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References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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References in Research

Definition:

References in research are a list of sources that a researcher has consulted or cited while conducting their study. They are an essential component of any academic work, including research papers, theses, dissertations, and other scholarly publications.

Types of References

There are several types of references used in research, and the type of reference depends on the source of information being cited. The most common types of references include:

References to books typically include the author’s name, title of the book, publisher, publication date, and place of publication.

Example: Smith, J. (2018). The Art of Writing. Penguin Books.

Journal Articles

References to journal articles usually include the author’s name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date.

Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 87-94.

Web sources

References to web sources should include the author or organization responsible for the content, the title of the page, the URL, and the date accessed.

Example: World Health Organization. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public

Conference Proceedings

References to conference proceedings should include the author’s name, title of the paper, name of the conference, location of the conference, date of the conference, and page numbers.

Example: Chen, S., & Li, J. (2019). The Future of AI in Education. Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Technology, Beijing, China, July 15-17, pp. 67-78.

References to reports typically include the author or organization responsible for the report, title of the report, publication date, and publisher.

Example: United Nations. (2020). The Sustainable Development Goals Report. United Nations.

Formats of References

Some common Formates of References with their examples are as follows:

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

The APA (American Psychological Association) Style has specific guidelines for formatting references used in academic papers, articles, and books. Here are the different reference formats in APA style with examples:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Smith, J. K. (2005). The psychology of social interaction. Wiley-Blackwell.

Journal Article

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Brown, L. M., Keating, J. G., & Jones, S. M. (2012). The role of social support in coping with stress among African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 218-233.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication or last update). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020, December 11). COVID-19: How to protect yourself and others. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

Magazine article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Magazine, volume number(issue number), page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. (2019, March 11). The power of positive thinking. Psychology Today, 52(3), 60-65.

Newspaper article:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, page numbers.

Example: Johnson, B. (2021, February 15). New study shows benefits of exercise on mental health. The New York Times, A8.

Edited book

Editor, E. E. (Ed.). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example : Thompson, J. P. (Ed.). (2014). Social work in the 21st century. Sage Publications.

Chapter in an edited book:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.

Example : Johnson, K. S. (2018). The future of social work: Challenges and opportunities. In J. P. Thompson (Ed.), Social work in the 21st century (pp. 105-118). Sage Publications.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style

The MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the humanities. Here are the different reference formats in MLA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Smith, John. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Journal article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., et al. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence, vol. 22, no. 1, 2012, pp. 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, Publication date, URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC, 11 Dec. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, Mar. 2019, pp. 60-65.

Newspaper article

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, 15 Feb. 2021, p. A8.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Thompson, John P., editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Chapter in an edited book

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last name, Publisher, Publication year, page numbers.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, Sage Publications, 2014, pp. 105-118.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style is a widely used style for writing academic papers, dissertations, and books in the humanities and social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Chicago style:

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Publication year): page numbers.

Example : Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. Publication date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Publication date.

Example : Smith, Mary. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Publication date.

Example : Johnson, Bob. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Publisher, Publication year.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Sage Publications, 2014.

Harvard Style

The Harvard Style, also known as the Author-Date System, is a widely used style for writing academic papers and essays in the social sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Harvard Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2005. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number (issue number): page numbers.

Example: Brown, Laura M., John G. Keating, and Sarah M. Jones. 2012. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 22 (1): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL. Accessed date.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, month and date of publication.

Example : Smith, Mary. 2019. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 2019.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, month and date of publication.

Example : Johnson, Bob. 2021. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Year of publication. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Thompson, John P., ed. 2014. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of publication. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s First Name Last Name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example : Johnson, Karen S. 2014. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by John P. Thompson, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Vancouver Style

The Vancouver Style, also known as the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, is a widely used style for writing academic papers in the biomedical sciences. Here are the different reference formats in Vancouver Style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title. Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Example : Brown LM, Keating JG, Jones SM. The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents. J Res Adolesc. 2012;22(1):218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name [Internet]. Publication date. [cited date]. Available from: URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others [Internet]. 2020 Dec 11. [cited 2023 Apr 1]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Magazine. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Smith M. The Power of Positive Thinking. Psychology Today. 2019 Mar 1:32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper. Year of publication; month and day of publication:page numbers.

Example : Johnson B. New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health. The New York Times. 2021 Feb 15:A4.

Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Chapter. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, editor. Title of Book. Edition number. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. page numbers.

Example : Johnson KS. The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities. In: Thompson JP, editor. Social Work in the 21st Century. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2014. p. 105-118.

Turabian Style

Turabian style is a variation of the Chicago style used in academic writing, particularly in the fields of history and humanities. Here are the different reference formats in Turabian style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, John K. The Psychology of Social Interaction. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal volume number, no. issue number (Year of publication): page numbers.

Example : Brown, LM, Keating, JG, Jones, SM. “The Role of Social Support in Coping with Stress among African American Adolescents.” J Res Adolesc 22, no. 1 (2012): 218-233.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Publication date. Accessed date. URL.

Example : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “COVID-19: How to Protect Yourself and Others.” CDC. December 11, 2020. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine, Month Day, Year of publication, page numbers.

Example : Smith, M. “The Power of Positive Thinking.” Psychology Today, March 1, 2019, 32-35.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Newspaper, Month Day, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, B. “New Study Shows Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.

Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Thompson, JP, ed. Social Work in the 21st Century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Chapter.” In Title of Book, edited by Editor’s Last name, First name, page numbers. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Johnson, KS. “The Future of Social Work: Challenges and Opportunities.” In Social Work in the 21st Century, edited by Thompson, JP, 105-118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) style is commonly used in engineering, computer science, and other technical fields. Here are the different reference formats in IEEE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.

Example : Oppenheim, A. V., & Schafer, R. W. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Abbreviated Journal Title, vol. number, no. issue number, pp. page numbers, Month year of publication.

Example: Shannon, C. E. “A Mathematical Theory of Communication.” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 379-423, July 1948.

Conference paper

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Paper.” In Title of Conference Proceedings, Place of Conference, Date of Conference, pp. page numbers, Year of publication.

Example: Gupta, S., & Kumar, P. “An Improved System of Linear Discriminant Analysis for Face Recognition.” In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Science and Network Technology, Harbin, China, Dec. 2011, pp. 144-147.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Webpage.” Name of Website. Date of publication or last update. Accessed date. URL.

Example : National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Apollo 11.” NASA. July 20, 1969. Accessed April 1, 2023. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html.

Technical report

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Report.” Name of Institution or Organization, Report number, Year of publication.

Example : Smith, J. R. “Development of a New Solar Panel Technology.” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A20-51645, 2011.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Patent.” Patent number, Issue date.

Example : Suzuki, H. “Method of Producing Carbon Nanotubes.” US Patent 7,151,019, December 19, 2006.

Standard Title. Standard number, Publication date.

Example : IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic. IEEE Std 754-2008, August 29, 2008

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) style is commonly used in chemistry and related fields. Here are the different reference formats in ACS style:

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. Abbreviated Journal Title Year, Volume, Page Numbers.

Example : Wang, Y.; Zhao, X.; Cui, Y.; Ma, Y. Facile Preparation of Fe3O4/graphene Composites Using a Hydrothermal Method for High-Performance Lithium Ion Batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 2715-2721.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication.

Example : Carey, F. A. Organic Chemistry; McGraw-Hill: New York, 2008.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In Book Title; Editor’s Last name, First name, Ed.; Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume number, Chapter number, Page Numbers.

Example : Grossman, R. B. Analytical Chemistry of Aerosols. In Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications; Baron, P. A.; Willeke, K., Eds.; Wiley-Interscience: New York, 2001; Chapter 10, pp 395-424.

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Webpage. Website Name, URL (accessed date).

Example : National Institute of Standards and Technology. Atomic Spectra Database. https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database (accessed April 1, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Patent Number. Patent Date.

Example : Liu, Y.; Huang, H.; Chen, H.; Zhang, W. US Patent 9,999,999, December 31, 2022.

Author’s Last name, First name; Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Article. In Title of Conference Proceedings, Publisher: Place of Publication, Year of Publication; Volume Number, Page Numbers.

Example : Jia, H.; Xu, S.; Wu, Y.; Wu, Z.; Tang, Y.; Huang, X. Fast Adsorption of Organic Pollutants by Graphene Oxide. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2017; Volume 1, pp 223-228.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) style is commonly used in medical and scientific fields. Here are the different reference formats in AMA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Article Title. Journal Abbreviation. Year; Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example : Jones, R. A.; Smith, B. C. The Role of Vitamin D in Maintaining Bone Health. JAMA. 2019;321(17):1765-1773.

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Guyton, A. C.; Hall, J. E. Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2015.

Author’s Last name, First name. Chapter Title. In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: Page Numbers.

Example: Rajakumar, K. Vitamin D and Bone Health. In: Holick, M. F., ed. Vitamin D: Physiology, Molecular Biology, and Clinical Applications. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2010:211-222.

Author’s Last name, First name. Webpage Title. Website Name. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

Example : National Cancer Institute. Breast Cancer Prevention (PDQ®)–Patient Version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/patient/breast-prevention-pdq. Published October 11, 2022. Accessed April 1, 2023.

Author’s Last name, First name. Conference presentation title. In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Place of Conference.

Example : Smith, J. R. Vitamin D and Bone Health: A Meta-Analysis. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; September 20-23, 2022; San Diego, CA.

Thesis or dissertation

Author’s Last name, First name. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. Degree level [Doctoral dissertation or Master’s thesis]. University Name; Year.

Example : Wilson, S. A. The Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation on Bone Health in Postmenopausal Women [Doctoral dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2018.

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Style

The ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) style is commonly used in civil engineering fields. Here are the different reference formats in ASCE style:

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title, volume number, issue number (year): page numbers. DOI or URL (if available).

Example : Smith, J. R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 146, no. 3 (2020): 04020010. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001668.

Example : McCuen, R. H. Hydrologic Analysis and Design. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education; 2013.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First name, ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example : Maidment, D. R. “Floodplain Management in the United States.” In: Shroder, J. F., ed. Treatise on Geomorphology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2013: 447-460.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year: page numbers.

Example: Smith, J. R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019: 156-163.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. “Hurricane Sandy Coastal Risk Reduction Program, New York and New Jersey.” Report No. P-15-001. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; 2015.

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

The CSE (Council of Science Editors) style is commonly used in the scientific and medical fields. Here are the different reference formats in CSE style:

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Year;Volume(Issue):Page numbers.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Sustainable Drainage Systems in Urban Areas.” Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2020;146(3):04020010.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Chapter Title.” In: Editor’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial., ed. Book Title. Edition number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year:Page numbers.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Paper Title.” In: Conference Title; Conference Date; Location. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example : Smith, J.R. “Sustainable Drainage Systems for Urban Areas.” In: Proceedings of the ASCE International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure; November 6-9, 2019; Los Angeles, CA. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers; 2019.

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Report Title.” Report number. Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Bluebook Style

The Bluebook style is commonly used in the legal field for citing legal documents and sources. Here are the different reference formats in Bluebook style:

Case citation

Case name, volume source page (Court year).

Example : Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

Statute citation

Name of Act, volume source § section number (year).

Example : Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 (1963).

Regulation citation

Name of regulation, volume source § section number (year).

Example: Clean Air Act, 40 C.F.R. § 52.01 (2019).

Book citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. Book Title. Edition number (if applicable). Place of Publication: Publisher; Year.

Example: Smith, J.R. Legal Writing and Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Aspen Publishers; 2015.

Journal article citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Article Title.” Journal Title. Volume number (year): first page-last page.

Example: Garcia, C. “The Right to Counsel: An International Comparison.” International Journal of Legal Information. 43 (2015): 63-94.

