance, specificity and affective neutrality. On the other hand, subsystems like social community, where integration is the functional prererquisite, are characterized by particularism, quality, diffuseness and affectivity. And there is more. Returning to the issue of the evolution to modernity, and sticking with the macro-level subsystem of the nation-state, Parsons introduces another family of concepts:ÿdifferentiation,ÿadaptive upgrading,ÿinclusionÿandÿvalue generalization. In hisÿSocial Theory in the Twentieth Century, Baert shows how it all binds together in Parsons? theory: ?First, with time, a process of ?differentiation? occurs in that different functions are fulfilled by subsystems within the social system ? Second, with differentiation goes the notion of ?adaptive upgrading?. This means that each differentiated subsystem has more adaptive capacity compared to the non-differentiated system out of which it emerged. Third, modern societies tend to rely upon a new system of integration. Process differentiation implies a more urgent need for special skills. This can only be accommodated by moving from a status based on ?ascription? to a status based on ?achievement?. This implies the ?inclusion? of previously excluded groups. Fourth, a differentiated society needs to deploy a value system that incorporates and regulates the different subsystems. This is made possible through ?value generalization?: the values are pitched at a higher level in order to direct activities and functions in various subsystems.? The thrust of Parsonian structural-functionalism can be illustrated in a number of different sociological fields. In this pr‚cis of a blog I will visit the sociology of the professions, health and of sport. Parsons? structural-functionalism and his concept of pattern variables actually grew out of his study of professions. Professions are not only, even primarily, ?self-interested economic actors? he maintained: rather, they are regulated by a normative code of conduct towards clients. There is a stability to doctor-patient relations that is simply inexplicable in terms of the market. In fact the role of the postwar US physician epitomized modernity?s trend towards universalism, performance, specificity and affective neutrality. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 And this wasÿfunctionalÿfor the physician-patient relationship, the more so since both physician and patient were committed to terminating rather than building and consolidating their relationship. Alongside his analysis of the physician?s role Parsons wrote of what he called the ?sick role mechanism?. The problem of health, he argued, ?is intimately involved with the functional prerequisities of the social system?. Health, in other words, is not just functional for the individualÿbut for the social system too. Too low a level of population health, too high a level of illness, is dysfunctional because illness undermines the effective performance of social roles. Illness, which Parsons actually felt had a psychic dimension, is therefore a form of ?social deviance? that needs to be managed. The sick role, entry to which is overseen by physicians, affords rights (not to be blamed and to be temporarily relieved of normal responsibilities) but also carries obligations (to be motivated to get well and to seek expert help). Thus physicians ?police? the citizenry in general, and the workforce in particular, to ensure they continue to satisfy system requirements. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Now a no less annotated example from the field of sport. A structural-functional analysis of football has used the AGIL scheme to suggest that football can be viewed as a social system. The rules of football fit in with Parsons? functional prerequisities plausibly enough: training rules and regimes serve an adaptive function; the technical rules of football promote goal-attainment; rules of refereeing assist integration; and rules of competition and eligibility meet the requirement of latency or pattern maintenance. More generally, Parsonian structural-functionalism helped sociologists to consider sport (1) as a social institution reflective of the wider society, and (2) in terms of its relations with other institutions. Modern sport, it has been suggested, has five basic functions: (a) aÿsocio-economic, contributing to the maintenance of psychosocial stability; (b)ÿsocialization, aiding the transmission of cultural beliefs and norms; (c)ÿintegrative, facilitating the harmonious integration of disparate individuals and groups; (d)ÿpolitical, serving ideological needs; and (e)ÿsocial mobility, acting as a promise and source of upward social mobility. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682, What does this all amount toÿin a sentence? Ok, I know that far too much has been left out! My suggestion would be that while Parsons? functionalist agenda (via Spencer and Durkheim) remains more than suspect, his contention that social systems have their own ?logics? and operate ?behind people?s backs? and ?beneath-the-surface? is important. While it has often been said that individuals are sacrificed to systems in Parsons? structural-functionalism, there has been an ideologically expedient tendency in today?s neo-liberal ?individualistic? world to neglect social structure and the systemic properties of society. We are done to as well as doing! Check out Talcott Parsons. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Autumn & Spring 2024 Code 4681

Q. 4 Discuss in detail the contribution of Robert K. Merton towards the explanation of society? Answer: Robert King Merton (July 4, 1910 ? February 25, 2003) was a distinguished American sociologist, who spent most of his career teaching at Columbia University. He coined several phrases that entered into common parlance, including “self-fulfilling prophecy” and “unintended consequences.” His work included development of the concept of anomie, derived from Emile Durkheim. Merton, however, focused on the discontinuity between cultural goals and the legitimate means available for reaching them. Applied to the United States, he saw the American dream as an emphasis on the goal of monetary success but without the corresponding emphasis on the legitimate avenues to achieve this goal. Merton recognized that this imbalance leads to “strain,” which in turn may generate deviant, even criminal behavior. His theories have been applied in the area of criminology, to understand causes of criminal behavior, and in the development of government programs, such as affirmative action, that seek to redress the balance between society’s goals and the means by which all members of the society can achieve them. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Through his research into the dysfunctions in society, Merton’s goal was to contribute to the betterment of human society and improvement in the lives of all its members. Merton (1938) concluded that Americans were socialised into believing in the American Dream; that a consensus existed about what people’s social goals should be: success and material wealth.ÿ However, equal access to those goals did not exist: there was aÿstrain between the socially-encouraged goals of society and the socially-acceptable means to achieve them. People were socialised into believing that to achieve the American Dream they had to work hard and they would succeed because the society was a meritocracy.ÿ Individuals made various adaptations in response to this strain, some of which were likely to lead to crime. The different adaptations were based on either accepting or rejecting the means and/or the goals:

So while some people will conform, work hard and try to achieve success despite the difficulties, others will adapt.ÿ The clearest adaptation that might lead to criminal activity is that of the innovator: they still want the material success, but they don’t want to work hard at school so they find another route to their ends. While this might mean appearing on X Factor, it could also be robbing a bank.ÿ Either could lead to a criminal record. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682, Some might reject both the means and the goal, and drop out of society altogether. These are the retreatists, and Merton thought they might commit crimes such as illegal drug use. The other adaptation that might lead to criminal behaviour is rebellion: some people might want to replace the means and the goals with new ones and this could, in some cases, lead to illegal protest or political violence. Evaluating Merton While Durkheim’s concept of anomie was rather vague, Merton explains the idea in quite a detailed way: as the product of a strain between socially-accepted goals and the socially-accepted means to achieve them. While Merton’s theory was based on 20thÿcentury America, it is transferable to any contemporary, western, developed capitalist society. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 , Merton does not consider the source of social goals, nor in whose interests society is socialised into believing. Marxists would argue that the former is bourgeois ideology; that the latter is in the interests of capitalism. Everyone wants money to purchase consumer goods; they’re also socialised into believing the best way to achieve that goal is to work extra hard for their bosses.ÿ This is not a value consensus ensuring social solidarity, of the sort that functionalists describe, but rather capitalist ideology or hegemony, serving the interests of the bourgeoisie at the expense of the proletariat. Nor does Merton spend any time considering why some people find it harder to achieve society’s goals than others. He does not pursue the idea that inequality and unequal opportunities in society are a social problem, nor what the cause of that problem might be. Similarly, Merton does not consider why different people have different adaptations.ÿ While many people feel that the socially-accepted means to achieve their goals are too difficult, only a small number of them go on to commit crimes.ÿ Why? What makes the majority law-abiding most of the time?ÿ Are there sociological explanations for some people choosing to innovate while others retreat?ÿ Merton does not provide us with answers to those questions. Continuing from the previous point, Merton does not explain why groups of people are deviant in the same way.ÿ As previously mentioned, most people conform most of the time, but those who don’t often socialise together (e.g. gangs). Merton does not address this, but it is taken up by functionalist subcultural theorists who have developed Merton’s theory. Finally Merton presents a possible explanation for some crime; but what about non-utilitarian crime (crime from which the criminal does not materially benefit)?ÿ Although Merton suggests an explanation for some non-utilitarian crime (like drug abuse), there is nothing in his theory that would explain fighting or vandalism. While not being able to achieve the American Dream might encourage someone to rob a bank, there is no apparent reason why it would lead to someone to draw graffiti on a bridge or to beat someone up. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Sociological Theory I Code 4681

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AIOU Solved Assignment Autumn 2024

Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) is renowned for its commitment to providing quality education through distance learning.

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3 Credit Hours Book Assignment Submission Date Autumn 2024

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Welcome to our website. If you are a student of Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) and pursuing BS English program, then you have come to the right place. We offer solved assignments for Matric, FA, I.COM, BA, B.COM, Associate Degree, BS 4 Years, BS 2.5 Years, MA, MSC, MED, BED, ADE programs that you can download easily from our website. Apart from this, we also have helping books available for purchase that can assist you in preparing for your exams. To stay updated with our latest resources, we recommend that you subscribe to our AIOU Studio 9 – M. Daniyal Iqbal YouTube channel, where we regularly upload informative videos related to AIOU and its programs.

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1,349 comments:

aiou solved assignment 2 4682

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AIOU MA Education and M.ED Solved Assignments – Autumn 2022

Welcome to our website page dedicated to providing solved assignments for the AIOU MA Education and M.ED programs for the Autumn 2022 semester.

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MA Education and M.ED

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA At least 2nd division bachelor’s degree from a recognized University. DURATION 2 Years

3 Credit Hours Book MA Education and M.ED Assignment Submission Date Autumn 2022

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MLIS Solved Assignments – Autumn 2022

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AIOU Solved Assignment No.4 Course Code 200 Autumn 2024

مندرجہ ذیل سوالوں کے جواب مختصر الکھیں۔ ہر سوال کے چار نمبر ہیں۔ غلط قسم کی ڈیزائننگ سے کس قسم کے مسائل جنم لے سکتے ہیں؟ غلط قسم کی ڈیزائننگ سے کئی قسم کے مسائل جنم لے سکتے ہیں، ان میں سے کچھ درج ذیل ہیں مصنوع کی فہم میں کمی: غلط قسم کی ڈیزائننگ…

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AIOU Solved Assignment No.2 AIOU 208 Matric 2024

مندرجہ ذیل سوالوں کے جواب مظفر الکھیں۔ ہر سوال کے چار نمبر ہیں۔ سلائی کی اہمیت مختصر الکھیں سلائی کا کپڑے سینے کا عمل آپ کو مختلف اشیاء کو ایک ساتھ جوڑنے اور دوبارہ استعمال کرنے کی اجازت دیتا ہے۔ یہ آپ کو کپڑوں کے نئے ٹکڑوں کی خریداری کی ضرورت سے بچاتا ہے اور…

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AIOU Solved Assignments 1 & 2 Code 4682 Autumn & Spring 2024

aiou solved assignment code 207

Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Autumn & Spring 2024 asignments 1 and 2 Introduction to Sociological Theory I (4682) code 4682 spring 2024.

