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The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Job Performance: An Empirical Analysis

Employee attitudes are important to management because they determine the behavior of workers in the organization. The commonly held opinion is that “A satisfied worker is a productive worker”. A satisfied work force will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well. Hence job satisfaction has become a major topic for research studies. The specific problem addressed in this study is to examine the impact of job satisfaction on performance. It considered which rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) determine job satisfaction of an employee. It also considered influence of age, sex and experience of employees on level of job satisfaction. In addition it investigated in most satisfying event of an employee in the job, why employees stay and leave the organization. Data were collected through a field survey using a questionnaire from three employee groups, namely Professionals, Managers and Non-managers from twenty private sector organizations covering five industries...

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Employee attitudes are important to management because they determine the behaviour of workers in the organization. The commonly held opinion is that “A satisfied worker is a productive worker”. A satisfied work force will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well. It investigated the most satisfying event of an employee in the job, why employees stay and leave the organization. Job satisfaction is a general attitude towards one’s job, the difference between the amount of reward workers receive and the amount they believe they should receive. Employee is a back bone of every organization, without employee no work can be done. So employee’s satisfaction is very important. Employees will be more satisfied if they get what they expected, job satisfaction relates to inner feelings of workers. Key words: Job satisfaction, Rewards, Effort, Performance INTRODUCTION The correlation between the Job

Employee attitude is very important for management to determine the behavior of workers in the organization. The usually judgment about employees is that " A satisfied worker is a productive worker ". If employees are satisfied then it will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform in a better and efficient manner, therefore, job satisfaction and its relation with organizational performance has become a major topic for research studies. The specific problem covered in this study is to scrutinize the impact of job satisfaction on organizational performance. It considered which rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic) determine job satisfaction of an employee and its relation with organizational performance. It also reviewed the influence of age, sex and experience of employees on level of job satisfaction. It also covered and investigated different events which can satisfy the employees on jobs, their retention in the job, and why employees stay and leave the organization. Data were collected through conducting detailed field survey using questionnaires from different employee (exit interview of outgoing employees) groups like management, senior managers, managers, professionals and support staff from five profit/non-profit sector organizations. The data analysis shows that there exists positive correlation between job satisfaction and organizational performance. Introduction Job satisfaction of employees plays a very vital role on the performance of an organization. It is essential to know as to how employees can be retained through making them satisfied and motivated to achieve extraordinary results. Target and achievement depends on employee satisfaction and in turn contribute for organizational success and growth, enhances the productivity, and increases the quality of work.

Review of Behavioral Aspect in Organizations and Society, 2019

Basically, performance is something that is individual because each employee has a different level of ability to do their jobs. Performance depends on the combination of ability, effort, and opportunity obtained. Employee performance is capital for companies to survive and develop in responding to business and business competition today, advanced and developing companies are very dependent on reliable human resources so that the output is high performance on employee performance which will later affect the company's performance. However, it is not easy to maintain and improve employee performance. There are many factors that can affect performance. Many employee turnovers occur due to a lack of satisfaction with work. Employee performance is very dependent on the value of employee satisfaction in the workplace. The fulfillment of employee rights greatly affects the performance of the organization. So, in this study the focus of the study would like to see the extent of the influ...

The research reported in this thesis was on “Effects of job satisfaction on employee‟s performance”. The purpose of research was to study the various factors that have been significant in determining employee performance and their importance with respect to the employees of Pakistan. The secondary data was collected by Internet and also from the material printed by different Scholars from all over the world. The primary data was gathered by floating questionnaires in Hassan leather industry Sheikhupura, Pakistan. SPSS was applied to analyze the gathered information through running Correlation tests on the variables in the study. The reliability of the data was measured with the help of the Cronbach‟s Alpha value which too was calculated using the SPSS software. The findings provided an insight and estimation towards the impact of financial and Non-Financial reward system on employee‟s performance. All the variables have been found to be significant in determining employee‟s performa...

In today's increasing competitive environment, organizations recognize the internal human element as a fundamental source of improvement. On one hand, managers are concentrating on employees' wellbeing, wants, needs, personal goals and desires, to understand the job satisfaction. And on the other hand, managers take organizational decisions based on the employees' performance. The purpose of this study is to identify the factors influencing job satisfaction and the determinants of employee performance, and accordingly reviewing the relationship between them. This study is an interpretivist research that focuses on exploring the influence of job satisfaction on employee performance and vice, the influence of employee performance on job satisfaction. The study also examines the nature of the relationship between these two variables. The study reveals the dual direction of the relationship that composes a cycle cause and effect relationship, so satisfaction leads to performance and performance leads to satisfaction through number of mediating factors. Successful organizations are those who apply periodic satisfaction and performance measurement tests to track the level of these important variables and set the corrective actions.

Job satisfaction or employee satisfaction is a measure of the level of satisfaction of workers with their type of work which is related to the nature of their job duties, the results of the work achieved, the form of supervision obtained and the feeling of relief and liking for the work they are engaged in. Job satisfaction is an individual thing because each individual will have different levels of satisfaction according to the values that apply in each individual. This study is a qualitative research with a case study approach. Data collection was carried out by means of semi structured interviews to 10 staff working in private universities in Jakarta. Interview was also conducted with 2 HRD directors to dig deeper the efforts to provide job satisfaction which can improve employee performance. The results of this study indicate that job satisfaction has a big role in improving the quality of employee performance.

http://www.scie.org.au/ Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to discuss on the concept of job satisfaction and how job satisfaction can make impact on the performance of employees in an organization. The paper will be limited to the positive and negative effects of Job satisfaction. Secondly, the literature review will discuss the relationship between employee motivation, job satisfaction and employee performance

Purpose: To investigates the causes of job satisfaction among the employees of different organizations and how can maximize the performance of employees through job satisfaction. Design/ Methodology - Questionnaires were designed and distributed to all the employees of different organization. This measures perceived levels of job satisfaction amongst the employees of organizations and potential effects of job satisfaction on the performance of employees. Practical implications-The findings of this research emphasis on organization culture, work place conditions and job rank in order to optimize the performance of the employees through job satisfaction. There is also a need to undertake longitudinal research to investigate Findings: Findings suggested that there is a positive relationship exists between stress, time management and Family conflict problems. Increase in lack of support from family increase the stress level of a student similarly if a student could not manage its time this also increase the stress of a student. Research limitations- The research was carried out in five organizations and therefore results cannot be generalized to cover the whole organization sector. Value-This research paper highlights the causes of job satisfaction and their positive impacts on employee’s performance. Key Words- Job satisfaction, Organization culture, Job rank, Work place conditions.

The optimistic attitude of an employee’s experience based on their desired result is acknowledged as job satisfaction. This shows how the expectations of the employees for job are fulfilled in comparison to the veracity of their job. There are six important facets of job satisfaction and these are- Salaries, Promotion opportunities, Supervision, Nature of work and Colleagues. The objective of this study is to identify the factors that affect the job satisfaction of employees and to analyze the impact of compensation, organizational policy, working condition, job stress and promotion opportunities on job satisfaction of employees. The findings of the study suggest that the taken factors have explained the job satisfaction and the policy framers and managers have to think about inclusion of the factors that affect satisfaction to enhance their business. The study suggests that working condition, organizational policy and strategies, promotion, job stress and compensation package are k...

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THE IMPACT OF JOB SATISFACTION ON JOB PERFORMANCE: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS

• D. K. S. Navale
• Published 1 June 2008
• Business, Psychology

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The Impact of Work Environment on Job Satisfaction

Nursing is challenging work. Burnout, dissatisfaction, disengagement, as well as exodus from the profession are rampant, and COVID-19 has amplified these issues. Although nurse leaders cannot change the work, they can create work environments that support nurse satisfaction, enjoyment, and meaning at work. A literature review on work environment and job satisfaction conducted pre-COVID for a dissertation project revealed several factors that support healthy work environments. This article defines and describes the qualities of both unhealthy and healthy work environments, discusses the impact they have on employees, and offers suggestions for nurse leaders to improve the work environment in their organization.

• • The psychosocial work environment is created by the interactions of staff and leadership and impacts how people behave and how they feel about their work.
• • Work environment and the experience one has at work impact employee health, well-being, and satisfaction.
• • Managers play a key role in creating and supporting the psychosocial work environment.

Health care is challenging work; it is emotionally and physically demanding. The environment within which work is performed can either support or hinder productivity and worker health. Toxic and unhealthy work environments create negative outcomes for staff, management, and the organization, as well as the community at large because the individual returns to the community following interactions in the work environment. Facing escalating suicide rates, burnout, turnover, and exodus from health care professions, leaders seek new ways of managing staff to support personal and professional well-being.

COVID-19 has amplified and intensified these issues, especially within the nursing profession. The pandemic has shined a spotlight on the problems faced by nursing professionals and the damage the problems cause physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually. Strategies for improving the nursing work environment are more important than ever before.

Although nurse leaders cannot necessarily change the work, they can behave in ways that support the workforce by creating safe, healthy work environments where all staff can be their best, be productive, and thrive. Managers play a key role in shaping the work environment through the procedures they implement and how they behave as a leader. A literature review conducted pre-COVID on work environment and job satisfaction revealed several factors that support a healthy work environment. Nurse leaders can use this information to inform decisions that will shape the future of health care today by creating work environments that support staff well-being and increase employee engagement and organizational commitment.

The Demands of the Work

Health care workers must create a safe space for patients to heal and improve. Because the nature of nursing service work is about caring for people, there is great personal responsibility for providing good, high quality service; connecting with patients; and caring for patient well-being. 1 High workloads, increased acuity, and emotional demands for caring for other’s well-being places physical and emotional demands on staff. Because nursing professionals typically assume great responsibility in providing quality care, they often put the needs of others first and do whatever is necessary to help the patient. This often means working long hours with little opportunity to rest and recover.

The nature of health care places staff at risk due to the stressful situations faced daily. Combine the normal demands of health care service with a lack of teamwork, poor communication, bullying, lateral violence, lack of support from leadership, equipment issues, a blaming and fearful culture, an inability to share one’s expertise or make decisions, and a work environment that discourages free expression of ideas and concerns, and this becomes a recipe for disaster.

Work Environment Defined

The work environment is the space that we create within which people come together to perform their work and achieve outcomes. It’s how we experience our work together. Also known as psychological climate, the work environment causes a psychological impact on the individual’s well-being. 2 The person–environment interaction determines the psychological and social dimensions of that environment, which then influences how one behaves in that environment. 3 This is an important definition because how the individual behaves in the environment and the reactions to that behavior then determines how the environment supports continued actions within that environment.

Nursing Job Satisfaction

Feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction occur in response to the individuals’ experience within the environment. In other words, satisfaction is an emotional response to the job and results from mentally challenging and interesting work, positive recognition for performance, feelings of personal accomplishment, and the support received from others. 4 This corresponds with the research on burnout, which is contrary and includes cynicism, exhaustion, and inefficacy. 5 Researchers found burnout to be a function of factors within the organizational context including work environment and leader effectiveness. 6 Whether positive or negative, research concludes that leader effectiveness and work environment affect employee outcomes.