Website citation

Author’s Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed month day, year).

Example : United Nations. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Oxford Style

The Oxford style, also known as the Oxford referencing system or the documentary-note citation system, is commonly used in the humanities, including literature, history, and philosophy. Here are the different reference formats in Oxford style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin, 2020.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue (year): page range.

Example: Garcia, Carlos. “The Role of Ethics in Philosophy.” Philosophy Today 67, no. 3 (2019): 53-68.

Chapter in an edited book citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Lee, Mary. “Feminism in the 21st Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Author’s Last name, First name. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed 3 January 2023).

Dissertation or thesis citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name, Year of Publication.

Example : Brown, Susan. “The Art of Storytelling in American Literature.” PhD diss., University of Oxford, 2020.

Newspaper article citation

Author’s Last name, First name. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day, Year.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. “New Developments in Climate Change Research.” The Guardian, September 15, 2022.

AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) style is commonly used in anthropology research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AAA style:

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Book Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Smith, John. 2019. The Anthropology of Food. New York: Routledge.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Journal Title volume, no. issue: page range.

Example : Garcia, Carlos. 2021. “The Role of Ethics in Anthropology.” American Anthropologist 123, no. 2: 237-251.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor’s Name, page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example: Lee, Mary. 2018. “Feminism in Anthropology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Feminism, edited by Jane Smith, 51-69. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Page Title.” Website Title. URL (accessed day month year).

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Importance of Learning Languages.” Oxford Language Center. https://www.oxfordlanguagecenter.com/importance-of-learning-languages/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Dissertation/Thesis.” PhD diss., University Name.

Example : Brown, Susan. 2022. “The Art of Storytelling in Anthropology.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley.

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Article Title.” Newspaper Title, Month Day.

Example : Robinson, Andrew. 2021. “New Developments in Anthropology Research.” The Guardian, September 15.

AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style

The American Institute of Physics (AIP) style is commonly used in physics research papers and journals. Here are the different reference formats in AIP style:

Example : Johnson, S. D. 2021. “Quantum Computing and Information.” Journal of Applied Physics 129, no. 4: 043102.

Example : Feynman, Richard. 2018. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. New York: Basic Books.

Example : Jones, David. 2020. “The Future of Quantum Computing.” In The Handbook of Physics, edited by John Smith, 125-136. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Conference proceedings citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. “Title of Paper.” Proceedings of Conference Name, date and location: page range. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Example : Chen, Wei. 2019. “The Applications of Nanotechnology in Solar Cells.” Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Nanotechnology, July 15-17, Tokyo, Japan: 224-229. New York: AIP Publishing.

Example : American Institute of Physics. 2022. “About AIP Publishing.” AIP Publishing. https://publishing.aip.org/about-aip-publishing/ (accessed January 3, 2023).

Patent citation

Author’s Last name, First name. Year of Publication. Patent Number.

Example : Smith, John. 2018. US Patent 9,873,644.

References Writing Guide

Here are some general guidelines for writing references:

Follow the citation style guidelines: Different disciplines and journals may require different citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). It is important to follow the specific guidelines for the citation style required.
Include all necessary information : Each citation should include enough information for readers to locate the source. For example, a journal article citation should include the author(s), title of the article, journal title, volume number, issue number, page numbers, and publication year.
Use proper formatting: Citation styles typically have specific formatting requirements for different types of sources. Make sure to follow the proper formatting for each citation.
Order citations alphabetically: If listing multiple sources, they should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name.
Be consistent: Use the same citation style throughout the entire paper or project.
Check for accuracy: Double-check all citations to ensure accuracy, including correct spelling of author names and publication information.
Use reputable sources: When selecting sources to cite, choose reputable and authoritative sources. Avoid sources that are biased or unreliable.
Include all sources: Make sure to include all sources used in the research, including those that were not directly quoted but still informed the work.
Use online tools : There are online tools available (e.g., citation generators) that can help with formatting and organizing references.

Purpose of References in Research

References in research serve several purposes:

To give credit to the original authors or sources of information used in the research. It is important to acknowledge the work of others and avoid plagiarism.
To provide evidence for the claims made in the research. References can support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research by citing relevant studies, data, or theories.
To allow readers to find and verify the sources used in the research. References provide the necessary information for readers to locate and access the sources cited in the research, which allows them to evaluate the quality and reliability of the information presented.
To situate the research within the broader context of the field. References can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge, and can help readers to identify gaps in the literature that the research seeks to address.

Importance of References in Research

References play an important role in research for several reasons:

Credibility : By citing authoritative sources, references lend credibility to the research and its claims. They provide evidence that the research is based on a sound foundation of knowledge and has been carefully researched.
Avoidance of Plagiarism : References help researchers avoid plagiarism by giving credit to the original authors or sources of information. This is important for ethical reasons and also to avoid legal repercussions.
Reproducibility : References allow others to reproduce the research by providing detailed information on the sources used. This is important for verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
Context : References provide context for the research by situating it within the broader body of knowledge in the field. They help researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
Evaluation : References provide a means for others to evaluate the research by allowing them to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.

Advantages of References in Research

There are several advantages of including references in research:

Acknowledgment of Sources: Including references gives credit to the authors or sources of information used in the research. This is important to acknowledge the original work and avoid plagiarism.
Evidence and Support : References can provide evidence to support the arguments, hypotheses, or conclusions presented in the research. This can add credibility and strength to the research.
Reproducibility : References provide the necessary information for others to reproduce the research. This is important for the verification of the research and for others to build on the work.
Context : References can help to situate the research within the broader body of knowledge in the field. This helps researchers to understand where their work fits in and how it builds on or contributes to existing knowledge.
Evaluation : Including references allows others to evaluate the research by providing a means to assess the quality and reliability of the sources used.
Ongoing Conversation: References allow researchers to engage in ongoing conversations and debates within their fields. They can show how the research builds on or contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Researching and Referencing: Referencing Skills

Research Skills Resources
Locating Information
Evaluating Resources
Study Skills Resources
Writing Skills
Presentations
Academic Skills
Referencing Skills
Digital Literacy
Plagiarism This link opens in a new window
Generative AI

Bibliographies and Referencing

Referencing Styles in TAFE NSW
Why Reference?
Bibliography or Reference List

Several referencing styles have been developed over the years to record details of the sources you have used for your work. Examples include Harvard and American Psychology Association (APA) which are known as author date systems. Other styles include Chicago, MLA, Oxford and Vancouver.

Different subject areas tend to use different styles. For instance, sociology subjects tend to use APA, business based courses tend to use Harvard, and some arts courses use Chicago.

Even within these styles you will find different versions. APA follows an official manual and will be fairly consistent around the world. Harvard, however has no such rule book and you will find different versions at every university.

TAFE NSW has made the decision we will only use TAFE NSW Harvard or APA 7 and we have provided a consistent version of the styles to use across TAFE NSW. An exception is AGLC for Legal Studies courses.

Check with your teacher which style is the correct one for your course.

It's important that you check any citations that you might find via a citation generator or from a database against the TAFE NSW guidelines versions.

If you go on to study at other educational institutions or universities, you will need to make sure you follow the exact referencing style for your teaching department (again, check with your teacher when you start your course). The principles will be the same, but the format will probably be different from what you are used to in TAFE NSW!

For help with using the Harvard and APA 7 referencing guides, please contact your local library.

Information or ideas from other people's work used in the writing of your essays or reports must be acknowledged.

Why should I reference my work?

It demonstrates that you have researched and considered the ideas of others in developing your argument.
It provides the person marking the work with the specific names, dates and location of the information sources that you have used.
It ensures that you are not guilty of plagiarising .

A bibliography or reference list is a complete list of all the books, articles, and other information sources you have read or used to help you write your essay or assignment. It should be arranged alphabetically by the author's surname.

What's the difference between a bibliography and a reference list? A bibliography is a list of all the resources that have been read in the research of your assignment, but not necessarily used. A reference list includes only the resources that have been used and cited in your assignment.

Note that APA does not use bibliographies, only reference lists

Record details as you take notes (e.g. author, title, year)
Record the URL or web address for websites.
Use the library catalogue to get details of books and DVDs.
Write down the page number where you found useful information.
When quoting - use " " to show exact wording for in-text citations.

Learn more about referencing in the following tutorials.

Monash University - Citing and referencing

Referencing Resources

General Resources
Harvard Style
Citation Generators
Other Styles
Guide to citing Australian Bureau of Statistics sources
HSC: all my own work
APA 7 style blog
A guide to TAFE NSW referencing: APA 7 style TAFE NSW Libraries 2023

Guide to what’s new in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition

APA 7 Checklists

Further information, examples and checklists on selected topics to accompany the TAFE NSW Libraries APA 7 Referencing Guide

A guide to TAFE NSW referencing: Harvard style TAFE NSW Libraries 2023
University of Melbourne Library - AGLC
TAFE NSW Citation generator (APA 7/Harvard style)

There are many citation generators available for APA 7 and Harvard, but caution should be taken as they will not exactly match the TAFE NSW referencing guidelines.

Oxford referencing system Also known as the documentary-note method.

The Footnote / Bibliography or 'Oxford" Referencing System
The documentary-note (Oxford) referencing style

Vancouver The Vancouver system was first published by the Vancouver Group and was named after it. This style of referencing is mainly used in medicine and was further developed by the National Library of Medicine (US).

Referencing using Vancouver style
IEEE reference generator
IEEE referencing guide - Monash University

Annotated Bibliographies

Southern Cross University : How to write an annotated bibliography (2020) - eVideo
Queensland University of Technology : How to write an annotated bibliography
University of NSW : Annotated bibliography

Other Relevant LibGuides

Suggested books and ebooks.

How to do Bibliographies and Referencing in TAFE NSW

TAFE NSW citation generator

Fill in the details of the sources you use in your work and the citation generator will give you a citation that matches the TAFE NSW guidelines. Start by clicking a link below to enter your own item and make a citation.

Citation Generator - APA 7
Citation Generator - Harvard

TAFE NSW print guides

Use the links below for a full text printable guide to the referencing standards of TAFE NSW.

Referencing Generative AI Tools

There are currently no confirmed guidelines to acknowledge these tools in Harvard or APA style. However, until these guidelines are developed, you may use the following formatting :

APA in-text citation

Formula: (Author, Year)
The author is the creator/publisher of the tool, ie Open AI, Google

When prompted with “[your prompts]” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “[generated content]” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI (2023) indicated that "[generated content]"

Based on content provided by ChatGPT (OpenAI, 2023), [summary in your words]

Image label: Image generated by OpenAI (2023)

APA reference

Formula: Author. (Year). Title of software or model (Version date if known) [Format]. URL
Format is the description of the type of model as provided by the publishers

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

OpenAI. (2023). DALL-E [AI image generator]. https://labs.openai.com

APA ChatGPT guidelines are based on this 7 April 2023 APA style blog post: How to cite ChatGPT

Harvard in-text citation

As the source of information is not recoverable by the reader, describe the prompt (the question you asked) and/or content generated by AI in your writing and follow the reference format for personal communication by providing all the details in-text. Include the name of the communicator/program (e.g. OpenAI ChatGPT) as the author and be as precise as you can with the date that you created it. Do not include an entry in the reference list.

Formula: (Communicator, personal communication, Day Month Year)
(OpenAI ChatGPT, personal communication, 7 February 2023)
In an online chat with OpenAI ChatGPT (7 February 2023) ...
Image generated by OpenAI DALL-E, 7 February 2022

Citing Sources: What are citations and why should I use them?

What is a citation.

