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• Published: 10 December 2020

Effect of internet use and electronic game-play on academic performance of Australian children

• Md Irteja Islam 1 , 2 ,
• Raaj Kishore Biswas 3 &
• Rasheda Khanam 1  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  21727 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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This study examined the association of internet use, and electronic game-play with academic performance respectively on weekdays and weekends in Australian children. It also assessed whether addiction tendency to internet and game-play is associated with academic performance. Overall, 1704 children of 11–17-year-olds from young minds matter (YMM), a cross-sectional nationwide survey, were analysed. The generalized linear regression models adjusted for survey weights were applied to investigate the association between internet use, and electronic-gaming with academic performance (measured by NAPLAN–National standard score). About 70% of the sample spent > 2 h/day using the internet and nearly 30% played electronic-games for > 2 h/day. Internet users during weekdays (> 4 h/day) were less likely to get higher scores in reading and numeracy, and internet use on weekends (> 2–4 h/day) was positively associated with academic performance. In contrast, 16% of electronic gamers were more likely to get better reading scores on weekdays compared to those who did not. Addiction tendency to internet and electronic-gaming is found to be adversely associated with academic achievement. Further, results indicated the need for parental monitoring and/or self-regulation to limit the timing and duration of internet use/electronic-gaming to overcome the detrimental effects of internet use and electronic game-play on academic achievement.

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Introduction.

Over the past two decades, with the proliferation of high-tech devices (e.g. Smartphone, tablets and computers), both the internet and electronic games have become increasingly popular with people of all ages, but particularly with children and adolescents 1 , 2 , 3 . Recent estimates have shown that one in three under-18-year-olds across the world uses the Internet, and 75% of adolescents play electronic games daily in developed countries 4 , 5 , 6 . Studies in the United States reported that adolescents are occupied with over 11 h a day with modern electronic media such as computer/Internet and electronic games, which is more than they spend in school or with friends 7 , 8 . In Australia, it is reported that about 98% of children aged 15–17 years are among Internet users and 98% of adolescents play electronic games, which is significantly higher than the USA and Europe 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 .

In recent times, the Internet and electronic games have been regarded as important, not just for better results at school, but also for self-expression, sociability, creativity and entertainment for children and adolescents 13 , 14 . For instance, 88% of 12–17 year-olds in the USA considered the Internet as a useful mechanism for making progress in school 15 , and similarly, electronic gaming in children and adolescents may assist in developing skills such as decision-making, smart-thinking and coordination 3 , 15 .

On the other hand, evidence points to the fact that the use of the Internet and electronic games is found to have detrimental effects such as reduced sleeping time, behavioural problems (e.g. low self-esteem, anxiety, depression), attention problems and poor academic performance in adolescents 1 , 5 , 12 , 16 . In addition, excessive Internet usage and increased electronic gaming are found to be addictive and may cause serious functional impairment in the daily life of children and adolescents 1 , 12 , 13 , 16 . For example, the AU Kids Online survey 17 reported that 50% of Australian children were more likely to experience behavioural problems associated with Internet use compared to children from 25 European countries (29%) surveyed in the EU Kids Online study 18 , which is alarming 12 . These mixed results require an urgent need of understanding the effect of the Internet use and electronic gaming on the development of children and adolescents, particularly on their academic performance.

Despite many international studies and a smaller number in Australia 12 , several systematic limitations remain in the existing literature, particularly regarding the association of academic performance with the use of Internet and electronic games in children and adolescents 13 , 16 , 19 . First, the majority of the earlier studies have either relied on school grades or children’s self assessments—which contain an innate subjectivity by the assessor; and have not considered the standardized tests of academic performance 16 , 20 , 21 , 22 . Second, most previous studies have tested the hypothesis in the school-based settings instead of canvassing the whole community, and cannot therefore adjust for sociodemographic confounders 9 , 16 . Third, most studies have been typically limited to smaller sample sizes, which might have reduced the reliability of the results 9 , 16 , 23 .

By considering these issues, this study aimed to investigate the association of internet usage and electronic gaming on a standardized test of academic performance—NAPLAN (The National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy) among Australian adolescents aged 11–17 years using nationally representative data from the Second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing—Young Minds Matter (YMM). It is hypothesized that the findings of this study will provide a population-wide, contextual view of excessive Internet use and electronic games played separately on weekdays and weekends by Australian adolescents, which may be beneficial for evidence-based policies.

Subject demographics

Respondents who attended gave NAPLAN in 2008 (N = 4) and 2009 (N = 29) were removed from the sample due to smaller sample size, as later years (2010–2015) had over 100 samples yearly. The NAPLAN scores from 2008 might not align with a survey conducted in 2013. Further missing cases were deleted with the assumption that data were missing at random for unbiased estimates, which is common for large-scale surveys 24 . From the initial survey of 2967 samples, 1704 adolescents were sampled for this study.

The sample characteristics were displayed in Table 1 . For example, distribution of daily average internet use was checked, showing that over 50% of the sampled adolescents spent 2–4 h on internet (Table 1 ). Although all respondents in the survey used internet, nearly 21% of them did not play any electronic games in a day and almost one in every three (33%) adolescents played electronic games beyond the recommended time of 2 h per day. Girls had more addictive tendency to internet/game-play in compare to boys.

The mean scores for the three NAPLAN tests scores (reading, writing and numeracy) ranged from 520 to 600. A gradual decline in average NAPLAN tests scores (reading, writing and numeracy) scores were observed for internet use over 4 h during weekdays, and over 3 h during weekends (Table 2 ). Table 2 also shows that adolescents who played no electronic games at all have better scores in writing compared to those who play electronic games. Moreover, Table 2 shows no particular pattern between time spent on gaming and NAPLAN reading and numeracy scores. Among the survey samples, 308 adolescents were below the national standard average.

Internet use and academic performance

Our results show that internet (non-academic use) use during weekdays, especially more than 4 h, is negatively associated with academic performance (Table 3 ). For internet use during weekdays, all three models showed a significant negative association between time spent on internet and NAPLAN reading and numeracy scores. For example, in Model 1, adolescents who spent over 4 h on internet during weekdays are 15% and 17% less likely to get higher reading and numeracy scores respectively compared to those who spend less than 2 h. Similar results were found in Model 2 and 3 (Table 3 ), when we adjusted other confounders. The variable addiction tendency to internet was found to be negatively associated with NAPLAN results. The adolescents who had internet addiction were 17% less and 14% less likely to score higher in reading and numeracy respectively than those without such problematic behaviour.

Internet use during weekends showed a positive association with academic performance (Table 4 ). For example, Model 1 in Table 4 shows that internet use during weekends was significant for reading, writing and national standard scores. Youths who spend around 2–4 h and over 4 h on the internet during weekends were 21% and 15% more likely to get a higher reading scores respectively compared to those who spend less than 2 h (Model 1, Table 4 ). Similarly, in model 3, where the internet addiction of adolescents was adjusted, adolescents who spent 2–4 h on internet were 1.59 times more likely to score above the national standard. All three models of Table 4 confirmed that adolescents who spent 2–4 h on the internet during weekends are more likely to achieve better reading and writing scores and be at or above national standard compared to those who used the internet for less than 2 h. Numeracy scores were unlikely to be affected by internet use. The results obtained from Model 3 should be treated as robust, as this is the most comprehensive model that accounts for unobserved characteristics. The addiction tendency to internet/game-play variable showed a negative association with academic performance, but this is only significant for numeracy scores.

Electronic gaming and academic performance

Time spent on electronic gaming during weekdays had no effect on the academic performance of writing and language but had significant association with reading scores (Model 2, Table 5 ). Model 2 of Table 5 shows that adolescents who spent 1–2 h on gaming during weekdays were 13% more likely to get higher reading scores compared to those who did not play at all. It was an interesting result that while electronic gaming during weekdays tended to show a positive effect on reading scores, internet use during weekdays showed a negative effect. Addiction tendency to internet/game-play had a negative effect; the adolescents who were addicted to the internet were 14% less likely to score more highly in reading than those without any such behaviour.

All three models from Table 6 confirm that time spent on electronic gaming over 2 h during weekends had a positive effect on readings scores. For example, the results of Model 3 (Table 6 ) showed that adolescents who spent more than 2 h on electronic gaming during weekdays were 16% more likely to have better reading scores compared to adolescents who did not play games at all. Playing electronic games during weekends was not found to be statistically significant for writing and numeracy scores and national standard scores, although the odds ratios were positive. The results from all tables confirm that addiction tendency to internet/gaming is negatively associated with academic performance, although the variable is not always statistically significant.

Building on past research on the effect of the internet use and electronic gaming in adolescents, this study examined whether Internet use and playing electronic games were associated with academic performance (i.e. reading, writing and numeracy) using a standardized test of academic performance (i.e. NAPLAN) in a nationally representative dataset in Australia. The findings of this study question the conventional belief 9 , 25 that academic performance is negatively associated with internet use and electronic games, particularly when the internet is used for non-academic purpose.

In the current hi-tech world, many developed countries (e.g. the USA, Canada and Australia) have recommended that 5–17 year-olds limit electronic media (e.g. internet, electronic games) to 2 h per day for entertainment purposes, with concerns about the possible negative consequences of excessive use of electronic media 14 , 26 . However, previous research has often reported that children and adolescents spent more than the recommended time 26 . The present study also found similar results, that is, that about 70% of the sampled adolescents aged 11–17 spent more than 2 h per day on the Internet and nearly 30% spent more than 2-h on electronic gaming in a day. This could be attributed to the increased availability of computers/smart-phones and the internet among under-18s 12 . For instance, 97% of Australian households with children aged less than 15 years accessed internet at home in 2016–2017 10 ; as a result, policymakers recommended that parents restrict access to screens (e.g. Internet and electronic games) in children’s bedrooms, monitor children using screens, share screen hours with their children, and to act as role models by reducing their own screen time 14 .

This research has drawn attention to the fact that the average time spent using the internet, which is often more than 4 h during weekdays tends to be negatively associated with academic performance, especially a lower reading and numeracy score, while internet use of more than 2 h during weekends is positively associated with academic performance, particularly having a better reading and writing score and above national standard score. By dividing internet use and gaming by weekdays and weekends, this study find an answer to the mixed evidence found in previous literature 9 . The results of this study clearly show that the non-academic use of internet during weekdays, particularly, spending more than 4 h on internet is harmful for academic performance, whereas, internet use on the weekends is likely to incur a positive effect on academic performance. This result is consistent with a USA study that reported that internet use is positively associated with improved reading skills and higher scores on standardized tests 13 , 27 . It is also reported in the literature that academic performance is better among moderate users of the internet compared to non-users or high level users 13 , 27 , which was in line with the findings of this study. This may be due to the fact that the internet is predominantly a text-based format in which the internet users need to type and read to access most websites effectively 13 . The results of this study indicated that internet use is not harmful to academic performance if it is used moderately, especially, if ensuring very limited use on weekdays. The results of this study further confirmed that timing (weekdays or weekends) of internet use is a factor that needs to be considered.

Regarding electronic gaming, interestingly, the study found that the average time of gaming either in weekdays or weekends is positively associated with academic performance especially for reading scores. These results contradicted previous literatures 1 , 13 , 19 , 27 that have reported negative correlation between electronic games and educational performance in high-school children. The results of this study were consistent with studies conducted in the USA, Europe and other countries that claimed a positive correlation between gaming and academic performance, especially in numeracy and reading skills 28 , 29 . This is may be due to the fact that the instructions for playing most of the electronic games are text-heavy and many electronic games require gamers to solve puzzles 9 , 30 . The literature also found that playing electronic games develops cognitive skills (e.g. mental rotation abilities, dexterity), which can be attributable to better academic achievement 31 , 32 .

Consistent with previous research findings 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , the study also found that adolescents who had addiction tendency to internet usage and/or electronic gaming were less likely to achieve higher scores in reading and numeracy compared to those who had not problematic behaviour. Addiction tendency to Internet/gaming among adolescents was found to be negatively associated with overall academic performance compared to those who were not having addiction tendency, although the variables were not always statistically significant. This is mainly because adolescents’ skipped school and missed classes and tuitions, and provide less effort to do homework due to addictive internet usage and electronic gaming 19 , 35 . The results of this study indicated that parental monitoring and/ or self-regulation (by the users) regarding the timing and intensity of internet use/gaming are essential to outweigh any negative effect of internet use and gaming on academic performance.

Although the present study uses a large nationally representative sample and advances prior research on the academic performance among adolescents who reported using the internet and playing electronic games, the findings of this study also have some limitations that need to be addressed. Firstly, adolescents who reported on the internet use and electronic games relied on self-reported child data without any screening tests or any external validation and thus, results may be overestimated or underestimated. Second, the study primarily addresses the internet use and electronic games as distinct behaviours, as the YMM survey gathered information only on the amount of time spent on internet use and electronic gaming, and included only a few questions related to addiction due to resources and time constraints and did not provide enough information to medically diagnose internet/gaming addiction. Finally, the cross-sectional research design of the data outlawed evaluation of causality and temporality of the observed association of internet use and electronic gaming with the academic performance in adolescents.

This study found that the average time spent on the internet on weekends and electronic gaming (both in weekdays and weekends) is positively associated with academic performance (measured by NAPLAN) of Australian adolescents. However, it confirmed a negative association between addiction tendency (internet use or electronic gaming) and academic performance; nonetheless, most of the adolescents used the internet and played electronic games more than the recommended 2-h limit per day. The study also revealed that further research is required on the development and implementation of interventions aimed at improving parental monitoring and fostering users’ self-regulation to restrict the daily usage of the internet and/or electronic games.

Data description

Young minds matter (YMM) was an Australian nationwide cross-sectional survey, on children aged 4–17 years conducted in 2013–2014 37 . Out of the initial 76,606 households approached, a total of 6,310 parents/caregivers (eligible household response rate 55%) of 4–17 year-old children completed a structured questionnaire via face to face interview and 2967 children aged 11–17 years (eligible children response rate 89%) completed a computer-based self-reported questionnaire privately at home 37 .

Area based sampling was used for the survey. A total of 225 Statistical Area 1 (defined by Australian Bureau of Statistics) areas were selected based on the 2011 Census of Population and Housing. They were stratified by state/territory and by metropolitan versus non-metropolitan (rural/regional) to ensure proportional representation of geographic areas across Australia 38 . However, a small number of samples were excluded, based on most remote areas, homeless children, institutional care and children living in households where interviews could not be conducted in English. The details of the survey and methodology used in the survey can be found in Lawrence et al. 37 .

Following informed consent (both written and verbal) from the primary carers (parents/caregivers), information on the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) of the children and adolescents were also added to the YMM dataset. The YMM survey is ethically approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Western Australia and by the Australian Government Department of Health. In addition, the authors of this study obtained a written approval from Australian Data Archive (ADA) Dataverse to access the YMM dataset. All the researches were done in accordance with relevant ADA Dataverse guidelines and policy/regulations in using YMM datasets.

Outcome variables

The NAPLAN, conducted annually since 2008, is a nationwide standardized test of academic performance for all Australian students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 to assess their skills in reading, writing numeracy, grammar and spelling 39 , 40 . NAPLAN scores from 2010 to 2015, reported by YMM, were used as outcome variables in the models; while NAPLAN data of 2008 (N = 4) and 2009 (N = 29) were excluded for this study in order to reduce the time lag between YMM survey and the NAPLAN test. The NAPLAN gives point-in-time standardized scores, which provide the scope to compare children’s academic performance over time 40 , 41 . The NAPLAN tests are one component of the evaluation and grading phase of each school, and do not substitute for the comprehensive, consistent evaluations provided by teachers on the performance of each student 39 , 41 . All four domains—reading, writing, numeracy and language conventions (grammar and spelling) are in continuous scales in the dataset. The scores are given based on a series of tests; details can be found in 42 . The current study uses only reading, writing and numeracy scores to measure academic performance.

In this study, the National standard score is a combination of three variables: whether the student meets the national standard in reading, writing and numeracy. Based on national average score, a binary outcome variable is also generated. One category is ‘below standard’ if a child scores at least one standard deviation (one below scores) from the national standard in reading, writing and numeracy, and the rest is ‘at/above standard’.

Independent variables

Internet use and electronic gaming.

In the YMM survey, owing to the scope of the survey itself, an extensive set of questions about internet usage and electronic gaming could not be included. Internet usage omitted the time spent in academic purposes and/or related activities. Playing electronic games included playing games on a gaming console (e.g. PlayStation, Xbox, or similar console ) online or using a computer, or mobile phone, or a handled device 12 . The primary independent covariates were average internet use per day and average electronic game-play in hours per day. A combination of hours on weekdays and weekends was separately used in the models. These variables were based on a self-assessed questionnaire where the youths were asked questions regarding daily time spent on the Internet and electronic game-play, specifically on either weekends or weekdays. Since, internet use/game-play for a maximum of 2 h/day is recommended for children and adolescents aged between 5 and 17 years in many developed countries including Australia 14 , 26 ; therefore, to be consistent with the recommended time we preferred to categorize both the time variables of internet use and gaming into three groups with an interval of 2 h each. Internet use was categorized into three groups: (a) ≤ 2 h), (b) 2–4 h, and (c) > 4 h. Similar questions were asked for game-play h. The sample distribution for electronic game-play was skewed; therefore, this variable was categorized into three groups: (a) no game-play (0 h), (b) 1–2 h, and (c) > 2 h.