AIOU Solved Assignments 1 & 2 Code 4682 Autumn & Spring 2024

Course: Sociological Theory I (4682) Semester:Autumn & Spring 2024 Level: M. Sc (Sociology) ASSIGNMENT No. 1 Q. 1 Explain the criteria of sociological theory. Does sociological theory is a set of intentionally constructed propositions? Elaborate. Answer: Sociologists develop theories to explain social phenomena. Aÿtheoryÿis a proposed relationship between two or moreÿconcepts. In other words, a theory is explanation for why or how a phenomenon occurs. An example of a sociological theory is the work of Robert Putnam on the decline ofÿcivic engagement.ÿPutnam found that Americans involvement in civic life (e.g., community organizations, clubs, voting, religious participation, etc.) has declined over the last 40 to 60 years. While there are a number of factors that contribute to this decline (Putnam’s theory is quite complex), one of the prominent factors is the increased consumption of television as a form entertainment. Putnam’s theory proposes: The more television people watch, the lower their involvement in civic life will be. This element of Putnam’s theory clearly illustrates the basic purpose of sociological theory: it proposes a relationship between two or more concepts. In this case, the concepts areÿcivic engagementÿandÿtelevision watching.ÿThe relationship is anÿinverseÿone – as one goes up, the other goes down. What’s more, it is an explanation of one phenomenon with another: part of the reason why civic engagement has declined over the last several decades is because people are watching more television. aiou solved assignments code 4682 , In short, Putnam’s theory clearly encapsulates the key ideas of a sociological theory. Sociological theory is developed at multiple levels, ranging fromÿgrand theoryÿto highly contextualized and specificÿmicro-range theories. There are manyÿmiddle-rangeÿandÿmicro-rangeÿtheories in sociology. Because such theories are dependent on context and specific to certain situations, it is beyond the scope of this text to explore each of those theories. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce some of the more well-known and most commonly used grand and middle-range theories in sociology.

AIOU Solved Assignments 1 Code 4681 Autumn & Spring 2024

Importance of Theory In the theory proposed above, the astute reader will notice that the theory includes two components: The data, in this case the findings that civic engagement has declined and TV watching has increased, and the proposed relationship, that the increase in television viewing has contributed to the decline in civic engagement. Data alone are not particularly informative. If Putnam had not proposed a relationship between the two elements of social life, we may not have realized that television viewing does, in fact, reduce people’s desire to and time for participating in civic life. In order to understand the social world around us, it is necessary to employ theory to draw the connections between seemingly disparate concepts. Another example of sociological theorizing illustrates this point. In his now classic work, Suicide, Emile Durkheim was interested in explaining a social phenomenon, suicide, and employed both data and theory to offer an explanation. By aggregating data for large groups of people in Europe, Durkheim was able to discern patterns in suicide rates and connect those patterns with another concept (or variable): religious affiliation. Durkheim found that Protestants were more likely to commit suicide than were Catholics. At this point, Durkheim’s analysis was still in the data stage; he had not proposed an explanation for the different suicide rates of the two groups. It was when Durkheim introduced the ideas of anomie and social solidarity that he began to explain the difference in suicide rates. Durkheim argued that the looser social ties found in Protestant religions lead to weaker social cohesion and reduced social solidarity. The higher suicide rates were the result of weakening social bonds among Protestants. While Durkheim’s findings have since been criticized, his study is a classic example of the use of theory to explain the relationship between two concepts. Durkheim’s work also illustrates the importance of theory: without theories to explain the relationship between concepts, we would not be able to hypothesize cause and effect relationships in social life or outline processes whereby social events and patterns occur. And to propose cause and effect relationships and / or outline processes in social experience are the major components of sociological theory.

AIOU Solved Assignments 2 Code 4681 Autumn 2019

Types of Sociological theory: Every sociologist has its own classification but most of them are agreed on the following various types of sociological theory. Formal & Informal Theories Formal theories are based on the structured and organized set of assumptions and propositions which are derived through systematic and Scientific Methods. Formal theories are open for verification in the field. In formal social theories are unstructured and unorganized based on the individual personal thinking and likes and dislikes. No strict logic and scientific methods are used in informal theories. Descriptive & Explanatory Theories The descriptive theories are simple and theoretical which gives answer to the questions, what, how, and where. Explanatory theories are clear, specific and logical. It gives explanatory theories are clear, specific and logical. It gives explanation through cause and effect relationship between two independent and dependent variables. These theories gives full explanation of the concepts. Ideological & Scientific Theories Ideological theories are based on some ideologies. It is a biased type of theories and qualifies the philosophy of biasness. It have its own aims and contents those particular contents which are in favour and support the some ideology while it does not contain. The propositions which goes against its philosophy. Scientific theories are empirically testable, objective and neutral and also is a source of information. These theories are based on scientific observations and philosophy. Intuitive & Objective Theories Intuitive means immediate understanding without reasoning. These theories are based on the personal experience and long concentration of the scholar. In intuitive theory the contents cannot be repeated by scholar in a particular discipline. Intuition has been a source of many discoveries and inventions both in natural and social services but this cannot be repeated by an average researcher. The objective theories maintain the fundamental requirements of objectivity of all costs. The researcher or scholar does not include his personal feelings and attitudes into the theory. The researcher remains a neutral person and deeps the objectivity of the theory in mind. These are basically the experimental theories. Inductive & Deductive Theories In sociology the inductive theories are used commonly. These are based on observations. Inductive theories focus on from particular to general. Deductive theories are based on classical logic and self-evident truth. It focus on from general to particular. Microscopic & Macroscopic Theories The microscopic theories study the minutes things. These theories focus on a few individuals, small groups, role, status etc. These theories goes into depth and study the small things thoroughly. While the macroscopic theories are general theories which covering all human societies. These study things at large and high level. These theories work on the global basis and making generalization. Structural Functional & Conflict Theories Structural functional theories are the explanation of functionalist who are trying to bring order, integration, equilibrium and harmony in the social structure. These theories gives explanation about the structural aspects of a social situation and describes that how the normative order is functioning is that social structure. Dynamic aspects of the social phenomena. The normative order is consider as a problem and social system is not based on harmony, peace and order. There exists opposition, conflict and tension in the social structure. So, these theories defines the conflict aspect and situation of the social system. We conclude from the above discussion that every types of sociological theory is workable in a given time and place. All types of social theories are very important for the structure and function of a social system. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Sociological Theory I Code 4681 Autumn & Spring 2024