Citations are a way of giving credit when certain material in your work came from another source. It also gives your readers the information necessary to find that source again-- it provides an important roadmap to your research process. Whenever you use sources such as books, journals or websites in your research, you must give credit to the original author by citing the source.

Why do researchers cite?

Scholarship is a conversation and scholars use citations not only to give credit to original creators and thinkers, but also to add strength and authority to their own work. By citing their sources, scholars are placing their work in a specific context to show where they “fit” within the larger conversation. Citations are also a great way to leave a trail intended to help others who may want to explore the conversation or use the sources in their own work.

In short, citations

(1) give credit

(2) add strength and authority to your work

(3) place your work in a specific context

(4) leave a trail for other scholars

"Good citations should reveal your sources, not conceal them. They should honeslty reflect the research you conducted." (Lipson 4)

Lipson, Charles. "Why Cite?" Cite Right: A Quick Guide to Citation Styles--MLA, APA, Chicago, the Sciences, Professions, and More . Chicago: U of Chicago, 2006. Print.

What does a citation look like?

Different subject disciplines call for citation information to be written in very specific order, capitalization, and punctuation. There are therefore many different style formats. Three popular citation formats are MLA Style (for humanities articles) and APA or Chicago (for social sciences articles).

MLA style (print journal article):

Whisenant, Warren A. "How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX." Sex Roles Vol. 49.3 (2003): 179-182.

APA style (print journal article):

Whisenant, W. A. (2003) How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX. Sex Roles , 49 (3), 179-182.

Chicago style (print journal article):

Whisenant, Warren A. "How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX." Sex Roles 49, no. 3 (2003): 179-182.

No matter which style you use, all citations require the same basic information:

Author or Creator
Container (e.g., Journal or magazine, website, edited book)
Date of creation or publication
Publisher

You are most likely to have easy access to all of your citation information when you find it in the first place. Take note of this information up front, and it will be much easier to cite it effectively later.

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Next: When should I use a citation? >>
Last Updated: Oct 24, 2023 3:46 PM
URL: https://guides.lib.uw.edu/research/citations

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Quick guide to Harvard referencing (Cite Them Right)

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There are different versions of the Harvard referencing style. This guide is a quick introduction to the commonly-used Cite Them Right version. You will find further guidance available through the OU Library on the Cite Them Right Database .

For help and support with referencing and the full Cite Them Right guide, have a look at the Library’s page on referencing and plagiarism . If you need guidance referencing OU module material you can check out which sections of Cite Them Right are recommended when referencing physical and online module material .

This guide does not apply to OU Law undergraduate students . If you are studying a module beginning with W1xx, W2xx or W3xx, you should refer to the Quick guide to Cite Them Right referencing for Law modules .

In-text citations and full references.

Secondary referencing
Page numbers
Citing multiple sources published in the same year by the same author

Full reference examples

Referencing consists of two elements:

in-text citations, which are inserted in the body of your text and are included in the word count. An in-text citation gives the author(s) and publication date of a source you are referring to. If the publication date is not given, the phrase 'no date' is used instead of a date. If using direct quotations or you refer to a specific section in the source you also need the page number/s if available, or paragraph number for web pages.
full references, which are given in alphabetical order in reference list at the end of your work and are not included in the word count. Full references give full bibliographical information for all the sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

To see a reference list and intext citations check out this example assignment on Cite Them Right .

Difference between reference list and bibliography

a reference list only includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text

a bibliography includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text AND sources that were part of your background reading that you did not use in your assignment

Examples of in-text citations

You need to include an in-text citation wherever you quote or paraphrase from a source. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author(s), the year of publication, and a page number if relevant. There are a number of ways of incorporating in-text citations into your work - some examples are provided below. Alternatively you can see examples of setting out in-text citations in Cite Them Right .

Note: When referencing a chapter of an edited book, your in-text citation should give the author(s) of the chapter.

Online module materials

(Includes written online module activities, audio-visual material such as online tutorials, recordings or videos).

When referencing material from module websites, the date of publication is the year you started studying the module.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

OR, if there is no named author:

The Open University (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Rietdorf, K. and Bootman, M. (2022) 'Topic 3: Rare diseases'. S290: Investigating human health and disease . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1967195 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

The Open University (2022) ‘3.1 The purposes of childhood and youth research’. EK313: Issues in research with children and young people . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1949633&section=1.3 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

You can also use this template to reference videos and audio that are hosted on your module website:

The Open University (2022) ‘Video 2.7 An example of a Frith-Happé animation’. SK298: Brain, mind and mental health . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2013014&section=4.9.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

The Open University (2022) ‘Audio 2 Interview with Richard Sorabji (Part 2)’. A113: Revolutions . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1960941&section=5.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Note: if a complete journal article has been uploaded to a module website, or if you have seen an article referred to on the website and then accessed the original version, reference the original journal article, and do not mention the module materials. If only an extract from an article is included in your module materials that you want to reference, you should use secondary referencing, with the module materials as the 'cited in' source, as described above.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of message', Title of discussion board , in Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Fitzpatrick, M. (2022) ‘A215 - presentation of TMAs', Tutor group discussion & Workbook activities , in A215: Creative writing . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/forumng/discuss.php?d=4209566 (Accessed: 24 January 2022).

Note: When an ebook looks like a printed book, with publication details and pagination, reference as a printed book.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title . Edition if later than first. Place of publication: publisher. Series and volume number if relevant.

For ebooks that do not contain print publication details

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title of book . Available at: DOI or URL (Accessed: date).

Example with one author:

Bell, J. (2014) Doing your research project . Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Adams, D. (1979) The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy . Available at: http://www.amazon.co.uk/kindle-ebooks (Accessed: 23 June 2021).

Example with two or three authors:

Goddard, J. and Barrett, S. (2015) The health needs of young people leaving care . Norwich: University of East Anglia, School of Social Work and Psychosocial Studies.

Example with four or more authors:

Young, H.D. et al. (2015) Sears and Zemansky's university physics . San Francisco, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Note: You can choose one or other method to reference four or more authors (unless your School requires you to name all authors in your reference list) and your approach should be consistent.

Note: Books that have an editor, or editors, where each chapter is written by a different author or authors.

Surname of chapter author, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of chapter or section', in Initial. Surname of book editor (ed.) Title of book . Place of publication: publisher, Page reference.

Franklin, A.W. (2012) 'Management of the problem', in S.M. Smith (ed.) The maltreatment of children . Lancaster: MTP, pp. 83–95.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference.

If accessed online:

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference. Available at: DOI or URL (if required) (Accessed: date).

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326.

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326. Available at: https://libezproxy.open.ac.uk/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/log... (Accessed: 27 January 2023).

Barke, M. and Mowl, G. (2016) 'Málaga – a failed resort of the early twentieth century?', Journal of Tourism History , 2(3), pp. 187–212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1755182X.2010.523145

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference if available. Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Mansell, W. and Bloom, A. (2012) ‘£10,000 carrot to tempt physics experts’, The Guardian , 20 June, p. 5.

Roberts, D. and Ackerman, S. (2013) 'US draft resolution allows Obama 90 days for military action against Syria', The Guardian , 4 September. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/04/syria-strikes-draft-resolut... (Accessed: 9 September 2015).

Surname, Initial. (Year that the site was published/last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Organisation (Year that the page was last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Robinson, J. (2007) Social variation across the UK . Available at: https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/social-variation... (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

The British Psychological Society (2018) Code of Ethics and Conduct . Available at: https://www.bps.org.uk/news-and-policy/bps-code-ethics-and-conduct (Accessed: 22 March 2019).

Note: Cite Them Right Online offers guidance for referencing webpages that do not include authors' names and dates. However, be extra vigilant about the suitability of such webpages.

Surname, Initial. (Year) Title of photograph . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Kitton, J. (2013) Golden sunset . Available at: https://www.jameskittophotography.co.uk/photo_8692150.html (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

stanitsa_dance (2021) Cossack dance ensemble . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/COI_slphWJ_/ (Accessed: 13 June 2023).

Note: If no title can be found then replace it with a short description.

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Scribbr Referencing Generator

Accurate Harvard, APA, MLA, and Chicago references, verified by experts, trusted by millions.

Reference sources in seconds with Autocite

Look up your source by its title, URL, ISBN, or DOI, and let Scribbr do the rest! The reference generator will automatically find all the necessary information to generate a perfect reference, including the author(s), publication date, and publisher.

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Harvard, APA, MLA, Chicago

Generate flawless references according to the official Harvard , APA , MLA, or Chicago style rules. More referencing styles will be available soon!

Export to Word

When your reference list is complete, export it to Word. We’ll apply the official formatting guidelines automatically.

Lists and folders

Create separate reference lists for each of your assignments to stay organized. You can also group related lists into folders.

Export to Bib(La)TeX

Are you using a LaTex editor like Overleaf? If so, you can easily export your references in Bib(La)TeX format with a single click.

Custom fonts

Change the typeface used for your reference list to match the rest of your document. Options include Times New Roman, Arial, and Calibri.

Industry-standard technology

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Referencing guides

Scribbr’s popular guides and videos will help you understand everything related to finding, evaluating, and referencing sources.

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Introduction
Finding sources

Evaluating sources

Integrating sources

Referencing sources

Tools and resources, a quick guide to working with sources.

Working with sources is an important skill that you’ll need throughout your academic career.

It includes knowing how to find relevant sources, assessing their authority and credibility, and understanding how to integrate sources into your work with proper referencing.

This quick guide will help you get started!

Finding relevant sources

Sources commonly used in academic writing include academic journals, scholarly books, websites, newspapers, and encyclopedias. There are three main places to look for such sources:

Research databases: Databases can be general or subject-specific. To get started, check out this list of databases by academic discipline . Another good starting point is Google Scholar .
Your institution’s library: Use your library’s database to narrow down your search using keywords to find relevant articles, books, and newspapers matching your topic.
Other online resources: Consult popular online sources like websites, blogs, or Wikipedia to find background information. Be sure to carefully evaluate the credibility of those online sources.

When using academic databases or search engines, you can use Boolean operators to refine your results.

Generate Harvard, APA, MLA, and Chicago style references in seconds

Get started

In academic writing, your sources should be credible, up to date, and relevant to your research topic. Useful approaches to evaluating sources include the CRAAP test and lateral reading.

CRAAP is an abbreviation that reminds you of a set of questions to ask yourself when evaluating information.

Currency: Does the source reflect recent research?
Relevance: Is the source related to your research topic?
Authority: Is it a respected publication? Is the author an expert in their field?
Accuracy: Does the source support its arguments and conclusions with evidence?
Purpose: What is the author’s intention?

Lateral reading

Lateral reading means comparing your source to other sources. This allows you to:

Verify evidence
Contextualize information
Find potential weaknesses

If a source is using methods or drawing conclusions that are incompatible with other research in its field, it may not be reliable.

Integrating sources into your work

Once you have found information that you want to include in your paper, signal phrases can help you to introduce it. Here are a few examples:

Following the signal phrase, you can choose to quote, paraphrase or summarize the source.

Quoting : This means including the exact words of another source in your paper. The quoted text must be enclosed in quotation marks or (for longer quotes) presented as a block quote . Quote a source when the meaning is difficult to convey in different words or when you want to analyze the language itself.
Paraphrasing: This means putting another person’s ideas into your own words. It allows you to integrate sources more smoothly into your text, maintaining a consistent voice. It also shows that you have understood the meaning of the source.
Summarizing : This means giving an overview of the essential points of a source. Summaries should be much shorter than the original text. You should describe the key points in your own words and not quote from the original text.

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, you must include a citation crediting the original author.

Referencing your sources is important because it:

Allows you to avoid plagiarism
Establishes the credentials of your sources
Backs up your arguments with evidence
Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions

The most common citation styles in the UK are APA, MLA, Harvard, Vancouver, MHRA, and Oscola. Each citation style has specific rules for formatting citations.