Other covariates

Family structure and several sociodemographic variables were used in the models to adjust for the differences in individual characteristics, parental inputs and tastes, household characteristics and place of residence. Individual characteristics included age (continuous) and sex of the child (boys, girls) and addiction tendency to internet use and/or game-play of the adolescent. Addiction tendency to internet/game-play was a binary independent variable. It was a combination of five behavioural questions relating to: whether the respondent avoided eating/sleeping due to internet use or game-play; feels bothered when s/he cannot access internet or play electronic games; keeps using internet or playing electronic games even when s/he is not really interested; spends less time with family/friends or on school works due to internet use or game-play; and unsuccessfully tries to spend less time on the internet or playing electronic games. There were four options for each question: never/almost never; not very often; fairly often; and very often. A binary covariate was simulated, where if any four out of five behaviours were reported as for example, fairly often or very often, then it was considered that the respondent had addictive tendency.

Household characteristics included household income (low, medium, high), family type (original, step, blended, sole parent/primary carer, other) 43 and remoteness (major cities, inner regional, outer regional, remote/very remote). Parental inputs and taste included education of primary carer (bachelor, diploma, year 10/11), primary carer’s likelihood of serious mental illness (K6 score -likely; not likely); primary carer’s smoking status (no, yes); and risk of alcoholic related harm by the primary carer (risky, none).

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics of the sample and distributions of the outcome variables were initially assessed. Based on these distributions, the categorization of outcome variables was conducted, as mentioned above. For formal analysis, generalized linear regression models (GLMs) 44 were used, adjusting for the survey weights, which allowed for generalization of the findings. As NAPLAN scores of three areas—reading, writing and numeracy—were continuous variables, linear models were fitted to daily average internet time and electronic game play time. The scores were standardized (mean = 0, SD = 1) for model fitness. The binary logistic model was fitted for the dichotomized national standard outcome variable. Separate models were estimated for internet and electronic gaming on weekends and weekdays.

We estimated three different models, where models varied based on covariates used to adjust the GLMs. Model 1 was adjusted for common sociodemographic factors including age and sex of the child, household income, education of primary carer’s and family type 43 . However, the results of this model did not account for some unobserved household characteristics (e.g. taste, preferences) that are unobserved to the researcher and are arguably correlated with potential outcomes. The effects of unobserved characteristics were reduced by using a comprehensive set of observable characteristics 45 , 46 that were available in YMM data. The issue of unobserved characteristics was addressed by estimating two additional models that include variables by including household characteristics such as parental taste, preference and inputs, and child characteristics in the model. In addition to the variables in Model 1, Model 2 included remoteness, primary carer’s mental health status, smoking status and risk of alcoholic related harm by the primary carer. Model 3 further included internet/game addiction of the adolescent in addition to all the covariates in Model 2. Model 3 was expected to account for a child’s level of unobserved characteristics as the children who were addicted to internet/games were different from others. The model will further show how academic performance is affected by internet/game addiction. The correlation among the variables ‘internet/game addiction’ and ‘internet use’ and ‘gaming’ (during weekdays and weekends) were also assessed, and they were less than 0.5. Multicollinearity was assessed using the variance inflation factor (VIF), which was under 5 for all models, suggesting no multicollinearity 47 .

p value below the threshold of 0.05 was considered the threshold of significance. All analysis was conducted in R (version 3.6.1). R-package survey (version 3.37) was used for modelling which is suited for complex survey samples 48 .

Data availability

The authors declare that they do not have permission to share dataset. However, the datasets of Young Minds Matter (YMM) survey data is available at the Australian Data Archive (ADA) Dataverse on request ( https://doi.org/10.4225/87/LCVEU3 ).

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the University of Western Australia, Roy Morgan Research, the Australian Government Department of Health for conducting the survey, and the Australian Data Archive for giving access to the YMM survey dataset. The authors also would like to thank Dr Barbara Harmes for proofreading the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific Grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Centre for Health Research and School of Commerce, University of Southern Queensland, Workstation 15, Room T450, Block T, Toowoomba, QLD, 4350, Australia

Md Irteja Islam & Rasheda Khanam

Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Mohakhali, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh

Md Irteja Islam

Transport and Road Safety (TARS) Research Centre, School of Aviation, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia

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Islam, M.I., Biswas, R.K. & Khanam, R. Effect of internet use and electronic game-play on academic performance of Australian children. Sci Rep 10 , 21727 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78916-9

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Playing games: advancing research on online and mobile gaming consumption

Internet Research

ISSN : 1066-2243

Article publication date: 9 April 2019

Issue publication date: 9 April 2019

Seo, Y. , Dolan, R. and Buchanan-Oliver, M. (2019), "Playing games: advancing research on online and mobile gaming consumption", Internet Research , Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 289-292. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-04-2019-542

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

Introduction

Computer games consistently generate more revenue than the movie and music industries and have become one of the most ubiquitous symbols of popular culture ( Takahashi, 2018 ). Recent technological developments are changing the ways in which consumers are able to engage with computer games as individuals – adult gamers, parents and children ( Christy and Kuncheva, 2018 ) – and as collectives, such as communities, networks and subcultures ( Hamari and Sjöblom, 2017 ; Seo, 2016 ). In particular, with the proliferation of online and mobile technologies, we have witnessed the emergence of newer forms of both computer games themselves (e.g. advertising games (advergames), virtual and augmented reality games and social media games) ( Rauschnabel et al. , 2017 ) and of gaming practices (e.g. serious gaming, hardcore gaming and eSports) ( Seo, 2016 ).

It is, therefore, not surprising that the issues concerning the ways computer games consumption is changing in light of these technological developments have received much attention across diverse disciplines of social sciences, such as marketing (e.g. Seo et al. , 2015 ), information systems (e.g. Liu et al. , 2013 ), media studies (e.g. Giddings, 2016 ) and internet research (e.g. Hamari and Sjöblom, 2017 ). The purpose of this introductory paper to the special issue “Online and mobile gaming” is to chart future research directions that are relevant to a rapidly changing postmodern digital gaming landscape. In this endeavor, this paper first provides an integrative summary of the six articles that comprise this special issue, and then draws the threads together in order to elicit the agenda for future research.

An integrative summary of the special issue

The six articles that were selected for this special issue advance research into online and mobile gaming in several ways. The opening article by Pappas, Mikalef, Giannakos and Kourouthanassis draws attention to the complex ecosystem of mobile applications in which multiple factors influence consumer behavior in mobile games. Pappas and his colleagues shed light on how price value, game content quality, positive and negative emotions, gender, and gameplay time interact with one another to predict the intention to download mobile games. This study offers useful insights by demonstrating how fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis methodology can be applied to advance research into computer games consumption.

The study by Bae, Kim, Kim and Koo addresses the digital virtual consumption that occurs within computer games. This second paper explores the relationship between in-game items and mood management to determine the affective value of purchasing in-game items. The findings reveal that game users manage their levels of arousal and mood valence through the use of in-game purchases, suggesting that stressed users are more likely to purchase decorative items, whereas bored users tend to purchase functional items. This study offers an informative perspective of how mood management and selective exposure theories can be applied to understand the in-game purchases. Continuing this theme, the third study by Bae, Park and Koo investigates the effect of perceived corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Park and colleagues extend previous research by identifying important motivational mechanisms, such as self-esteem and compassion, which link CSR initiative perceptions with the intentions to purchase in-game items.

The fourth and fifth studies of this special issue draw our attention to the use of avatars and game characters. Liao, Cheng and Teng use social identity and flow theories to construct a novel model that explains how avatar attractiveness and customization impact loyalty among online game consumers. In the fifth study, Choi explores the importance of game character characteristics being congruent with product types in order to make advergames more persuasive.

The final study by Lee and Ko reviews the predictors of game addiction based on loneliness, motivation and inter-personal competence. The findings of these authors suggest that regulatory focus mediates the effect of loneliness on online game addiction, and that inter-personal competence significantly buffers the indirect effect of loneliness on online game addiction. This study advances our knowledge about online game addiction through an investigation of the important role played by loneliness.

Future directions for research

Taken together, our introductory commentary and the six empirical studies that make up this special issue deepen and broaden the current understanding of how online and mobile technologies augment the consumption of computer games. In this final section of our paper, we outline potential directions for future research.

First, this special issue highlights that computer games consumption is a diverse interdisciplinary phenomenon, where important issues range from establishing the factors that determine the adoption of particular computer games to what consumers do within these games; from whether computer games enhance consumer well-being (e.g. Howes et al. , 2017 ), to whether they engender addiction (e.g. Frölich et al. , 2016 ); and from establishing how computer gaming experiences are influenced by internal psychological mechanisms to querying the effects of broader social aspects of consumer lives on computer games consumption ( Kowert et al. , 2015 ). Informed by these findings, we assert that as computer games consumption becomes more complex and interactive, incorporating more technology brought about by the proliferation of online and mobile gaming, it is important that our theorizing follows by tracking the mutual imbrication of consumers, play, technology, culture, well-being and other salient issues.

Computer games consumption is a phenomenon of global significance, which is reflected by the international interest that we have received for this special issue. This prompts us to consider similarities and differences in the ways that computer games are consumed across cultures ( Elmezeny and Wimmer, 2018 ). Many computer games themselves now foster intercultural, multicultural and transcultural experiences ( Cruz et al. , 2018 ) by enabling consumers from different countries and regions to connect and build relationships within the shared virtual space. How do such experiences shape the consumption of computer games? This gap in the literature has been previously noted ( Seo et al. , 2015 ), but it has not been either sufficiently detailed or theorised. Future studies should explore the role of various transcultural experiences and practices within online and mobile games consumption.

Finally, one increasingly promising area for future research is the rise of virtual reality (VR) applications. Although the earliest references to VR date back to the 1990s (e.g. Gigante, 1993 ), it has been only recently that technological developments have allowed VR to evolve from a niche technology into an everyday phenomenon that is readily available to consumers ( Lamkin, 2017 ; Oleksy and Wnuk, 2017 ). Given that VR is an experientially distinct medium, how will it augment computer games consumption experiences and practices? Will it foster more diverse applications of computer games across various aspects of consumer lives (e.g. Tussyadiah et al. , 2018 ), or will it increase computer games addiction (e.g. Chou and Ting, 2003 )? What are the current and future intersections between VR technology, online and mobile games, and how are they likely to develop and affect consumers? We envision that these and many other questions related to the application and proliferation of VR technology in computer games consumption will be an exceptionally fruitful area for future research.

In summary, we hope that this paper and the special issue, with its emphasis on online and mobile gaming, will offer new insights for researchers and practitioners who are interested in the advancement of research on computer games consumption.

Chou , T.J. and Ting , C.C. ( 2003 ), “ The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction ”, CyberPsychology and Behavior , Vol. 6 No. 6 , pp. 663 - 675 .

Christy , T. and Kuncheva , L.I. ( 2018 ), “ Technological advancements in affective gaming: a historical survey ”, GSTF Journal on Computing , Vol. 3 No. 4 , pp. 32 - 41 .

Cruz , A.G.B. , Seo , Y. and Buchanan-Oliver , M. ( 2018 ), “ Religion as a field of transcultural practices in multicultural marketplaces ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 91 , pp. 317 - 325 .

Elmezeny , A. and Wimmer , J. ( 2018 ), “ Games without frontiers: a framework for analyzing digital game cultures comparatively ”, Media and Communication , Vol. 6 No. 2 , pp. 80 - 89 .

Frölich , J. , Lehmkuhl , G. , Orawa , H. , Bromba , M. , Wolf , K. and Görtz-Dorten , A. ( 2016 ), “ Computer game misuse and addiction of adolescents in a clinically referred study sample ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 55 , pp. 9 - 15 .

Giddings , S. ( 2016 ), “ Pokémon Go as distributed imagination ”, Mobile Media and Communication , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 59 - 62 .

Gigante , M.A. ( 1993 ), “ Virtual reality: definitions, history and applications ”, in Earnshaw , R.A. (Ed.), Virtual Reality Systems , Academic Press , New York, NY , pp. 3 - 14 .

Hamari , J. and Sjöblom , M. ( 2017 ), “ What is eSports and why do people watch it ”, Internet Research , Vol. 27 No. 2 , pp. 211 - 232 .

Howes , S.C. , Charles , D.K. , Marley , J. , Pedlow , K. and McDonough , S.M. ( 2017 ), “ Gaming for health: systematic review and meta-analysis of the physical and cognitive effects of active computer gaming in older adults ”, Physical Therapy , Vol. 97 No. 12 , pp. 1122 - 1137 .

Kowert , R. , Vogelgesang , J. , Festl , R. and Quandt , T. ( 2015 ), “ Psychosocial causes and consequences of online video game play ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 45 , pp. 51 - 58 .

Lamkin , P. ( 2017 ), “ Virtual reality headset sales hit 1 million ”, available at: www.forbes.com/sites/paullamkin/2017/11/30/virtual-reality-headset-sales-hit-1-million/#241697c42b61/ (accessed October 4, 2018 ).

Liu , D. , Li , X. and Santhanam , R. ( 2013 ), “ Digital games and beyond: what happens when players compete ”, MIS Quarterly , Vol. 37 No. 1 , pp. 111 - 124 .

Oleksy , T. and Wnuk , A. ( 2017 ), “ Catch them all and increase your place attachment! The role of location-based augmented reality games in changing people–place relations ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 76 , pp. 3 - 8 .

Rauschnabel , P.A. , Rossmann , A. and tom Dieck , M.C. ( 2017 ), “ An adoption framework for mobile augmented reality games: the case of Pokémon Go ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 76 , pp. 276 - 286 .

Seo , Y. ( 2016 ), “ Professionalized consumption and identity transformations in the field of eSports ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 69 No. 1 , pp. 264 - 272 .

Seo , Y. , Buchanan‐Oliver , M. and Fam , K.S. ( 2015 ), “ Advancing research on computer game consumption: a future research agenda ”, Journal of Consumer Behaviour , Vol. 14 No. 6 , pp. 353 - 356 .

Takahashi , D. ( 2018 ), “ Newzoo: games market expected to hit $180.1 billion in revenues in 2021 ”, available at: https://venturebeat.com/2018/04/30/newzoo-global-games-expected-to-hit-180-1-billion-in-revenues-2021/ (accessed October 4, 2018 ).

Tussyadiah , I.P. , Wang , D. , Jung , T.H. and tom Dieck , M.C. ( 2018 ), “ Virtual reality, presence and attitude change: empirical evidence from tourism ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 66 , pp. 140 - 154 .

Acknowledgements

The guest editors would like to offer special thanks to the Editor of Internet Research , Christy Cheung, for supporting the publication of this special issue. The guest editors would also like to thank all of the authors who contributed to this research for the “Online and mobile gaming” special issue. Finally, the guest editors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of reviewers, who generously spent their time in helping to review submissions: Luke Butcher, Curtin University, Australia; Hsiu-Hua Chang, Feng Chia University, Taiwan; I-Cheng Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan; Chi-Wen Chen, California State University, USA; Zifei Fay Chen, University of San Francisco, USA; Sujeong Choi, Chonnam National University, Korea; Diego Costa Pinto, New University of Lisbon, Portugal; Angela Cruz, Monash University, Australia; Robert Davis, Massey University, New Zealand; Julia Fehrer, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Tony Garry, University of Otago, New Zealand; Tracy Harwood, De Montfort University, UK; Mu Hu, Beihang University, China; Tseng-Lung Huang, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan; Kun-Huang Huang, Feng Chia University, Taiwan; Chelsea Hughes, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA; Euejung Hwang, Otago University, New Zealand; Sang-Uk Jung, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Korea; Kacy Kim, Bryant University, USA; Dong-Mo Koo, Kyungpook National University, Korea; Jun Bum Kwon, University of New South Wales, Australia; Chun-Chia Lee, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan; Jacob Chaeho Lee, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Korea; Loic Li, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Marcel Martončik, University of Presov, Slovakia; Mike Molesworth, University of Reading, UK; Gavin Northey, University of Auckland, New Zealand; James Richard, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand; Ryan Rogers, University of Pennsylvania, USA; Felix Septianto, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Zhen Shao, Harbin Institute of Technology, China; Kai-Shuan Shen, Fo Guang University, Taiwan; Jungmin Son, Chungnam National University; Korea; Yang Sun, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, China; Eva van Reijmersdal, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands; Ekant Veer, University of Canterbury, New Zealand; John Velez, Indiana University, USA; Wei-Tsong Wang, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan; Ya-Ling Wu, Tamkang University, Taiwan; Sheau-Fen Yap, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand; and Sukki Yoon, Bryant University, USA.

Corresponding author

About the authors.

Yuri Seo is Senior Lecturer at the University of Auckland of Business School, New Zealand. His research interests include digital technology and consumption, cultural branding and multicultural marketplaces.

Rebecca Dolan is Lecturer at the University of Adelaide School of Business, Australia. Her research focuses on understanding, facilitating and optimizing customer relationships, engagement, and online communication strategies. She has a specific interest in the role that digital and social media play in the modern marketing communications environment.