Q. 2 Define Functionalism. Discuss organismic analogy by structural functionalist theorists. Answer; Functionalism is a sociological theory that attempts to explain why society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make up society (e.g., government, law, education, religion, etc). The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures, which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social structures give shape to our lives – for example, in families, the community, and through religious organizations. And certain rituals, such as a handshake or complex religious ceremonies, give structure to our everyday lives. Each social structure has social functions, or consequences for the operation of society as a whole. Education, for example, has several important functions in a society, such as socialization, learning, and social placement. Thus, one of the key ideas in Structural Functionalism is that society is made-up of groups or institutions, which are cohesive, share common norms, and have a definitive culture.[1] Robert K. Merton argued that functionalism is about the more static or concrete aspects of society,[1] institutions like government or religions. However, any group large enough to be a social institution is included in Structural Functionalist thinking, from religious denominations to sports clubs and everything in between. Structural Functionalism asserts that the way society is organized is the most natural and efficient way for it to be organized. Gender inequality offers a good illustration. According to Structural Functionalist thought, women being subordinate to men allows the cogs of society to function smoothly as everyone in the society knows his or her respective position in the hierarchy. The implication, of course, is that, because society is functioning smoothly with gender stratification, such stratification is acceptable and efforts should not be made to change the arrangement. This example illustrates that Structural Functionalism is generally seen as being supportive of the status quo. Another key characteristic of Structural Functionalism is that it views society as constantly striving to be at a state of equilibrium, which suggests there is an inherent drive within human societies to cohere or stick together. This is known as the cohesion issue.[1] Societies strive toward equilibrium, not through dictatorial mandate by the leaders of society but rather because the social structure of societies encourages equilibrium. For example, Jim Crow laws in the southern United States were a formalized version of informal structural advantages that empowered whites. Because of the history of slavery in the southern United States, whites had amassed more wealth than blacks. During slavery, whites controlled the government and all of the major institutions in the South. After slavery ended, whites continued to control many of these institutions, but because they were outnumbered in some areas by blacks, threatening their dominance, they instituted formal laws, Jim Crow laws, that allowed them to maintain their structural advantages. And whites were able to pass these laws because they already controlled many of the social institutions instrumental in the passage of laws (e.g., courts, government, businesses, etc.). Thus, the advantages whites had prior to a change in society allowed them to maintain their advantages after the change through both informal and formal means because of the structure of society. Structural Functionalism does much to explain why certain aspects of society continue as they always have, despite some phenomena being clearly less beneficial for society as a whole (e.g., Jim Crow laws). However, Structural Functionalism falls short in explaining opposition to social institutions and social structure by those being oppressed. Organismic analogy by Herbert Spencer: It is said that Spencer undertook to create what Comte envisaged to do. It means he made sociology an all encompassing Science. Spencer was a self-thought man and hence his learning was highly selective. According to Herbert Spencer, Society is not merely a collection of individuals; it is more than that; just as an organism is more than a mere collection of cells. He established the hypothesis that society is like a biological organism and then proceeded to defend it against all objections with great logical force. The Organic analogy which is a staple of ancient and medieval thought was reformulated by Spencer. He regarded the recognition of the similarity between society and organism as the first step towards a general theory of evolution. The same definition of life applies to both biological and social organism. ?Only when one sees that the transformation passed through during the growth, maturity and decay of a society, conforms to the same principles as do the transformations passed through by aggregates of all orders, in-organic, organic is there reached the concept of sociology as a science.? Spencer maintains that we can understand society best, if we compare it with an organism. He thinks that society is like a biological system, a greater organism, alike in its structure and its functions. Like an organism society is subject to the same process of gradual growth or development from a simple to complex state. Like any organism, society also exhibits ?differentiation in functions and integration structure.? In this connection, it must be noted that Spencer does not subscribe to the view that society is an organism; he maintains it only as an analogy. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Sociological Theory I Autumn & Spring 2024

Q. 3 What is the AGIL scheme of Talcott Parsons? Elaborate and discuss with reference to the progress and development of Pakistani society. Answer: Talcott Parsons has suffered from his success. He was the chief exponent of the US-style structural-functionalism that has come closest yet to constituting a Kuhnian dominant paradigm for sociology. HisÿThe Social Systemÿwasÿtheÿtext through the 1950s and ?60s. The rejection of his work since has in my view been overdone: to fly high is to risk falling fast. Who reads Parsons now? As with most theorists, Parsons? work evolved, his early work merely sowing the seeds for later displays. We are all of us entitled to learn and amend or revise our stances. From the outset Parsons opposed positivist social science, primarily because it failed to recognize the purposeful nature of human action. He sought an approach that acknowledged that people are both ?goal-oriented? and ?constrained?. The notion ofÿsocial systemÿbecame central to his thought and provides the focus for this blog. A social system denotes a durable organization of interaction between ?actors? and ?contexts?; and its reach extends from mundane or everyday micro-systems to macro-level systems like the nation-state and global society. Social systems are structured, Parsons maintained in 1951 inÿThe Social System, by ?value patterns? without which actors? behaviour would be directionless. Value patterns, in turn, are structured by ?pattern variables?.ÿPattern variables refer to universal dichotomies that represent the basic choices underlying social interaction.ÿThere are four of these dichotomies:

universalism versus particularism: actors relate to others on the basis of general criteria or criteria unique or specific to the individual concerned;

performance versus quality: actors relate to others on the basis of criteria of performance or ?achievement? or criteria of some form of endowment of ?ascription?;

specificity versus diffuseness: actors relate to others for a specific, restricted purpose or in a general or holistic manner;