Scribbr’s free Reference Generator can generate perfect references and in-text citations in both APA and MLA styles. More citation styles will be available soon!

Scribbr and partners offer tons of tools and resources to make working with sources easier and faster. Take a look at our top picks:

Reference Generator: Automatically generate Harvard and APA references .
Plagiarism Checker : Detect plagiarism in your paper using the most accurate Turnitin-powered plagiarism software available to students.
Proofreading services : Have a human editor improve your writing.
Knowledge Base : Explore hundreds of articles, bite-sized videos, time-saving templates, and handy checklists that guide you through the process of research, writing, and citation.

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The art of referencing: Well begun is half done!

Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, National University of Science and Technology, Sohar, Sultanate of Oman

Department of Pediatrics, Seth G.S. Medical College and K.E.M. Hospital, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Introduction

The value of scientific research lies in its wide visibility and access/availability to others; this is generally achieved by a scientific publication as an original (research) paper. The scientific inquiry typically advances based on previously laid ideas/research, making it essential to acknowledge the contribution of the previous authors. The references list is a catalog of literature sources chosen by the researcher to represent the most relevant documents pertaining to his/her study.[ 1 ] The British Standards Institution defines reference as “a set of data describing a document, sufficiently precise and detailed to identify it and enable it to be located.” [ 2 ] References lay the foundation of the paper, providing context for the hypothesis, methodology, interpretation, and justification of the study.[ 3 ] Using other's ideas/thoughts without due credit amounts to plagiarism, compromising the academic integrity of research. A well-referenced paper is thus accurate and complete, adds value and credibility to both the researcher and the source author, and enhances the scientific prestige of the chosen journal.[ 3 ] A bibliography also lists the sources used during research. However, while references only include those sources (journals, books, web information, etc.) which are actually cited in the publication, bibliography comprises all accessed sources (works consulted), irrespective of whether they are cited in the study publication or not.[ 4 ] Thus, referencing in academic writing is an important research tool to display as well as integrate knowledge on a particular subject or topic.[ 5 ]

Importance of Proper Referencing

Scientific research is usually developed on previously established ideas/scientific knowledge. A meticulous literature review at the beginning of the study enables the researcher to identify the work done in the field, identify the gaps in knowledge, and recognize the need for further research.[ 6 ] The most relevant sources from this literature search (essentially) form the list of references. Use of proper referencing is thus beneficial in many ways, such as the following:

a) It helps the readers to identify and locate the sources used in the research and provides evidence to verify the need/rationale of the study, methodology, inferences, and implications of the study.[ 3 ]
b) It provides an overview of the techniques/tools used, supports/convinces the reader about the appropriateness of the methodology, and offers a proper perspective in which the research findings need to be interpreted.[ 3 , 7 ]
c) It is a proof of the author's in-depth reading and knowledge on the subject pertaining to his/her research. References not only highlight similarities in research, but also differentiate the author's ideas from his sources, indirectly acknowledging the author's own contribution to that topic.[ 4 ]
d) References chosen by a researcher not only credit the individual author/s whose work is cited, but also demonstrate his/her appreciation toward cited authors, at times leading readers toward hitherto lesser-known/unknown author's research.[ 4 , 8 ] By providing acknowledgment to the cited idea/thought, the author also avoids being accused of plagiarism and adds credibility to his/her own work.[ 4 ]
e) Referenced works steer the readers toward literature pertaining to a particular topic, thus advancing the readers’ interest.[ 4 ] It also allows to trace the origins of ideas and integrates newer ideas (from current research) with previous ones, thus building a web of learning about the topic of interest.[ 9 ]
f) The reference list provides a list of experts in a specific field, thus helping editors to identify appropriate reviewers.[ 3 ]
g) It provides peer reviewers with related sources of information to evaluate the manuscript with respect to the cited work.[ 6 ]

Organizing the References

An initial extensive literature search helps in identifying the appropriate research question, drafting the study protocol, supervising ongoing research, analyzing the results, and writing the paper.[ 3 , 7 ] Although references are displayed at the end of the article/after the text of the article, they should not be actually written after completing the text of the manuscript. While drafting the text of the manuscript, the author/s should type the references on a separate MS Word document simultaneously. This preparation allows the writer to choose adequate number of relevant and rational references, avoid bias in his/her research/writing, and limit the reference number as per the target journal for publication.[ 7 ] While citing, it is imperative not to cite broadly, but to do so with respect to the content of the article. Articles which define the topic, lay down background information regarding the study question, give current knowledge about the research, and describe previous studies on a similar study question should be mentioned in the “Introduction” section of the manuscript.[ 10 ] These studies enable to identify existing knowledge, gaps in knowledge, and justify the rationale of the study.[ 6 ] Studies which identify or refer to the method, protocols, or standards (whether new or previously published), elaborate on complex or lesser-known statistical analysis, describe diagnostic criteria, rationalize sample size estimation, or justify use of specific study design/method are best suited as references to the “Methods” section of the manuscript – they help to plan a strong and supported methodology and describe the technique and criteria of the study group.[ 3 , 10 ] Research that reflects on the study findings/results or provides supportive explanation merit mention in the “Discussion” section of the manuscript – they provide information to interpret the study based on existing published data, compare results with those of other studies, and rationalize the implications of the results.[ 10 ]

Though citation analysis treats all references equally, it is important to weigh references in terms of their value to the paper.[ 11 ] While some references are worthy to be mentioned only once in the paper, some are very relevant to the study question and referred to on multiple occasions, and it is important to re-cite only the most relevant articles.[ 3 ] Referencing is not just about stating the publication source (providing relatedness), but also adds value to the paper in terms of representation on the subject and connectivity between knowledge sources (capture the “aboutness”).[ 11 ] References can be books (author/s), legal documents, journal articles, newspaper articles, reports (e.g., official reports from government departments), university working papers, papers presented at conferences, internet sources (including weblogs – blogs and email correspondence), DVD/CD databases, radio/television/videos/audio cassette/CD-ROMs, interview transcripts, and illustrations.[ 12 ]

Choosing Appropriate References

As a rule, whenever one uses an idea, data, diagrams, tables, concepts, methods from a previously published work, it should be cited.[ 12 ] With availability of multiple search engines and abundance of online resources, the task of filtering references may seem daunting.[ 5 ] While choosing references, one should ensure that the original source is completely read and correctly interpreted before its citing.[ 6 ] It is preferable to provide direct references to original article sources as far as possible, choosing a landmark article on the topic.[ 5 ] The choice of references should serve as the most relevant, appropriate, and valuable addition, and one should stick to the most pertinent references that actively support/contradict their conclusions or experience.[ 6 ] It is preferable to use the most recent relevant resources to provide the latest and up-to-date information; however, certain landmark papers may also be cited (even if they are old). Note that very old references may not be available/accessible to reviewers as well as readers.[ 7 ] Often, there are multiple sources for the same information; always prefer references that provide the highest level of evidence (such as meta-analysis), most recent publications, or trustworthy sources such as reputed peer-reviewed journals (with higher impact factor), open access and preferably indexed on reputed databases such as MEDLINE and PubMed.[ 13 , 14 ] Citing works from the journal one wishes to submit demonstrates that author follows that particular journal's publications and values it; however, one should refrain from unethical practices such as coercive citation (when authors are coerced/directed to add irrelevant citations from the editor's journals) or padded citation (when authors pad their reference list with superfluous citations).[ 14 , 15 , 16 ] There should be a judicious combination of original as well as review articles. Review articles summarize a large body of literature and reduce the number of references; however they may be biased and may not reflect the original article accurately.[ 16 ] One should stick to the journal guidelines rigorously (in terms of style and number) to avoid rejection or delay in the processing of the manuscript.[ 6 ] Avoid citing conference abstracts as far as possible, as they provide incomplete or limited information on the subject and often lack an appropriate peer review.[ 16 ] Other sources which lack traditional review and thus may cite inappropriate, unchecked, or promotional content include online sources, such as audio and video presentations, and should therefore be used with caution.[ 17 ] It is also prudent to avoid personal communications and limit their use to situations where essential information is unavailable from a public source (if permission is necessary, then name and date of the communication should be cited in brackets in text).[ 16 ] Limit self-citations to the bare crucial ones that are necessary.[ 18 ] Articles accepted but awaiting publications should be cited as “in press.”[ 16 ] Articles submitted but not yet published should be referenced as “unpublished observations” with written permission from the source; however, since they have not undergone a peer review, they should be (preferably) avoided.[ 16 ] It is prudent to avoid citing articles published in predatory journals.[ 16 ]

There is no need to provide references to facts that are expected to be well known to the journal readers, including historical overviews, own experiences, while outlining previously referenced ideas in conclusions, or while summarizing what is regarded as “common knowledge.”[ 12 ] One should be careful with online sources. There may be errors while copying the uniform resource locator (URL) or the webpage, or the website may change or be closed/inaccessible; hence, cite them only if very essential and check for their reliability and give the date of access.[ 3 ] It is preferable to use online sources with digital object identifiers (DOIs), assuring their permanent presence.[ 13 ] Also, before submission, it is worthwhile to check the US National Library of Medicine's (NLM's) PubMed database ( http://www.pubmed.org ) for any recently published articles related to the manuscript's topic.[ 19 ]

The number of references is determined by the target journal requirements as well as the type of manuscript submitted; for example, the Journal of Postgraduate Medicine allows about 30 references for original articles, up to 15 references for brief reports/grand rounds/clinicopathological forum, 12 references for case series, up to 10 references for case reports/research letter, and five references for a letter to editor ( https://www.jpgmonline.com/contributors.asp#Ref ).

Preparing the References

Citation consists of two components – the “in-text citation” and the “reference list.”[ 7 ] In the in-text citation, quotation marks are used to cite an exact line/phrase from another source, specifically for definitions, examples, or explanations provided by another/earlier author/s.[ 13 ] To prevent plagiarism, it is suitable to interpret and then summarize the cited content in one's own words, referencing the source at the end of the sentence.[ 14 ]

The parts and order in the citation depend on the source which the author is referencing (journal, book, book chapter, or web source) and the journal guidelines. It is imperative to go through the target journal rules and follow the “Instructions to Authors” related to referencing guidelines (the style, punctuation, italics, abbreviations, issue number, volume number, and pages). All the references are generally cited and numbered as per the order in which they are mentioned in the text (and are to be inserted immediately after the source information and not necessarily at the end of the sentence, especially when multiple facts are stated in a single sentence).[ 6 ] In case of a table or a figure, the citation number should be in sequence to that of the preceding text.[ 7 ] The same reference number in which the source is first cited should be used throughout the manuscript (if cited again) as well as in the reference list.[ 7 ] The citation numbers are placed as superscript/in parentheses as per the journal guidelines.[ 7 ] In case of multiple citations, place them immediately after the fact; they should be placed in order of their chronology of publication (or alphabetically if published in the same year) separated by commas.[ 6 , 7 ] If many references are cited consecutively, the numbers can be separated by a hyphen.[ 7 ]

Any documented knowledge (text, audio, or visual) can serve as a source of reference. They can be print based or electronic and include journals, books, doctoral theses, conference papers, newspapers and magazines, web pages, and so on.[ 4 ]

The basic elements while referencing are as follows:[ 13 , 20 ]