Margo Buchanan-Oliver is Professor in the Department of Marketing and the Co-Director of the Centre of Digital Enterprise (CODE) at the University of Auckland Business School. Her research concerns interdisciplinary consumption discourse and practice, particularly that occurring at the intersection of the digital and physical worlds.

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Massively multiplayer online games and well-being: a systematic literature review.

• 1 School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
• 2 Institute of Health and Sports, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
• 3 School of Psychology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
• 4 Thompson Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia

Background: Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) evolve online, whilst engaging large numbers of participants who play concurrently. Their online socialization component is a primary reason for their high popularity. Interestingly, the adverse effects of MMOs have attracted significant attention compared to their potential benefits.

Methods: To address this deficit, employing PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review aimed to summarize empirical evidence regarding a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal MMO well-being outcomes for those older than 13.

Results: Three databases identified 18 relevant English language studies, 13 quantitative, 4 qualitative and 1 mixed method published between January 2012 and August 2020. A narrative synthesis methodology was employed, whilst validated tools appraised risk of bias and study quality.

Conclusions: A significant positive relationship between playing MMOs and social well-being was concluded, irrespective of one's age and/or their casual or immersed gaming patterns. This finding should be considered in the light of the limited: (a) game platforms investigated; (b) well-being constructs identified; and (c) research quality (i.e., modest). Nonetheless, conclusions are of relevance for game developers and health professionals, who should be cognizant of the significant MMOs-well-being association(s). Future research should focus on broadening the well-being constructs investigated, whilst enhancing the applied methodologies.

Introduction

Internet gaming is a popular activity enjoyed by people around the globe, and across ages and gender ( Internet World Stats, 2020 ). With the addition of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) in the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Health Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ) as a condition requiring further study, followed by the introduction of Gaming Disorder (GD) as a formal diagnostic classification in the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11; World Health Organization, 2019 ), research concerning the associated adverse effects of gaming has increased ( Kircaburun et al., 2020 ; Teng et al., 2020 ). Accordingly, a series of potentially harmful aspects of internet gaming, such as reduced social skills, aggression, reduced family connection, interruptions to one's work and education have been cited ( Pontes et al., 2020 ).

Despite such likely aversive connotations, the uptake of internet gaming continues to increase. Recent statistics suggest that 64% of adults in the United States (U.S.) are gamers, 59% of those being male, with the average age range situated between 34 to 45 ( Entertainment Software Association, 2020 ). Of note is that 65% of those gamers are playing with others online or in person and they spend an average of 6.6 h playing per week with others online. Similarly, a survey of 801 New Zealand households (2,225 individuals) revealed that two-thirds play video games, with 34 years being the average age ( Brand et al., 2019 ).

Such high levels of game involvement have been interwoven with high reports of potential well-being benefits in the U.S. sample, including 80% for mental stimulation, 63% for problem solving, 55% for connecting with friends, 79% for relaxation and stress relief, 57% for enjoyment, and 50% for accommodating family quality time ( Entertainment Software Association, 2020 ). Interestingly, 30% of U.S. gamers met a good friend, spouse, or significant other through gaming ( Entertainment Software Association, 2020 ). Thus, video gaming does offer benefits, especially for one's socialization; indeed, gaming can simultaneously engage multiple online players ( Pierre-Louis, 2020 ; Pontes et al., 2020 ).

Multiplayer online games involve a broad genre of internet games, which entail participants playing with others in teams or competing within online virtual worlds ( Barnett and Coulson, 2010 ). A 2017 report of 1,234 Australian households (3,135 individuals) found 67% regularly played video games on computers, tablets, mobile phones, handheld devices, and gaming consoles, with 92% of those playing online with others ( Brand et al., 2017 ). When the “multiple-players” component allows the concurrent inclusion of large numbers (i.e., masses) of gamers, games are referred as massively multiplayer online games (MMOs; Stavropoulos et al., 2019 ). Such games employ the internet to simultaneously host millions of users globally. Participants tend to be organized in groups/teams/alliances competing with each other in the context of game worlds with progressively higher demands and challenges ( Adams et al., 2019 ). Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) expand on this format of play with the introduction of role-playing characteristics through the creation of an avatar. This involves the player establishing their own customizable character for their gameplay, providing an opportunity for gamers to experiment with their own identity in a safe environment ( Stavropoulos et al., 2020 ). Thus, MMORPGs constitute a distinct subgenre of MMOs.

A preponderance of recent research on MMOs has focused specifically on the negative effects of problematic gaming or IGD ( Kircaburun et al., 2020 ; Pontes et al., 2020 ). For instance, a systematic review conducted by Männikkö et al. (2017) focused on health-related outcomes of problematic gaming behavior. This review aligns with prior research that looked at the risk factors and adverse health outcomes of excessive internet usage, particularly among adolescents ( Lam, 2014 ; Goh et al., 2019 ). Despite these efforts, Sublette and Mullan (2012) suggested that the evidence regarding the negative health consequences of gaming is inconclusive (e.g., overall health, sleep, aggression). As Internet games, and especially MMOs, may be also played moderately, they can accommodate a series of beneficial effects for the users such as socialization, a sense of achievement, and positive emotion ( Halbrook et al., 2019 ; Zhonggen, 2019 ; Colder Carras et al., 2020 ). Accordingly, the systematic literature review of Scott and Porter-Armstrong (2013) aimed to offer a more balanced view of the whole range of the positive and the negative effects of participation in MMORPGs, including on the psychosocial well-being of adolescents and young adults. They studied six research articles, where both negative and positive outcomes were identified; for instance, they concluded that problematic/pathological gaming associated with the negative outcomes such as depression, disrupted sleep, and avoidance of unpleasant thoughts. However, they also suggested that the MMORPG context could often provide a refuge from real-world issues, where new friendships and cooperative play could provide enjoyment. Correspondingly, a review of videogame use and flourishing mental health employing Seligman's 2011 positive psychology model of well-being (i.e., positive emotion; engagement; relationships; meaning and purpose; and accomplishment) reported that moderate levels of play was associated with improved mood and emotional regulation, decreased stress and emotional distress, and relaxation. Decisively, Jones and colleagues ( Jones et al., 2014 ) asserted that “videogame research must move beyond a “good-bad” dichotomy and develop a more nuanced understanding about videogame play” (p. 7).

Despite the progress made, no systematic literature to date has synthesized the state of the empirical evidence considering the well-being influences of MMOs. This is important for three reasons: (a) MMOs have had significant advancements in the last 5 years, which may have radically altered their well-being potential (i.e., audio, visual, and augmented reality effects; Alha et al., 2019 ; Semanová, 2020 ); (b) the MMO players community has significantly expanded ( Statista, 2021 ) and; (c) growing empirical evidence has widened the available knowledge of the effects of multiplayer gaming ( Sourmelis et al., 2017 ; Cole et al., 2020 ). Consequently, this present systematic review will contribute to the niche research area referring to the MMOs and well-being association. To address this purpose, the notion of psychosocial well-being and its operationalization needs to be clarified. Scott and Porter-Armstrong (2013) conceived one's level of well-being as expressed through an individual's interpersonal and intrapersonal functioning. In that context, the complexity related to the assessment of one's well-being is acknowledged ( Burns, 2015 ; Linton et al., 2016 ). On that basis, this review utilized the six broad well-being themes as delineated by Linton et al. (2016) to inform the theoretical framework of synthesizing MMO well-being related effects and evidence. The six themes are: (a) mental well-being (e.g., a person's thoughts and emotions); (b) social well-being (e.g., interactions and relationships with others, social support); (c) activities and functioning (e.g., daily activities and behavior); (d) physical well-being (e.g., person's physical functioning and capacity); (e) spiritual well-being (e.g., connection to something greater, faith) and; (f) personal circumstances (e.g., environmental factors; Linton et al., 2016 ).

To enhance the utility of findings, the present review will focus on the most prevalent age range of MMO gamers. The entertainment software association reported that of those playing video games, 21% are under the age of 18 years, 38% between 18 and 34, 26% between 35 and 54 and 15% 55 and over ( Pierre-Louis, 2020 ). In addition, the currently most popular MMOs were identified and targeted. According to the entertainment software association, these involve World of Warcraft, RuneScape, and Guild Wars 2 among gamers older than 13 years ( BeStreamer, 2020 ; Entertainment Software Association, 2020 ). All the available empirical evidence derived by randomized, controlled trials, cross-sectional studies, and case studies with n > 1 that identified any MMOs linked well-being outcomes was included and examined across the six well-being domains identified (see Linton et al., 2016 ). Thus, all the range of interpersonal and intrapersonal well-being outcomes for MMO players over the age of 13 were considered. The ultimate aim of this review is to contribute to balancing the available knowledge surrounding the impact of the popular MMO genre, whilst concurrently illustrating directions for gamer-centered and beneficial future research and mental health practice initiatives.

Materials and Methods

This systematic review followed the methodology suggested in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA; Moher et al., 2009 ; Shamseer et al., 2015 ). Research team discussion and perusal of related published reviews assisted the development of the initial research eligibility, search strategy, and related terms. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were further refined at the selection process stage, after exposure and familiarity with the research area; this review was limited to research obtained from database searches.

Eligibility Criteria

All research investigating massively multiplayer online gaming were eligible for review. The initial search eligibility criteria were (i) a publication date between 2012 to 2020; (ii) written in or translated into English language; and (iii) full-text, peer-reviewed primary research.

Information Sources and Search Strategy

Searches were conducted in August 2020 using online databases, JB searched PsycNET (APA), and PUBMED; whereas, LR searched Scopus (see Figure 1 ). In each case, the following search terms and protocol were used (massively multiplayer online OR multiplayer online OR MMORPG OR MMOG) to search abstracts and/or titles. Searches were limited by publication date, 2012 to the present. No specific terms for well-being outcomes were prescribed to ensure that the literature search remained expansive. Accordingly, potential well-being effects were assessed at the screening stage.

Figure 1 . PRISMA flow diagram for the present study.

Selection Process and Data Management

After the title search, abstracts were independently screened by two investigators (JB & LR) for positive outcome measures, fitting within the identified well-being parameters (i.e., Linton et al., 2016 ). Example terms included, but were not limited to, “well-being,” “quality of life,” “social support,” “belonging,” “positive affect,” and “cognitive ability.” Where abstracts contained insufficient/unclear information, the full-text was reviewed for accurate evaluation. The resultant items/studies/records were pooled, and duplicates were removed. The remaining, potentially relevant studies were divided equally between LR and JB, and the full studies were subsequently (and independently) assessed. Where uncertainty of inclusion was noted, articles were screened by the alternate investigator (i.e., JB or LR). Then, if uncertainty regarding inclusion still remained, investigator LK was the final arbitrator (see Figure 1 ).

This detailed screening process utilized the following inclusion criteria: (i) qualitative or quantitative research of any design; (ii) written in or translated into English language; (iii) a primary study aim was psychological well-being (or a component of psychological well-being; Linton et al., 2016 ); and (iv) it was clearly indicated that participants were aged 13 years or over [according to Entertainment Software Association (2020) age ranges of high gaming prevalence]. Studies were excluded if: (i) they were single case studies, reviews of any kind (e.g., systematic reviews or meta-analyses), dissertations or theses, or opinions or discussion papers; (ii) the focus was IGD, problematic gaming or addiction; (iii) they involved online gambling, sexual foci (e.g., cybersex), exergaming, or e-sports; (iv) the game was not generally available to the wider community or was an educational tool; (v) they focused on motivations for engaging in online gaming or on learning English language; or (vi) gaming was not played on computers. Once articles were pooled, each reviewer independently recorded the reasons for excluding the articles in a shared file.

Data Extraction Process

The final studies were summarized according to the following characteristics: (1) study design (e.g., cross-sectional survey); (2) sample characteristics (i.e., size, source of recruitment); (3) the specific MMORPG(s) emphasized; (4) variables (i.e., types of social capital, types of networks); (5) instruments for assessing key variables (e.g., time in game, social capital); (6) the type of analysis used; (7) main findings in relation to well-being (e.g., relationship between game and well-being or with belongingness); and (8) limitations. Investigators SR and LR each independently reviewed half of the studies, with joint discussion to resolve any uncertainties. Table 1 summarizes the reviewed studies.

Table 1 . Main characteristics of reviewed studies ( N = 18).

Data Analysis Procedures and Quality

Given the diversity of study objectives and well-being outcomes reviewed, meta-analysis was not plausible. Therefore, a narrative synthesis methodology was adopted, as it involves a textual summation and explanation of the data which was considered appropriate considering the focus of this review ( Greenhalgh et al., 2005 ; Popay et al., 2006 ). Following the goals of this review, the analysis aimed to identify the key positive or well-being outcomes of playing MMORPGs. Consequently, comparable studies/results were grouped together categorizing the data into themes (and subthemes) that drew on the six well-being themes identified by Linton et al. (2016) . A narrative account of these results is presented under relevant thematic headings, along with any pertinent moderating factors ( Greenhalgh et al., 2005 ).

Risk of bias and quality of evidence evaluations were undertaken using the Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies ( Downes et al., 2016 ) for the quantitative studies, and the Critical Appraisal Checklist for Qualitative Research ( Joanna Briggs Institute, 2020 ) for the studies that used a qualitative methodology. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool ( Hong et al., 2018 ) was used by JB and LR to conduct their independent appraisals of each study. These were then compared and discussed across each item/study/record to conclude agreement.

Study Selection

As per the flow of information and studies is shown in Figure 1 , a total of 1695 studies (PsycNET n = 524, PubMed n = 500, Scopus n = 671) were identified through the initial search. After abstracts were reviewed, 1,431 studies were excluded due to not being suitable for the present review. A further 64 studies were removed for duplication. A full-text review was done on the remaining 200 studies. Of these 182 studies were excluded due to age of participants ( n = 8), focus on IGD or addiction ( n = 32), focus on motivations/predictors of play ( n = 24), not being in English ( n = 4), not being primary research ( n = 30), focused on education ( n = 16), full-text unable to be accessed ( n = 4), not exclusively MMO ( n = 8), only measuring in-game behaviors ( n = 29), or not meeting well-being criteria ( n = 27). Following this screening process, 18 studies were included in the final narrative synthesis (see Figure 1 ).

Study Characteristics

The main characteristics, including the aims and purpose of each study, the well-being measures used, and the results of each of the final 18 studies are noted Table 1 . For those studies which reported the gender of their participants, males accounted for the majority, ranging from 65 to 100% [the latter being the case in the qualitative study of Gallup et al. (2016) ]. One study was equally represented gender-wise ( Cole et al., 2020 ) and one had slightly more females (51%) than males ( Doh and Whang, 2014 ). Participants were from North America, China, Korea, Greece, and Australia. For those studies that reported the game platform, World of Warcraft was the most common ( n = 10). Twelve studies measured time spent gaming with variable time measures, such as hours weekly, per week-day, and weekend. Averages of hours per week ranged from 11 to 36.7, while daily hours were estimated to vary between 2 and 5.

Risk of Bias and Quality of Studies

Quality of reporting, study design quality and risk of bias was assessed for each of the 13 cross-sectional studies. All the cross-sectional studies had a moderate level of risk of bias [studies: 1–4, 8–10, 12, 13, 15-18]. This included sample issues [studies, 1-4, 8-10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18]. Only one study provided information to justify their sample size, and this was through pragmatic rather than statistical reasons ( Zhang and Kaufman, 2015 ). Although seven studies [studies, 1, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 17] had sample sizes over 300, sample size was deemed to be an issue of concern given the millions of MMOG players globally ( Internet World Stats, 2020 ). Sampling methods raised concerns regarding risk of bias and study design quality, as most studies relied on self-selection, and one MMOG was the primary data collection source [six studies used this MMOG alone (studies 2, 9, 11, 16–18), while four studies (studies 1, 4, 14, 15) included this MMOG], although conclusions were often made with reference to MMOGs as a whole. Only six studies [studies, 2, 3, 10, 13, 15, 16] acknowledged or raised concerns regarding response rates, but did not provide clear information on this or expected response rates due to the impossibility of determining sampling frames. Furthermore, due to participant self-selection, the majority of studies did not compare responders and non-responders. Of the two studies [4, 15] that did consider response bias, one ( Cole et al., 2020 ) found no difference between non-completers and completers, while the other ( Xanthopoulou and Papagiannidis, 2012 ) found differences on four demographic characteristics (age, gender, occupational, and marital status). Considering the quality of design, the majority of the 13 cross-sectional studies were deemed to fall into a fair category, with a major concern being the omission of whether ethical approval or participant consent was obtained [studies 2, 3, 8–10, 12, 13, 15] and only three studies reporting that there were no funding or other conflicts [studies 2, 12, 17].

The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal checklist for qualitative research was used to assess risk of bias for the qualitative studies ( Joanna Briggs Institute, 2020 ). Overall, the quality of these four studies [5, 6, 7, 11] was assessed as quite good. The JBI checklist highlighted two key concerns: adequate reporting of the positioning and of the research influence of the investigators. Only two of the four studies provided details as to the role or possible influence of the investigators on the research [studies 5, 7], and only one study [7] provided a statement showing the cultural and or theoretical perspective of the investigator.