The Impact of the Work Environment

As social beings, the environment created by the interactions of staff and leadership impacts how people behave and how they feel about their work. The experience people have at work impacts their personal well-being as well as job satisfaction. The occupational health movement of the 1960s grew from a need to explore the environmental hazards that created dangerous conditions for workers and to provide adequate safety interventions for protecting employees. 7 Over the past few decades, much research has focused on the psychosocial impact of the work environment on individual health and well-being.

The psychosocial work environment encompasses those factors that impact individuals and contribute to worker health, including both individual factors and the social work environment. Psychosocial factors include work demands; work organization including influence, freedom, meaning of work, and possibilities for development; interpersonal relations such as leadership and coworkers, a sense of community, role clarity, feedback, and support; and individual health and personal factors, including one’s ability to cope and family supports. 8 All these factors come together to create a space within which people interact and perform. Depending on how these elements support or hurt the individual determines the outcomes to that individual and how effectively they perform.

The pandemic has forced people to explore their personal resources for well-being and resilience and implement self-care strategies. People are taking more of an interest in health affirming activities. Family time has a different meaning today and people are re-exploring their priorities. Restorative practices have been found to lessen the sufferings, anxieties, and concerns generated in the workplace and provide inner peace and spiritual support. 9 Assuming responsibility for one’s health and well-being is important to being a contributing member of the workforce and to society at large. Managers must find ways to support these efforts as part of life at work.

Contributions to and Costs of Unhealthy Work Environments

Several factors contribute to a negative work environment. Traditionally, poor salaries and working conditions, and a lack of respect for nurses have led to high turnover and an increase in nurses leaving the profession. 10 Other factors include the lack of support, being short staffed, and an increased workload. 11 Lateral violence, bullying, and abuse by coworkers and physicians, as well as ineffective responses to such incidents by leadership, cause job strain, turnover, and exodus from the profession. 12

Much research has been done on bullying and its impact on the individuals involved, the organization, as well as the quality of patient care. Researchers found these negative behaviors led to increased errors, decreased quality, absenteeism, lost productivity, and turnover. 12 As the profession of nursing is already struggling to retain the nursing workforce and attract needed newcomers, creating a work environment that is supportive, satisfying, and one where people feel a sense of belonging is essential.

The stress and strain of work has been linked to physical and mental health issues. Unhealthy work environments lead to increased use of sick time, lost productivity, turnover, increased cost to care provision, and strain felt in personal relationships. 13 The costs in terms of absenteeism, turnover, and lost productivity are estimated in the billions of dollars annually. 14

Nurse leaders play a key role in creating work environments where people feel safe by implementing procedures for minimizing bullying and lateral violence and facilitating harmonious relationships by supporting respectful interactions. 12 , 13 , 15 Left unattended, the cycle of bullying and bad behavior is perpetuated as nurses move into academia from the bedside and continue the behaviors. 15 Although one of the toughest things to do as a leader, and the most time-consuming, upholding expectations and following through on such procedures is critical for creating a supportive and safe work environment.

Qualities of a Healthy Work Environment and Its Impact on Employee Outcomes

A healthy work environment is described as one where people are valued, treated respectfully and fairly, where personal and professional growth is supported, communication and collaboration are championed, and there is a sense of community and trust at all levels, which enables effective decision-making. A healthy work environment comprises competent employees, appropriate workloads, effective communication, collaboration, and empowerment, which leads to positive outcomes for patients, employees, and the organization. 14 The American Association of Critical-Care Nurses identified 6 areas for establishing and sustaining a healthy work environment including skilled communication, true collaboration, effective decision-making, appropriate staffing, meaningful recognition, and authentic leadership. 16 These align with the practices identified in psychologically healthy workplaces which emphasize employee involvement, work-life balance, employee growth and development, employee recognition, and health and safety. 17

A healthy and safe work environment correlates significantly with job satisfaction as well as other positive employee outcomes including engagement, productivity, and organizational commitment. Additionally, when people feel good and experience satisfaction at work, they report increased self-efficacy, autonomy, higher levels of personal accomplishment, and organizational commitment.

Significant qualities identified in the literature on healthy work environments are presented in Table 1 . Those include areas of collaboration and teamwork, growth and development, recognition, employee involvement, accessible and fair leaders, autonomy and empowerment, appropriate staffing, skilled communication, and a safe physical workplace. 18 Other factors contributing to satisfaction and retention include positive orientation experiences, good teamwork, clear procedures and instructions, appropriate workloads, managerial support, and autonomy. 11 Additionally, leader support and leader effectiveness protect against negative consequences from a stressful environment, 19 contribute to the provision of high quality and timely care, 20 decrease burnout, 6 and reduce turnover. 21

Table 1

Key Qualities Found in Healthy Work Environments

What Nurse Leaders Can Do to Improve the Work Environment

Nurse leaders can take a proactive role to shift the work environment and create the space for health and well-being, and for nurses to thrive at work. There are 2 aspects to changing the work environment. The first is creating and communicating a new vision, setting the tone, being clear about expectations, and ensuring staff understand that what was tolerated previously may no longer be acceptable. Nurse leaders must ensure staff know what is being asked of everyone and paint a picture for how it will feel in the new environment. And second, nurse leaders must uphold the new standards by teaching staff new ways of interacting and correcting behaviors when they do not align with the new vision.

A collaborative approach with positive interactions and active participation requires nurse leaders to encourage and facilitate teamwork. Staff rely heavily on interpersonal relationships and teamwork for cooperation, collaboration, and safety. 20 Interpersonal relationships are a key element of satisfaction at work. Collaboration, professional cohesion, and positive interactions with colleagues help create a sense of value and become a buffer for the demands of managing complex and challenging patients. 21 Nurse leaders need to champion teamwork and collaboration to ensure that staff work together to accomplish required work demands. Respectful interactions must be encouraged, and disrespectful ones addressed promptly and eliminated.

Nurse managers, through their behaviors and attitudes, create an environment which induces motivation, they demonstrate belief in their ability, listen thoughtfully, and bring out the best in the team. Nurse leader behavior directly impacts job satisfaction, morale, and employee performance which are critical factors to organizational success. Effective communication by leaders includes honesty, respect, good listening, and empathy, which impacts team effectiveness and outcomes and can create an environment of inclusiveness that supports team members to aid in their retention. 22 The leaders’ failure to address employee feelings and not win their respect leads to the failure of the manager, increases the stress of the team, and decreases organizational effectiveness. 15

Other themes in the literature include the use of acknowledgement and appreciation to help employees feel valued. Nurse leaders can find ways to coach, encourage, recognize, and support their staff and create an environment that reinforces the positive feelings that come from celebrating one another. It requires attention and consistent effort, but the effects are very impactful. Formal and informal acknowledgement serves to garner positive feelings within the work environment and can spread throughout the team.

Another important factor for job satisfaction is autonomy or job control, the ability of the individual to make decisions impacting their work. Staff who are permitted a sense of autonomy, and the perceived capacity to influence decisions at work, reported higher levels of personal accomplishment and lower rates of burnout. 11 Nurses need a work environment that offers respect and supports their scope of practice. Nurse managers can assist individuals to gain job control by ensuring adequate onboarding and orientation, ongoing training, and promoting an environment where questions and asking for help are encouraged and supported.

Organizations that offer opportunities for personal growth and professional development have a competitive advantage. Some individuals enjoy the bedside and want to remain there for their careers, yet they still want to learn, grow, and develop within that scope of practice and they want to be recognized and appreciated for their years of service. Other persons may want to advance in their roles and responsibilities. Nurse managers must take an interest in the individuals on their team, discover their desires for learning and growth, and identify their strengths so they can find ways to maximize them.

Healthy Work Environments Post-pandemic

Although the pandemic has shifted people’s attention to the self-care strategies implemented by individual employees, caring for employee well-being must include management strategies that support a healthy, safe work environment. The problems facing the health care workforce—burnout, stress, disengagement, and dissatisfaction—existed well before the pandemic and will continue to exist after it unless leaders change their approach to the work environment and how people behave within the workspace. Now is the time to envision a new work environment and to do things differently so that nurses, health care leaders, and workers at all levels can be productive, engaged, and thrive at work. By attending to the psychosocial work environment, health care can course correct for the factors troubling the health care workforce today and produce different outcomes—satisfaction, enjoyment, growth, joy, and meaning.

Julie Donley, EdD, MBA, BSN, RN, PCC, is an ICF professional certified coach, certified team coach, author, speaker, award-winning thought leader, adjunct professor, and prior executive nurse in behavioral health. She partners with established and aspiring leaders so they lead with confidence, communicate effectively, and create work environments that support the wellbeing and productivity of employees and create a fulfilling work experience. Visit her online at www.DrJulieDonley.com .

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• Published: 14 October 2024

Explaining organizational commitment and job satisfaction: the role of leadership and seniority

• Catarina Morais 1 ,
• Francisca Queirós 2 ,
• Sara Couto 2 ,
• A. Rui Gomes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6390-9866 3 &
• Clara Simães   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9856-2295 4 , 5  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1363 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Business and management

Effective leaders increase organizational success. The Leadership Efficacy Model suggests that leaders’ efficacy increases when leaders are perceived as congruent; that is, when employees perceive the leader to do (practical cycle of leadership) what s/he says will (conceptual cycle of leadership) and there is a close match between what employees expect from leaders and what leaders display. This recent theoretical framework also acknowledges that a number of factors can interfere with the relationship between leadership cycle congruence and leadership efficacy. Such antecedent factors include group members’ characteristics (e.g., organizational seniority). This study aimed to test the assumption that leadership cycles congruence positively predicts leadership efficacy (measured by organizational commitment and job satisfaction, and that this relationship is moderated by employees’ seniority. 318 employees (55% male, with an average seniority of 8 years) completed a questionnaire assessing leadership cycles, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. Path analysis results showed that the higher leadership cycles congruence, the higher employees’ organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Furthermore, the relationship between leadership cycle congruence and organizational commitment was stronger for more senior members of the organization (but not for job satisfaction). The results highlight the importance of leaders act in a congruent manner with their ideas and of meeting employees’ needs. Moreover, it shows that senior members of the organization are particularly sensitive to leadership congruency.

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Leadership is key for organizational efficacy and success (Hogan and Kaiser, 2005 ; Kaiser et al., 2008 ) and has been consensually defined as the process that aims to influence employees to achieve organizational goals (Voon et al., 2010 ). From a strategic and effective point of view, leadership enables organizations to increase their productivity, profit and, subsequently, achieve a competitive advantage (Yahaya and Ebrahim, 2016 ). Leaders are primarily responsible for the organizations they represent, and their role involves conveying to employees the need to work towards a common goal (Hogan and Kaiser, 2005 ). Thus, leadership efficacy can be conceptualized as the collective efficacy that results from the process of leading; in other words, that results from the dyad of leaders and followers’ behaviors, and can be operationalized by a wide range of individual, group and organizational level outcomes (cf. Hannah et al., 2008 for a review). For example, previous studies point out that leaders facilitate increased employee organizational commitment (e.g., Sedrine et al., 2020 ; Yahaya and Ebrahim, 2016 ) and job satisfaction (e.g., Kelloway and Gilbert, 2017 ; Yukl, 2008 ), and influence employees toward achieving organizational goals (Chaturvedi et al., 2019 ).