Journal/research paper: Name of author/s, title of paper, journal title (often abbreviated according to the style used for MEDLINE [ www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/journals ]),[ 16 ] publication year, volume number, issue number (issue number is kept optional by many journals), and page numbers (starting and ending page numbers or e-article number if the journal does not allot page numbers but allots e-article numbers only)[ 13 ]
Book/chapter: Chapter author/s, title of chapter, editor/s, name of book, edition, publisher, city of publication, year of publication, and page numbers[ 13 ]
Web sources: Names of author/s, title of webpage, year, weblink, date of access, and other information such as publisher, year of publication, and date of recent update (as may be applicable/available).[ 13 ] When citing a webpage, provide the DOI or URL of the original source as far as possible.[ 1 , 20 ]

Special attention needs to be paid to the punctuations while composing the reference, and the authors must adhere to the style recommended by the journal (that the manuscript will be eventually submitted to). Note that with each revision that the author makes in the manuscript, there may be changes in the order, addition, or deletion of references, and these adjustments should be meticulously ensured to avoid referencing errors.[ 3 ] It is also the author's responsibility to ensure that every citation has a corresponding reference and every reference is cited in the right place and context in the manuscript.[ 6 ] To avoid citation errors, the authors must verify each reference against an electronic bibliographic source like PubMed or print/pdf copies of original resources.[ 16 ] Authors should also verify that none of the cited references is a retracted article; this can be done via MEDLINE by searching PubMed for “Retracted publication [publication type]” or by going directly to the PubMed's list of retracted publications ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?termretractedpublication[publication type] ).[ 16 ]

“Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals” issued by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) provides specific information on how to cite sources, which should be followed.[ 16 ] These recommendations by the ICMJE summarize and provide regular updates on how to cite various sources (print documents; unpublished material; audio and visual media; material on CD-ROM, DVD, or disk; and material on the Internet) via Sample References ( www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/uniform_requirements.html ) on their webpage.[ 16 ] Detailed information is also available in the NLM's Citing Medicine, 2 nd edition ( www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7256/ ).[ 20 ] Number of references to be cited should be in accordance with/within the limits as stated in the “Author Guidelines” issued by the target journal.[ 7 ] Authors should take precaution, so as to avoid citing the same reference twice in the list of references.

Types of Referencing Formats/Styles

“Citation style” is the standard format in which the source is documented in the text as well as in the reference list at the end of the manuscript.[ 4 ] In-text citation styles can be broadly classified into numerical referencing style (Numeric style/Vancouver/Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers [IEEE] and Running notes style/Modern Humanities Research Association [MHRA]) and name referencing style (Author Date/Harvard, American Psychological Association [APA] and Modern Languages Association [MLA]).[ 12 ] The two major used citation styles are the Vancouver and the Harvard styles, and most other styles are minor modifications of these two styles.[ 4 ] The common citation styles and their examples are summarized in Table 1 .[ 3 , 12 , 13 , 16 , 20 ] Thus, there is a wide variability in the citation style in text as well as reference list; however, the author does not have a choice, but to stick to the style recommended by the journal to which he/she wishes to submit his/her research.[ 3 ]

Citation styles with examples[ 3 , 12 , 13 , 16 , 20 ]

Common Errors in Referencing

Referencing is a tedious task and if not taken seriously and performed diligently, it is prone to many (easily avoidable) errors.[ 7 ] A reference should be accurate, clear, and consistent throughout the manuscript.[ 6 ] An incorrect reference not only questions the credibility of the paper, but also makes it difficult for the reviewers and the readers to seek the cited article, thus denying the source author of due credit for his/her work.[ 3 ] It is the author's responsibility to cite the most relevant and appropriate references in his/her research.[ 3 ] The author should not only locate, read, and understand all sources cited by him/her ( intellectual pleasure ), but also confirm the source and provide all elements of the source correctly ( accuracy ).[ 6 ] The author should be careful not to copy references from an earlier article, but should actually rewrite each selected reference afresh.[ 6 ] Some common errors occurring during referencing are summarized in Table 2 .[ 6 , 7 ]

Common errors in the “in-text citation” and the “reference list”[ 6 , 7 ]

Reference Management Software

As described earlier, there is a wide variation in the journal formatting styles and it is laborious for the researcher to store, organize, and manage the references throughout the process of literature review and protocol planning till the drafting and manuscript submission.[ 21 ] Even more challenging is the addition/deletion or reordering of references (in text as well as in the reference list) with each revision or submission to a newer journal.[ 22 ] There is an increased likelihood of making errors in citing, especially while organizing the references and writing the reference list.[ 23 ] To minimize such errors, reference management software (RMS), also known as citation management software or bibliographic management software, are available to the authors/researchers.[ 21 ] They not only help to search and retrieve the online scientific sources, but also help to import them to their database for storing, organization, and subsequent retrieval.[ 22 ] Many RMS have cloud-based storage, enabling users to be able to access the information from multiple devices as well as collaborate with other researchers.[ 22 ] RMS also allow authors to retrieve citations while writing in the format of desired journal, thus permitting to “cite while you write.”[ 14 ] They also enable addition, deletion, insertion of references in the text and automatic (auto) resequencing of their order in the main manuscript (text) as well as in the reference list.[ 22 ] They can generate reference lists in multiple formats/citation styles to suit the target journal requirements and allow conversion of one format style to another with ease at the click of the mouse.[ 14 ] By linking each citation with a full reference, they ensure each citation in the text is accounted for by a corresponding full reference in the list.[ 12 ] Most of them are compatible for use with common programs such as Microsoft Word and Google Docs.[ 24 ]

There are numerous programs for reference management available in the market – independent applications, those operating within an internet interface, and combination of both these modes.[ 1 ] The most commonly used are Mendeley by Elsevier ( www.mendeley.com ), EndNote ( www.endnote.com ) by Thomson Reuters, and Zotero ( www.zotero.org ).[ 1 ] Some others are RefWorks, F1000 Workspace, JabRef, Citavi, Bibsonomy, ReadCube Papers, Colwiz, Sente, RefME, Connotea, CiteULike, BibTeX, and Microsoft Word.[ 22 , 24 , 25 ] While many of them are free, some are fee based and require a (paid) subscription.[ 13 ]

Despite the use of RMS, one cannot guarantee absence of referencing errors, as there can be errors in details (author names, journal title, dates) or duplication of references when retrieved from different databases.[ 23 ] So, ultimately, the authors (themselves) are responsible for the accuracy of the references cited by them (whether they do the referencing using RMS or manually).

Thus, referencing is an essential part of research and should be assigned due importance, right from the conception of the study question till its delivery as a publication. It plays a vital role throughout the manuscript and appears in almost all sections – from laying down the foundation for study rationale (in the “Introduction” section of the manuscript), describing/justifying the study procedure/s (in the “Methods” section), validating the results (in the “Results” section) and its implications (in the “Discussion” section of the manuscript). References are also utilized by editors to identify subject experts for peer review, by readers to obtain more resources on the subject matter, and by peer reviewers to critically evaluate the manuscript in the light of the available evidence. It is thus essential that references are chosen wisely and carefully as they are representative of the study. It is the author's responsibility to confirm the clarity, accuracy, and appropriateness of the cited sources. One should be careful to avoid common referencing errors to prevent delay/rejection by the journal of interest. As Vancouver style is the commonly preferred citation style by journals of medicine and health sciences, researchers should be well versed with it. Authors should diligently stick to the instructions and style of the target journal. The availability of reference management software such as Mendeley and EndNote has made the authors’ task of collecting, storing, organizing, retrieving, and utilizing the references more efficient and easier; however, it is still the authors’ responsibility to select appropriate references and cite them accurately and correctly.

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Open access
Published: 21 March 2024

A rapid review to inform the policy and practice for the implementation of chronic disease prevention and management programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in primary care

Uday Narayan Yadav ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6626-1604 1 , 2 na1 ,
Jasmine Meredith Davis 3 ,
Keziah Bennett-Brook 4 ,
Julieann Coombes 4 ,
Rosemary Wyber 1 , 5 na1 &
Odette Pearson 6 , 7

Health Research Policy and Systems volume 22 , Article number: 34 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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More than 35% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults live with cardiovascular disease, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease. There is a pressing need for chronic disease prevention and management among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia. Therefore, this review aimed to synthesise a decade of contemporary evidence to understand the barriers and enablers of chronic disease prevention and management for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People with a view to developing policy and practice recommendations.

We systematically searched for peer-reviewed published articles between January 2014 to March 2023 where the search was performed using subject headings and keywords related to “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples,” “Chronic Disease,” and “Primary Health Care”. Quality assessment for all included studies was conducted using the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool. The data were extracted and summarised using a conventional content analysis approach and applying strength-based approaches.

Database searches identified 1653 articles where 26 met inclusion criteria. Studies varied in quality, primarily reporting on 14 criteria of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool. We identified six key domains of enablers and barriers of chronic disease prevention and management programs and implied a range of policy and practice options for improvement. These include culturally acceptable and safe services, patient-provider partnerships, chronic disease workforce, primary health care service attributes, clinical care pathways, and accessibility to primary health care services. This review also identified the need to address social and cultural determinants of health, develop the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous chronic disease workforce, support multidisciplinary teams through strengthening clinical care pathways, and engage Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in chronic disease prevention and management program design and delivery.

Enabling place-based partnerships to develop contextual evidence-guided strategies that align with community priorities and aspirations, with the provision of funding mechanisms and models of care through policy and practice reforms will strengthen the chronic disease prevention and management program for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have continuously demonstrated strength, tenacity, and resilience in the face of a high burden of chronic disease associated with profound health, social, economic and cultural and wellbeing impacts. The disproportionate burden of chronic disease—particularly cardiovascular disease (CVD), type II diabetes and chronic kidney disease (CKD)—is driven by the effects of colonisation. These effects include intergenerational trauma, racism and commercial determinants such as the introduction of ultra-processed foods, tobacco, sugar-sweetened beverages, and alcohol [ 1 , 2 ].

More than 35% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults report having CVD, diabetes or CKD, 38% have two of these conditions and 11% have all three [ 3 ]. Nearly 70% of Australia’s burden of disease from CVD is attributable to modifiable risk factors including high blood pressure, dietary risks, high body weight, high cholesterol and smoking [ 4 ]. These risk factors, and subsequent disease, can be prevented. This prevention can be primordial (by addressing the structural drivers at a population level, such as food supply and recreation facilities) or primary (through identifying people at risk and taking individual steps to reduce that risk).

Primary prevention and management of chronic disease among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia predominantly occurs in primary care settings. Universal primary care in Australia is largely funded through a fee-for-service model via the Medicare Benefits Scheme (MBS), with some augmentation for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people through the Indigenous Australian’ Health Programme [ 5 ]. Primary care is delivered by a range of providers, including Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations (ACCHOs) which are governed by a local board, Aboriginal Medical Services run by State and Territory governments, and private primary care services (sometimes referred to as ‘mainstream’ providers). Chronic disease services in primary care include risk assessment, support for healthy behaviours, referrals to allied health and pharmacology for risk reduction. High quality, culturally safe primary care can prevent the development of disease, and manage complications, for individuals and communities [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Strengthening primary care is a key strategic priority of the Australian government, [ 9 , 10 ] peak bodies and other stakeholders working to improve the health and well-being of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities [ 11 , 12 ].

Understanding how primary care services, prevention and management programs can best meet the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, who are living with or at risk of chronic disease, is critical to addressing disparity in outcomes. A review conducted by Gibson et al. in 2015 explored chronic disease care for Indigenous communities globally, but there has been no comprehensive contextual evidence available focusing on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people [ 13 ]. Therefore, there is a need for local evidence disease on chronic prevention and management for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People’s Health Assessment (MBS item number 715) is an annual health check funded for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and a cornerstone of early detection for chronic disease [ 14 ]. The number of Health Assessments fell for the first time in 2020 and 2021 after years of sustained growth [ 15 ]. The reduction in Health Assessments is likely to reflect disruption to routine primary care services during the COVID-19 pandemic [ 16 ].