affective neutrality versus affectivity: actors relate to each other in a detached or instrumental fashion or with the engagement of affect and emotion. Parsons argued that modern society or ?modernity? has seen a general shift in favour of universalism, performance, specificity and affective neutrality. Social systems are also characterized by needs of ?functional prerequisities?. If the notion of pattern variables addresses the voluntaristric dimension in Parsons? work, that of functional prerequisities refers to the extent to which people?s relations to others are embedded in or constrained by social subsystems. Social systems can only exist, Persons contends, if four functional prerequisities are satisfied:

adaptationÿ(A): that is, to the external or natural environment;

goal-attainmentÿ(G): or the mobilization of resources to meet relevant ends;

integrationÿ(I): or the achievement of regulation and coordination for coherence and stability;

latencyÿor ?pattern maintenance?(L): or the provision of means to sustain the motivational energy of actors. This is Parsons?ÿAGIL? scheme. Social systems that develop institutions capable of performing all four AGIL functions enjoy an evolutionary advantage over their rivals. This is nowhere near the end of Parsons? ?Germanic? predisposition for schema or typologies! He argues that in modernity the macro-level social system of the nation-state can be divided into four subsystems as follows:

theÿeconomicÿsubsystem is concerned withÿadaptation;

theÿpoliticalÿsubsystem is concerned withÿgoal-attainment;

theÿsocial communityÿsubsystem is concerned withÿintegration;

theÿculturalÿsubsystem is concerned withÿlatencyÿor pattern maintenance. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Furthermore, the AGIL-scheme and the patterns variables are interrelated. To take an example, subsystems like the economy, where adaptation is the functional prerequisite, are characterized by universalism, performance, specificity and affective neutrality. On the other hand, subsystems like social community, where integration is the functional prererquisite, are characterized by particularism, quality, diffuseness and affectivity. And there is more. Returning to the issue of the evolution to modernity, and sticking with the macro-level subsystem of the nation-state, Parsons introduces another family of concepts:ÿdifferentiation,ÿadaptive upgrading,ÿinclusionÿandÿvalue generalization. In hisÿSocial Theory in the Twentieth Century, Baert shows how it all binds together in Parsons? theory: ?First, with time, a process of ?differentiation? occurs in that different functions are fulfilled by subsystems within the social system ? Second, with differentiation goes the notion of ?adaptive upgrading?. This means that each differentiated subsystem has more adaptive capacity compared to the non-differentiated system out of which it emerged. Third, modern societies tend to rely upon a new system of integration. Process differentiation implies a more urgent need for special skills. This can only be accommodated by moving from a status based on ?ascription? to a status based on ?achievement?. This implies the ?inclusion? of previously excluded groups. Fourth, a differentiated society needs to deploy a value system that incorporates and regulates the different subsystems. This is made possible through ?value generalization?: the values are pitched at a higher level in order to direct activities and functions in various subsystems.? The thrust of Parsonian structural-functionalism can be illustrated in a number of different sociological fields. In this pr‚cis of a blog I will visit the sociology of the professions, health and of sport. Parsons? structural-functionalism and his concept of pattern variables actually grew out of his study of professions. Professions are not only, even primarily, ?self-interested economic actors? he maintained: rather, they are regulated by a normative code of conduct towards clients. There is a stability to doctor-patient relations that is simply inexplicable in terms of the market. In fact the role of the postwar US physician epitomized modernity?s trend towards universalism, performance, specificity and affective neutrality. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 And this wasÿfunctionalÿfor the physician-patient relationship, the more so since both physician and patient were committed to terminating rather than building and consolidating their relationship. Alongside his analysis of the physician?s role Parsons wrote of what he called the ?sick role mechanism?. The problem of health, he argued, ?is intimately involved with the functional prerequisities of the social system?. Health, in other words, is not just functional for the individualÿbut for the social system too. Too low a level of population health, too high a level of illness, is dysfunctional because illness undermines the effective performance of social roles. Illness, which Parsons actually felt had a psychic dimension, is therefore a form of ?social deviance? that needs to be managed. The sick role, entry to which is overseen by physicians, affords rights (not to be blamed and to be temporarily relieved of normal responsibilities) but also carries obligations (to be motivated to get well and to seek expert help). Thus physicians ?police? the citizenry in general, and the workforce in particular, to ensure they continue to satisfy system requirements. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Now a no less annotated example from the field of sport. A structural-functional analysis of football has used the AGIL scheme to suggest that football can be viewed as a social system. The rules of football fit in with Parsons? functional prerequisities plausibly enough: training rules and regimes serve an adaptive function; the technical rules of football promote goal-attainment; rules of refereeing assist integration; and rules of competition and eligibility meet the requirement of latency or pattern maintenance. More generally, Parsonian structural-functionalism helped sociologists to consider sport (1) as a social institution reflective of the wider society, and (2) in terms of its relations with other institutions. Modern sport, it has been suggested, has five basic functions: (a) aÿsocio-economic, contributing to the maintenance of psychosocial stability; (b)ÿsocialization, aiding the transmission of cultural beliefs and norms; (c)ÿintegrative, facilitating the harmonious integration of disparate individuals and groups; (d)ÿpolitical, serving ideological needs; and (e)ÿsocial mobility, acting as a promise and source of upward social mobility. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682, What does this all amount toÿin a sentence? Ok, I know that far too much has been left out! My suggestion would be that while Parsons? functionalist agenda (via Spencer and Durkheim) remains more than suspect, his contention that social systems have their own ?logics? and operate ?behind people?s backs? and ?beneath-the-surface? is important. While it has often been said that individuals are sacrificed to systems in Parsons? structural-functionalism, there has been an ideologically expedient tendency in today?s neo-liberal ?individualistic? world to neglect social structure and the systemic properties of society. We are done to as well as doing! Check out Talcott Parsons. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Autumn & Spring 2024 Code 4681