Of the 18 studies, four were qualitative [5, 6, 7, 11] one was a mixed method design [14] and the others were all cross-sectional by design [1–4, 8–10, 12, 13, 15–18]. This led to all results showing exclusively correlational and/or regression links/effects, with unclear direction of causality regarding the MMO gaming and well-being experiences association. Only one study ( Xanthopoulou and Papagiannidis, 2012 ) was longitudinal in design with the second measurement being obtained 1 month after the first responses were collected, allowing for stronger predictive inference.

The well-being outcomes assessed in all the studies were operationalized similarly to authors' expectations aligning with the framework provided by Linton et al. (2016) . Two predominant types of positive outcomes were addressed by the included studies: social well-being and mental well-being. Additionally, one study ( Shen and Chen, 2015 ) [13] considered physical well-being. Several game attributes were considered as predictors across the studies reviewed. The most common attribute was the social aspect as examined by 15 studies [2–4, 6–14, 16–18]. This referred to modes of communication (e.g., in-game talk, game bulletin boards, online comms outside the game), “who” the gamers play with (e.g., real-world friends, on-line friends, family), and time spent gaming. The synthesized results are presented through the lenses of the 2 main well-being outcomes identified.

Social Well-Being

Of the 18 studies, 15 included some form of measurement of social well-being. O'Connor et al. (2015) [study 11] reported that participants of WoW game received social support from others within this gaming community. Gallup et al. (2016) [study 6] and Gallup et al. (2017) [study 7] found that using the online game environment was beneficial for secondary and tertiary students with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) diagnosis, to develop social connections as well as communication and relationship skills. This skill development also led to improved post-secondary education transitioning. Cole et al. (2020) [study 4] also looked at whether social support increased in the gaming environment, finding that more time spent in playing in guilds as related to higher levels of social support, and that this was correlated with cognitive-emotional outcomes. Additionally, they compared on-line and in-person social support and outcomes, finding differential effects. Cole et al. (2020) [study 4] concluded that MMOGs represent different social support environments, and as such, online worlds could be used as a new and different source of social support. These findings are echoed by Voulgari et al. (2014) [study 14], whose mixed methods research across more than 10 MMOGs found that gaming developed collaborative skills and social bonds additional to real-life relationships. Moreover, gaming constituted a part of the gamers' existing real-world social life.

Social capital effects investigated by the reviewed studies included bonding and bridging aspects. Bonding related social capital implies a deeper form of social support, experienced by those with whom one maintains emotional intimacy, such as their family and friends ( Meng et al., 2015 ) [study 10]. In the game context, bonding social capital refers to the support networks within a specific online gaming group or community, such as one's guild (i.e., group of in-game allies) or group within a particular game ( Claridge, 2020 ). Bridging social capital refers to the support, mainly by sharing information and resources, one may experience from broader and less intimate social groups they belong into, such as their social class, race, and religion ( Perry et al., 2018 ) [study 12]. Castillo (2019) [study 2] found greater bridging social capital experienced when gamers presented more motivated to form relationships with others, compared to gaming for competitive reasons. Moreover, Meng et al. (2015) [study 10] found that playing frequently in the online gaming environment with existing offline friends was positively correlated with both higher bridging and higher bonding social capital. This aligned with Kaye et al. (2017) findings, that playing with online and real-world friends, as well as online interactions in-game and outside, was positively related to both higher bridging and higher bonding social capital.

The study by Perry et al. (2018) [study 12] reported that harmonious passion for playing MMOGs helped build social capital; however, when this passion was obsessive, the outcomes were negative. Their study further found that playing with real-life friends was positively associated with higher bonding social capital experienced by gamers. Interestingly, playing with strangers, and possible new friends, was positively associated with increased bridging social capital. Choi (2019) [study 3] extended such findings by focusing on the link between a gamer's social interactions, avatar identification, and social capital. Higher avatar (i.e., in-game figure representing the gamer) identification was related to increased real-life social capital, with one's greater perception of in-game social interactions linked to higher levels of avatar identification and subsequently elevated social capital.

Three of the articles reviewed [Studies 16, 17, & 18] focused specifically on social well-being among older populations, with all participants exceeding 55 years. These studies by Zhang and Kaufman (2015) [study 16], Zhang and Kaufman (2016) [study 17], and Zhang and Kaufman (2017) [study 18] all looked at the social interactions of older adults in MMORPGs. It was found that enjoyment of relationships in the online game was positively related to both bridging and bonding social capital, and this was partly associated to a gamer's amount of game play, active participation in guilds, and their reported enjoyment of the game. The same three studies also suggested that gaming contributed to maintaining existing family and friend relationships, as well as the development of new meaningful friendships. One of the studies, did imply, however, that new online friends did not easily integrate into the older gamers' real lives ( Zhang and Kaufman, 2017 ) [study 18]. They explained that as the result of older adults' lesser need for large networks, as well as geographical limitations.

Lastly, one article looked at social well-being through the lens of marital satisfaction ( Ahlstrom et al., 2012 ) [study 1]. They reported that compared to couples where only one member is a gamer, couples who game together experience higher levels of marital satisfaction. Higher marital satisfaction was related to more time spent in in-game interaction and higher satisfaction of playing together. They supported that gaming is a leisure activity, where when only one person is immersed, disruption to marital harmony may be caused. Indeed, this was confirmed by both types of couples (e. g., only one gaming vs. both gaming), when considering their different or similar bedtimes and their arguments over the time spent in gaming compared to the time spent together.

Mental Well-Being

A smaller proportion of studies looked at the effects of MMOG on components of mental well-being such as self-esteem, depression, stress, general affect, and skill acquisition. Self-esteem was specifically identified in three articles [Studies 3, 4, & 8] and was related to social support received in the game and with positive gamer identities in an MMORPG ( Kaye et al., 2017 ; Choi, 2019 ; Cole et al., 2020 ). In their study investigating MMO involvement, gamer identity, and social capital, Kaye et al. (2017) [study 8] found that higher MMO involvement increased with higher bonding and bridging social capital and solidified gamers' identity, which in turn increased their self-esteem and decreased their loneliness. Similarly, Choi's 2019 [study 3] study into the effects of avatar self-identification indicated that perceptions of social support from MMORPG increased avatar identification alongside the gamers' real-life self-esteem. In their examination of a Compensatory Social Interaction Model, Cole et al. (2020) [study 2] investigated the associations between one's MMORPG guild play, social support, peer victimization, self-esteem, depression and stress. Gamers who engaged more in guild play, experienced higher levels of social support (compared to levels of peer victimization), which resulted in improved self-esteem, lower depression, and stress symptoms. Martončik and Lokša (2016) [study 9] directly looked at the social effects of WoW's (i.e., guild affiliation, communication used) on individual's mental well-being. Their study revealed that gamers perceived their level of loneliness as significantly lower in the online world than in the real world. Additionally, gaming with others already known to the player in their real-life decreased perceptions of real-world loneliness. Martončik and Lokša (2016) [study 9] also found that levels of anxiety were lower in the online world, when gamers perceived themselves as less lonely. Similarly, lower levels of loneliness and depression among gamers aged over 55 years were predicted by higher quality of guild play [study 18]. This suggested that for older adults, being an active member of an in-game guild, may improve their emotional well-being ( Zhang and Kaufman, 2017 ).

The mixed methods study by Voulgari et al. (2014) [study 14] contributed information across a combination of different social, cognitive, and emotional well-being outcomes of gaming. Their study found that playing MMOGs had positive impacts on gaining social skills and improving cognitive skills, as well as a positive affective impact. The cognitive skills they identified to have been improved included procedural knowledge and problem-solving skills. The acquisition of such cognitive and social skills was reported to be transferable into their offline world. The authors also reported that for some gamers, positive affective impacts, such as enjoyment and satisfaction, were the most important outcomes. In-game and work leadership skills were looked at by Xanthopoulou and Papagiannidis (2012) [study 15] in their examination on the effects of gaming on real-life employment. They found that in-game active learning was reflected in active learning at work, but only for high game performers. Moreover, transformational leadership was shown to spill over into a player's work life, although this appears to be enhanced by higher game performance.

In that line, Doh and Whang (2014) focused on the development of behavioral statements to establish the gaming environment as a different pathway to use in identity development. They reported that a player's motivation to participate in online gaming could progressively lead to an alternated identity. Lastly, Shen and Chen (2015) explored the effect of gaming related social capital into health-related outcomes. This study found that bonding and not bridging social capital occurring while playing online related to reduced health disruption in one's daily lives.

The increasing preference for MMO gaming for leisure and e-sport has led to a large body of research investigating the possible adverse outcomes related to their excessive usage ( Stavropoulos et al., 2019 , 2020 ). However, less is known about the possible benefits of moderate MMO gaming for one's individual psychosocial well-being. The aim of this review was two-fold: (a) to identify and summarize the empirical evidence for the potential interpersonal and intrapersonal positive well-being outcomes for non-excessive MMO players over the age of 13; and (b) to identify possible research priorities in relation to better understanding the beneficial effects of MMO gaming. Overall, a positive relationship between playing MMOs and social well-being was found.

This systematic review identified 18 studies that were published between 2012 and 2020, and which investigated the adaptive well-being outcomes of MMOG for adolescent and adult players. These studies examined two key aspects of psychosocial well-being, as defined by Linton et al. (2016) . Firstly, one's social well-being, encompassing individuals' connections with others—their interactions, their depth of relationships, and the social support their connections provided, was emphasized by the reviewed empirical evidence. This was the dominant topic of interest, while the gamers' mental well-being (e.g., individual psychological, emotional, and cognitive aspects) followed. In order to investigate these outcomes, gaming attributes such as gaming time, game performance, gamer identity, types of communication one is engaged in, type of co-players (e.g., online or offline friends, family, strangers), and guild membership were examined.

In that context, a commonly used measure of social well-being employed in the studies reviewed was social capital. The significant positive relationship found between MMOG engagement and bridging and bonding social capital in those studies appears promising. Specifically, reviewed findings in studies 2, 10, 12, and 16 suggest there is strong support for the notion that MMO gaming may foster one's social well-being in both virtual worlds and in their off-line lives ( Meng et al., 2015 ; Zhang and Kaufman, 2015 ; Perry et al., 2018 ; Castillo, 2019 ). Moreover, such evidence is strengthened by studies 1, 3, 4, 6, & 18, which utilized more discrete measures of social well-being, such as one's perceptions of social support, social interactions, and marital satisfaction, showing that MMO gaming bolstered these too ( Ahlstrom et al., 2012 ; Gallup et al., 2016 ; Zhang and Kaufman, 2017 ; Choi, 2019 ; Cole et al., 2020 ). These overall positive conclusive impacts on one's social well-being seem to be reasonably robust given (a) the diverse game attributes considered in these studies (e.g., time spent in play, gamer identity, frequency of play with different types of co-players, avatar identification); and (b) the diverse age and ethnicities of gamers that these impacts were found with-including a small and unique group of gamers with ASD. Moreover, the impacts of MMORPG on social well-being were apparent in both quantitative and qualitative research. Nevertheless, and in line with the current PRISMA systematic literature review's study eligibility criteria, it should be reiterated that the majority of the gamers in the studies reviewed were classified as non-problematic gamers, with study 5 actively excluding those who fit criteria for addiction (e.g., Doh and Whang, 2014 ). Similarly, reviewed studies 12 and 18 included gamers who could be classified as experienced and/or as heavy users, yet they had received no formal diagnosis ( Zhang and Kaufman, 2017 ; Perry et al., 2018 ). Thus, due to the wide range of time participants spent gaming, the findings are applicable to both the more casual and immersed gamer populations, solidifying the positive effects of MMO gaming on one's social well-being.

Further, the reviewed studies examined the mental well-being effects of one's MMO gaming. Self-esteem, loneliness, depression, and positive affect were the main psychological outcomes investigated, while studies 7 and 14 looked at cognitive skill acquisition ( Voulgari et al., 2014 ; Gallup et al., 2017 ). Overall, these studies found that gaming bolstered self-esteem, and reduced depression, stress, and loneliness, whilst fostering cognitive and social skills. However, these positive findings should be treated with some caution, as these variables were only considered in a handful of the studies and such revealed effects may be interwoven with one's concurrently experienced positive social well-being outcomes. More studies need to be conducted among MMO gamers, in which mental well-being outcomes are of primary focus, and social variables are controlled for.

Taken together, this review provides validation to game developers, educators, health professionals, and policy makers, that despite evidence regarding the adverse outcomes of excessive MMO gaming and problematic gaming behavior, there are important psychosocial benefits to be gained from moderate and adaptive gaming. This information is relevant to game developers as they should be encouraged to find ways to enhance social contact opportunities. Moreover, it is important that health professionals and educators are aware that MMO gaming is an avenue for social connection and support, similar to other real-world leisure and sporting pursuits. Pathologizing gaming could well undermine the identity, social, and psychological well-being of those who actively benefit by their moderate and adaptive gaming engagement.

Strengths and Limitations

The validity of these results is restricted due to the heterogeneity of methodologies used in the studies reviewed. Although qualitative and quantitative empirical evidence was included, most studies used a descriptive design to assess the self-reported effects of MMO gaming on well-being. Moreover, although many of the studies controlled for some covariates, such as demographic variables or gaming time, variables of interest were narrow, and other unmeasured variables might account for some of the observed effects. Additionally, although many of the predictor measures had solid theoretical bases, others have not been fully trialed (e.g., intensity of interaction, multimodal connectedness), contributing to possible validity issues. Furthermore, the value of the findings is impacted by a lack of generalizable results. For example, self-selection bias was reported by several studies, where heavy gamers or an overly well-educated sample was used, and some studies looked at specific populations (e.g., 55+ years, those with ASD; Zhang and Kaufman, 2015 ; Gallup et al., 2017 ) [See studies 7 & 16]. The sample of MMO games examined was also narrow, with WoW dominating. Finally, only a limited number of well-being constructs were examined by the 18 studies, thus the conclusions regarding well-being have limited generalizability/need to be treated with caution due to narrow constructs covered. Of note was a lack of variety in the well-being outcomes being studied. While social well-being is an important part of MMO gaming, little is known about other aspects of well-being such as mental well-being, spiritual well-being, and physical well-being. The fact that no randomized control trials have been undertaken to contribute to the research on well-being outcomes and MMO participation is an important omission in this field of study.

This review was limited to peer-reviewed studies published in three academic databases between 2012 and August 2020, at one particular point in time. Therefore, the review may be subject to English-language and publication bias, and the studies included may not be a representative sample. Relevant research may also have been missed due to including the use of selected search terms, and this review did not include non-peer-reviewed literature (e.g., theses, conference proceedings), which may have omitted important data. Finally, well-being is a broad concept, and other reviews may generate different empirical evidence dependent on the operationalizations followed.

Despite the noted review-level limitations, this study has several strengths. First, this review used rigorous methodology, following PRISMA guidelines and assessing quality and risk of bias using validated tools. Additionally, the inclusivity of study design has meant we have captured data through diverse approaches with similar outcomes. Finally, the broad search parameters with regards well-being ensured that we did not limit the construct to narrow conceptualizations of well-being outcomes related to MMO gaming.

This review has offered a valuable examination of the current research on the psychosocial benefits of multiplayer online gaming. It is important to note the number of reviewed studies that reported significant positive outcomes regarding social well-being. The major limitation of the review relates to the modest quality of research in the area, and the limited aspects of well-being investigated to date. While social well-being is an important part of MMO gaming, there is very little known about other aspects of well-being such as mental well-being, spiritual well-being, and physical well-being.