Our team were contracted by the Australian Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care to understand best practice delivery of chronic disease care for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in 2020. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the need for this research and necessitated a pivot to rapid review strategy. The Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine highlights [ 17 ] that rapid review methodology can be used to meet the needs of commissioning bodies in policy-relevant timeframes. Therefore, this rapid review aims to synthesise contemporary and contextually relevant barriers and enablers for chronic disease care in primary care settings for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with a view to developing near term policy and practice recommendations.

This review applied the SelecTing Approaches for Rapid Reviews (STARR) decision tool that includes interaction with commissioners, scoping the literature, selecting approaches to literature search, methods for data extraction and evidence synthesis [ 18 ]. It was conducted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guideline [ 19 ]. We searched two databases (Medline and Web of Science) to identify relevant studies from January 2014 to March 2023. These two databases were chosen because of following reasons: (i) Medline database provides access to articles from 5,200 journals in about 40 languages covering the biomedical and life sciences including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as a MeSH Headings and (ii) Web of Science is the world’s oldest interdisciplinary and widely used database of research publications that covers over 34,000 journals today.

This timeframe follows on from a systematic review conducted by Gibson et al. [ 13 ] which included data up to December 2013. This rapid review mirrors the Gibson methodology with two main changes: i) narrowing focus from Indigenous communities globally to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander contexts in Australia, ii) narrowing focus from all chronic diseases to focus on the three major contributors to chronic disease burden (cardiovascular disease, diabetes and chronic kidney disease). The review was performed between January to August 2023.

In this review, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander researchers and Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Reference Group members rather than Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal Reference Group members were actively engaged and consulted in all steps, from the inception of the research questions to the completion of this review. Throughout the process, the research team met monthly with the Australian Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care during the period of this review to inform the scope of evidence synthesis.

Positionality: The senior author of this review Pearson (nee Gibson, first author of the 2015 review), is Kuku Yalnji/Torres Strait Islander health systems researcher. KB-B ( Torres Strait Islander ) and JC ( Gumbaynggir ) are experienced researchers with particular expertise in quality assessment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander research studies. UNY ( Madhesi, Nepal ) is an implementation scientist, JD is a non-Indigenous medical student and RW is a non-Indigenous practising general practitioner and researcher.

Operational definition of key terminology used in this review:

Holistic care or support: The care process that involved strategies to support mental, physical, cultural and spiritual health which is beyond the individual level that values family and community capacity and governance [ 20 ].

Systems thinking: Systems thinking is c onceptual orientation concerned with inter-relationships between different levels, institutions, systems, and people nested within social, cultural, economic, political contexts to deliver a holistic care [ 21 ].

Place-based partnerships: Place-based partnerships involve collaborative arrangements the unique needs and circumstances of both the community and service provider. In this context, place-based partnerships involve a formal partnership among government, service providers and First Nations representatives. These partnerships are specific to geographical locations and population groups and are aimed at designing or delivering services that directly respond to community needs, aspirations and local priorities, while valuing local cultural values [ 22 , 23 ].

Scoping the literature:

The search was performed using a combination of subject headings and keywords related to “Aboriginal and Torres Islander peoples,” “Chronic Disease,” and “Primary Health Care” using “OR” and “AND” iterated from the search strategy described in a study by Gibson et al. [ 13 ] The search strategy has been provided in Box 1. The search results obtained from two databases were imported to Endnote and uploaded on the Covidence platform for title and abstract and full-text screening [ 24 ]. Three reviewers (UNY, JMD and RW) independently screened the titles and abstracts of potential studies for eligibility based on inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 1 ). Full-text articles were assessed by two reviewers and any disagreement that appeared during the screening process was resolved through discussion with the third reviewer (RW). The details of the screening process are documented as a PRISMA flow diagram (Fig. 1 ).

PRISMA 2020 flow diagram that included searches of databases and included studies

Box 1: Search strategy

Data extraction.

An iterative process was used to define data extraction domains. A total of fourteen potential domains were identified from the systematic review conducted by Gibson et al., alongside the He Pikinga Waiora Implementation Framework [ 25 ] and an access framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people [ 26 ]. Further, three discussions were held within the team and with other Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander researchers that identified eight domains of interest for both barriers and enablers (design attributes, chronic disease workforce, patient/provider partnership, clinical care pathways, access-accessibility, access-acceptability, system thinking and knowledge translation). A data extraction tool was prepared to extract information about the study characteristics (title, author, publication year, study setting, study objective, study design, types of services) and eight domains decided from the discussions mentioned above. A data extraction tool was shared with the Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Reference Group members rather than Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal Reference Group members at the National Centre for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Wellbeing Research at the Australian National University for their input. Based on inputs from Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Reference Group members rather than Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal Reference Group members and team discussion, some domains were consolidated and made an agreement of extracting data focusing six domains (culturally acceptable and safe services, patient provider partnerships, chronic disease workforce, primary health care service attributes, clinical care pathways and accessibility to primary health care services) the final data extraction tool included study characteristics and six domains (Fig. 2 )focusing both barriers and enablers. The data extraction tool was piloted on five included studies that facilitated shared understanding of approach to data extraction between team members. The data were extracted by UNY and JMD between May to June 2023.

Barriers and enablers to chronic disease prevention and management for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

Evidence synthesis and quality appraisal

Quality assessment for all included studies was conducted using the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool that privileges Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s (knowing) epistemology, (being) ontology, (doing) axiology and ethical research governance [ 27 ]. The extracted data were analysed and summarised using a conventional content analysis approach [ 28 ] that allows the categories and the name of the categories to flow from the data and applying strength-based approaches [ 29 ].

Study selection and its characteristics

For the period 2013- 2023, a total of 1653 articles were retrieved from Medline ( n = 927) and Web of Science ( n = 726) databases. Of the total, 313 were duplicates which left 1340 articles for screening. Following the screening, 115 studies were selected for the full-text review. Upon full-text review, 89 articles were excluded, leaving 26 articles to be included for extraction and evidence synthesis. Service delivery models of the included studies were ACCHOs, government-run Aboriginal Medical Services and private general practice. The majority of the studies applied qualitative or mixed-method evaluation approaches (see Additional file 1 ).

Quality appraisal results

All studies met two criteria from the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool: priority determined by community (criterion 1) and use of an Indigenous research paradigm (criterion 9). Over 92% studies met criteria for community protocols (criterion 5), 80% of studies met criteria addressing community consultation and engagement (criterion 2), Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leadership (criterion 3) and 76% studies had demonstrated Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander governance in research (criterion 4). While 30% or less of the studies addressed existing intellectual and cultural property (criterion 6 and 7), 70% studies met the following criteria: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people control over collection and management of research materials (criteria 8), use of strength based approach and acknowledging practices that have harmed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities (criterion 10) translation of findings into sustainable changes (criterion 11), benefit the participants and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities (criterion 12), demonstrate capacity strengthening for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (criterion 13), and researchers have opportunities to learn from each other (criterion 14). Details are provided in Table 2 .

Enablers and barriers to the implementation of chronic disease initiatives

Enablers and barriers (see Additional file 2 ) are presented under six thematic domains and relevant sub-themes presented below:

Primary health care service attributes

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander engagement and Aboriginal leadership in system design: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander project leadership and community engagement were overwhelmingly identified as key determinants for system design [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Engagement through outreach cultural community events and stakeholder partnerships appear to amplify these effects [ 48 ]. Six studies investigated how information was exchanged between knowledge-users and researchers throughout the studies [ 30 , 38 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Knowledge users included Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, primary health care providers (ACCHOs and mainstream providers), Aboriginal and/ or Torres Strait Islander health workers and practitioners, other service providers, and policymakers. Alongside this, one study acknowledged the utilisation of cultural and scientific evidence to provide best-practice healthcare [ 37 ]. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander project leadership consistently facilitated trust and satisfaction. Use of evidence-based clinical care guideline in project implementation within community and services were other key benefits of knowledge translation.

Primary health car responsive to local community needs: Prospective analysis of potential barriers for program development were essential to program success, in order to actively address these in the program design and implementation. Many studies clearly demonstrated how barriers were overcome through tailored solutions including: outreach services to save patient time and cost [ 30 , 31 , 45 , 49 ]; free of charge services [ 31 , 49 , 50 , 51 ]; 24-h culturally safe service [ 32 , 37 , 50 ]; and telehealth specialist services [ 51 , 52 ]. Outreach services (delivered outside of the clinic facility) included home medication delivery, general visits by health workers to build trust and screening for conditions at community-based events. Services which were free at point of care included medications, nicotine patches, hospital specialist clinics, supplementary services (e.g. cooking class, aged care services), and preventive initiatives (e.g. blood pressure measurement, glucose monitor and health promotion activities). Innovative primary care models for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patients included flexible appointment systems [ 32 , 37 , 50 ], multidisciplinary teams for providing holistic care [ 37 , 38 , 51 ], and clinical audits for quality improvement were also effective [ 31 , 34 , 39 , 45 , 46 ]. Incorporating chronic disease prevention into primary care occurred through health promotion initiatives [ 30 , 35 , 37 , 50 , 51 ], and patient-led prevention initiatives and management plans [ 30 , 46 , 50 ] were also found to be invaluable in addressing community needs. Six studies explicitly emphasised the importance of adequate resources and flexible funding for primary care services to meet local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community priorities and needs [ 30 , 32 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ].

A holistic approach to care: Aligned with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ perception of health , holistic support [ 30 , 38 , 44 ] and care coordination was critical, necessitating flexible funding, and systems thinking and innovative, locally-adapted reforms [ 30 , 31 , 46 ]. Social referral approaches that connected people to non-clinical services were an important component in Aboriginal community controlled primary care settings, for example: connecting patients to exercise groups, providing access to housing, opportunities for hobbies, or home care services such as ‘Meals on Wheels’ [ 38 , 40 , 41 , 53 ].

Primary care access: Several barriers were identified, including: a lack of support specific to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leadership [ 34 , 39 , 51 , 53 , 54 ]; competing priorities of healthcare service delivery [ 30 , 34 , 39 ]; and a lack of funding specifically address social determinants of health [ 31 , 55 ]. These were more pronounced in Aboriginal PHC. There were also insufficient resources to engage stakeholders in the co-development of primary care programs. This contributed to poor connections and relationships between multidisciplinary teams in health centres and other actors, including clinical information management systems [ 34 , 48 , 51 , 54 ], and high turnover of trained staff [ 34 , 50 , 54 ]. Some studies highlighted challenges in creating culturally appropriate services, due to the heterogeneity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations [ 32 , 39 , 55 ]. Moreover, accessing primary care services was particularly challenging for people with the greatest health needs [ 31 ], including those with limited health literacy which made it difficult for people to engage with chronic disease care [ 48 , 49 ].

Chronic disease workforce

Creating supportive environment and building capacity of primary healthcare workforce: Enabling safe and good work environments for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Workers and Practitioners [ 30 , 35 , 54 ], and a shared sense of purpose amongst staff to address the complex needs of patients [ 30 , 47 ] were consistently identified as enablers. Eight studies highlighted the importance of dedicated staff for chronic disease management, with clear delegation of responsibilities and a positive team culture created through an engaging and collaborative work environment [ 30 , 36 , 37 , 39 , 43 , 46 , 51 , 54 ]. Establishing the health care workforce with chronic disease ‘portfolios’ were considered more able to provide recurrent, culturally safe, preventative, and responsive healthcare for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people because they had a greater chance of forming trusting relationships [ 32 , 41 , 48 , 50 ]. Included studies highlighted the need for training and development of the primary healthcare workforce [ 30 , 31 , 33 , 55 ]. Four studies had a particular focus on local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Workers and Practitioners including the importance of recruitment and retention strategies [ 31 , 34 , 39 , 46 ], alongside a need to clarify their roles, provide Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander role models [ 40 , 41 , 50 , 52 ], and ensure they are involved in clinical decision making [ 30 , 33 , 35 , 37 , 39 , 43 , 44 , 52 , 54 ]. The importance of intensive cultural safety training for staff to deliver safe care was emphasised in five studies [ 37 , 47 , 49 , 54 , 55 ].