Q. 4 Discuss in detail the contribution of Robert K. Merton towards the explanation of society? Answer: Robert King Merton (July 4, 1910 ? February 25, 2003) was a distinguished American sociologist, who spent most of his career teaching at Columbia University. He coined several phrases that entered into common parlance, including “self-fulfilling prophecy” and “unintended consequences.” His work included development of the concept of anomie, derived from Emile Durkheim. Merton, however, focused on the discontinuity between cultural goals and the legitimate means available for reaching them. Applied to the United States, he saw the American dream as an emphasis on the goal of monetary success but without the corresponding emphasis on the legitimate avenues to achieve this goal. Merton recognized that this imbalance leads to “strain,” which in turn may generate deviant, even criminal behavior. His theories have been applied in the area of criminology, to understand causes of criminal behavior, and in the development of government programs, such as affirmative action, that seek to redress the balance between society’s goals and the means by which all members of the society can achieve them. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 Through his research into the dysfunctions in society, Merton’s goal was to contribute to the betterment of human society and improvement in the lives of all its members. Merton (1938) concluded that Americans were socialised into believing in the American Dream; that a consensus existed about what people’s social goals should be: success and material wealth.ÿ However, equal access to those goals did not exist: there was aÿstrain between the socially-encouraged goals of society and the socially-acceptable means to achieve them. People were socialised into believing that to achieve the American Dream they had to work hard and they would succeed because the society was a meritocracy.ÿ Individuals made various adaptations in response to this strain, some of which were likely to lead to crime. The different adaptations were based on either accepting or rejecting the means and/or the goals:

So while some people will conform, work hard and try to achieve success despite the difficulties, others will adapt.ÿ The clearest adaptation that might lead to criminal activity is that of the innovator: they still want the material success, but they don’t want to work hard at school so they find another route to their ends. While this might mean appearing on X Factor, it could also be robbing a bank.ÿ Either could lead to a criminal record. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682, Some might reject both the means and the goal, and drop out of society altogether. These are the retreatists, and Merton thought they might commit crimes such as illegal drug use. The other adaptation that might lead to criminal behaviour is rebellion: some people might want to replace the means and the goals with new ones and this could, in some cases, lead to illegal protest or political violence. Evaluating Merton While Durkheim’s concept of anomie was rather vague, Merton explains the idea in quite a detailed way: as the product of a strain between socially-accepted goals and the socially-accepted means to achieve them. While Merton’s theory was based on 20thÿcentury America, it is transferable to any contemporary, western, developed capitalist society. Aiou Solved Assignments code 4682 , Merton does not consider the source of social goals, nor in whose interests society is socialised into believing. Marxists would argue that the former is bourgeois ideology; that the latter is in the interests of capitalism. Everyone wants money to purchase consumer goods; they’re also socialised into believing the best way to achieve that goal is to work extra hard for their bosses.ÿ This is not a value consensus ensuring social solidarity, of the sort that functionalists describe, but rather capitalist ideology or hegemony, serving the interests of the bourgeoisie at the expense of the proletariat. Nor does Merton spend any time considering why some people find it harder to achieve society’s goals than others. He does not pursue the idea that inequality and unequal opportunities in society are a social problem, nor what the cause of that problem might be. Similarly, Merton does not consider why different people have different adaptations.ÿ While many people feel that the socially-accepted means to achieve their goals are too difficult, only a small number of them go on to commit crimes.ÿ Why? What makes the majority law-abiding most of the time?ÿ Are there sociological explanations for some people choosing to innovate while others retreat?ÿ Merton does not provide us with answers to those questions. Continuing from the previous point, Merton does not explain why groups of people are deviant in the same way.ÿ As previously mentioned, most people conform most of the time, but those who don’t often socialise together (e.g. gangs). Merton does not address this, but it is taken up by functionalist subcultural theorists who have developed Merton’s theory. Finally Merton presents a possible explanation for some crime; but what about non-utilitarian crime (crime from which the criminal does not materially benefit)?ÿ Although Merton suggests an explanation for some non-utilitarian crime (like drug abuse), there is nothing in his theory that would explain fighting or vandalism. While not being able to achieve the American Dream might encourage someone to rob a bank, there is no apparent reason why it would lead to someone to draw graffiti on a bridge or to beat someone up. {===============}

AIOU Solved Assignments Sociological Theory I Code 4681

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Aiou 8608 lesson plan english subject solved with reference, aiou teaching practice ii 8608 final lesson plan solved, aiou 8608 final lesson plan for general science, aiou b.ed assessment and evolution 8602 solved assignment no 2 spring 2021.

 Allama Iqbal Open University Solved Assignments

Course:      B.Ed Assessment and Evolution 8602 Solved Assignment No 2 Spring 2021

This is plagiarism free assignment, students can copy from blew and submit at aaghi LMS.

Q1  What is the Relationship between Validity and Reliability of test.

The link between validity and reliability

Reliability and validity are two different standards used to measure the usefulness of a test. Although they are different, they work together. It would not be helpful to develop a test with good reliability that does not measure what you intend to measure. It was impossible to measure exactly what we want to measure with a test whose results are too imperfect to repeat, and vice versa. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. This means that in order to be valid, you must have good reliability, the reliability actually sets an upper or lower limit, and the test may not be valid if it is not reliable. Creating good credibility is only the first part of ensuring validity. Validity must also be determined. Good reliability does not mean good validity, it simply means that we measure something consistently. The key is that credibility is needed, but it is not enough for validity. In short, credibility is noticing when a problem is valid.

availability

The validity of an assessment tool is the extent to which it measures what is designed to be measured. For example, if the test is designed to measure three-digit addition in math, but the tasks are presented in a complex language that does not match the students' skill level, it cannot measure numerical additional skills by numbers. This is not a valid test. This concept has been defined by many measurement experts, some of which are given below. According to the business dictionary, "validity is the extent to which a tool, selection process, statistical technique, or test measures what it should measure." Cook and Campbell (1979) define validity as the relevance or accuracy of conclusions, decisions, or explanations derived from the test results of individuals, groups, or institutions. According to the standards of the American Association of Psychologists (APA), the most important consideration in evaluating tests is. The term refers to the significance, significance and usefulness of certain conclusions drawn from test results. The validity of the test is the process of gathering evidence to support these conclusions. However, validity is a single concept. Although evidence can be gathered in a number of ways, validity always refers to the extent to which this evidence supports the conclusions drawn from the results. The conclusions apply to certain uses of the test, not the test itself.