Recommendations for future research include broadening the well-being constructs that are investigated in relation to gaming. Clear and consistent operationalization of commonly used variables and measures and standardized demographic information would provide greater validity and comparability of results. Longitudinal research in which baseline measurements of well-being and other variables are taken to assess changes in this outcome, to determine causation and not merely correlational effects is also required. Finally, using a greater variety of gaming platforms, instead of mostly WoW, would provide increased robustness for positive well-being outcomes related to MMOGs.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Author Contributions

LR and JB performed the bibliographic search, participated in the selection of included studies, resolved methodological doubts of possible studies, and helped in the all versions of this manuscript. LK-D and VS were senior authors and were involved in the review design and review aim, also the above processes conducted by LR and JB, and manuscript revision and submission. PM, AA, HS, JM, TD, and AW contributed in the interpretation of the results and the improvement of the manuscript. PM also contributed to mentoring in the PRISMA process. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

VS has received the Australian Research Council, Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE210101107).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: MMOs, internet gaming, systematic literature review, PRISMA, well-being, massively multiplayer online

Citation: Raith L, Bignill J, Stavropoulos V, Millear P, Allen A, Stallman HM, Mason J, De Regt T, Wood A and Kannis-Dymand L (2021) Massively Multiplayer Online Games and Well-Being: A Systematic Literature Review. Front. Psychol. 12:698799. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.698799

Received: 22 April 2021; Accepted: 25 May 2021; Published: 30 June 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Raith, Bignill, Stavropoulos, Millear, Allen, Stallman, Mason, De Regt, Wood and Kannis-Dymand. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Vasileios Stavropoulos, Vasileios.Stavropoulos@vu.edu.au

† These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Effects Of Online Games in Academic Performance Among Senior High School

RODICA, PAULINE DENISE V. AND TALANIA, HANES ANDREW Department of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Mount Carmel School of Maria Aurora (MCSMA), Silvestre Street Brgy. 2, Maria Aurora, Aurora, zip code 3202, in the school year 2019-2020. “EFFECTS OF ONLINE GAMES IN ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL (SHS) STUDENTSOF MOUNT CARMEL SCHOOL OF MARIA AURORA.” The study dealt with the Effects of Online Games in Academic Performance among Senior High School (SHS) Students of Mount Carmel School of Maria Aurora. This aimed to determine the effects of online games among SHS in MCSMA. There were one hundred fifty + one (151) respondents which are composed of males and females from Academic Tracks which are Accountancy, Business and Management strand (ABM), General Academic strand (GAS), Humanities and Social Sciences strand (HUMSS). The study was laid out in descriptive design where researcher formulated questionnaire through Likert Scale. By collecting answers received from the surveys given out to the respondents, each criteria was tallied and was divided to the total number of tallies of all criteria; then, the quotient was converted to a percentage by multiplying it to 100. The parameters used to evaluate the result were the effects of online games among SHS in MCSMA. The result of the study showed that online game have negative effect to academic performance of Senior High School students of MCSMA. Study revealed that online gaming has a huge impact among them regarding on their academic performance which lead them to poor or low grade and physical distress as well. Majority of the respondents are replied and favored that online games gave negative outcome to their study and health. They found out that the students cannot focus on their studies, they cannot do their home works as well as their projects and that they have low grades. Based on the general result, the researchers conclude that a number of students playing online games could have a negative effect in their academic performance. Furthermore, students, teachers, and parents must be aware of the effects of playing online games and should regulate the time playing such game because it could ruin every students focus on their study. Students should be disciplined when it comes to playing online games which they could still perform satisfactorily in their studies and it should not be given much priority over higher and more realistic priorities.

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The objective of this research was to findout the effect of online gaming habits on student,s learning outcomes in class X of social sciences in economics subject at SMA Negeri 1 Tapa, Bone Bolango Regency, It employed a quantitative method with a sample of 66 students. At the sama time, the data analysis used in this research was a simple linear regression analysis assisted by IBM Statistics SPSS 26.0 program. The research findings signified that the variable of online gaming habits partially had a negatif and significant effect on students’ learning outcomes in class X of social Sciences at SMA Negeri 1 Tapa, the results of this research obtainet a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.169, meaning that the effect of online gaming habbits variabel on students’ learning outcomes at SMA Negeri 1 Tapa was 16.9%. in contrast, the remaining 83.1% was affected by other variables that contribute to students’ learning outcomes at SMA Negeri 1 Tapa, which were not examinet in this research.

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This descriptive-correlational research study was undertaken in order to determine the effect of kids’ usage to internet games to the academic performance of Grade V and VI pupils in Ramon Magsaysay Central Elementary School. Data collected were analyzed using mean and Pearson r Correlation. Results revealed that the extent of kids’ usage to internet games was average and the level of academic performance of kids’ usage to internet games was also average. Regarding the study’s level of significance, it was found out that there was no significant relationship between kids’ usage to internet games and academic performance. Keywords: kids’ usage to internet games and academic performance

Dr. Rose Wyatt

This study determined the effect of computer games on the academic performance of grade six pupils in selected catholic schools in Davao City during the school year 2012-2013. This research was initiated to identify the game type most suitable to our teaching environment and to identify game elements that students found interesting or useful within the different game types. This study looked into the following: (1) the profile of the pupil-respondents in terms of (1) Pupils’ Profile: (1.1) gender; (1.2) parental monitoring; (1.3) type of computer games; (1.4) number of hours spent in playing on the computer; (1.5) game systems used. (2) Behavioral Factors: (2.1) pupils’ attitudes towards computer games; (2.2) study habits; (2.3) teachers’ perceptions about the pupils’ behaviour. (2) the academic performance of the pupils in terms of the following subjects: (2.1) English, Science and Mathematics. (3) the significant relationship between the academic performance of the pupil-respondents and the hours spent in playing computer games? The descriptive research design was employed in the study with the questionnaire as the instrument. The study made use of purposive sampling on the pupil-respondents and parent-respondents and random sampling in the selection of the teacher- respondents. The respondents were selected from three catholic schools namely: Ateneo de Davao University presently located in Matina, Davao City, Our Lady of Fatima Academy situated at Fatima St., Davao City and Assumption College of Davao in Cabagiuo St.,Davao City. The respondents were twenty-seven (27) teachers, and 218 pupils along with their parents. The analytical design was used in this study including the testing of the null hypothesis were the central tendency to utilize in the descriptive part of the analysis of data. Pearson-Product Moment of Correlation was used to test the reliability of the research instrument. Analysis of Variance was used to measure the significant difference between the academic performance of the pupils and the hours spent in playing computer games. On Respondents’ Profile, out of 218 pupil-respondents, there were 112 boys or (51.4 percent) and 106 girls or (48.6 percent). There were more boys than girls-respondents. On the other hand, on parental monitoring, out of ten indicators, five were rated agree. The parents want to monitor and guide their children because they know the positive and negative effects of playing computer games. This further revealed that pupils who are supported very well by their parents perform well in their studies. However, four of the indicators were rated disagree by the parents. The pupils strongly agree that playing computer games is for fun because they enjoy them. Whereas at school they are required to study many subjects that are boring to them. Playing computer games is actually an escape from the rigid rules and regulations they must follow at school. On the types of computer games played by the pupil-respondents, children answered with a multiple response. The majority of the respondents played action/fighting games. Second, are the online gaming sites followed by adventure & RPG Games, puzzle games, simulation, social networking sites and the last is the card games. The average of hours that the pupil-respondents played is three to four (3-4) hours in a day. Pupils have multiple responses about the game systems they used in playing computer games. Most of the respondents used the PC game system which was followed in use by the portable , table/phone and console game system. Pupils rated agree on the indicators that interactive games improve their logical thinking and reasoning; help them to become more computer literate; and creative; keep from getting bored until their friends are available to play and make new friends as well as strengthening their relationships with old friends. The pupils think that playing computer games is a positive experience to them and not a negative experience like their teachers, parents and other role models seem to believe. On study habits, the majority of the pupils studied their lessons on an average of 0-1 hour a day. On teachers’ perception on pupils’ behavior, the teacher-respondents agreed that playing computer manifests better computer skills and knowledge of facts, exhibits motor skills and hand-eye coordination and gain other skills, enhances creativity and inculcates a taste for graphics, and design and technology. However, it also manifests aggressive behaviors such as gets in many fights, cruelty, bullying, or meanness to others, doesn’t seem to feel guilty after misbehaving; develops attention problems like daydreaming (getting lost in thought and staring blankly); exhibits a decline in school achievements(repeated low grade, poor school work). On academic performance by subject, the pupil-respondents generally received a fair (80-84) to good (85-89) rating. Thus, their rating means that playing computer games do not have significant effect on their academic performance. However, there is an impact on their behaviour based on various researches. It was noted that English and Mathematics have no significant difference in the academic performance of the pupil-respondents in relation to hours spent in playing computer games. The result showed that thirty-seven percent explains the variation of the pupils’ academic performance which is due to playing computer games while sixty-three percent went to other factors that affect their performance in school. However, Science subjects showed significance on their academic performance. Perhaps, this subject requires a higher level of thinking skills. Some factors can be considered why these pupils did not perform in the said subject due to pupils’ study habits, attitudes towards the subject, thinking skills, peer and media influences. From the results and conclusions, it is recommended that the policy maker and school administrators will intensify the integration of Information Technology in the existing curriculum, improve lesson plan making using the computer –aided instructions (CAI) and provide more trainings/ seminars/ workshops/ to teachers that will equip them with IT skills. Lastly, design a Homeroom Guidance (HG) Activity on the effect of playing of computer games in their life.

Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal

Psychology and Education

In modern society, computers have become almost a non-negotiable part of every individual's life. Then this is bound to have both positive and negative consequences on people. Because of this many young children and individuals anywhere can become addicted to playing such games online and offline gaming. It became a huge distraction to the academic performance of the learners by being addicted to computer games. The main goal of this study was to determine the level of understanding on playing in computer games and academic performance of learners in Sultan Palao Ali Memorial Elementary School, SPAMES (127217), Tagoloan District, Division of Lanao del Norte. The study used descriptive-correlational research design. Descriptive research determined the profile of elementary learners of Sultan Palao Ali Elementary School located at Barangay Inagonan, Tagoloan Lanao, Del Norte and the level of understanding on playing in computer games and the academic performance of the respondents. Based on the results of the study, most of the learners at Sultan Palao Ali Elementary School, Tagoloan District, Division of Lanao del Norte, were age ranges from 11-13, females and in satisfactory level as to their academic performance. In the level of understanding of playing computer games of the respondents, among the indicators of the level of understanding, the indicator "Playing computer games can enhance the accuracy/speed of my hands), got the highest mean score which can also be interpreted in the agreed level, while the indicator "Playing computer games can increase my empathy and supports my mental well-being) garnered the lowest mean of 1.80, which can be interpreted in the disagreed level in which the respondents believed that playing computer games negatively impacted their health. Further, in correlation, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant relationship between academic performance and profile in terms of age, was not rejected, while sex was rejected. At the same time, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant relationship between academic performance and the level of understanding of playing computer games, was also rejected. Furthermore, in the regression analysis, the null hypothesis stating that "there is no variable/s best predict the academic performance" was rejected.

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• v.55(3); 2018 Sep

Motives and Consequences of Online Game Addiction: A Scale Development Study

Gülşah başol.

1 Department of Educational Measurement and Evaluation, Gaziosmanpaşa University School of Education, Tokat, Turkey

Abdullah Bedir Kaya

2 Department of Computer Technologies, Hitit University, Çorum, Turkey

Introduction:

We aimed to develop the Online Game Addiction Scale (OGAS) and examine its properties.

Three hundred and twenty-seven secondary school students (92% males and 8% females) participated in this study. A draft scale that included 69 items was used for assessing its validity and reliability. The exploratory factor analysis was used for assessing construct validity, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, Spearman–Brown split-half reliability, and test–retest reliability were used for assessing reliability.

After performing the exploratory analyses, a three-factor structure comprising 21 items was obtained, which explained the 59% of variance. The factor loads of the items ranged from 0.606 to 0.876. Reliability analyses revealed that Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.83 to 0.91, coefficients of the Spearman–Brown split-half reliability ranged from 0.88 to 0.94, and outcomes of the test–retest reliability ranged from 0.71 to 0.94.

Conclusion:

Our results revealed that OGAS is a valid and reliable tool that has adequate psychometric properties.

INTRODUCTION

Considering how intensely our lives involves technology at all ages, it is not difficult to understand that technology use turned into a habit for different uses, from gambling to shopping, downloading music to watching TV series or movies, or socializing behind a computer screen to sharing tips or recipes. We spend several hours in front of a screen for different purposes that are defined by our interests, needs, or motives.

Before technology, there were toys and playgrounds. In city life, the outdoor activities of children have become limited because of huge shopping malls and small, restricted playgrounds. With the developments in the digital gaming industry, children have started excessively using technology as pastime. A few decades ago, no such thing as virtual games or characters existed; most of the problems that we are dealing right now regarding the children and adolescents have been associated with the excessive computers use or Internet.

The literature reveals adolescents to be heavy Internet users ( 1 , 2 ) and many studies have discussed the consequences of excessive Internet use by adolescents ( 3 ). According to a study, 95% of all teenagers aged from 12 to 17 years are online ( 4 ). In another study ( 5 ), the amount of time spent by children in playing digital games has dramatically increased. In addition, the preferences of children have changed; although individually played games were previously common, a recent study revealed that almost half of the most frequent players preferred social games ( 6 ).

Digital games have been around since 1990s and have gained popularity in all age groups. It is even claimed that the 21st century will be the age of digital gaming ( 7 ). Compulsive Internet use for playing digital games has become an issue for people of different ages. Online gaming is increasing at such as a pace that the Entertainment and Software Association reported the average age of game players was 35 years and that 155 million Americans regularly play video games ( 6 ).

Technology and Addiction

In recent years, the rapidly increasing number of web-based online games has been forcing people to stay connected to the Internet, it is impossible to progress in these games for a player with no Internet access to connect to the game. Therefore, players need to be connected to these online gaming environments to progress in the game. Such situations can be regarded as causes of game addiction.

In clinical practice, the two concepts that are used as bases for defining addiction are behavioral addiction and physical dependence ( 8 ). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) by the American Psychiatric Association includes a diagnostic system for the diagnosis of game addiction under mental disorders ( 9 ). DSM IV defines Internet addiction, as non-chemical, apparent behavioral addictions such as habits that are considered as impulsivdisorders ( 10 ). Technological non-chemical addiction dependencies can be defined as behavior-based, and it occurs in the form of the interaction between the man and the machine. In this type of dependency, the person can be either active (such as while playing computer games) or passive (while watching TV) ( 11 ). Behavior-based dependencies; usually explained as eating, gambling, sex, etc. includes technological dependencies involving human-machine interaction ( 10 ).

Internet addiction was first introduced in the literature by Dr. Ivan Goldberg via an e-mail that was meant to be a joke ( 12 ). Regardless of how Internet addiction was introduced in the literature, it refers to excessive and problematic use of the Internet ( 13 ). Internet addiction, similar to pathological gambling, is defined as an impulse control disorder that is not associated with substance use ( 14 ). Researchers have used various terms such as problematic Internet use ( 15 , 16 , 17 ) addiction to Internet ( 18 ), pathological Internet use ( 19 , 20 ), Internet addiction ( 14 , 21 ), Internet overuse ( 22 ), Internet abuse ( 23 ), and excessive Internet use ( 24 ) for referring to problematic areas of Internet addiction. At a close look at the related literature, one can see that these problems are all rooted on the point of excessive and problematic Internet usage and it becomes a financial and intangible burden to the person.

Even if online games turned into a dependency objects for those who are connected to Internet, people who are not connected to Internet might be using it as a medium ( 25 ) for other addictions (e.g., online sexual behavior, online gambling, or online games). These dependencies are described as the dependence on the environment for online gaming, chat channel addiction, online gambling addiction, pornography, or cyber-sex addiction ( 26 ). Computer and Internet addiction was not under under DSM IV before, later on it was examined many and finally placed it under pathological gambling addiction identified as having the most identical specifications to dependence on the computer ( 13 ). Internet addiction criteria were defined on the basis of the model, which was adapted from the pathological gambling addiction criteria.

In addition, many studies have stated that online game addiction forms a significant portion of Internet-based addictions ( 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ).

Role play games

Digital game types can be typically classified as action shooters, multiplayer games, sports, simulation, strategy games, educational games, and role play games (RPGs) ( 32 ). Of these game types, RPGs are the ones played through an interface in which players assume roles of characters-named avatar-in a fictional setting. An avatar is a digitally created character that is powered by digital interactions ( 33 , 34 ).

Worldwide, tens of thousands of players simultaneously play RPGs interactively on their tablet/computers with an Internet connection. These games are identified as massively multiplayer online role play game (MMORPG). MMORPG is different from RPG in that thousands of players worldwide can play together online and can socialize through chat channels. MMORPG enables players to socialize with people from different beliefs, cultures, and languages.

Online game addiction

Internet addiction are of various types, e.g., online games, online chat, online gambling, online sex, online information, online shopping, or surfing the Internet for research ( 26 , 35 , 36 , 37 ). Moreover, news published worldwide and records of digital games in the Guinness Records Book indicate that game addiction, particularly digital game addiction, has become the subject of many news. An 18-year-old Thai teenager died after playing online computer games for 40 h straight ( 38 ). A 22-year-old mother from Florida shook her 3-month-old son to death because he interrupted her Farmville game on Facebook ( 39 ). Likewise, a father who was playing the EverQuest game got annoyed with his 9-month-old son and killed the child by squeezing him to death ( 40 ). Furthermore, a father killed his 17-month-daughter for pulling out the plug of his Xbox game console ( 41 ). Ironically, a Korean couple starved their 3-month-old daughter to death because they devoted hours to playing a computer game, raising an avatar (a digital character) of a young girl ( 42 ). A teenager shot his parents in the head after they confiscated an Xbox game console ( 43 ). A desperate teenager stabbed his rival in the game Counter Strike in real life ( 44 ). In Turkey, a father hired digital assassins to attack his son’s game character in hopes of preventing him from playing World of Warcraft ( 45 ).

Some records related to digital games in the Guinness Records Book are: “Most Popular Free MMORPG” record; the MMORPG named Runescape reached almost 200 million registered players from >150 countries worldwide ( 46 ). Okan Kaya broke the longest videogame marathon record by playing nonstop for 135 h, 15 min, and 10 s ( 47 ).

All these news indicate that online game addiction is a rapidly increasing issue. Although many studies have reported regarding the dangers of excessive Internet use and digital game addiction, to the best of our knowledge, no scale exists to identify the consequences of digital game playing.

There is no scale in the literature that aims to identify the consequences of online gaming. A previous study ( 48 ) identified an association between online games and maladaptive cognitions using the Online Cognitions Scale developed in another study ( 49 ).