These data from the literature suggests that leadership efficacy can be translated through the impact of the leader’s actions on employees’ behaviors (e.g., Kaiser et al., 2008 ). However, employees’ expectations about their leader, which may arise for different reasons (e.g., previous work experience), may have an impact on leadership efficacy (Fu and Cheng, 2014 ; McDermott et al., 2013 ). For example, Baccili ( 2001 ) in a qualitative study found that employees expect congruency between what the leader says and what the leader does, and when employees perceive lack of congruence they manifest lower work engagement (Jabeen et al., 2015 ). Therefore, to comprehensively understand the leadership process and its impact on employees, it is important to consider the congruence between the leader’s words and actions, and between the leader’s actions and what the employee wants. This assumption is precisely the rationale of the Leadership Efficacy Model (Gomes, 2014 , 2020 ), which suggests that the closer the relationship between what the leader think to do (conceptual cycle of leadership) and what the leader does (practical cycle of leadership), from both the subjective perspectives of leaders and employees, the greater the leadership efficacy (Gomes, 2014 ). Moreover, the model assumes that a number of factors related to behaviors assumed by leaders (leadership styles) and characteristics of leaders, members and context influence (antecedent factors of leadership) moderate the relationship between leadership cycles congruence and leadership efficacy. In other words, leaders can increase efficacy if they assume congruent cycles of leadership and if they use positive behaviors to implement the leadership cycles and if they consider the antecedent factors of leadership.

So far, and to the extent of our knowledge, only two studies have empirically tested the Leadership Efficacy Model (cf. Alves et al., 2021 ; Gomes et al., 2022 ). Both studies were conducted in a sports setting and showed that leadership cycle congruence positively predicts leadership efficacy. Moreover, Gomes and colleagues ( 2022 ) was the first study to also test the role of specific leadership styles (leadership behaviors) and antecedent factors of leadership as facilitators of leadership efficacy. However, this study did not separate the role of leaders, members and context characteristics of antecedent factors of leadership, but computed an overall favorability index, which does not allow to understand the specific role of each variable. Thus, in the present study we aim to expand previous literature by (1) considering the application of the Leadership Efficacy Model in an organizational context and whether leadership cycles congruence is a predictor of important outcomes for organizations, as is the case of commitment and job satisfaction; and (2) by testing the moderating role of group members’ characteristics which, to the extent of our knowledge, is yet to be done. This is important because the moderating role of such factors is a key assumption of the model. In this study, the group members’ (employees) characteristics included was their seniority within the organization. Employees’ seniority was chosen as the member characteristic to be analyzed (i.e., antecedent factor) because previous literature (e.g., English et al., 2010 ; Lee et al., 2018 ; Zeng et al., 2020 ) has shown that employees’ perceptions, evaluations and beliefs about the organization (e.g., organizational commitment and job satisfaction) are shaped by how long they have been in the organization.

Leadership efficacy model

The Leadership Efficacy Model (Gomes, 2014 , 2020 ) was developed as a comprehensive framework that defines different sets of factors that influence leadership efficacy. In a nutshell, this theoretical approach states that leadership efficacy increases if leaders establish linear relations between how they intend to exert leadership (conceptual cycle of leadership) and how they really implement the leadership (practical cycle of leadership), i.e., if there is leadership congruence. Moreover, the model combines Trait, Behavioral and Contingency Leadership Theories to argue that this relationship between leadership congruence and efficacy will be either facilitated or debilitated (i.e., moderated) by the leadership styles adopted and by the antecedent factors (namely leader characteristics, member characteristics, and context characteristics). In this study, the main aim was to test the relationship between leadership congruence and leadership efficacy (measured by organizational commitment and job satisfaction), and the moderating effect of members’ characteristics (measured by employees’ seniority).

The main innovation of the Leadership Efficacy Model is its focus on the congruence of the leadership cycles and leadership efficacy, advocating that the leader’s activity has a dynamic nature, i.e., an influence process that is built over time and not a static phenomenon (Gomes, 2014 , 2020 ). In this sense, it is suggested that leading without a congruence of leadership cycles should be the basis for the leader’s activity; thus, acting by trial and error is less effective and productive for all the involved in the leadership phenomenon (Gomes, 2014 ). Therefore, the Leadership Efficacy Model emphasizes the importance of leaders establishing linear relationship between what is important to them (leadership philosophy), the behaviors they assume to achieve the objectives (leadership practice) and the definition of strategies to evaluate the achievement of their ideas and objectives with the group members (leadership criteria) (Gomes, 2014 , 2020 ). These linear relationships occur in two interdependent leadership cycles, the conceptual and the practical. The conceptual cycle includes the beliefs of leaders and employees about how leadership should be organized in terms of philosophy, practice, and criteria. The practical cycle incudes the beliefs of leaders and employees about how leadership occurs in real contexts, in terms of philosophy, practice, and criteria. Thus, this model advocates that the closer the cycles are to each other, the greater the leadership efficacy will be (Gomes, 2020 ).

The conceptual cycle of leadership occurs through three distinct domains: leadership philosophy, leadership practice, and leadership criteria (Gomes, 2020 ). Leadership philosophy refers to the values, beliefs, assumptions, attitudes, principles, and priorities about what leadership is and how leadership should be assumed (Gomes, 2014 ). In other words, the leadership philosophy can be seen as the beliefs that the leader has about the influence on group members, reflected in a set of mental representations of how to exert the role of the leader. The leadership practice is characterized by the behaviors and actions that the leader considers most appropriate to implement the philosophy of leadership, such as, for example, assuming maximum effort in performing the tasks or represents a role model for the group members. Finally, leadership criteria correspond to the leader’s mental representations of the indicators which can be used to evaluate if the leadership philosophy and the practice are producing the desired effects. For example, leaders can use criteria as the number of goals achieved or number of tasks performed with maximum quality as indicators of success produced by the philosophy and practice of leadership.

On the other hand, the practical cycle consists of the application of the conceptual cycle in daily life, both by the leader and the group members (Gomes, 2020 ). This cycle is characterized by the mental representations of the leader and the group members about what the leader is really doing in each specific situation, and also includes the same three domains: leadership philosophy, leadership in practice and leadership criteria. The processes start when the leaders transmit their ideas and principles (leadership philosophy), how to achieve the leadership philosophy (leadership in practice), and how to evaluate it (leadership criteria). This sharing may take place in a more formal way (e.g., work meetings) or in an informal way (e.g., daily contact between the leader and the group members) (Gomes, 2020 ). Since this cycle is the operationalization of the conceptual cycle, it means that it begins when both the leader and the group members assume the behaviors to achieve the principles defined by the leader and accepted by the members (Gomes, 2020 ). To this extent, leadership cycles congruence also implies that leaders’ activity matches employees’ expectations and needs (i.e., how they think leaders should exert leadership).

According to the model, the characteristics of the leader, of the group members, and of the situation assume a status of moderating variable between the congruency of the two cycles and leadership efficacy, being named antecedent factors of leadership (Gomes, 2020 ). This means that the leader should take these antecedent factors of leadership into account when establishing the leadership cycles, since they can maximize or inhibit their actions. For example, regarding the characteristics of the group members, leaders should consider a wide number of factors, as is the case of professional (e.g., objectives, hierarchical level), demographic (e.g., seniority), and psychological (e.g., self-confidence) variables, because the closer they act according to these characteristics, the more likely their action will be effective (Gomes and Resende, 2015 ).

In sum, the Leadership Efficacy Model proposes that higher levels of congruency between the practical and conceptual cycles of leadership augments the leadership efficacy. Moreover, the model proposes that characteristics of the group members influence the relationship between leadership cycles and leadership efficacy. In our study, we selected organizational commitment and job satisfaction as indicators of leadership efficacy and seniority as moderator of the influence produced by leadership congruency in organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

H1 and H2. Leadership efficacy: organizational commitment and job satisfaction

Leadership efficacy can be understood as the multiple impacts produced by the leader on others, as is the case of employee satisfaction, motivation, and organizational outcomes (Kaiser et al., 2008 ; Malik, 2013 ; Voon et al., 2010 ). Therefore, it can be measured in a variety of ways (e.g., Andrews et al., 2006 ; Kaiser et al., 2008 ; Kanji, 2008 ). A diversity of evaluation measures is important to overcome possible biases, as a single organizational outcome (e.g., productivity measure, financial performance, turnover) does not provide a complete overview (Kaiser et al., 2008 ; Scullen et al., 2000 ). As an influence process, leaders’ behaviors affect employees’ attitudes towards work, such as the organizational commitment, work engagement, and job satisfaction (Rehman et al., 2020 ; Saleem, 2015 ; Voon et al., 2010 ). Specifically, organizational commitment and job satisfaction are relevant variables to the organizational context, as they have been associated with lower absenteeism and turnover, higher motivation, leadership satisfaction, and increases in organizational citizenship behaviors (e.g., Gatling et al., 2016 ; Hanaysha, 2016 ; Joo and Park, 2010 ; Malik, 2013 ). For these reasons, we selected organizational commitment and job satisfaction as indicators of leadership efficacy, as they represent key variables in organizational contexts and because they can represent different constructs of human experience at work, one more related to how the individual feel about the work activity (job satisfaction) and another more related to how the individual feel about the organization (organizational commitment).

Organizational commitment is defined as a force that stimulates the individual’s involvement and identification with an organization, the willingness to put effort and dedication in achieving organizational goals, as well as the desire to remain in the organization (Porter et al., 1974 ). Therefore, it is seen as a significant factor in determining employee behavior (Meyer et al., 2002 ; Yahaya and Ebrahim, 2016 ). Specifically, organizational commitment is perceived as an emotional attachment of the employee to the organization (Ćulibrk et al., 2018 ; Meyer et al., 2004 ), where individuals identify with the values and mission and enjoy being part of the organization (Hanaysha, 2016 ; Meyer and Allen, 1991 ; Pradhan and Pradhan, 2015 ). Employees who report high levels of commitment exhibit aspirations to contribute meaningfully to the organization and a greater willingness to make sacrifices for it and, at the same time, report fewer intentions to leave or resign and tend to feel more satisfied with their work and have higher intrinsic motivation (cf. Ćulibrk et al., 2018 ; Hanaysha, 2016 ).

Mathieu and colleagues ( 2016 ) state that the popular adage “Employees don’t quit their companies, they quit their boss” has been empirically proven, enhancing the importance and influence of the leader’s role in the willingness of employees to remain in the organization. In this sense, there are several studies exploring the relationship between employees’ perceptions of the leaders’ actions on their organizational commitment (Gatling et al., 2016 ; Sedrine et al., 2020 ; Yahaya and Ebrahim, 2016 ). For example, Pradhan and Pradhan ( 2015 ) reported that leaders who demonstrate attentiveness to employees’ personal and professional development, positively influence employee commitment because this demonstration leads to an emotional attachment to the leader and the organization. Additionally, Sedrine and colleagues ( 2020 ), concluded that leaders who seek to involve employees in decision making inspire greater trust and job satisfaction and have a positive impact on organizational commitment. On the other hand, these authors reported that supervision by the leader has an adverse effect on employees’ attitude, reducing their commitment to the organization. This effect is justified by the control of autonomy, feeling of lack of trust and disrespect felt by employees, translated by a low level of commitment (Sedrine et al., 2020 ). Overall, these different findings support the idea that the behaviors adopted by the leader are significantly related to employees’ organizational commitment (cf. Yiing and Ahmad, 2009 ). Similarly, we argue that leadership cycles congruence (i.e., leaders’ words and actions are aligned) feeds a positive relationship between leader and employees. By being congruent in their words and actions, leaders display trustworthiness and assure employees they can trust them and, therefore, increase their commitment with the organization.