Howell (1992) Opinion on the validity of a test; A valid test should specifically measure what is intended to be measured. For Messick, the validity is large-scale, not strictly valid or absolutely invalid. He argues that over time, evidence of validity continues to accumulate, reinforcing or refuting previous findings. In general, we can say that the validity of the assessment refers to the extent to which the content of the test represents the actual skills learned and whether the test allows you to draw accurate conclusions about the performance. Therefore, validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. The validity of the test is essential for the correct application and interpretation of the results.

RELIABILITY

What does the word trust mean? Reliability means reliable. A test result is reliable if we have reason to believe that the test result is consistent and objective. For example, if the same test is run in two classes and assessed by different teachers, it can be trusted even if it gives similar results. Stability and reliability depend on the degree to which the result is free from accidental errors. First, we need to create a conceptual bridge between the question posed by the individual (ie are my results reliable?) And the scientifically measured reliability. This bridge is not as simple as it seems at first glance. When a person thinks about reliability, many things can come to mind: my friend is very reliable, my car is very reliable, my online billing process is very reliable, customer performance is very reliable, and so on. The weighted properties are stability, reliability, predictability, variability, etc. these are concepts. Note that implicit expressions of reliability are behavior, machine performance, data processes, and business operations, which can sometimes be unreliable. The question is, "How do test results differ from different observations?"

Q.2 Define a Scoring Criteraia for Essay type test items for 8th grade?

General Consideration in Constructing Essay type Test Items

In her book, Robert L. Ebel and David A. Frisbie (1991), "teachers are often as interested in measuring students 'thinking and knowledge skills as they are in measuring students' knowledge. There is a need for tests that lead to a degree enable." The student must answer a multi-paragraph question, writes on multiple pages, and can be used for college results and assessments such as essay, synthesis, or sub-notes.

Types of test tests

Pattern tests can be broken down into different types. WS Monree and RI Cater (1993) divide practical tests into several categories, such as: . Cause and effect, explanation of word usage or exact meaning, summary of the sentence, textbook or article unit, analysis, relationship explanation, illustration or examples, classification, application of rules, laws or principles, new situation, discussion, publication of authoring material or purpose in the organization , Criticism - the appropriateness, correctness or relevance of the printed statement or the classmate's answer to a question about the lesson, repeating the facts, formulating a new question - problems and question, new approaches, etc.

Funding elements of the assessment

A title or evaluation criteria has been developed to evaluate / rate the essay type article. This section is a guide to assessing subjective judgments. A set of criteria and standards related to learning objectives used to assess a student's performance on assignments, projects, essays, and other assignments. Headings make the evaluation easier and more transparent and enable a standardized evaluation based on defined criteria. The title can range from simple checklists to combinations of detailed checklists and rating scales. The details of the header depend on what you want to measure. If an article in your article is a limited response article that only evaluates mastery of the actual content, a fairly simple list of key points will do. An example of the header of a restricted response element is given below.

Evaluation key / evaluation criteria:

1. 1 point, maximum 5 points for each given factor

2. One point, 5 points maximum, for an adequate explanation of each of these factors

3. There are no penalties for spelling, punctuation or grammatical errors.

4. No additional credits are awarded for one or more of the five factors mentioned.

5. Information outside the topic is ignored.

Test evaluation

Assessment of target test units

If the student's answers to the test paper itself are recorded, the section can be created by ticking the correct answers on the blank copy of the test. Scoring is the comparison of the answer columns in this Master with the answer columns in each student's work. If it is more convenient, you can also use a strip of tape, which is just a strip of paper in which the answer columns are hidden. They can be easily prepared by cutting out the answer columns from the experiment template and placing them on strips of cardboard cut from the manilla folders.

When assessing objective tests, each correct answer is usually counted as a point because the random weighing of units does not significantly change the student's final score. If some items are accepted with two points, some with one point, and others with half points, it is more difficult to rate them without any benefit. Ratings based on such weights would be similar to a simpler method in which each element is read at a point. As we'll see later, keeping the top and bottom groups and ten students makes it easier to interpret the results. It's also a reasonable number for analysis in groups of 20-40 people. For example, with a small group of 20 students it is best to use the top and bottom pages for reliable data, while for a larger group of 40 students it is best to use the top and bottom 25 percent. Satisfactory. For a more detailed analysis, an upper and lower percentage of 27 percent is usually recommended, and most statistical guidelines are based on this percentage.

Q. 3 Write a note on Mean, Median and Mode. Also dicsuss their importance in interpreting test scores.

Measures of Central Tendency

Q.4 Write the procedure of arisiing letter grades to test score.

Calculating CGPA and Assigning Letter Grades

CGPA is the average of the cumulative score. It reflects the GPA for all courses / courses related to student achievement. To calculate the CGPA, we need the following information.

• Notes on each subject / course

• Average score for each course / course

• Total credit hours (additional hours per subject / course)

Calculating a CGPA is very simple: the total GPA is divided by credit hours. For example, if a student has completed 12 master classes with 3 credits. The total number of credit hours is 36. CGPA 36/12 - 3.0.