Factors associated with online gaming addiction and motivation for playing in MMORPGs were investigated. Latent class analysis revealed the following seven classes of motivations: novelty, highly social and discovery oriented, aggressive, anti-social and non-curious, highly social, competitive, low intensity enjoyment, discovery oriented, and social classes ( 50 ). They also reported the following five classes of gaming addiction-related experiences: high risk for addiction, time-affected addiction, intermediate risk for addiction, emotional control, and low risk for addiction.

Because online gaming addiction has been recognized as a mental disorder, predictive factors that lead to this disorder are not established ( 51 ). This study aimed to investigate factors that may influence the development of online gaming addiction ( 51 ). In a hierarchical logistic regression analysis, individual factors such as sex and age; cognitive factors such as IQ and preservative errors; psychopathological conditions such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, anxiety, and impulsivity; and social interaction factors such as family environment, social anxiety, and self-esteem were entered in a stepwise design. The findings indicated that all four factors were associated with online gaming addiction. Because psychological factors were the strongest risk factors for online gaming addiction, psychopathologies were the strongest factors associated with the development of online gaming addiction in individuals.

Online gaming addiction has an impact on the physical and psychological health of players. Social capital and co-playing patterns appear to have significant health implications in participants playing online games ( 52 ). Online multiplayer games create new social platforms, with their own etiquette, social rules of conduct, and ways of expression ( 53 ). The effect of online gaming on the behaviors of children has been previously investigated ( 54 ). As a rare finding on the side of online gaming, they concluded that despite the negative effect of playing violent games, violent arousal has a positive effect on children’s development, particularly self-regulation and thinking aloud.

Although many studies have assessed the harms of Internet and digital game addiction, to the best of our knowledge, there is not a scale development study that measures the consequences of playing digital games in terms of its reflection on family relationships, daily activities, and social relationships. Therefore, the current study aimed to develop a scale that helped educators identify problems that occurred because of playing online games and the motives behind this addiction.

This scale development study was conducted among adolescents who played MMORPGs in Turkey. The participants were from Corum and Sivas Province, which is located in Central Anatolia, during the 2012-2013 academic year. The study included 465 students who were selected through purposive sampling. The previously set criteria need to be defined in the criterion sampling ( 55 ). In the current study, the participants included were those who played one of the MMORPGs. Out of 465 scales, 327 scales were valid. The scales with too many missing answers, repetitive answers, or contradictory responses were excluded from the final data set. The study was performed in accordance with the ethical considerations of the Helsinki Declarations. Participation was voluntary, there were no incentives for participation and no personal questions were asked.

To gather prospective items for the Online Gaming Addiction Scale (OGAS), a focus group study with adolescents who played MMORPG was conducted; the positive and negative aspects of gaming were discussed and probable expressions were gathered. In addition, a comprehensive literature regarding online gaming helped in identifying problems and motives that were associated with online gaming behavior ( 13 , 17 , 23 , 30 , 56 , 57 , 58 ). During the item pool development stage, the following studies ( 13 , 17 , 23 , 30 , 56 , 57 , 58 ). were considered. The construct validity of the resulting 142 Likert scale items was confirmed using an expert evaluation form, and the readability and suitability of the scale for adolescents were scored by two Turkish teachers. Later, the expert opinions of two academicians whose research focused on online gaming were requested. According to their suggestions, 34 items were excluded, similar items were reconsidered (either eliminated or adjusted), and the ones with same meanings were combined. Consequently, the number of items in the final draft was reduced to 69 items. Items that were regarded highly by the majority of the applicants (completely agreed or completely disagreed) were also excluded. Before applying, the final form of the scale was reviewed by a Turkish teacher one last time. A pilot study indicated that the scale took approximately 30 min to complete and required intermediate level language skills.

Study Sample

According to the descriptive analysis, the number of boys and girls in the study sample were 302 (92%) and 25 (8%), respectively. Of all the participants, 156 (48%) were 9th graders, 46 (14%) were 10th graders, 70 (21%) were 11th graders, and 55 (17%) were 12th graders. Approximately 58% of the participants answered the question “How many hours a day do you spend playing games?” as >2 h. Forty-six percent of the participants answered that the longest nonstop playing time for them was ≥6 h, whereas 61% responded as ≥4 h. These results suggest that most of the participants were highly engaged in online digital games.

Data Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using a SPSS 15 developed by IBM in New York. The normality check at item level were achieved through skewness and kurtosis check and yielded no problems. The construct validity was assessed using the principal component analysis. Before the analysis, sampling adequacy and factorability of a correlation matrix were evaluated. Kaiser–Mayer–Olkin (KMO) test indicated that the sample size was adequate with a value of 0.92 ( 59 ), and Bartlett test was significant beyond 0.001, indicating the suitability of the correlation matrix to draw factors ( 60 ). In the light of the literature, certain rules such as removal of the factors with <5% explanation rate or the ones having less than three items were used to decide the factors to be retained ( 61 ). To retain a factor, the eigenvalues needed to be >1 ( 62 ). Furthermore, items with an item load less then. 45 on their respective factor, the ones cross loaded on multiple factors, or the ones reduce the alpha coefficient were eliminated. Finally, the ones with <0.10 discrepancy between loadings ( 59 ) were removed. Cattell’s scree test was also performed to visually consider the number of factors. Common variation levels of the items (Communalities) were investigated to exclude the items with an inadequate common variation. Researchers used factor rotation methods to provide “independent and significant factors” ( 62 ). Because factors were determined to be independent from each other, the Varimax method was used. Moreover, item-total correlations and dependent t test comparisons were performed to confirm the unidimensionality of the scale and its subscales. Higher item-total correlations were assumed to indicate that altogether the items measured the same construct. In contrast, significant differences identified through dependent sample t tests indicated the uniqueness of each subscale.

Using factor analysis, construct validity was confirmed by assessing whether data was grouped as anticipated ( 63 ). The purpose of factor analysis was to decrease the number of factors, release the structure among the items, and classify them ( 59 ). A good factor solution should decrease the number of variables; in addition, outcome factors should be independent of each other, and new factors should be conceptually meaningful ( 62 ).

The findings indicated that KMO and Bartlett results were adequate (KMO = 0.91, X 2 = 11166, 638 p<0.001). Principal component analysis with Varimax rotation provided 16 factors, which explained the 63% of the total variation and had eigenvalues of >1 ( 64 ). Factors with an explanation level of <5% and the items that were singled out were excluded. Finally, 41 items were left. In the second analysis with the new data set, PCA explained the 58% variation and yielded four factors; twenty items that did not fit the predetermined criteria were excluded. In the third analysis, the remaining 21 items yielded three factors, explaining approximately 59% of the total variation. Cattell’s scree plot ( 65 ) for the final solution is provided in Figure 1 .

Screen plot.

According to Figure 1 , the scale comprised three factors. After the third factor, eigenvalue was <1. The PCA results by Varimax rotation are given in Table 1 .

Varimax rotation results of OGAS items

OGAS: Online Gaming Addiction Scale

According to Table 1 , three factors with eigenvalues of >1 explained the 58.56% of the total variation in the data. There were no reverse items. “Malfunctions” with nine items (item 15, 51, 49, 26, 4, 48, 18, 63, and 33), which reflected the problems in the adolescents’ life because of online gaming, explained 24.25% of the total variation, with factor loadings between 0.63 and 0.77. Items with its original Turkish form in parentheses, factor loadings, and descriptive statistics for the items in the “Malfunctions” factor are provided in Table 2 .

Descriptive information regarding the malfunctions subscale

The second factor “Success” with eight items (item 9, 13, 19, 66, 28, 16, 64, and 69), which reflected the feeling of achievement because of online gaming behavior, explained 20.96% of the variation, with factor loadings between. 61 and. 79. Items with its original Turkish form in parentheses, factor loadings, and descriptive statistics for the items in the “Success” factor are provided in Table 3 .

Descriptive data regarding the success subscale

Finally, the third factor “Economic profits” with four items (item 45, 20, 57, and 47) explained 13.34% of the variation, with factor loadings between 0.66 and 0.88. Descriptive data for the items and their original Turkish forms in parentheses are provided in Table 4 .

Descriptive data regarding the economic profits subscale

According to Table 4 , factor loadings were between 0.61 and 0.88. The means of the items ranged from 4.27 to 2.04, and the standard deviations ranged from 1.14 to 1.66. Communalities were between 1.31 and 2.76. Corrected item-total correlations were beyond the cutoff value of 0.30 ( 66 , 67 , 68 ).

Reliability

After factor analysis, the reliability of the scale and its subscales were checked. The two main criteria for reliability were “consistency between the answers obtained at different times” and “consistency between the answers acquired at the same time” ( 62 ). Cronbach’s alpha, Spearman–Brown split-half, and test–retest correlations were used for reliability analyses. The results are given in Table 5 .

Reliability analysis for the scale and subscales of online game addiction scale

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the scale and its subscales were .70, indicating internal reliability, according to the common rule of .70 ( 67 ). Spearman­–Brown split-half correlation coefficients also indicated high internal consistencies between the halves. Test–retest correlations also confirmed the consistency of the scale and its subscales over time.

Correlations among the factors

Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used to identify the direction and degree of association between the scale and its factors. There were no exact boundaries; however, a correlation coefficient of 0.50 showed weak, between 0.50 and 0.70 corresponded to an average, and a correlation of >0.70 indicated a strong association ( 69 ). Pearson’s correlation coefficients among the factors are provided in Table 6 .

Correlation coefficients between online game addiction scale factors

Differences between the means indicate that each factor denotes a different dimension ( 70 ). Therefore, the differences between the factors were tested using paired samples t tests, and the results are presented in Table 7 .

Paired samples t test results of Online Game Addiction Scale factors

According to Table 7 , the differences between “Malfunctions” and “Success factors” and those between “Success” and “Economic profits” were significant, indicating the uniqueness of each subscale. Conversely, differences between “Malfunctions” and “Economic profits” were not significantly different from each other because of the high motivation of players to make money.

OGAS is a 21-item Likert-type scale, with 1 corresponding to “I absolutely don’t agree,” 2 to “I don’t agree,” 3 to “I am indecisive,” 4 to “I agree,” and 5 to “I completely agree.” The lowest and the highest scores that can be attained from the scale and its subscales are provided in Table 8 .

Lowest and highest possible scores for the scale and each subscale

This study aimed to develop a scale that measured the consequences and motives of adolescents’ online gaming habits. However, our findings resulted in a three-factor solution. In this study, expected factors such as “Belonging to a group” and “success” and “Economical profits” did not appear to be closely associated with adolescents’ online gaming habits. Our findings indicated that some of the items did not appear at their expected sub-scales; such as, “I give up my sleep for an online group facility,” were expected to be an item at Belonging sub-scale, “My friendships were damaged/broken due to online games,” were expected to be at Loneliness sub-scale while they both came up at the Malfunctions sub-scale according to the EFA results. The resulting scale had 21 items under the following three factors: “Malfunctions,” “Success,” and “Economic Profits” subscales. There were no reverse-coded items, and the final scale took approximately 10–15 min to complete. Moreover, playing MMORPG is more of an issue for male adolescents. Hence, in the current study, 92% of our participants were males. For that MMORPG involves violence to some degree since the player is supposed to pursue an attempt to gain a reward in return; it may attract boys more often than the girls. Another study ( 71 ) suggested that most computer games with a subject matter of territory and aggression were popular with males. According to the study that compared male and female brains’ responses to computer gaming that were about territory and score gaining, males were more focused on gaining territory; brain scans indicated that during gaming, the male brain showed more neural activity compared with the female brain. This can be an explanation for the limited attendance of females in the current study.

According to the data obtained from 30,000 MMORPG players, “Achievement,” “Socializing,” and “Immersion” motivated players. “Immersion” and “Achievement” corresponded to “Malfunctions” and “Success” of OGAS, respectively. A survey with 1471 participants reported that participants played games to “increase the level of game characters,” “feel oneself superior to others,” and “earn money selling products” ( 72 ). In terms of their meaning, their two factors corresponded to “Success” and “Economic profits” of OGAS. In another study, “Confidence” and “Awarded with a prize” were reported to be motivators of online gaming ( 73 ). A review of the items suggested that “Confidence” overlapped with “Success” was safe, whereas “Award with a prize” coincided with “Economic profit” factor of OGAS. Online game playing hours of children and adolescents needs to be managed by their families and teachers because the players have difficulty in limiting themselves ( 74 ). I was stated that the gaming addicts would rather spend more time in the cyber world rather than sleeping, eating or communicating ( 75 ). “Malfunctions” subdimension of OGAS reffered to this problem. It is a fact that the ones who are successful in video games are at the same time the ones who earn money through gaming. This can be the reason for the low correlation between “Economic profits” and “Success”subdimensions. The characters/items that were bought/sold are objects won/sold by successful players. In addition, successful players play games to enjoy reaching goals and not necessarily to gain economic profit. The association between “Success” and “Malfunctions” factors suggested that the more time a player spends in front of the screen, struggling to be successful, the more problems he/she may encounter. The relatively high association between “Economic profit” and “Malfunctions” suggested that there was no such thing as “gaining” because playing online games for extended periods of hours could bring a number of negative consequences. Unidimensionality of the scale and its subscales were confirmed using item-total correlations and paired samples t test.

It is important to identify the motives behind excessive online gaming behavior and its consequences rather than only detecting if there was a habitual engagement. No one can deny that we depend too much on technology because we all use computers and Internet for various purposes. OGAS is anticipated to help parents and educators in acknowledging the problems before a pastime engagement in MMORPGs turns into an overly habitual play. It would not be wise or clever to suggest excluding technology from youngsters’ lives considering the wide range of benefits it provides. Instead, approaches that direct youngsters to more beneficial uses of technology and the effect of their application can be studied. Through counseling programs, parents can obtain guidance to help their adolescents playing digital games excessively rather than getting frustrated by a judgmental, no end attitude. Researchers may also consider studying the proposed construct with its association with other psychological constructs (such as depression, self-esteem, self-efficacy, effective study habits, and time management skills) to have a comprehensive, yet prevailing understanding of the issue for all parties. Furthermore, we suggest that the validity of the scale’s conceptual structure should be tested in a future study using a confirmatory factor analysis on a different data set.

Ethics Committee Approval: The study was carried out according to the rules in Helsinki Declaration.

Informed Consent: The sample of the study was regular adolescents who play online games in their free time. They were not diagnosed patients with online game addiction. Therefore, patient consent form was not included.

Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.

Author Contributions: Concept - ABK, GB; Design - ABK, GB; Supervision - GB; Resource - ABK, GB; Materials - ABK, GB; Data Collection and/ or Processing - ABK; Analysis and/or Interpretation - ABK, GB; Literature Search - ABK; Writing - ABK; Critical Reviews - GB.

Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest was declared by the authors.

Financial Disclosure: The authors declared that this study has received no financial support.

Borderlands 3 Players Have Had a Major Impact on Scientific Research

A recent study underscores a groundbreaking achievement, showing how millions of Borderlands 3 players have had a major impact on scientific research.

• 4.5 million gamers advanced microbial research by playing a minigame in Borderlands 3.
• The study shows significant potential for collaboration between gaming and scientific research.
• Borderlands Science provides valuable data for understanding microbial interactions in the human body.

A recent study has underscored a groundbreaking achievement, showing that 4.5 million gamers worldwide have significantly advanced microbial evolutionary research by playing a minigame within Borderlands 3 . In a collaborative effort between academic researchers, a gaming development company, and Borderlands 3 players, the tremendous potential of gaming and scientific endeavors has been demonstrated.

Borderlands 3 is a first-person shooter video game developed by Gearbox Software and published by 2K Games, marking the fourth main entry in the Borderlands series . Players engage in battles against diverse enemies, undertake quests, and scavenge for weapons and gear. The game distinguishes itself with a distinctive cel-shaded art style, playful humor, and cooperative multiplayer functionality that accommodates up to four players, both online and locally. Beyond its entertainment value, Borderlands 3 has recently contributed significantly to advancing medical studies.

Borderlands 3 Plot Hole Creates a Ship of Theseus for BL4 to Ponder

How does borderlands science collect valuable data.

The study was published in Nature Biotechnology and led by researchers from McGill University. It aimed to explore the feasibility and impact of engaging gamers in scientific research through a minigame called Borderlands Science . The minigame, embedded within Borderlands 3 , challenges players to solve puzzles that contribute to mapping the human gut microbiome. By aligning colored blocks in the game, players generate crucial data for understanding microbial communities' functions within the human body. The study will “substantially advance our knowledge of the microbiome and improve on the AI programs that will be used to carry out this work in the future,” said McGill in a press release .

The study is a collaboration between McGill University researchers, Gearbox Entertainment Company, Massively Multiplayer Online Science, and the Microsetta Initiative. Jérôme Waldispühl, an associate professor at McGill, and a key figure in the study, expressed surprise and excitement at the results obtained through Borderlands Science. The rapid generation of five times more microbial DNA sequence data compared to previous efforts showcases the immense potential of leveraging gaming communities for scientific discovery.