H1: Perceived leadership cycles congruence positively predicts employees’ organizational commitment. The higher the perceived congruence, the higher the organizational commitment .

One of the major challenges for leaders is to ensure the job satisfaction of their employees (Asghar and Oino, 2018 ), making it pertinent to understand this construct. Job satisfaction is defined as “the attitudes and feelings people have about their work”, and the more satisfied employees are, the more positive their attitudes will be (Armstrong, 2006 , p. 474). Satisfaction levels can be affected intrinsically, depending for example, on the self-esteem of the group members, or extrinsically, considering, for example, the context or the quantity and quality of the leader’s supervision (Armstrong, 2006 ; Malik, 2013 ).

The existence of a relationship between employees’ job satisfaction and satisfaction with their leaders is described in the literature (Elshout et al., 2013 ; Tsai, 2011 ). In fact, job satisfaction has been associated with leaders who manifest behaviors of inspiration, motivation, concern, and respect for employees (Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012 ; Saleem, 2015 ). Furthermore, it is suggested that the leader’s behaviors of encouraging and supporting employees, as well as their confidence and clear vision can relate to employee job satisfaction (Tsai, 2011 ). These behaviors, mostly associated with transformational and transactional styles of leadership, are a reflection of how leaders (practical cycle of leadership) act or, in other words, how leaders can exert their influence and increase the congruence between cycles of leadership. Moreover, Alves and colleagues ( 2021 ), who conducted a study based on the Leadership Efficacy Model in a sport context, also found that leadership cycles congruence is associated with satisfaction with leaders. Overall, how employees perceive their leaders is a decisive factor in their overall satisfaction (Hogan and Kaiser, 2005 ). We argue that by perceiving the leader as being congruent with their words (conceptual cycle of leadership) and daily actions (practical cycle of leadership), employees develop a positive image and relationship with the leader which, in turn, leaders to higher job satisfaction. Therefore, we expect that:

H2: Perceived leadership cycles congruence positively predicts employees’ job satisfaction. The higher the perceived congruence of the leader’s cycles, the higher the job satisfaction .

H3. Antecedent factors of leadership: the moderating role of seniority

The actions of leaders do not occur in isolation, depending on some factors that can help to understand the multiple impacts produced by leadership. According to the Leadership Efficacy Model there are three antecedent factors of leadership that can influence the impacts of leadership cycles congruence in leadership efficacy: the personal and professional characteristics of the leader, the personal and professional characteristics of team members, and the specific conditions provided by the organization under which the leader is working (Gomes, 2020 ). These factors influence the relationship between leadership cycles (e.g., how leaders intend to assume leadership and how leaders assume leadership) and leadership efficacy. Seniority is an example of these factors since employees’ perceptions and evaluations change depending on how long they have been with the organization (English et al., 2010 ; Wright and Bonett, 2002 ). The literature highlights the relationship between seniority and commitment (Akinyemi, 2014 ; Hong et al., 2016 ; Lee et al., 2018 ) and seniority and job satisfaction (Lian and Ling, 2018 ; Zeng et al., 2020 ), but there is less knowledge about the moderating effect of seniority on the relationship between how leadership is exerted (e.g., leadership cycles congruence) and leadership efficacy.

Previous research has established that employees’ beliefs regarding the organization vary according to the length of service in the organization (e.g., Low et al., 2016 ), which is also reflected on the psychological contract they hold regarding the organization (cf. Bal et al., 2013 ). Specifically, Bal and colleagues ( 2013 ) found a relationship between the fulfillment of the psychological contract and greater involvement at work by the employee but only for employees with less seniority. According to these authors, this is because employees with less seniority value the norms of reciprocity more highly. On the other hand, employees’ seniority also has implications on the impact of the violation of the psychological contract, as employees respond differently to employers’ non-fulfillment of obligations (cf. Sharif et al., 2017 ; Priesemuth and Taylor, 2016 ). Specifically, more recent employees have higher expectations about the employers when they first join the organization and, the longer they stay, the more they adjust these expectation—therefore, the higher their seniority, the lower employees’ perceptions of employer’s obligations (Payne et al., 2015 ).

In sum, the beliefs and expectations that employees hold about the organizations and their leaders influence the aspects they pay attention to, that they value, their interpretations, and reactions (Rousseau, 2001 , Rousseau et al., 2018 ). According to the aforementioned literature review, employees with lower seniority are more tend to value more the reciprocity between themselves and the organization and to hold higher expectations of the organization. Additionally, the non-fulfilment of expectations has a greater influence on their behaviors and attitudes, compared to employees with greater seniority. For that reason, we argue that employees with lower seniority are more aware and sensitive of their leader’s behaviors. Therefore, and based on the Leadership Efficacy Model (Gomes, 2014 , 2020 ), we expect that if leaders display low congruency, this would affect more negatively employees with lower seniority. Thus, we established the third hypothesis for this study:

H3: Seniority has a moderating effect on the relationship between leadership cycles congruence and leadership efficacy (measured by organizational commitment and job satisfaction). Specifically, it is expected that less seniority amplifies the positive relationship of leadership cycles congruence with (H3a) organizational commitment and (H3b) job satisfaction .

Data collection procedure

As aforementioned, the main aim of this study was to test the relationship between leadership congruence and leadership efficacy (i.e., organizational commitment and job satisfaction), as well as the moderating role of members’ characteristics (i.e., seniority). In order to test this conceptual model, a correlational study was conducted with employees from different organizations who evaluated their leaders. The first step consisted of obtaining approval from the Ethics Committee from the fourth authors’ University. Once approval was obtained [cf. Ethical Statement], the research team created the questionnaire on Qualtrics® platform and a link for dissemination was generated using the same software. A multiple-source approach was used to recruit participants: specifically, the questionnaire was disseminated on online platforms (LinkedIn, Facebook; 38%) and through six organizations from different sectors which were part of the research teams’ network (public administration: 25%, technology: 18%, automotive: 9%, catering: 5%, healthcare: 5%) and who agreed to distribute the study among their employees.

When participants accessed to the questionnaire, a first page with the informed consent, and explaining the study goals and procedure was displayed. Once they agreed to participate in the study, an initial screening question was used to exclude any participants who did not directly report to a leader. If they met this inclusion criteria (having a leader in their organization to whom they report directly), several demographic questions were asked and then they completed the measures regarding leadership congruency, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The order of the items and measures was randomized. Completing the whole research protocol took them, on average, about 25 min. The data was collected between February and April 2021.

Participants

A sample of 318 employees (55% male) was considered in the study. Their aged ranged from 21 to 72 years-old ( M  = 35.78, SD = 10.54). Most participants held a bachelor’s degree (38%) or a master’s degree or higher (30%), and 27% completed high school.

Participants worked in a wide range of sectors: service industry (22%), health and social care (17%), public administration and defense (17%), manufacturing (8%), administrative activities (7%), education (5%), retail (5%), IT and communication (3%), finance (2%), hospitality (2%), among others (12%). The majority of participants were full-time employees (97%) with permanent employment contract (60%). Regarding participants’ seniority within the organization, it ranged from 1month to 42 years ( M  = 8 years, SD = 9.5 years).

Leadership congruency

The Leadership Efficacy Questionnaire (LEQ; Gomes et al., 2022 ) was used to assess the congruency of leadership cycles (conceptual and practical cycles). This measure evaluates three different dimensions: (1) leadership philosophy (5 items, e.g., “My leader tells us the ideas s/he values the most”, α conceptual  = 0.87, α practical  = 0.91), (2) leadership practice (5 items, e.g., “My leader acts in accordance with the ideas valued”, α conceptual  = 0.89, α practical  = 0.92), and leadership criteria (5 items, e.g., “My leader evaluates if what is done is in accordance with what we wanted to achieve”, α conceptual  = 0.89, α practical  = 0.93). A score for each dimension was calculated by averaging participants’ responses (1 = never; 5 = always). For each of the 15 statements, employees answered twice: once regarding their leader’s preferred behaviors (leadership philosophy, practice, and criteria at the conceptual cycle), and another referring to their leader’s current behaviors (leadership philosophy, practice, and criteria at the practical cycle). A final score of leadership congruency was calculated by subtracting participants’ responses in the conceptual cycle from the practical cycle, and negative numbers were mirrored, so the final variable would only include positive numbers. Therefore, values closer to 0 indicate higher congruency between current and preferred leadership behaviors, creating a new variable named the Leadership Cycles Congruence Index (LCCI).

Organizational commitment

Participants’ organizational commitment was assessed using the Organizational Commitment Scale (Conley and Woosley, 2000 ; Mowday et al., 1982 ; Portuguese translation by Gomes, 2007 ). Using a likert scale (1 = completely disagree; 5 = completely agree), participants rated their agreement with nine statements (e.g., “I am proud to tell other people that I am part of this organization”, α  = 0.91). A score of organizational commitment was computed by averaging participants’ responses.

Job satisfaction

Employees’ perceptions regarding their job satisfaction were evaluated using the Portuguese version of the Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (Meliá and Peiró, 1989 ; Pocinho and Garcia, 2008 ). Participants were asked to rate their satisfaction (1 = not satisfied at all, 7 = extremely satisfied) to 23 different aspects of their work (e.g., “I am happy about my career progression opportunities”, α  = 0.96). Their responses were averaged to create a job satisfaction score.

Data analyses procedure

An a-priori sample size calculator was used to determine the minimum sample required. For a medium effect size of 0.20 and a desired power level of 0.80 (at a probability level of 0.05), a minimum of 223 participants were recommended (cf. Soper, 2022 ). The study sample met this requirement.

Then, the first step consisted of verifying the statistical assumptions of normality and multicollinearity for the four variables of the study: perceptions of leadership congruency, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction, as well as participants’ seniority within their organizations. The normality assumption was tested using Kline’s ( 2015 ) criteria of skewness ≤|3| and kurtosis ≤ |10|. The multicollinearity assumption was checked based on the correlations among variables (which should be <0.80) and VIF (which should be <5) (cf. Marôco, 2014 ).

Path analysis using AMOS Software ® was conducted so the full model could be tested simultaneously. Therefore, perceptions of leadership congruency were included as a predictor, and organizational commitment and job satisfaction as outcomes (H1 and H2). To test the moderating role of seniority (H3a and H3b), the interaction between perceptions of leadership congruency and seniority was calculated and inserted in the model as a predictor. All predictor variables (leadership congruency, seniority, interaction leadership congruency x seniority) were first standardized using z -scores, as they used different unity measures.

The quality of the theoretical model was evaluated using the following criteria: (a) chi-square statistics ( χ 2 ); (b) Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger, 1990 ), so that adequate fit concluded for values between 0.05 and 0.08, and good fit when below 0.05 (cf. Arbuckle, 2008 ); (c) Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), considering a good fit was achieved when below 0.10 (cf. Kline, 2015 ); (d) Goodness of Fit (GFI) and Comparative fit index (CFI), for which values above 0.95 indicated a good fit (cf. Bentler, 1990 ; 2007 ; Marôco, 2014 ).