Assignment of written grades

The letter rating system is the most popular in the world, including Pakistan. Many teachers face assessment problems. There are four main problems or concerns in this regard; l) What should be included in the written evaluation, 2) How should the achievement data be combined to obtain a star rating? , 3) which reference framework should be used for the evaluation; and 4) How should the distribution of characteristics be determined?

Indicate what to add to the note

Letter results can only be more meaningful and useful if they represent success. Efforts for completed work, personal behavior, etc. If other factors or aspects follow, such as their interpretation, they are hopelessly confusing. For example, the letter C may indicate average success with extraordinary effort and excellent behavior and behavior, or vice versa.

If star ratings are to be valid performance indicators, they should be based on existing performance criteria. This includes setting goals as intended learning outcomes and developing or selecting tests and assessments that can be used to measure those learning outcomes.

Combine data when assigning ratings

One of the main challenges in assessment is to understand which aspects of the student are being assessed or what the timing of each learning outcome is.

For example, if we choose 35 percent for middle school, 40 percent for exams or final grades, and 25 percent for homework, presentations, classroom sharing, and conducting and conducting; We need to combine all the units by assigning a weight to each unit and then use these aggregates as a basis for valuation.

 Select the appropriate reference base for the ranking.

The results of the letters are usually based on one of the following reference systems.

a) Performance compared to other members of the group (relative result)

b) Performance according to established standards (absolute assessment)

c) Performance related to learning ability (several improvements)

Relative assessment involves comparing students' results with those of a comparison group, often with classmates. In this system, the grade is determined by the student's relative position or grade in the group. Although the disadvantage of relative assessment is the different referral system (eg results depend on the ability of the group), it is still widely used in schools, as in most cases our testing system is "standard-oriented".

Grading absolutely means comparing students' results to the standards set by the teacher. We call this a comparison. If all students perform poorly according to the established performance standard, they will all receive low scores.

Students' teaching ability does not follow a standardized system for assessing and reporting student achievement. Improvement in a short time is difficult. Consequently, insufficient reliability in assessing performance and capacity growth rates leads to low reliability ratings. Therefore, such degrees are used.

Determining the distribution of grades

A relative grade is essentially an assessment of a student's overall achievement and a written grade assigned to each group of students. This assessment may be limited to a single set of grades or based on a combined distribution of several class groups that have completed the same course.

If assessment is to be done on a curve, a more logical approach to determining the distribution of grades in a school is for school staff to establish general guidelines for introductory and advanced courses. All staff should understand the basis of the assessment and this should be clearly communicated to class users. If the objectives of the course are clearly stated and the standards of excellence are correctly set, the number of letters in the absolute system can be determined as follows. Complements other evaluation systems.

Q.5 Discuss the difference between Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of Reliability .

ü Measures of Central Tendency

For example, suppose a teacher gives the same test in two different classes and the following results are obtained:

Class 1: 80%, 80%, 80%, 80%, 80%

Level 2: 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%

If you average the two sets of results, you get the same answer: 80%. However, the data of the two classes from which these mean values ​​were derived differ greatly in both cases. It is possible for two different databases to have the same mean, median, and mode. For example:

Class A: 72 73 76 76 78

Class B: 67 76 76 78 80

Thus, classes A and B have the same mean, mode and median.

How statisticians differentiate between these cases is known as a measure of sample variability. As with central trend measurements, there are several ways to measure sample variability.

The simplest method is to find a range of samples that represents the difference between the largest and smallest observations. The measurement range is 0% for class I and 40% for class 2. Knowing this fact, we can better understand second class data. Class 1 has an average of 80% and a range of 0, but Class 2 has at least 80% and a range of 40%.

Statisticians use summary measures to identify patterns of data. The mean trend measure refers to the summary measure that is used to determine the most typical values ​​in the range of values.

Here we are interested in typical and more representative results. There are three most common trend metrics: average, fashion, and median. The teacher should be familiar with these general trend metrics.

Reliability indicator

What does the word trust mean? Reliability means reliable. Test results are considered reliable when we have reason to believe that the test results are stable and objective.

  For example, if the same test is given in two classes and graded by different teachers, it is reliable even if it gives similar results. Stability and reliability depend on the extent to which the score is free from random errors. First, we need to build a conceptual bridge between the questions asked by individuals (i.e., is my result reliable?) And how to scientifically measure reliability. This bridge is not as simple as it seems at first glance. When you think of reliability, many things come to mind: my boyfriend is very reliable, my car is very reliable, my internet bill payment process is very reliable, my customers' performance is very reliable, and so on. The characteristics considered are consistency, reliability, predictability, variability, etc. these are the answers. Note that indirect trust expressions include behavior, machine performance, computing power, and business processes that are sometimes unreliable. The question is, "How do test results differ between different observations?"

Some definitions of reliability:

According to Merriam Webster's Dictionary:

"Reliability is the degree to which a test, experiment, or measurement process produces the same results when tested repeatedly."

According to Hopkins and Antes (2000):

"Reliability is the consistency of repeated recordings made by a single subject or a group of subjects."

Joppe (2000) defines reliability as follows:

. The extent to which the results are consistent over time and are an accurate representation of the entire study population is called reliability, and if the survey results can be generated using a similar methodology, the research tool is considered reliable.

The most common definitions of reliability are: the degree to which the results are stable and consistent at different points in time (reliability tests), in different ways (parallel and alternative forms), or when measured with different elements. the same scale (internal consistency).

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Now here we are sharing the latest AIOU ( FA/I.Com ) Solved Assignments in PDF Format. “Solved assignments” typically refer to completed or answered assignments that students receive in educational settings. In the context of academic courses, instructors often assign tasks or problems for students to solve as a way of assessing their understanding of the material. “Solved assignments” would then be the completed versions of these assignments, where students have provided answers or solutions to the given problems.

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