Attila Szantner, CEO of MMOS, emphasized the importance of utilizing the vast amount of time and brainpower gamers invest in playing amusing video games like Borderlands 3 . Borderlands Science exemplifies how such engagement can translate into tangible contributions to scientific knowledge. Randy Pitchford, CEO of Gearbox, praised Borderlands Science as one of the most significant citizen science projects, highlighting its ability to harness the collective intelligence of millions of gamers worldwide. The success of Borderlands Science not only drives scientific progress but also challenges misconceptions about the impact and potential of video games.

While it is not clear yet if Borderlands Science will be featured in Borderlands 4 , it might be an incentive for developers given how the data generated through the minigame provides a more precise understanding of microbial interactions. This collaborative effort is paving the way for insights into human health, aging, and various diseases associated with microbial imbalances, thereby opening new avenues for addressing global challenges through collective efforts that include the gaming community.

Borderlands 3

Borderlands 3 is the fourth installment in the Borderlands series. In this looter shooter, players take missions from NPCs and seek out Vaults, similar to the rest of the series.

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 23.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Electronic Media Use and Sleep Quality: Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Authors of this article:

• Xiaoning Han * , PhD   ; 
• Enze Zhou * , MA   ; 
• Dong Liu * , PhD  

School of Journalism and Communication, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China

*all authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Dong Liu, PhD

School of Journalism and Communication

Renmin University of China

No. 59 Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District

Beijing, 100872

Phone: 86 13693388506

Email: [email protected]

Background: This paper explores the widely discussed relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality, indicating negative effects due to various factors. However, existing meta-analyses on the topic have some limitations.

Objective: The study aims to analyze and compare the impacts of different digital media types, such as smartphones, online games, and social media, on sleep quality.

Methods: Adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, the study performed a systematic meta-analysis of literature across multiple databases, including Web of Science, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar, from January 2018 to October 2023. Two trained coders coded the study characteristics independently. The effect sizes were calculated using the correlation coefficient as a standardized measure of the relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality across studies. The Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (version 3.0) was used to perform the meta-analysis. Statistical methods such as funnel plots were used to assess the presence of asymmetry and a p -curve test to test the p -hacking problem, which can indicate publication bias.

Results: Following a thorough screening process, the study involved 55 papers (56 items) with 41,716 participants from over 20 countries, classifying electronic media use into “general use” and “problematic use.” The meta-analysis revealed that electronic media use was significantly linked with decreased sleep quality and increased sleep problems with varying effect sizes across subgroups. A significant cultural difference was also observed in these effects. General use was associated with a significant decrease in sleep quality ( P <.001). The pooled effect size was 0.28 (95% CI 0.21-0.35; k =20). Problematic use was associated with a significant increase in sleep problems ( P ≤.001). The pooled effect size was 0.33 (95% CI 0.28-0.38; k =36). The subgroup analysis indicated that the effect of general smartphone use and sleep problems was r =0.33 (95% CI 0.27-0.40), which was the highest among the general group. The effect of problematic internet use and sleep problems was r =0.51 (95% CI 0.43-0.59), which was the highest among the problematic groups. There were significant differences among these subgroups (general: Q between =14.46, P =.001; problematic: Q between =27.37, P <.001). The results of the meta-regression analysis using age, gender, and culture as moderators indicated that only cultural difference in the relationship between Eastern and Western culture was significant ( Q between =6.69; P =.01). All funnel plots and p -curve analyses showed no evidence of publication and selection bias.

Conclusions: Despite some variability, the study overall confirms the correlation between increased electronic media use and poorer sleep outcomes, which is notably more significant in Eastern cultures.

Introduction

Sleep is vital to our health. Research has shown that high sleep quality can lead to improvements in a series of health outcomes, such as an improved immune system, better mood and mental health, enhanced physical performance, lower risk of chronic diseases, and a longer life span [ 1 - 5 ].

Electronic media refers to forms of media or communication that use electronic devices or technology to create, distribute, and display content. This can include various forms of digital media such as smartphones, tablets, instant messaging, phone calls, social media, online games, short video platforms, etc. Electronic media has permeated every aspect of our lives [ 6 ]. Many prefer to use smartphones or tablets before sleep, which can negatively affect sleep in many aspects, including delayed sleep onset, disrupted sleep patterns, shortened sleep duration, and poor sleep quality [ 7 - 10 ]. Furthermore, problematic use occurs when the behavior surpasses a certain limit. In this study, problematic use of electronic media is not solely determined by the amount of time spent on these platforms, but rather by behavioral indicators that suggest an unhealthy or harmful relationship with them.

Smartphones or tablet use can affect sleep quality in many ways. At first, the use of these devices may directly displace, delay, or interrupt sleep time, resulting in inadequate sleep quantity [ 11 ]. The sound of notifications and vibrations of these devices may interrupt sleep. Second, the screens of smartphones and tablets emit blue light, which can suppress the production of melatonin, the hormone responsible for regulating sleep-wake cycles [ 12 ]. Third, consuming emotionally charged content, such as news, suspenseful movies, or engaging in online arguments, can increase emotional arousal, making it harder to relax and fall asleep. This emotional arousal can also lead to disrupted sleep and nightmares [ 13 ]. Finally, the use of electronic devices before bedtime can lead to a delay in bedtime and a shortened sleep duration, as individuals may lose track of time while engaging with their devices. This can result in a disrupted sleep routine and decreased sleep quality [ 14 ].

Some studies have conducted meta-analyses on screen media use and sleep outcomes in 2016, 2019, and 2021 [ 15 - 17 ]. However, these studies had their own limitations. First, the sample size included in their meta-analyses was small (around 10). Second, these studies only focused on 1 aspect of the effect of digital media on sleep quality. For example, Carter et al [ 16 ] focused only on adolescents, and both Alimoradi et al [ 15 ] and Kristensen et al [ 17 ] only reviewed the relationship between problematic use of digital media or devices and sleep quality. Despite of the high heterogeneity found in the meta-analyses, none have compared the effects of different digital media or devices. This study aims to clarify and compare the effects of these different channels.

Literature Search

The research adhered to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ) and followed a predetermined protocol [ 18 , 19 ]. As the idea and scope of this study evolved over time, the meta-analysis was not preregistered. However, the methodology was defined a priori and strictly followed to reduce biases, and the possible influence of post hoc decisions was minimized. All relevant studies in English, published from January 1, 2018, to October 9, 2023, were searched. We searched the following databases: Web of Science, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The abstracts were examined manually. The keywords used to search were the combination of the following words: “sleep” OR “sleep duration” OR “sleep quality” OR “sleep problems” AND “electronic media” OR “smartphone” OR “tablet” OR “social media” OR “Facebook” OR “Twitter” OR “online gaming” OR “internet” OR “addiction” OR “problematic” ( Multimedia Appendix 2 ). Additionally, the reference lists of relevant studies were examined.

Two trained coders independently screened the titles and abstracts of the identified papers for eligibility, followed by a full-text review of the selected studies. Discrepancies between the coders were resolved through discussion until a consensus was reached. The reference lists of the included studies were also manually screened to identify any additional relevant studies. Through this rigorous process, we ensured a comprehensive and replicable literature search that could contribute to the robustness of our meta-analysis findings.

Inclusion or Exclusion Criteria

Titles and abstracts from search results were scrutinized for relevance, with duplicates removed. Full texts of pertinent papers were obtained, and their eligibility for inclusion was evaluated. We mainly included correlational studies that used both continuous measures of time spent using electronic media use and sleep quality. Studies must have been available in English. Four criteria were used to screen studies: (1) only peer-reviewed empirical studies, published in English, were considered for inclusion in the meta-analysis; (2) the studies should report quantitative statistics on electronic media use and sleep quality, including sample size and essential information to calculate the effect size, and review papers, qualitative studies, case studies, and conference abstracts were excluded; (3) studies on both general use and problematic use of electronic media or devices should be included; and (4) only studies that used correlation, regression, or odds ratio were included to ensure consistency.

Study Coding

Two trained coders were used to code the characteristics of the studies independently. Discrepancies were discussed with the first author of the paper to resolve. Sample size and characteristics of participants were coded: country, female ratio, average age, publication year, and electronic types. Effect sizes were either extracted directly from the original publications or manually calculated. If a study reported multiple dependent effects, the effects were merged into one. If a study reported multiple independent effects from different samples, the effects were included separately. Additionally, to evaluate the study quality, the papers were classified into 3 tiers (high, middle, and low) according to Journal Citation Reports 2022 , a ranking of journals based on their impact factor as reported in the Web of Science. The few unindexed papers were rated based on their citation counts as reported in Google Scholar.

Meta-Analysis and Moderator Analyses

The effect sizes were calculated using the correlation coefficient ( r ) as a standardized measure of the relationship between electronic media or device use and sleep quality across studies. When studies reported multiple effect sizes, we selected the one that best represented the overall association between electronic media use and sleep quality. If studies did not provide correlation coefficients, we converted other reported statistics (eg, standardized regression coefficients) into correlation coefficients using established formulas. Once calculated, the correlation coefficients were transformed into Fisher z scores to stabilize the variance and normalize the distribution.

Previous meta-studies have shown high levels of heterogeneity. Hence, the random effects model was adopted for all analyses. To explore potential factors contributing to the heterogeneity and to further understand the relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality, we conducted moderator analyses. The following categorical and continuous moderators were examined: media types (online gaming, social media, smartphone, or intent), participants’ average age, culture, female ratio, and sleep quality assessment method. For categorical moderators, subgroup analyses were performed, while for continuous moderators, meta-regression analyses were conducted. All analyses were completed in the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (version 3.0; Biostat, Inc).

Publication Bias

We used statistical methods such as funnel plots to assess the presence of asymmetry and a p -curve test to test the p -hacking problem, which may indicate publication bias. In case of detected asymmetry, we applied techniques such as the trim-and-fill method to adjust the effect size estimates.

By addressing publication bias, we aimed to provide a more accurate and reliable synthesis of the available evidence, enhancing the validity and generalizability of our meta-analytic findings. Nevertheless, it is essential for readers to interpret the results cautiously, considering the potential limitations imposed by publication bias and other methodological concerns.

Search Findings

A total of 98,806 studies were identified from databases, especially Scopus (n=49,643), Google Scholar (n=18,600), Science Direct (n=15,084), and Web of Science (n=11,689). Upon removing duplicate records and excluding studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria, 754 studies remained for the screening phase. After screening titles, abstracts, and full texts, 703 studies were excluded. A total of 4 additional studies were identified from the references of relevant reviews. Finally, 55 studies [ 20 - 74 ] were included in the meta-analysis. The flow diagram of the selection is shown in Figure 1 .

Characteristics of Included Studies

In 20 studies, 21,594 participants were included in the analysis of the general use of electronic media and sleep quality. The average age of the sample ranged from 9.9 to 44 years. The category of general online gaming and sleep quality included 4 studies, with 14,837 participants; the category of general smartphone use and sleep quality included 10 studies, with 5011 participants; and the category of general social media use and sleep quality included 6 studies, with 1746 participants.

These studies came from the following countries or areas: Germany, Serbia, Indonesia, India, China, Italy, Saudi Arabia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, Spain, Qatar, Egypt, Argentina, and Portugal. The most frequently used measure of electronic media use was the time spent on it. The most frequently used measure of sleep was the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index.

In 35 studies, 20,122 participants were included in the analysis of the problematic use of electronic media and sleep quality. The average age of the sample ranged from 14.76 to 65.62 years. The category of problematic online gaming and sleep quality included 5 studies, with 1874 participants; the category of problematic internet use and sleep quality included 2 studies, with 774 participants; the category of problematic smartphone use and sleep quality included 18 studies, with 12,204 participants; and the category of problematic social media use and sleep quality included 11 studies, with 5270 participants. There was a study that focused on both social media and online gaming, which led to its inclusion in the analysis. These studies came from 14 countries or areas: Turkey, the United States, Indonesia, China, France, Taiwan, India, South Korea, Hong Kong, Iran, Poland, Israel, Hungary, and Saudi Arabia. The most frequently used measures of problematic electronic media use were the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form, Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Form, and Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale.

With respect to study quality, the 56 papers were published in 50 journals, 41 of which were indexed in Journal Citation Reports 2022 , while the remaining 9 journals were rated based on their citation counts as reported in Google Scholar. As a result, of the 56 papers included in the study, 22 papers were assigned a high rating, 18 papers were assigned a middle rating, and 16 papers were assigned a low rating. More information about the included studies is listed in Multimedia Appendix 3 [ 20 - 74 ].

Meta-Analysis

The results of the meta-analysis of the relationship between general electronic media use and sleep quality showed that electronic media use was associated with a significant decrease in sleep quality ( P <.001). The pooled effect size was 0.28 (95% CI 0.21-0.35; k =20), indicating that individuals who used electronic media more frequently were generally associated with more sleeping problems.

The second meta-analysis showed that problematic electronic media use was associated with a significant increase in sleep problems ( P ≤.001). The pooled effect size was 0.33 (95% CI 0.28-0.38; k =36), indicating that participants who used electronic media more frequently were more likely to have more sleep problems.

Moderator Analyses

At first, we conducted subgroup analyses for different media or devices. The results are shown in Tables 1 and 2 . The effect of the relationship between general online gaming and sleep problems was r =0.14 (95% CI 0.06-0.22); the effect of the relationship between general smartphone use and sleep problems was r =0.33 (95% CI 0.27-0.40); and the effect of the relationship between general social media use and sleep problems was r =0.28 (95% CI 0.21-0.34). There are significant differences among these groups ( Q between =14.46; P =.001).

The effect of the relationship between problematic gaming and sleep problems was r =0.49, 95% CI 0.23-0.69; the effect of the relationship between problematic internet use and sleep problems was r =0.51 (95% CI 0.43-0.59); the effect of the relationship between problematic smartphone use and sleep problems was r =0.25 (95% CI 0.20-0.30); and the effect of the relationship between problematic social media use and sleep problems was r =0.35 (95% CI 0.29-0.40). There are significant differences among these groups ( Q between =27.37; P <.001).

We also used age, gender, and culture as moderators to conduct meta-regression analyses. The results are shown in Tables 3 and 4 . Only cultural difference in the relationship between Eastern and Western culture was significant ( Q between =6.694; P =.01). All other analyses were not significant.

a Not applicable.

All funnel plots of the analyses were symmetrical, showing no evidence of publication bias ( Figures 2 - 5 ). We also conducted p -curve analyses to see whether there were any selection biases. The results also showed that there were no biases.

Principal Findings

This study indicated that electronic media use was significantly linked with decreased sleep quality and increased sleep problems with varying effect sizes across subgroups. General use was associated with a significant decrease in sleep quality. Problematic use was associated with a significant increase in sleep problems. A significant cultural difference was also observed by the meta-regression analysis.

First, there is a distinction in the impact on sleep quality between problematic use and general use, with the former exhibiting a higher correlation strength. However, both have a positive correlation, suggesting that the deeper the level of use, the more sleep-related issues are observed. In addressing this research question, the way in which electronic media use is conceptualized and operationalized may have a bearing on the ultimate outcomes. Problematic use is measured through addiction scales, while general use is predominantly assessed by duration of use (time), leading to divergent results stemming from these distinct approaches. The key takeaway is that each measurement possesses unique strengths and weaknesses, and the pathways affecting sleep quality differ. Consequently, the selection of a measurement approach should be tailored to the specific research question at hand. The duration of general use reflects an individual’s comprehensive involvement with electronic media, and its impact on sleep quality is evident in factors such as an extended time to fall asleep and reduced sleep duration. The addiction scale for problematic use illuminates an individual’s preferences, dependencies, and other associations with electronic media. Its impact on sleep quality is evident through physiological and psychological responses, including anxiety, stress, and emotional reactions.

Second, notable variations exist in how different types of electronic media affect sleep quality. In general, the positive predictive effects of smartphone, social media, and online gaming use durations on sleep problems gradually decrease. In the problematic context, the intensity of addiction to the internet and online gaming has the most significant positive impact on sleep problems, followed by social media, while smartphones exert the least influence. On one hand, longitudinal comparisons within the same context reveal that the content and format of electronic media can have varying degrees of negative impact on sleep quality, irrespective of whether it involves general or problematic use. On the other hand, cross-context comparisons suggest that both general and problematic use play a role in moderating the impact of electronic media types on sleep quality. As an illustration, problematic use reinforces the positive impact of online gaming and social media on sleep problems, while mitigating the influence of smartphones. Considering smartphones as electronic media, an extended duration of general use is associated with lower sleep quality. However, during problematic use, smartphones serve as the platform for other electronic media such as games and social media, resulting in a weakened predictive effect on sleep quality. Put differently, in the context of problematic use, the specific type of electronic media an individual consumes on their smartphones becomes increasingly pivotal in shaping sleep quality.

Third, cultural differences were found to be significant moderators of the relationship between electronic media use and sleep problems in both our study and Carter et al [ 16 ]. Kristensen et al [ 17 ], however, did not specifically address the role of cultural differences but revealed that there was a strong and consistent association between bedtime media device use and sleep outcomes across the studies included. Our findings showed that the association between problematic social media use was significantly larger in Eastern culture. We speculate that the difference may be attributed to cultural differences in social media use patterns, perceptions of social norms and expectations, variations in bedtime routines and habits, and diverse coping mechanisms for stress. These speculations warrant further investigation to understand better the underlying factors contributing to the observed cultural differences in the relationship between social media use and sleep quality.