Descriptive statistics and preliminary analysis

Regarding normality assumptions, Using Kline’s ( 2015 ) criteria of skewness ≤|3| and kurtosis ≤|10 | , there were no severe deviations from normality found in the data (−0.65 >  sk  < 1.39; 0.26 >  ku  < 1.30). Thus, parametric tests were conducted to test the study hypotheses (cf. Kline, 2015 ).

Table 1 summarizes the descriptive statistics of the study variables (participants’ seniority and perceptions of leadership congruency, organizational commitment and job satisfaction), as well as the two-tailed correlations among them. The higher the participants’ seniority, the less leadership congruency (numbers closer to 0) and the lower the job satisfaction (and vice-versa) they tend to perceive. On the other hand, the more congruency they perceive, the higher the organizational commitment and job satisfaction. The latter variables are also highly correlated. No correlations were above 0.80 and all VIF coefficients ranged from 1.02 to 1.99—therefore, the non-multicollinearity assumption was met.

Path analysis (H1, H2, H3)

The proposed model (cf. Fig. 1 ) was tested using path analysis. The results show that it is a good fit to the data: χ 2 (1) = 5.96, χ 2 /df = 5.96, RMSEA = 0.125, 95% CI [0.044, 0.230], p RMSEA  = 0.061, SRMR = 0.039, GFI = 0.993, CFI = 0.980. A summary of the parameter estimates can be found in Table 2 . It can be concluded that higher perceptions of leadership congruency predict higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction, thus confirming H1 and H2. On the other hand, the longer participants are enrolled in a particular organization (seniority), the lower their job satisfaction, but not their organizational commitment. The leadership congruency x seniority interaction is a predictor of organizational commitment but not job satisfaction (therefore, H3b was not supported). The overall model explained 22% of the variance of participants’ job satisfaction and 10% of the variance of their organizational commitment.

Note : * p  < 0.05; ** p  < 0.01, *** p  < 0.001. Dash arrows represent non-significant paths.

A closer look at this latter interaction was conducted by splitting the sample into high vs. low seniority and conducting separate regression analyses. The criteria used to compute the two groups was based on previous literature that used 60 months (5 years) as a cut-off point to decide whether an employee would be considered to have a stable tenure with the organization or not (cf. Bal et al., 2013 ; Boswell et al., 2005 ). Thus, following the same criteria, participants were split into high seniority (≥60 months; n  = 150) and low seniority (<60 months; n  = 168). The results indicated that leadership congruency predicts organizational commitment for more senior members of the organization [ F (1,147) = 30.85, p  < 0.001, R 2  = 0.174, b = −0.42, β  = −0.42, t  = −5.55, p  < 0.001] but not for younger members of the staff [ F (1,167) = 2.56, p  = 0.111]. Even though the interaction for organizational commitment was significant, its direction does not support H3a.

This study aimed to test the relationship between leadership cycle congruence and leadership efficacy in an organizational setting, considering the analysis of the moderating influence of seniority. This analysis was done by assuming the predictions of the Leadership Efficacy Model (Gomes, 2014 , 2020 ). The results supported the main proposition of the model that congruence between leadership cycles explains higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Equally important, our study tested if antecedent factors of leadership can either exacerbate or minimize the influence of leadership cycle congruence on leadership efficacy. The results showed that leadership cycle congruency is a positive predictor of organizational commitment for more senior members of the organization. However, seniority did not moderate the relationship between leadership cycle congruency and job satisfaction.

As aforementioned, the Leadership Efficacy Model (Gomes 2014 , 2020 ) states that higher leadership cycle congruency predicts leadership efficacy. This assumption was corroborated by the study. As expected, when employees perceived higher congruency between conceptual and practical cycles of leadership, they displayed stronger organizational commitment (H1) and job satisfaction (H2). These results support the main theoretical assumption of the Leadership Efficacy Model and are consistent with previous literature that tested this theoretical framework in a sports context, showing that higher congruency in leadership cycles predicted higher satisfaction with leader and perceptions of team performance (Alves et al., 2021 ; Gomes et al., 2022 ). Thus, the results support the idea that when leaders’ daily actions (practical cycle of leadership) are congruent with employees’ desires/needs (conceptual cycle of leadership), it increases leadership efficacy—in our case, it increases employees’ commitment towards the organization and their job satisfaction.

The third hypothesis of the study predicted that seniority would moderate the relationship between the congruence of leadership cycles congruence and leadership efficacy. Specifically, it was expected that less seniority would amplify the positive relationship leadership between efficacy and organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Previous literature (e.g., English et al., 2010 ; Low et al., 2016 ; Phungsoonthorn and Charoensukmongkol, 2018 ) has already established that employees’ perceptions and evaluations regarding the organization change over time. Specifically, research suggests that employees with lower seniority attribute more value to the norms of reciprocity between themselves and the organization and, therefore, the fulfillment or not of the established expectations and their involvement in the work is particularly important to these employees (cf. Bal et al., 2013 ). This idea was supported by Payne and colleagues ( 2015 ), who argued that when someone first joins the organization, they have higher expectations, which are adjusted and, therefore, decrease, over time. Moreover, based on previous research that showed that staff with lower seniority is more aware of leaders’ behaviors (e.g., Rousseau et al., 2018 ), seniority was expected to moderate the relationship between leadership cycles congruence and efficacy in such a way that it would be amplified for less senior members of staff.

However, even though the results show a significant interaction of Leadership Cycles Congruence x Seniority on employees’ organizational commitment, the relationship between the predictor and the outcome is only significant for senior members of the staff. In other words, the results showed that leadership congruency only predicts organizational commitment for senior members of the organization, but not for younger members of the staff, contradicting H3a. No interaction was found for job satisfaction, and, therefore, H3b was also not supported. According to Payne and colleagues ( 2015 ), employees’ expectations adjust over time, with employees’ perceptions of employer obligations significantly decreasing over the years in the organization. Taking this into consideration, one possible justification is that if the non-fulfillment of expectations has a lower influence on more senior members of the organization (cf. Rousseau et al., 2018 ), when a leader fulfills their needs, and shows stronger congruence between their statements (conceptual cycle) and actions (practical cycle) it exceeds their expectations and, therefore, has a more positive impact. An alternative explanation is related to the fact that data was collected during the COVID19 pandemic, which was a time in which leaders were particularly important (cf. Eichenauer et al., 2022 ) in keeping stability and facilitating employees’ work-life balance, which are important features for more senior employees and what they value in the relationship they established with the organization (cf. Low et al., 2016 ).

Limitations and future research

Considering the particular circumstances in which data for this study was collected, future research should aim to test whether these results are stable once the pandemic is over, assuring its replicability. It is also important to note that, even though appropriate to the aims of this particular study, cross-sectional designs encompass a number of limitations. One of those limitations, especially when testing relationships between variables, refers to the common method variance, which is drawn from the fact that the same participants answered both predictor and outcome variables at the same moment. However, this issue was addressed during data collection: an online platform was used to collect data, and the order of items and measures was randomized (cf. Chang et al., 2010 ). An alternative methodological approach would be to partner with an organization to conduct a longitudinal study. This approach would allow (1) to infer the duration of the impact of leadership cycles congruence on efficacy; and (2) the use of objective efficacy measures (e.g., turnover rate, absenteeism), which are important to provide a more comprehensive understanding of leadership efficacy (cf. Gomes, 2014 ; Gomes and Resende, 2015 ). Moreover, even though the present study tested the main assumption of Leadership Efficacy Model (regarding leadership congruence) and tested the moderating role of an antecedent factors of leadership, other variables included in the theoretical model should be included in future research (namely, the leadership styles, and antecedent factors of leadership regarding the leader’s and the situation’s characteristics).

Conclusion and practical implications

Overall, the study results provide support for the Leadership Efficacy Model, showing that leadership cycles congruence increases leadership efficacy (in this case, job satisfaction and organizational commitment), and that antecedent factors of leadership such as group members’ characteristics (namely seniority) can act as moderators of this relationship. Thus, this study results provide empirical support to two key assumptions of this theoretical framework and is, to the extent of our knowledge, the first study to test the Leadership Efficacy Model in an organizational setting. Taken together, the results have important implications for practice, specifically in organizational contexts. First, they show that in order to maximize the efficacy of their leadership, leaders must make clear to employees their conceptual cycle. In other words, leaders need to state what they want and value in their teams (leadership philosophy), how they want those values to be implemented (leadership practice), and which indicators should be used to assess its implementation (leadership criteria). At the same time, leaders need to ensure that this is in line with what they do on a daily basis (practical cycle of leadership); that is, that the leadership they exert is close to what they conceptualize and that it considers the preferences and needs of their teams.

A second important implication refers to the role of the employee’s seniority in perceiving the leader’s actions. How employees perceive and assess the leader depends on how long they are at the organization, which is consistent with the idea that employees look for different things in the organization and, consequently, in their leaders over time. Therefore, the influence of leadership cycle congruence on the relationship employees establish in the organization varies according to seniority. In this study, it showed that the influence of leadership cycles congruence on employees’ organizational commitment was stronger for employees with a longer tenure, when compared to newer members of staff. Thus, the study highlights the importance of leaders being sensitive to the characteristics of their members and to their needs in order to adjust their actions to remain effective.

Data availability

The dataset generated and analyzed during the current study is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of Ágata Faria and João Monteiro in data collection. The authors would also like to acknowledge that the study was conducted at two different research centres supported by the Foundation for Science and Technology: Research Centre for Human Development, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Universidade Católica Portuguesa (ref. UIDB/04872/2020) and the Psychology Research Centre (CIPsi/UM), School of Psychology, University of Minho (ref. UIDB/01662/2020).

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CM was co-responsible for conceptualization, methodology, and responsible for formal analysis and supervision. FQ and SC assisted in methodology, and were responsible for data curation and collection and for writing—original draft preparation. RG was instrumental in conceptualization and methodology, as well as writing—review and editing. CS assisted in conceptualization, formal data analysis and writing—review and editing.

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Morais, C., Queirós, F., Couto, S. et al. Explaining organizational commitment and job satisfaction: the role of leadership and seniority. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1363 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03855-z

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The Relationship Between “Job Satisfaction” and “Job Performance”: A Meta-analysis

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• Published: 24 August 2021
• Volume 23 , pages 21–42, ( 2022 )

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• Ali Katebi 1 ,
• Mohammad Hossain HajiZadeh 1 ,
• Ali Bordbar 1 &
• Amir Masoud Salehi 1  

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The purpose of this meta-analytic research is to obtain a clear and unified result for the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, as previous research has shown contradictions in this regard. A total of 913 articles in both English and Persian languages were obtained from four databases, and finally, 113 articles with 123 independent data were selected and analyzed. The random-effects model was adopted based on results, and the analysis resulted a medium, positive, and significant relationship between job performance and job satisfaction ( r  = 0.339; 95% CI = 0.303 to 0.374; P  = 0.000). Finally, the country of India was identified as a moderator variable. The publication, language, selection, and citation biases have been examined in this study. Increasing and improving the job performance of employees have always been an important issue for organizations. The results of this study can be useful for managers in different industries, especially for Indian professionals in both public and private sectors, to better plan and manage the satisfaction and the performance of their employees. Also, Indian scholars can use these results to localize the global research in this regard.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to express our special thanks and gratitude to prof. Gholamreza Asadollahfardi for sharing his pearls of wisdom and experience with us to improve this research. We are immensely grateful to him for his comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. His insightful comments and suggestions have truly shined a light on our path and helped us to achieve better and brighter intuition.