Barriers to sustainable chronic disease workforce at primary health care services: Nine studies noted staff shortages and high staff turnover as adversely impacting continuity of care [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 39 , 43 , 46 , 50 , 51 , 53 ], and three studies noted inadequate clinical training for non-Indigenous staff [ 32 , 46 , 53 ]. Workforce limitations contributed to lack of time and resources to reach the patients that needed healthcare the most [ 31 , 45 , 46 ]. Nine studies specifically emphasised the substantial shortages, high turnover, and high rates of burnout of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander staff [ 33 , 34 , 39 , 43 , 46 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 55 ]. Work overload, inadequate support and a sense of being undervalued contributed to these issues [ 32 , 33 , 43 ]. Four studies noted shortages of specialists as a key barrier to integrated chronic disease management pathway [ 34 , 43 , 46 , 47 ].

Patient-provider partnerships

Optimal care achieved by effective trustful patient-provider partnerships: Eight studies found that enablers of trusting patient-provider relationships included strengthening patient knowledge through interactive learning, culturally appropriate conversation, and strengths-focused clinical engagement [ 30 , 32 , 33 , 35 , 38 , 50 , 53 , 55 ]. Numerous studies highlighted that holistic care required mechanisms for communities, families/carers and community leaders to be engaged with service providers [ 30 , 45 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. ACCHOs were generally identified as meeting these needs by offering culturally safe care, longer consultation times to facilitate patient/provider partnerships [ 32 , 37 ], and communicating with the community when there were changes in services, or the implementation of new programs [ 31 ].

Contextual barriers to patient-provider partnership: Barriers to partnership included competing priorities for patients [ 53 ], patient experiences of racism and discrimination [ 32 ], patient discomfort with non-Indigenous services [ 32 ], and patients sensing that their holistic needs were unmet [ 42 ]. Two studies reported that limited health literacy with little shared provider-consumer understanding of chronic conditions were barriers to forming positive relationships [ 31 , 46 ]. Three studies noted a general lack of connection between the clinician and patient but did not interrogate the contributors to this [ 32 , 49 , 55 ].

Clinical care pathways

Enablers to effective clinical information systems: Nine studies found in-house information technology support within primary healthcare services was crucial for effective patient referral, coordination, and follow-up care [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 34 , 38 , 39 , 43 , 46 , 55 ]. Of these, two highlighted the importance of partnership-enabled integration across health service organisations using a shared electronic health record system, disease registration multidisciplinary care plans, and a patient recall system [ 30 , 36 ]. While translation of evidence-based care guidelines were not mentioned, five studies explained the importance of capacity building of staff and investment in systems development for the effective use of clinical information systems [ 30 , 34 , 39 , 43 , 51 ].

Barriers to efficient clinical information systems: Information technology barriers were profound, including poor integration information technology systems, mixed paper and electronic records [ 43 , 46 , 51 , 53 ], and poor infrastructure – most notably internet access [ 34 , 52 , 54 ]. Four studies noted shortages of trained and regular staff to implement new pathways, as a key barrier to integrated chronic disease management pathways [ 34 , 43 , 46 , 47 ]. Inconsistent models of care [ 44 ], and poor communication between different hospital and primary care systems [ 50 ] were also barriers.

Access to primary health care services

Many of the recognised domains of healthcare access (accessibility, accommodation, availability, accessibility and affordability) were identified [ 56 ].

People and family-centred reforms improve access to adequate primary care: Enablers of access to primary health care services were identified in ten studies [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 43 , 45 , 49 , 53 ]. Transportation support was a determining and/or motivating factor for clients to access health services [ 31 , 38 , 39 ] Other studies [ 45 , 49 ] [ 43 ] identified accommodation factors, particularly flexible appointment systems, reduced waiting times and co-location with allied health services as key enablers. In this review, a number of motivational factors were identified for people to attend services, including support or referral from family members, higher motivation to look after oneself following the death of a family member, and motivation texts or invitational messages for health check from service providers [ 32 , 41 , 53 ]. In addition, one study identified providing financial incentives as an enabler for health checks [ 32 ].

Unaddressed social determinants prevent access to primary care services: Barriers to accessing primary health care services related to socio-economic factors, health system factors and lack of health promotion factors. Socio-economic factors included accessibility and affordability considerations; lack of transport [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 44 , 46 , 49 , 50 , 53 , 54 , 55 ], inability to afford health and social services, and medication costs [ 31 , 32 , 44 , 47 , 49 ]. Some studies alluded to socioeconomic factors being prioritised over primary care attendance, including household crowding and food insecurity. Ensuring that services account for competing priorities, including family and cultural responsibilities, was an important enabler [ 45 , 55 ].

System related access barriers: Health system factors included high staff turnover, lack of availability of appointments, long waiting periods, physically inaccessible clinics [ 43 , 44 , 46 ], poor leadership of primary care services [ 32 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 49 ], and limited internet and computer access [ 47 ]. Inadequate awareness of available services was also problematic [ 31 , 33 , 49 ]; initiatives run by primary care services had limited uptake when the community was not made aware of these programs [ 46 ]. Health systems need to be able to deliver services and information multimodally. For example, not all patients have phones or phone credit all the time, so several forms of communication may be required.

Culturally acceptable and safe services

Enablers to deliver culturally safe and acceptable services: Cultural safety is essential to the development of a mutually respectful relationship between providers and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. A systems level approach is needed to address racism experienced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in primary care settings [ 30 , 44 ]. Strategies for addressing or achieving cultural safety varied by context, but the role of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander healthcare workers including cultural brokerage was emphasised in two studies [ 31 , 52 ]. The need for gender-specific services and gender sensitivity was emphasised by five papers as an important part of providing culturally safe care. This included delivery of programs such as gender-based exercise groups, private consultation areas for males and females, gender specific health assessment days, and employing male and female Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander healthcare workers [ 31 , 41 , 45 , 46 , 52 ]. The provision of culturally safe services also included a need for culturally appropriate education materials, artwork, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s voices and images as signifiers of belonging [ 30 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 53 ]. Three studies recognised the importance of enabling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patients and staff access to flexibly attend to family, community, cultural and spiritual responsibilities, and obligations to provide a culturally safe service [ 37 , 42 , 44 ]. One study identified the need for robust anonymous feedback systems for staff and patients to improve culturally safe care delivery [ 47 ].

Barriers to deliver culturally safe and acceptable services: Barriers to delivering culturally safe and acceptable services related to systems, structures and lived experiences. Systems issues to providing culturally safe services included language barriers [ 32 ], poor health literacy among patients [ 54 ], long wait times due to staff shortages [ 32 , 50 , 54 ], a sense that services were superficial/rushed [ 31 , 42 ], and lack of physical space to provide holistic care or gender-based services [ 43 , 44 , 46 ]. Lived experiences of treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people within Western systems, including health and social services, elicits feelings of harm rather than help: a fear of discrimination and racism was a key barrier to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patients accessing healthcare services in five studies [ 31 , 32 , 44 , 49 , 53 ] alongside fear of diagnosis due to historical trauma [ 53 ]. These barriers were amplified where there was limited access to Indigenous-specific services [ 32 , 44 , 46 ]. One study mentioned a tokenistic approach where very limited community input to governance, planning, and program design was sought to develop culturally safe initiatives [ 46 ].

This is the first review since 2014 [ 13 ] to present the barriers and enablers of implementing chronic disease prevention and management programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. The enablers and barriers found in this study have several policy and practice implications that should be considered in design, implementation, and funding targets for future chronic disease prevention and management programs.

The most striking addition to our findings, relative to the 2014 [ 13 ] review, is the acknowledgment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture (including staff, protocols, leadership, practices and ways of doing business) as a key enabler to engagement and care delivery. Partly, this is attributable to this review’s narrower focus on the Australian context. It also likely reflects increasingly detailed academic descriptions of the ways in which leadership and governance tangibly affect care delivery as part of contemporary Closing the Gap reform. All studies included in this review made some acknowledgement of culture, albeit with variations in how deeply culture was considered as an enabler of care. Our review team grappled with how best to reflect this focus on culture, given that it is both a distinct concept and intimately embedded in all thematic domains. Ultimately, we have chosen to keep Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture as a separate domain to ensure that culture is given independent consideration, in addition to attention within other thematic domains. It is evident that access to culturally appropriate, affordable and comprehensive services are vital for preventing and managing chronic conditions [ 37 ]. There is no one-size-fits-all approach for models of care for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, and programs must be tailored to local context. Recent studies have identified numerous opportunities for improving access to primary care services: creating welcoming spaces, improving the cultural safety of healthcare services, building strong trustworthy relationships between patients and providers, and building primary healthcare workforce capacity [ 37 , 57 , 58 ]. The span of this theme is necessarily broad, encompassing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leadership, physically welcoming spaces, training for non-Indigenous staff, time to build trusting relationships. Ensuring that culture is prospectively and proactively considered in funding and delivery of primary care of chronic disease should be a priority for practitioners and policy makers.

There is clear evidence that addressing holistic needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people enables greater engagement, rather than a narrow clinical focus on physical aspects of health. This requires primary care services to acknowledge and address the broader social and cultural determinants of health for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Many of these have a direct impact on both chronic disease risk factors and capacity to access care (chronic disease management), including poor access to healthy and nutritious food, inadequate housing, rurality, lack of transportation, and financial barriers [ 59 , 60 ].Some of these disparities more pronounced in remote and rural Australia, where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are further marginalised by distance and poverty [ 61 , 62 ]. Enablers of chronic disease care, such as outreach services, transportation, and referrals networks to other allied health and community groups are more likely to be effective where holistic approaches are adopted. This is consistent with data from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare highlighting the experiences of social inequity in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities and the positive impact on health outcomes when inequities are reduced [ 63 ]. Previous studies [ 13 , 64 ] have identified various obstacles to accessing primary health care services which include inadequate infrastructure, inflexible and inadequate funding to care for people holistically. Evidence also suggests that for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, travel to access health care means being separated from their country, family and social network that directly impacts their health and wellbeing as described by Milroy’s Dance of Life [ 65 ]. While government subsidies are in place, travel and accommodation costs incurred by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to access healthcare, may require upfront payment or indirect costs, perpetuating financial barriers for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in rural and remote areas [ 66 ]. Therefore, it is crucial that primary health care initiatives take a holistic and system thinking approach to program design, considering the impact of social and cultural determinants on the health of individual, family members and their communities, with every attempt to reduce systemic barriers to access to healthcare where possible.This is only possible when funding mechanisms and models of care are flexible enough to account for local and individual contexts.