Fourth, it was observed that gender and age had no significant impact on sleep quality. The negative effects of electronic media use are not only confined to the sleep quality of adults, and the association with gender differences remains unclear. Recent studies point out that electronic media use among preschoolers may result in a “time-shifting” process, disrupting their sleep patterns [ 75 ]. Similarly, children and adolescent sleep patterns have been reported to be adversely affected by electronic media use [ 76 - 78 ]. These findings underscore the necessity of considering age group variations in future research, as electronic media use may differently impact sleep quality across age demographics.

In conclusion, our study, Carter et al [ 16 ], and Kristensen et al [ 17 ] collectively emphasize the importance of understanding and addressing the negative impact of electronic media use, particularly problematic online gaming and smartphone use, on sleep quality and related issues. Further research is warranted to explore the underlying mechanisms and specific factors contributing to the relationship between electronic media use and sleep problems.

Strengths and Limitations

Our study, supplemented with research by Carter et al [ 16 ] and Kristensen et al [ 17 ], contributes to the growing evidence supporting a connection between electronic media use and sleep quality. We found that both general and problematic use of electronic media correlates with sleep issues, with the strength of the correlation varying based on the type of electronic media and cultural factors, with no significant relationship observed with age or gender.

Despite the vast amount of research on the relationship between electronic media use and sleep, several gaps and limitations still exist.

First, the inclusion criteria were restricted to English-language, peer-reviewed empirical studies published between January 2018 and October 2023. This may have led to the exclusion of relevant studies published in other languages or before 2018, potentially limiting the generalizability of our findings. Furthermore, the exclusion of non–peer-reviewed studies and conference abstracts may have introduced publication bias, as significant results are more likely to be published in peer-reviewed journals.

Second, although we used a comprehensive search strategy, the possibility remains that some relevant studies may have been missed. Additionally, the search strategies were not linked with Medical Subject Headings headers and may not have captured all possible electronic media types, resulting in an incomplete representation of the effects of electronic media use on sleep quality.

Third, the studies included in our meta-analysis exhibited considerable heterogeneity in sample characteristics, electronic media types, and measures of sleep quality. This heterogeneity might have contributed to the variability in effect sizes observed across studies. Although we conducted moderator analyses to explore potential sources of heterogeneity, other unexamined factors may still have influenced the relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality.

Fourth, our meta-analysis relied on the correlation coefficient ( r ) as the primary effect size measure, which may not fully capture the complex relationships between electronic media use and sleep quality. Moreover, the conversion of other reported statistics into correlation coefficients could introduce additional sources of error. The correlational nature of the included studies limited our ability to draw causal inferences between electronic media use and sleep quality. Experimental and longitudinal research designs would provide stronger evidence for the directionality of this relationship.

Given these limitations, future research should aim to include a more diverse range of studies, examine additional potential moderators, and use more robust research designs to better understand the complex relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality.

Conclusions

In conclusion, our updated meta-analysis affirms the consistent negative impact of electronic media use on sleep outcomes, with problematic online gaming and smartphone use being particularly impactful. Notably, the negative effect of problematic social media use on sleep quality appears more pronounced in Eastern cultures. This research emphasizes the need for public health initiatives to increase awareness of these impacts, particularly for adolescents. Further research, including experimental and longitudinal studies, is necessary to delve deeper into the complex relationship between electronic media use and sleep quality, considering potential moderators like cultural differences.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Journalism and Marxism Research Center, Renmin University of China (MXG202215), and by funds for building world-class universities (disciplines) of Renmin University of China (23RXW195).

A statement on the use of ChatGPT in the process of writing this paper can be found in Multimedia Appendix 4.

Data Availability

The data sets analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2020 checklist.

Search strategies.

Characteristics of included studies.

Large language model statement.

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Abbreviations

Edited by G Eysenbach, T Leung; submitted 20.04.23; peer-reviewed by M Behzadifar, F Estévez-López, R Prieto-Moreno; comments to author 18.05.23; revised version received 15.06.23; accepted 26.03.24; published 23.04.24.

©Xiaoning Han, Enze Zhou, Dong Liu. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 23.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Partisan divides over K-12 education in 8 charts

K-12 education is shaping up to be a key issue in the 2024 election cycle. Several prominent Republican leaders, including GOP presidential candidates, have sought to limit discussion of gender identity and race in schools , while the Biden administration has called for expanded protections for transgender students . The coronavirus pandemic also brought out partisan divides on many issues related to K-12 schools .

Today, the public is sharply divided along partisan lines on topics ranging from what should be taught in schools to how much influence parents should have over the curriculum. Here are eight charts that highlight partisan differences over K-12 education, based on recent surveys by Pew Research Center and external data.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to provide a snapshot of partisan divides in K-12 education in the run-up to the 2024 election. The analysis is based on data from various Center surveys and analyses conducted from 2021 to 2023, as well as survey data from Education Next, a research journal about education policy. Links to the methodology and questions for each survey or analysis can be found in the text of this analysis.

Most Democrats say K-12 schools are having a positive effect on the country , but a majority of Republicans say schools are having a negative effect, according to a Pew Research Center survey from October 2022. About seven-in-ten Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (72%) said K-12 public schools were having a positive effect on the way things were going in the United States. About six-in-ten Republicans and GOP leaners (61%) said K-12 schools were having a negative effect.

About six-in-ten Democrats (62%) have a favorable opinion of the U.S. Department of Education , while a similar share of Republicans (65%) see it negatively, according to a March 2023 survey by the Center. Democrats and Republicans were more divided over the Department of Education than most of the other 15 federal departments and agencies the Center asked about.

In May 2023, after the survey was conducted, Republican lawmakers scrutinized the Department of Education’s priorities during a House Committee on Education and the Workforce hearing. The lawmakers pressed U.S. Secretary of Education Miguel Cardona on topics including transgender students’ participation in sports and how race-related concepts are taught in schools, while Democratic lawmakers focused on school shootings.

Partisan opinions of K-12 principals have become more divided. In a December 2021 Center survey, about three-quarters of Democrats (76%) expressed a great deal or fair amount of confidence in K-12 principals to act in the best interests of the public. A much smaller share of Republicans (52%) said the same. And nearly half of Republicans (47%) had not too much or no confidence at all in principals, compared with about a quarter of Democrats (24%).

This divide grew between April 2020 and December 2021. While confidence in K-12 principals declined significantly among people in both parties during that span, it fell by 27 percentage points among Republicans, compared with an 11-point decline among Democrats.

Democrats are much more likely than Republicans to say teachers’ unions are having a positive effect on schools. In a May 2022 survey by Education Next , 60% of Democrats said this, compared with 22% of Republicans. Meanwhile, 53% of Republicans and 17% of Democrats said that teachers’ unions were having a negative effect on schools. (In this survey, too, Democrats and Republicans include independents who lean toward each party.)

The 38-point difference between Democrats and Republicans on this question was the widest since Education Next first asked it in 2013. However, the gap has exceeded 30 points in four of the last five years for which data is available.

Republican and Democratic parents differ over how much influence they think governments, school boards and others should have on what K-12 schools teach. About half of Republican parents of K-12 students (52%) said in a fall 2022 Center survey that the federal government has too much influence on what their local public schools are teaching, compared with two-in-ten Democratic parents. Republican K-12 parents were also significantly more likely than their Democratic counterparts to say their state government (41% vs. 28%) and their local school board (30% vs. 17%) have too much influence.

On the other hand, more than four-in-ten Republican parents (44%) said parents themselves don’t have enough influence on what their local K-12 schools teach, compared with roughly a quarter of Democratic parents (23%). A larger share of Democratic parents – about a third (35%) – said teachers don’t have enough influence on what their local schools teach, compared with a quarter of Republican parents who held this view.

Republican and Democratic parents don’t agree on what their children should learn in school about certain topics. Take slavery, for example: While about nine-in-ten parents of K-12 students overall agreed in the fall 2022 survey that their children should learn about it in school, they differed by party over the specifics. About two-thirds of Republican K-12 parents said they would prefer that their children learn that slavery is part of American history but does not affect the position of Black people in American society today. On the other hand, 70% of Democratic parents said they would prefer for their children to learn that the legacy of slavery still affects the position of Black people in American society today.

Parents are also divided along partisan lines on the topics of gender identity, sex education and America’s position relative to other countries. Notably, 46% of Republican K-12 parents said their children should not learn about gender identity at all in school, compared with 28% of Democratic parents. Those shares were much larger than the shares of Republican and Democratic parents who said that their children should not learn about the other two topics in school.

Many Republican parents see a place for religion in public schools , whereas a majority of Democratic parents do not. About six-in-ten Republican parents of K-12 students (59%) said in the same survey that public school teachers should be allowed to lead students in Christian prayers, including 29% who said this should be the case even if prayers from other religions are not offered. In contrast, 63% of Democratic parents said that public school teachers should not be allowed to lead students in any type of prayers.

In June 2022, before the Center conducted the survey, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a football coach at a public high school who had prayed with players at midfield after games. More recently, Texas lawmakers introduced several bills in the 2023 legislative session that would expand the role of religion in K-12 public schools in the state. Those proposals included a bill that would require the Ten Commandments to be displayed in every classroom, a bill that would allow schools to replace guidance counselors with chaplains, and a bill that would allow districts to mandate time during the school day for staff and students to pray and study religious materials.

Mentions of diversity, social-emotional learning and related topics in school mission statements are more common in Democratic areas than in Republican areas. K-12 mission statements from public schools in areas where the majority of residents voted Democratic in the 2020 general election are at least twice as likely as those in Republican-voting areas to include the words “diversity,” “equity” or “inclusion,” according to an April 2023 Pew Research Center analysis .

Also, about a third of mission statements in Democratic-voting areas (34%) use the word “social,” compared with a quarter of those in Republican-voting areas, and a similar gap exists for the word “emotional.” Like diversity, equity and inclusion, social-emotional learning is a contentious issue between Democrats and Republicans, even though most K-12 parents think it’s important for their children’s schools to teach these skills . Supporters argue that social-emotional learning helps address mental health needs and student well-being, but some critics consider it emotional manipulation and want it banned.

In contrast, there are broad similarities in school mission statements outside of these hot-button topics. Similar shares of mission statements in Democratic and Republican areas mention students’ future readiness, parent and community involvement, and providing a safe and healthy educational environment for students.

• Education & Politics
• Partisanship & Issues
• Politics & Policy

Jenn Hatfield is a writer/editor at Pew Research Center

Most Americans think U.S. K-12 STEM education isn’t above average, but test results paint a mixed picture

About 1 in 4 u.s. teachers say their school went into a gun-related lockdown in the last school year, about half of americans say public k-12 education is going in the wrong direction, what public k-12 teachers want americans to know about teaching, what’s it like to be a teacher in america today, most popular.

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• Pokémon Go guide

Pokémon Go ‘Rediscover Kanto’ Special Research quest steps, rewards

Return to Gen 1 in celebration of biomes and a visual refresh

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“Rediscover Kanto” is a Special Research quest in Pokémon Go which sees players revisit the first generation of Pokémon.

As well as the Special Research, there is a time limited event of the same name running April 22 to May 9, 2024 . This offers spawns of Pokémon from the Kanto region in the wild, bonus XP for completing certain activities, and boosted Friendship level increases.

The event celebrates an April 2024 visual and biome refresh in Pokémon Go , and as part of that, discovering starters Bulbasaur, Charmander, and Squirtle in their respective biomes increases their chances of being shiny.

Finally, as Pokémon Go wasn’t busy enough, the opening week of “Rediscover Kanto” coincides with 2024’s “ Sustainability Week ” event.

‘Rediscover Kanto’ Special Research quest steps and rewards

All players who log in April 22 to May 9, 2024 will receive the following Special Research for free.

Once acquired, “Rediscover Kanto” Special Research does not expire — meaning there is no need to rush through all the following quest steps.

Step 1 of 5

• Use 5 Berries to help catch Pokémon (Bulbasaur encounter)
• Feed your Buddy 5 times (Charmander encounter)
• Catch 20 Pokémon originally discovered in the Kanto region (Squirtle encounter)

Rewards: 5,000 XP, 2,500 Stardust , 1 Lucky Egg

Step 2 of 5

• Use 10 Berries to help catch Pokémon (10 Poké Balls)
• Play with your Buddy 5 times (15 Great Balls)
• Catch 30 Pokémon originally discovered in the Kanto region (10 Ultra Balls)

Rewards: 5,000 XP, 2,500 Stardust , 3 Fast TM

Step 3 of 5

• Use 15 Berries to help catch Pokémon (10 Razz Berry)
• Earn 25 hearts with your Buddy (10 Nanab Berry)
• Catch 40 Pokémon originally discovered in the Kanto region (10 Pinap Berry)

Rewards: 5,000 XP, 2,500 Stardust , 3 Charged TM

Step 4 of 5

• Use 20 Berries to help catch Pokémon (25 Bulbasaur Candy)
• Earn 4 Candy exploring with your Buddy (25 Charmander Candy)
• Catch 50 Pokémon originally discovered in the Kanto region (25 Squirtle Candy)

Rewards: 5,000 XP, 2,500 Stardust , 1 Lure

Step 5 of 5

• Use 151 Berries to catch Pokémon (15,100 XP)
• Earn 15,100 Stardust (15,100 XP)
• Catch 151 Pokémon originally discovered in the Kanto region (15,100 XP)

Rewards: 10,000 Stardust , 1 Incubator

Though it’s worth noting the steps involving catching Pokémon originally found in the Kanto region will be easier while the “Rediscover Kanto” event is still active (as, unlike the Special Research, that does have an end date), Kanto Pokémon are common enough in Pokémon Go that completing these won’t be an issue long term.

‘Rediscover Kanto’ event bonuses

Alongside the Special Research steps, the “Rediscover Kanto” event offers a handful of bonuses active April 22 to May 9, 2024:

• Increased XP for seven day PokéStop spin and Pokémon catch streaks
• Double Friendship level boost (when opening Gifts, trading, or battling together)
• Increased chance of shiny Bulbasaur, Charmander, and Squirtle when spawning in their respective biomes
• Ivysaur, Charmeleon, and Wartortle will gain Charged attacks Frenzy Plant, Blast Burn, and Hydro Cannon respectively when evolved

‘Rediscover Kanto’ Field Research tasks, rewards

Spinning a PokéStop during the event period can offer one of the following Field Research tasks:

• Power Up Pokémon 5 Times (25 Venusaur, Charizard, or Blastoise Mega Energy)
• Pokémon Go guides
• “Rediscover Kanto” Special Research
• “World of Wonder” Special Research
• Ditto disguises

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Risk of bird flu spreading to humans is ‘enormous concern’, says WHO

Chief scientist voices fears about H5N1 variant that has ‘extraordinarily high’ mortality rate in humans

The World Health Organization has raised concerns about the spread of H5N1 bird flu, which has an “extraordinarily high” mortality rate in humans.

An outbreak that began in 2020 has led to the deaths or killing of tens of millions of poultry. Most recently, the spread of the virus within several mammal species, including in domestic cattle in the US, has increased the risk of spillover to humans, the WHO said.

“This remains I think an enormous concern,” the UN health agency’s chief scientist, Jeremy Farrar, told reporters in Geneva.

Cows and goats joined the list of species affected last month – a surprising development for experts because they were not thought susceptible to this type of influenza. US authorities reported this month that a person in Texas was recovering from bird flu after being exposed to dairy cattle, with 16 herds across six states infected apparently after exposure to wild birds.

The A(H5N1) variant has become “a global zoonotic animal pandemic”, Farrar said.

“The great concern of course is that in ... infecting ducks and chickens and then increasingly mammals, that virus now evolves and develops the ability to infect humans and then critically the ability to go from human to human,” he added.

So far, there is no evidence that H5N1 is spreading between humans. But in the hundreds of cases where humans have been infected through contact with animals over the past 20 years, “the mortality rate is extraordinarily high”, Farrar said, because humans have no natural immunity to the virus.

From 2003 to 2024, 889 cases and 463 deaths caused by H5N1 have been reported worldwide from 23 countries, according to the WHO, putting the case fatality rate at 52%.

The recent US case of human infection after contact with an infected mammal highlights the increased risk. When “you come into the mammalian population, then you’re getting closer to humans”, Farrar said, warning that “this virus is just looking for new, novel hosts”.

Farrar called for increased monitoring, saying it was “very important understanding how many human infections are happening ... because that’s where adaptation [of the virus] will happen”.

“It’s a tragic thing to say, but if I get infected with H5N1 and I die, that’s the end of it,” he said. “If I go around the community and I spread it to somebody else then you start the cycle.”

He said efforts were under way towards the development of vaccines and therapeutics for H5N1, and stressed the need to ensure that regional and national health authorities around the world had the capacity to diagnose the virus.

This was being done so that “if H5N1 did come across to humans, with human-to-human transmission”, the world would be “in a position to immediately respond”, Farrar said, calling for equitable access to vaccines, therapeutics and diagnostics.

• World Health Organization

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