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Katebi, A., HajiZadeh, M.H., Bordbar, A. et al. The Relationship Between “Job Satisfaction” and “Job Performance”: A Meta-analysis. Glob J Flex Syst Manag 23 , 21–42 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40171-021-00280-y

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Effects of organizational climate on employee job satisfaction and psychological well-being: the role of technological influence in Chinese higher education

• Liu Yiming   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-9967-0951 1 ,
• Li Yan   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0000-9193-3292 1 &
• Zhang Jinsheng   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-5556-599X 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  536 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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In the Chinese education sector, educators’ job satisfaction (JoS) is considered critical to educational quality and student outcomes. One critical area of inquiry is the organizational climate (OC) and its impact on JoS, and psychological well-being (PW), with technological influence (TI) moderating effect.

The current study has tried to look at the exact relationship among OC, PW, and JoS for educators working in the Chinese higher education setting. It also discusses the moderating role of TI on OC and JoS.

Design/methodology

This study uses a quantitative cross-sectional survey design, grounded in post-positivism assumptions. Data collection involved sampling 690 respondents in the Chinese higher education setting via WeChat.

The study methodology part included a pre-test, translation validation, demographic characteristics of participants, and results that showed a significant positive influence on JoS for PW and OC. The study also confirms the positive effect of PW on JoS. Moreover, the mediating role of PW within the OC–JoS link is also supported. Furthermore, TI positively moderates the OC–JoS relationship, thus it implies a supportive role of technology in enhancing the educators’ satisfaction. The model indicated that OC, PW, and TI explain 72.4% of the variation in JoS.

In this respect, the findings offer some practical insights for educational institutions and policymakers to facilitate enhancement strategies for OC, thus recognizing its influence on JoS and the well-being of educators. Understanding how technology can play a moderating role presents the strategic occasion to utilize technological tools for a more satisfying work environment.

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Introduction

In the case of the education sector in China, employee or educators’ job satisfaction ( JoS ) is extremely important in that this is what will ensure quality education and overall good results from students [ 1 ]. Tran et al. [ 2 ] also reiterated that JoS is an essential factor for enhancing both employee’s and organizations’ overall productivity. Harrison et al. [ 3 ] found that a teacher’s JoS is positively connected with the quality of instructions given to students, which, in turn, improves the student-teacher relationship. Similarly, Huang et al. [ 4 ] observed that when faculty members are satisfied with their jobs are more likely to be involved in their work and have favorable attitudes regarding their connections with coworkers and students. Mo and Morris [ 5 ] identified several work-related factors, including the school’s atmosphere, opportunities for professional growth, reputation, pay, and values that motivated foreign high school teachers.

Despite these findings, a recent review by Hoque et al. [ 6 ] of 32 studies reported that while teachers’ JoS is low, students’ accomplishment remains high in China. A 2019 report by the Chinese National Institute of Educational Sciences reveals that JoS is highly influential in teachers’ commitment to their profession and directly linked to their teaching effectiveness [ 7 ]. In a country with such vast and diverse educational landscapes, the well-being of educators acts as the linchpin that shapes the learning experience of millions of students [ 8 , 9 ]. High levels of JoS among teachers are related to higher student engagement, improved academic performance, and a positive school climate [ 3 ]. With regard to educational reforms and the cultivation of innovation and critical thinking in students in China, understanding and addressing factors contributing to teacher JoS could create a learning environment that better enables academic success and holistic development [ 10 ].

In the education sector at large, organizational climate ( OC ) is considered one of the major determinants of JoS among educator professionals [ 11 ]. Additionally, organizational and social determinants play an essential role in forming ethical behavior among university employees. Xia et al. [ 12 ] found that it directly and significantly influenced teachers’ JoS. Moreover, Yang and Xiangming [ 13 ] reported that a supportive environment enhances the university student’s performance and overall experience. The OC consists of existing attitudes, values, and working circumstances within educational institutions, thus playing a pertinent role in shaping teachers’ experiences. A positive OC therefore creates an environment at the negative pole and promotes effective communication, professional growth, and a sense of belonging at the positive pole [ 14 ]. When employees feel a positive OC, they tend to feel a greater sense of JoS, which results in more commitment to their jobs and better outcomes [ 15 ]. However, limited research has been conducted to explore the subtle precincts of OC that most deeply influence JoS among the teaching community [ 11 , 16 , 17 ].

Furthermore, a positive OC characterized by supportive leadership [ 18 ], a collaborative working environment [ 19 ], and clarity in the channels of communication creates conditions for enhancing the psychological well-being ( PW ) of employees [ 20 ]. When teachers feel valued and respected, they will embrace their work and feel good about doing it; hence, this contributes to better mental health and well-being [ 21 , 22 ]. Moreover, a positive OC contributes to the PW of employees by ensuring that they are correctly oriented, free of stress, and in good mental health [ 23 ]. While there is an appreciation of the importance of OC, there exists gross research negligence in the determination of subtle and contextual factors that affect the role of OC in causing JoS and PW in educational institutions [ 21 , 24 ]. Further research in this area can help in the development of interventions and strategies for targeting those educators with unique challenges that exist in creating a healthier and more productive work environment [ 9 ].

A positive PW not only enhances an individual’s JoS by fostering a sense of purpose, resilience, and motivation but also acts to mediate between the OC and JoS [ 25 , 26 ]. A supportive OC is able to contribute to the PW of employees, and in turn, this PW becomes a key mediator that links the organizational environment to JoS outcomes [ 27 ]. While this interrelated relationship has gained increased recognition, how PW mediates these relationships—more specifically, with regard to OC and JoS, together with the exact context variables that come into play—has received less study [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. More research in this area needs to be conducted, especially in the educational sector [ 28 , 29 ].

Technology is becoming pivotal in various aspects of teaching and administrative practices within the education sector [ 30 ]. Recently Xu et al. [ 31 ] underscored that a lack of attention has been given to the use of technology in learning and its impact on teachers’ pre-service attention. In the context of OC and JoS, technology moderates the work environment and educator experience. It has been noted by Middlemist and Hitt [ 32 ] that the infusion of technological tools can improve organizational processes, collaboration, and communication. This positive relationship would then create the needed incentive for the fostering of JoS among educators. The interplay between technology, OC, and JoS, however, is a relatively unexplored research area.

Based on the above research gap our research answers the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1: How does OC influence JoS?

RQ2: Does PW mediate the relationship between OC and JoS?

RQ3: How does technological influence (TI) moderate the effect of OC on Jos in educational institutions?

Our research will contribute to the literature by analyzing elements of OC that most influence educators’ JoS and PW in China. Additionally, instrumental in giving insights into the mediating role of PW between OC and JoS. It would contribute to clarifying the mechanisms through which OC can affect educator outcomes. Our research will be one of the rare studies dealing with TI as a moderator between OC and JoS. Moreover, our research will provide practical recommendations to educational institutions concerning the development of such a favorable OC that would foster the PW of teachers and JoS, which would finally lead to better educational outcomes.

The rest of our research is structured as section two begins with formulating the hypothesis and developing the research model. Section three presents the methodology of the research, how data collection was done, the sampling technique used, and information about the respondents. This section also describes the tools of statistics used in analyzing the data. The fourth section presents the results, followed by an extended discussion in order to interpret the findings in the light of available literature. The last part concludes the paper, in which theoretical and practical implications of research are presented. This section also details the limitations of the study and furnishes directions for further research.

Formulation of hypotheses and model

Influences of oc on jos and pw.

According to the social exchange theory , employees develop certain expectations about the support and different resources they will receive from an organization as a result of its OC [ 33 ]. A positive OC in which workers feel supported, recognized, and equitably treated lays the groundwork for an exchange in goodwill; thus, it is likely that the employees will have higher JoS and have their PW enhanced in return [ 34 , 35 ]. Moreover, the Conservation of Resources Theory suggests that a positive OC acts as a reservoir of resource troughs [ 36 ], buffering employees from job-related stressors and promoting their well-being and satisfaction in the process [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. This study advocated the fact that when the employee feels a culture that values their effort, gives a chance for professional development, and cultivates an effective communication environment, then, in this case, workers are likely to be fulfilled and satisfied with their jobs [ 40 , 41 ]. A positive atmosphere translates into higher morale and increased commitment to organizational goals [ 42 , 43 ].

Several studies demonstrate that an appropriate OC strongly determines the PW [ 21 ]. Indeed, positive climates seem to be linked to reduced levels of job-related stress, burnout, and anxiety [ 44 , 45 ]. Supportive leadership, fair policies, a culture of work-life balance, and the absence of depriving factors safeguard one from psychological insecurities and contribute to experiencing work in a more enriching way [ 46 ]. This has, in turn, contributed to the development of good mental health and well-being [ 47 ]. The employees working within an OC which supports its psychological needs have a stronger sense of purpose and accomplishment [ 48 , 49 ].

H1: Educators JoS is significantly influenced by OC.

H2: Educators PW is significantly influenced by OC.

Influence of PW on JoS

According to the affective events theory , the emotional reaction of individuals to events at work is a major determinant of their JoS [ 50 ]. With regard to the PW construct, positive PW serves as the determinant of a more positive emotional reaction toward work, in turn enhancing JoS [ 51 , 52 ]. The Well-being and JoS Model suggests that when the levels of PW are high, this will lead to positive affectivity and life satisfaction, which again spillover into the work-life influencing JoS positively [ 53 , 54 ]. In addition, the job characteristics model by Pierce et al. [ 55 ] stipulates that PW is high when workers experience meaningfulness of work, self-control, and possibilities for skill development—exactly the same conditions contributing to JoS. The current research takes the stand that in the event of positive PW, characterized by feelings of fulfillment, autonomy, and a sense of purpose, workers are more likely to find satisfaction in their jobs [ 29 , 39 , 52 , 56 , 57 ]. Additionally,

A healthy psychological condition is related to higher resilience, less stress, and a more positive attitude toward work-related issues [ 29 ]. In general, workers with high PW are much more engaged, motivated, and able to establish proper relations with colleagues [ 58 ]. This will, in turn, create the correct milieu for the thriving of JoS, as is associated with high PW, which has positive emotions and mental health. On this basis, mental wellness and job contentment are intertwined in the professional sphere [ 51 , 59 ].

H3: JoS is significantly influenced by PW.

PW as mediator

The conservation of resources theory states that individuals have a desire to acquire, maintain, and protect resources, and when these are high, well-being is either maintained or improved [ 36 , 37 , 39 ]. A positive OC therefore enriches employees with psychological resources like support, autonomy, and good relationships, leading to increased PW [ 60 ]. In turn, enriching PW is a psychological resource whereby the more individuals can invest in their work role, the greater the JoS level is experienced [ 25 , 29 , 46 ]. In this respect, if individuals feel and perceive that it is safe to work in, be valued, and committed to working in such a climate, they would have a positive effect on their PW [ 20 , 23 ]. In return, higher levels of PW act as a mediator by influencing employee perceptions regarding JoS [ 29 , 54 ].

More specifically, the likelihood of employees who have higher levels of PW experiencing intrinsic meaning and fulfillment in their job roles is greater; hence, resulting in higher JoS [ 11 ]. Consequently, the effect of OC on JoS becomes not only direct but also significantly mediated by the PW of employees, underlining the complex interrelationship between organizational environment, mental well-being, and overall JoS.

H4: OC–JoS relationship is significantly mediated by PS.

TI as moderator

According to the job description model , job resources—like technological tools and support—moderate the impact of job demands on employee well-being and satisfaction [ 61 ]. In this context, technological influence ( TI ) can be considered an important job resource [ 62 ] and a necessity to improve educational experience and paradigm [ 63 ]. A positive OC enhances the work environment, making it supportive and collaborative in nature [ 64 ]; technological integration would support communication and collaboration in tasks, improving efficiency [ 30 , 65 ]. TI will then have a moderating effect to enhance this positive contribution of a favorable OC toward JoS. Proper use of technology optimizes work processes and equips the workers with the tools to find success [ 32 ], further entrenching the notion that a positive OC and heightened JoS are more strongly linked. Moreover, recent investigations based in the education sector of China have also emphasized the causal role of TI in the formation of online education among studies in China [ 66 , 67 ]. It is for this reason, in the pursuit of making technology an organizational strategic asset in the driver of employee satisfaction from within a positive working climate, that the moderating role of TI should be understood [ 68 ].

H5: The influence of OC on JoS is moderated by TI.

Figure  1 the black arrows indicate direct effects, the dashed blue line indicates mediation, and the orange moderation effects.

Proposed model

Research methodology

Data collection and sampling.

The research is entirely characterized by its quantitative approach. We used quantitative research because it provides very accurate, quantifiable, and objective data that can be statistically analyzed to identify causal relationships, correlations, and patterns [ 69 ]. Besides, quantitative research reproduces studies, increasing their reliability and validity [ 70 ]. To be more precise, we adopt a cross-sectional survey design methodology, which is rooted in the post-positivism worldview assumptions as presented by Ghasemy et al. [ 71 ]. In addition, it is time-effective and cost-effective for data collection from a large number of subjects within a relatively short time span [ 72 ].

Furthermore, we established a database consisting of nearly 1500 WeChat accounts belonging to academics in the realm of Chinese higher education. This database served as the target population for our study and was subsequently utilized as the input for the Star a Chinese online survey administration platform ( https://www.wjx.cn ). Furthermore, we supplemented this database with a cover page containing explicit instructions on how to effectively complete the survey, as well as ethical considerations pertaining to the privacy and the voluntary nature of their participation. The distribution of the survey yielded a total of 736 responses, procured through the utilization of a simple random sampling technique [ 73 ] given that it enhances the generalization of outcomes. This method resulted in a response rate of 49.0%. Among these responses, a subset of 46 surveys was identified as partially completed and subsequently excluded from the dataset resulting in 690 valid responses. In addition, the investigation utilized the methodology delineated by Kline [ 74 ], advocating that each element within a measurement scale must possess a minimum of 10 reactions. Hence, taking into account the four variables encompassing 20 elements in their entirety, the investigation necessitates a sample size of 200. However, to enhance the generalizability, the study used overall 690 participants with valid responses for the analysis.

The process of translating the questionnaire from English to Chinese and Chinese to English employed the back-translation method proposed by Brislin [ 75 ]. The experts meticulously scrutinized all differences that arose. In order to validate the content of the questionnaire, the measurement instrument was sent to three full professors currently working in the leading universities. Incorporating their recommendations, slight modifications were implemented. To enhance clarity, a pilot study was executed, and the questionnaires were given to 50 educators for their input. No revisions were found to be required for the questionnaires based on the feedback received.

Respondents information

The individuals participating in this study are faculty members (lecturers, assistants, associates, and full professors) employed in educational institutions in China. Before proceeding, it is important to note that the data for this study were collected randomly through the use of online platforms. Out of 690 participants, nearly two-thirds ( n  = 443, 64.2%) were female, and one-third ( n  = 247, 35.8%) were male. Concerning age, ( n  = 168, 24.3%), ( n  = 196, 28.4%), ( n  = 228, 33.0%), and ( n  = 98, 14.2%) were 18–25, 26–35, 36–45, and over 45 years old, respectively. In addition, ( n  = 98, 14.2%), ( n  = 263, 38.1%), and ( n  = 329, 47.7%) held bachelor’s, master’s, and doctorate level education, respectively. Additionally, ( n  = 167, 14.6%), ( n  = 295, 42.8%), and ( n  = 228, 33.0%) had 1–5, 6–10, and over 10 years of working experience, respectively. Regarding their positions, ( n  = 101, 14.6%), ( n  = 328, 47.5%), and ( n  = 261, 37.8%) were lecturers, assistant/associate professors, and full professors, respectively.

Common method bias

There is a divergence of opinions regarding the relevance of common method bias when using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS software, as noted by Hair et al. [ 76 ]. Although this concern is not deemed a primary issue in PLS-SEM applications with SmartPLS [ 76 ], an evaluation of full collinearity using the variance inflation factor (VIF) test was introduced due to the presence of behavioral variables in the proposed framework. This test is suggested to identify potential instances of common method bias [ 76 ]. The results of the present study indicate that the VIF test value is less than 3.3 [ 76 ], which is considered an indication of non-pathological collinearity. This suggests no significant contamination of the model by common method bias.

Statistical tools

According to Hair et al. [ 76 ], since the research was a predictive-explanatory study, the appropriate analytical method to be adopted was PLS-SEM. PLS-SEM has an edge over Covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) given that when the focus of the research is on prediction and theory development, rather than theory testing [ 77 ]. Additionally, PLS-SEM would be more suitable in complex models with a large number of indicators, particularly when data has violated some of the stringent assumptions underlying CB-SEM regarding multivariate normality and large sample sizes [ 77 , 78 ]. Furthermore, PLS-SEM works well for small sample sizes and provides robust estimation and analysis [ 79 ]. For example, according to recent research, by Hair and Alamer [ 77 ] PLS-SEM has the advantage of flexibility and is suitable for doing exploratory research, which places it at the forefront of preferences within disciplines such as social sciences.

Besides, the use of PLS-SEM is increasingly widespread and widely acknowledged in several disciplines [ 80 , 81 , 82 ] including education such as Liu et al. [ 83 ] applied it in the Chinese educational sector, while Hassan et al. [ 84 ] used it in the Pakistani educational sector. The primary analysis using PLS-SEM focused on R 2 of endogenous variables, effect sizes, predictive relevance of effects, prediction errors, and the statistical inference of path coefficients. Additionally, the measurement models and the structural model were estimated using PLS-SEM under the SmartPLS software [ 85 ].

The responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In this research, four measurement scales of OC, PW, TI, and JoS variables were used. Commonly, five items adapted from [ 86 , 87 ], were used to measure the OC construct. In addition, five items adapted from Ho and Au [ 88 ], were used to measure the JoS construct for educators. Similarly, this study adopted five items from Ibrahim et al. [ 89 ] to measure the PW of educators. Lastly, the TI construct was measured with five items adapted from Spieth et al. [ 90 ].

Measurement (outer) model evaluation

Next, the suitability of the measurement model is assessed with respect to the reliability and validity of the variables. Cronbach’s alpha–CA and composite reliability–CR were computed, ranging from 0.70 to 0.95, ensuring reliability according to Hair et al. [ 76 ] (see Table  1 ). The convergent validity was also assured because all average variance extraction–AVEs are above 0.50 and all construct indicator loading values are greater than 0.70, considered acceptable as per Hair et al. [ 76 ] (see Table  1 ).

Discriminant validity was assessed using two parameters: the Fornell and Larcker criterion and a heterotrait-monotrait ratio–HTMT. Table  2 outcomes affirmed that the bolded diagonal value for each variable (JoS, OC, PW, and TI) exceeded the correlation values between constructs [ 91 ].

Regarding the second criterion of discriminant validity, the HTMT ratio in Table 3  demonstrates that all variables’ HTMT ratios were below the acceptable threshold of 0.85 and 0.90 [ 71 , 76 ], indicating no discriminant validity issues.

Structural (inner) model evaluation

After assessing the measurement model for convergent and discriminant validity, the subsequent phase involves validating the structural model. This process comprises five crucial steps: (1) evaluating collinearity, (2) examining path coefficients (β) or hypotheses testing, (3) calculating the percentage of variance explained ( R 2 ), (4) determining predictive relevance through Q 2 , and (5) assessing the goodness of model fit.

Concerning the first metric, collinearity assessment, Table  1 illustrates that all constructs’ values range between 1.584 and 2.371, below the acceptable limit of 3.0 [ 76 ], indicating the proposed model is free from collinearity concerns. Additionally, the hypotheses’ significance was assessed using a bootstrapping method with 5000 resamples. The empirical findings reveal that all hypothesized paths exhibited significance ( p -value < 0.05); therefore, H1–H5 were supported (see Table 4 ; Fig.  2 ). Moreover, the values of R 2 for the endogenous latent constructs PW and JoS signify the proposed model’s explanatory power, indicating the extent to which the exogenous variable OC explains the endogenous variables PW and JoS. R 2 values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating greater predictive accuracy [ 76 ]. Specifically, the R 2 value for PW was 0.724, implying that the combined influence of OC, PW, and TI accounts for 72.4% of the variation in JoS (see Fig.  2 ).

Furthermore, in the assessment of predictive relevance, the study employed Q 2 . Typically, Q 2 is computed through the blindfolding procedure, using the following formula (see Eq.  1 ).

It is a technique involving the omission and re-estimation of data points. Essentially, Q 2 indicates how effectively the empirically collected data can be reconstructed using the PLS parameters and model [ 76 ]. When the Q 2 value for a specific construct exceeds zero, it signifies the predictive relevance of the path model for that dependent variable. Table 4  illustrates that the Q 2 values for PW and JoS were 0.384 and 0.548, suggesting an acceptable level of predictive relevance.

Lastly, when using the PLS-SEM approach through SmartPLS, the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR) is suggested to check the overall model fit [ 76 ]. SRMR is an objective measure of goodness of fit for a model, where a value of zero indicates a perfect fit. A value below 0.08 is considered indicative of a good fit [ 76 ] (see Table 4 ).

Figure  2 illustrates the proposed relationship path coefficients, their indicators loadings, and their level of significance.

Bootstrapping result

Mediation analysis

To explore the mediating impact of PW, the bootstrapping technique was applied to estimate direct, indirect, and total effects. As outlined in Table  4 and illustrated in Fig.  2 , PW exhibits positive and statistically significant effects on JoS, both directly and indirectly. In the computation of the mediation of PW, the variance accounted for (VAF) formula, suggested by Hair et al. [ 76 ], was employed (see Eqs.  2 and 3 ).

According to Hair et al. [ 76 ], the VAF values falling less than 20% reflect no mediation, if between 20 and 80% represents partial, and if above 80% illustrates full mediation. The findings of the current study revealed a 40.9% indicating partial mediation of PW.

Moderation analysis

The study used widely used effect size (f 2 ) formula proposed by Cohen [ 92 ] to evidence the moderation effect of TI (see Eq. 4 ).

As per Cohen [ 92 ], the values 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 represent minimal, moderate, and substantial f 2 for the constructs. The study results evidenced that TI attained the targeted f 2 values, which infers that TI (moderator) has medium effect on the OC–JoS relationship.

Result discussion

The results indicated that JoS is positively and significantly influenced by OC (Beta = 0.332, t  = 8.169, p  = 0.000), thereby, H1 was supported. This finding infers that the OC is perceived as fostering a positive and inclusive environment, indicating a workplace that values collaboration and inclusivity. Moreover, the acknowledged contribution of leadership styles to trust and camaraderie emphasizes the role of leadership in creating a supportive atmosphere. The overall influence of the OC on JoS reinforces the idea that a positive work environment significantly contributes to teachers’ overall JoS. This result is consistent with prior work of [ 40 , 41 ].

This positive influence extends to PW, where respondents express a sense of purpose and fulfillment in their work, indicating a positive psychological state (Beta = 0.692, t  = 27.012, p  = 0.000), therefore, H2 was supported. The positive impact of organizational support on PW is highlighted, showcasing how the OC plays a crucial role in influencing teachers’ mental and emotional well-being. This, in turn, is integral to shaping overall JoS, as evidenced by respondents finding their work meaningful, fulfilling, and providing satisfaction in terms of personal and professional growth (Beta = 0.230, t  = 7.128, p  = 0.000), Thus, H4 was supported. These results are in line with prior work of [ 21 , 25 , 29 , 42 , 44 , 46 , 47 ].

Furthermore, teachers express a profound sense of purpose and fulfillment in their work, indicating a positive psychological state associated with the intrinsic value they derive from their professional roles (Beta = 0.332, t  = 7.321, p  = 0.000), therefore, H3 was supported. This finding indicates the acknowledgment that PW is positively influenced by organizational support and emphasizes the role of a supportive work environment in enhancing teachers’ mental and emotional welfare. The crucial role attributed to PW in shaping overall JoS highlights the significance of teachers’ mental and emotional states in determining their satisfaction levels. As teachers perceive their work as meaningful, fulfilling, and providing satisfaction in terms of personal and professional growth, it becomes clear that PW acts as a driving force behind their overall JoS. This finding is in line with prior work of [ 29 , 51 , 58 , 59 ].

Regarding the last hypothesis, the study results evidenced that the influence of OC on JoS is positively and significantly moderated by TI (Beta = 0.100, t  = 3.919, p  = 0.000), hence, H5 was supported. The positive moderation suggests that technology is a facilitator of the positive effect of a conducive OC on teachers’ satisfaction. What this may mean is that the inclusion of technology in educational settings, either in the form of innovative teaching tools, effective communication systems, or efficient administrative procedures, adds up to the overall JoS of teachers, especially where the OC is already good. It means that a supportive OC and good technological support would interact to create a more satisfactory work experience for teachers. The findings agree with [ 7 , 93 ].

Conclusion and implications

This paper concludes the key role of OC in influencing the educators’ JoS and PW within the Chinese higher education setup. The positive contribution of OC in the JoS obviously makes a case for an inclusive and supportive work atmosphere, leadership styles, and overall atmosphere of the organization. The study also establishes a strong link between OC and PW, indicating that a positive OC contributes to the PW of teachers in a way that makes them feel that their work is purposeful and full of meaning. This research also brings out the mediating role of PW in the relationship between OC and JoS. This underscores the fact that these variables are in a linked context. The study further reveals the moderating influence of TI on the OC-JoS relationship, a pointer to the fact that technology is key to fully enhancing the positive impact of an OC on educators’ JoS.

Theoretical implications

The theoretical implications of this research are threefold. First, it adds to the extant literature by filling the research gap in understanding subtle dimensions of OC that have profound effects on JoS among educators [ 11 , 16 , 86 ]. The research also contributes to the extension of the theoretical framework by underlining the mediating role of PW [ 25 , 27 , 54 ] and the moderating effect of TI [ 32 , 68 ], in a more complete understanding of the complex interplay of variables in the education sector context.

Practical implications

This research offers crucial actionable strategies with significant practical implications for educational institutions and policy formulation. First and foremost, educational administrators need to keep a personal and engaging atmosphere by way of regular interaction with teachers, giving the needed feedback, and recognizing hard work. Teachers’ PW and JoS are expected to increase as a result of these behaviors, which also foster a sense of belonging and trust. Second, there needs to be a clear and open channel for communication. Regular staff meetings, suggestion boxes, and open-door policies make teachers feel heard and respected, thus tending to reinforce engagement and satisfaction.

Additionally, educational entities have to offer well-being programs for teachers with regard to mental health and the promotion of good work-life balance. Counseling, mindfulness workshops, and wellness days help greatly to raise teachers’ PW. Furthermore, technology plays a significant part in relieving instructors of a heavy workload in administrative tasks, which helps them perform better in terms of student engagement and teaching methods. Tools like an automated grading system, learning management systems, and virtual collaboration platforms, may save much stress and massively improve JoS.

Limitation and future research direction

Despite the valuable insights provided, this study has limitations. The data collection method, relying on online platforms might introduce biases, and the cross-sectional design limits establishing causation. Future research could employ longitudinal designs to explore the dynamic relationships over time. Additionally, the study focuses on the higher education sector in China, limiting generalizability. Comparative studies across different cultural and educational contexts would offer a broader perspective. Further exploration of specific contextual factors influencing the mediating role of PW and the moderating effect of TI would contribute to a more nuanced understanding of these relationships. Moreover, our research only tested the moderation effect on the OC–JoS link; however, it suggested that future studies could investigate the effect of TI moderation on the PW–JoS link among teachers. Additionally, the role of different leadership styles such as transformational and transactional, is suggested to be explored as a moderator on the relationship between OC, PW, and JoS. Moreover, a sample from the kindergarten, junior, and high school can also be empirically examined, given that factors influencing teacher JoS in this context could be different.

Availability of data and materials

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The data were anonymized, ensuring that there was no breach of privacy, and will be shared in a manner that respects ethical protocols and data protection regulations. The dataset will be accessible only for academic purposes, and any use of the data will recognize the original study and maintain the confidentiality of the participants.

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Yiming, L., Yan, L. & Jinsheng, Z. Effects of organizational climate on employee job satisfaction and psychological well-being: the role of technological influence in Chinese higher education. BMC Psychol 12 , 536 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01992-3

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01992-3

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Is business sustainability possible the moderating role of place of work in the relationship between hotel safety culture, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and customer-oriented behavior: a cross-regional study.

1. Introduction

2. theoretical framework and hypotheses development, 3. materials and methods, 3.1. research instrument, 3.2. sampling and data collection, 3.3. data analysis, 4. findings, 4.1. demographic profile, 4.2. the result of the outer model, 4.3. the result of the inner model, 4.4. the results of the moderator effect, 5. conclusions, 6. discussion, 6.1. theoretical implications, 6.2. practical implications, 6.3. limitations and future research, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest, appendix a. scale items.

• Hotel safety culture
• Factor TT: Training
• The hotel’s incident report and investigation system have been completed.
• The hotel cares about and is concerned about the need and impact of employee training.
• The hotel establishes hazard prevention, control and management procedures for significant hazards.
• The hotel conducts a risk assessment of the working environment of each department.
• The hotel provides sufficient resources (such as manpower and budget) to implement employee training.
• Thanks to safety training, employees understand the danger factors in the workplace.
• Thanks to security training, employees and managers communicate and interact with each other.
• The hotel security management system includes operating procedures, equipment management and employee safety.
• Factor PP: Perceived Safety Psychology
• Employees understand and are familiar with emergency procedures.
• Employees understand the definition of the term “safety culture.”
• Employees take pride in adhering to health and safety regulations.
• Employees comply with standard operating procedures and safety practice rules.
• Employees work in accordance with safety procedures when managers are off site.
• Employees remain alert during working hours.
• Employees are aware of the security procedures within their scope of operation.
• The status of the industrial safety department in the organization is valued.
• Employees know how to protect their own safety in the workplace.
• Employees comply with unsafe behaviors that are corrected by managers.
• Factor OO: Organization Safety Culture
• Hotel managers frequently promote safety rules and supervise and care for employees in the workplace.
• Hotel managers attach great importance to the job/occupational safety of new employees.
• The hotel establishes clear security reward and penalty procedures.
• The hotel periodically inspects its firefighting equipment, machinery and tools.
• The hotel emphasizes that the most important thing is to carry out our duties safely.
• When operational performance conflicts with safety, hotel managers prioritize safety.
• Hotel safety awards help encourage safety performance.
• Hotel managers periodically evaluate employees’ safety attitudes for improvement.
• Factor EE: Environment
• The hotel provides protective equipment such as gloves, safety shoes and earplugs.
• The hotel periodically organizes first aid personnel training courses.
• Hotel equipment has a maintenance schedule.
• The hotel requests that all employees rehearse their emergency response.
• The hotel provides a clean/tidy work environment.
• The hotel upholds relevant labor laws, regulations and specifications.
• Factor BB: Behavior
• Employees will report unsafe behavior by co-workers to managers.
• Employees prioritize safety when their work conflicts with safety.
• Employees are rewarded if managers adopt their suggestions.
• Employees proactively discuss operational safety issues with their colleagues and managers.
• Employees correct each other when they violate safety rules.
• Employees are careful about their own actions or those of their colleagues if they have the potential to be dangerous.
• Job Satisfaction (JS)
• In my work, I feel like I am doing something valuable.
• I feel like my job is interesting.
• I feel that my job is satisfying.
• Organizational Commitment (OC)
• My organization (hotel) is very important to me.
• My institution means a lot to me.
• My organization says a lot about who I am.
• My organization says something about me.
• Customer-Oriented Behavior (COB)
• Naturally, I know what consumers need in a hotel.
• I respond to consumer requests immediately.
• Consumers’ interests always come first for me.
• It makes me happy to provide the services that consumers want.
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Dağlı, E.; Gecikli, R.M.; Turan, O.; Orgun, E.; Unal, A.; Bayram, F.; Isin, A.; Yayla, O. Is Business Sustainability Possible? The Moderating Role of Place of Work in the Relationship between Hotel Safety Culture, Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Customer-Oriented Behavior: A Cross-Regional Study. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 8876. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208876

Dağlı E, Gecikli RM, Turan O, Orgun E, Unal A, Bayram F, Isin A, Yayla O. Is Business Sustainability Possible? The Moderating Role of Place of Work in the Relationship between Hotel Safety Culture, Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Customer-Oriented Behavior: A Cross-Regional Study. Sustainability . 2024; 16(20):8876. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208876

Dağlı, Erkan, Recep Murat Gecikli, Orhan Turan, Emrah Orgun, Aydin Unal, Fuat Bayram, Alper Isin, and Ozgur Yayla. 2024. "Is Business Sustainability Possible? The Moderating Role of Place of Work in the Relationship between Hotel Safety Culture, Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Customer-Oriented Behavior: A Cross-Regional Study" Sustainability 16, no. 20: 8876. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16208876

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