The profound impact of workforce was clear throughout this review. Recruiting, and retaining staff and effective training, were found to be key barriers to implementing and maintaining holistic patient-centred chronic disease prevention and management programs [ 13 , 67 ]. Evidence has shown that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people prefer support delivered by Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander staff and clinicians who have a better understanding of Indigenous wellbeing [ 64 , 68 ]. Despite the growth of the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander health workforce over time, this expansion has not matched the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population growth [ 69 ] and increasing incidence of chronic disease. Unsurprisingly, being members of the community, they serve, Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Health Workers play an essential and unique role in delivering culturally safe and holistic care. However, a demanding work environment, low salary, inadequate support, [ 70 ] and demanding cultural brokerage with non-Indigenous colleagues [ 70 , 71 ] contribute to burnout that contributes to poor retention rates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander primary care staff. This requires urgent attention, by individual primary care providers and through the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Workforce Strategic Framework and Implementation Plan 2021 – 2031 [ 72 ]. Given the ongoing need for the non-Indigenous workforce in fulfilling workforce gaps required to deliver services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, building cultural competence, continuing appropriate training and education pathways and strategies, providing job security and adequate remuneration are also crucial to address primary care workforce issues including the overburdening of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander workforce [ 58 , 71 , 73 ]. Our findings highlight the need to develop the overall chronic disease workforce, with a specific focus for recruitment and retention of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Workers and Practitioners and providing cultural safety training for all non-Indigenous staff. Alongside this, mechanisms for recognising the value and load of cultural mentorship/education should be developed. This reflects a recent research findings that showed 39% of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander workers ( n = 1033) across Australia experienced high cultural load in terms of extra work demands and their engagement in educating others [ 74 ].

Chronic disease management requires multidisciplinary team input for effective care delivery [ 75 ]. When optimally resourced, primary care can serve a coordinating role in patient care, and effectively ensure patients have access to all allied health and specialist care they need [ 76 ]. Therefore, in order to engage Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with chronic disease care and maintain continuity of care, there needs to be established, streamlined, and practitioner and patient friendly systems in place [ 76 , 77 ]. Existing evidence also documented inadequate number of general practitioners and lack of specialists in rural and remote settings of Australia compared to urban or city areas which hinders individuals, particularly Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, to receive timely treatment for their co-occurring conditions in an integrated care approach [ 78 , 79 ]. A lack of integrated IT systems, poor infrastructure, and poor communication between primary care team members were found in this review to impede provision of such care. It is evident that strategies like GP care plans and tertiary care follow up are important sources of information for primary care providers, hospitals and patients which are supported by IT infrastructure [ 80 ]. Previous research highlighted the feasibility of system integration through utilising continuous quality improvement processes and community co-design [ 81 ]. Infrastructure investment such as internet access, in-house IT support and automated systems for follow-up care, is urgently required to ensure that patients who do present or engage with primary care in regional or remote settings, are retained in the system to enable coordinated access to the multidisciplinary care required for chronic disease management. Moreover, rapidly evolving technology such as tele-health, videoconferencing and Point-of-Care Testing may can facilitate access to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in remote and rural areas. However, implementing these tools should be part of broader strategy rather than a substitute for solving problems faced by PHC such as workforce retention, undersupply or maldistribution issues [ 82 ]. Therefore, when implementing an integrated team care program [ 83 ] or any other integrated model of care, both barriers and facilitators identified herein should be applied to improve the continuity of care with considering the context.

Effective engagement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities and their leadership in program design, delivery and evaluation of chronic disease programs is integral to improving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health and increasing access to primary care services [ 84 , 85 ]. Previous studies have identified the following factors that enable engagement with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities: employment of local Aboriginal health workforce; trust and relationships; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leadership; availability of flexible services to address holistic needs of local communities; benefits of engagement in service design and delivery; cost of participation and recognition of local Aboriginal knowledge and cultural traditions on study design implementation and dissemination [ 84 , 86 , 87 , 88 ]. These enablers align with those reported in health service research that engaged with Indigenous and marginalised communities in an international context [ 89 ]. Similarly, this review identified a range of impeding factors to engagement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with primary health care. Key factors included: a fear or lack of trust on mainstream health facilities, lack of respect from health care providers, experiences of interpersonal and structural racism, lack of understanding of cultural differences to initiate an open discussion and a narrow concept of health that fails to consider the Aboriginal definition of health which is more comprehensive than the Western biomedical perspective of health that focuses on treating health conditions [ 90 , 91 , 92 ]. Evidence also shows that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in rural and remote communities do not have equitable access to PHC services, including lack of local available services to meet their holistic needs, inadequate infrastructure, high costs, long travel distance and insufficient workforce [ 59 , 93 ]. Therefore, trustful, and culturally safe engagement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities through all aspects of the program design, implementation and evaluation is essential to program success, and where possible, the Aboriginal Health Workforce and ACCHOs should be utilised.

Policy and practice recommendations: This study identified several policy and practice recommendations (Table 3 ) that need to be considered for the implementation of chronic disease prevention and management programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in primary care. Our recommendations align with Australia’s Primary Health Care 10 Year Plan 2022–2032 ($632.8 million new investment) that has identified three streams of work: future focused health care; person-centred primary health care supported by funding reform; and integrated care, locally delivered [ 94 ].

Strengths and limitations

Strengths of the present study include (i) the generation of an evidence summary required to guide policy and practice is a short time frame, (ii) the application of iterative process from the design to completion of review with engagement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander researchers and Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Reference Group members rather than Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal Reference Group members , (iii) a quality appraisal of the included studies using Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool that privileges Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s ways of knowing, being, doing and (iv) interpretation of findings validated by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge champions.

One limitation of this review was that search was restricted to only two databases as the decision makers seek the evidence is a short period of time and were based on peer reviewed articles published in English language. We also acknowledge that the findings might not be comprehensive as the review was conducted in short timeframe, limitations in key words used and subjected to publication bias, as we omitted published program reports, grey literature, and policy guidelines from our inclusion criteria. Moreover, our search was limited to specific databases and terms, which could result in overlooking articles present in other databases or identified through alternate search terms. Despite these limitations, this review is Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander researchers led that allowed Indigenous perspectives and knowledge to be integrated in the evidence synthesis; ensuring findings are meaningful for the broader sector.

This rapid review synthesises the barriers and enablers to designing and implementing chronic disease prevention and management programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. While there is no one-size-fits-all approach to the heterogeneous Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, several policy and practice recommendations are broadly applicable to service providers. These include addressing social and cultural determinants of health, developing the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous chronic disease workforce, supporting multidisciplinary teams through strengthening clinical care pathways, and engaging Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in design and delivery of chronic disease prevention and management programs. This requires funding mechanisms and models of care that are flexible enough to account for local and individual context through policy and practice reforms. Moreover, enabling place-based partnerships to develop local and population-based strategies that align with community priories and aspiration is crucial for tackling increasing burden of chronic disease.

Availability of data and materials

All available materials are available as Additional material.

Abbreviations

Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations

Medicare Benefits Schedule

Cardiovascular Disease

Chronic Kidney Disease

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Protocols

SelecTing Approaches for Rapid Reviews

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the support of Chelsea Liu assisted with the use of the Quality Appraisal Tool and the support of Dr. Deborah Wong (Research Coordinator- Chronic Disease | Cervical Cancer) in designing Fig. 2 . We would also like to acknowledge Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Reference Group members rather than Thiitu Tharrmay Aboriginal Reference Group members at the National Centre for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Wellbeing Research at the Australian National University for their continuous feedback without which this research piece wouldn’t have been completed.

The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this publication and they do not necessarily represent the decisions or policies of their affiliated institutions.

This work was supported by funding from the Australian Government Department of Health-—First Nations Health Division. The funding body had no role in the writing of this article.

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Uday Narayan Yadav and Rosemary Wyber have contributed equally to this work.

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National Centre for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Wellbeing Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia

Uday Narayan Yadav & Rosemary Wyber

Centre for Primary Health Care and Equity, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

Uday Narayan Yadav

Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

Jasmine Meredith Davis

The George Institute for Global Health, Sydney, Australia

Keziah Bennett-Brook & Julieann Coombes

Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA, Australia

Rosemary Wyber

South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia

Odette Pearson

Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia

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Conceptualization & original draft: Uday Narayan Yadav and Rosemary Wyber. Data curation: Uday Narayan Yadav, Jasmine Meredith Davis and Rosemary Wyber. Review, edits and revision: Uday Narayan Yadav, Jasmine Meredith Davis, Keziah Bennett-Brook, Julieann Coombes, Rosemary Wyber and Odette Pearson.

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Yadav, U.N., Davis, J.M., Bennett-Brook, K. et al. A rapid review to inform the policy and practice for the implementation of chronic disease prevention and management programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in primary care. Health Res Policy Sys 22 , 34 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-024-01121-x

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Silicon Valley is pricing academics out of AI research

With eye-popping salaries and access to costly computing power, ai companies are draining academia of talent.

Fei-Fei Li, the “godmother of artificial intelligence,” delivered an urgent plea to President Biden in the glittering ballroom of San Francisco’s Fairmont Hotel in June.

The Stanford professor asked Biden to fund a national warehouse of computing power and data sets — part of a “moonshot investment” allowing the country’s top AI researchers to keep up with tech giants.

She elevated the ask Thursday at Biden’s State of the Union address, which Li attended as a guest of Rep. Anna G. Eshoo (D-Calif.) to promote a bill to fund a national AI repository.

Li is at the forefront of a growing chorus of academics, policymakers and former employees who argue that the sky-high cost of working with AI models is boxing researchers out of the field, compromising independent study of the burgeoning technology.

As such tech behemoths as Meta, Google and Microsoft funnel billions of dollars into AI, a massive resources gap is building with even the country’s richest universities. Meta aims to procure 350,000 of the specialized computer chips — called GPUs — that are essential to run the gargantuan calculations needed for AI models. In contrast, Stanford’s Natural Language Processing Group has 68 GPUs for all of its work.

After attending State of the Union speech #SOTU tonight, I had a brief exchange w/ President Biden @POTUS . Me: “Mr. President, you gave a historical speech by mentioning AI in the SOTU speech for the first time in history.” @POTUS (smiling): “Yes! And keep it safe”. 1/ pic.twitter.com/cJ7vs440fx — Fei-Fei Li (@drfeifei) March 8, 2024

To obtain the expensive computing power and data required to research AI systems, scholars frequently partner with tech employees. Meanwhile, tech firms’ eye-popping salaries are draining academia of star talent.

Big tech companies now dominate breakthroughs in the field. In 2022, the tech industry created 32 significant machine learning models, while academics produced three, a significant reversal from 2014, when the majority of AI breakthroughs originated in universities, according to a Stanford report .

Researchers say this lopsided power dynamic is shaping the field in subtle ways, pushing AI scholars to tailor their research for commercial use. Last month, Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg announced that the company’s independent AI research lab would move closer to its product team, ensuring “some level of alignment” between the groups, he said.

“The public sector is now significantly lagging in resources and talent compared to that of industry,” said Li, a former Google employee and the co-director of the Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI. “This will have profound consequences because industry is focused on developing technology that is profit-driven, whereas public-sector AI goals are focused on creating public goods.”

This agency is tasked with keeping AI safe. Its offices are crumbling.

Some are pushing for new sources of funding. Li has been making the rounds in Washington, huddling with White House Office of Science and Technology Policy Director Arati Prabhakar, dining with the political press at a swanky seafood and steak restaurant and visiting Capitol Hill for meetings with lawmakers working on AI, including Sens. Martin Heinrich (D-N.M.), Mike Rounds (R-S.D.) and Todd Young (R-Ind.).

Large tech companies have contributed computing resources to the National AI Research Resource, the national warehouse project, including a $20 million donation in computing credits from Microsoft.

“We have long embraced the importance of sharing knowledge and compute resources with our colleagues within academia,” Microsoft Chief Scientific Officer Eric Horvitz said in a statement.

Policymakers are taking some steps to address the funding gaps. Last year, the National Science Foundation announced a $140 million investment to launch seven university-led National AI Research Institutes to examine how AI could mitigate the effects of climate change and improve education, among other topics.

Eshoo said she hopes to pass the Create AI Act, which has bipartisan backing in the House and the Senate, by the end of the year, when she is scheduled to retire. The legislation “essentially democratizes AI,” Eshoo said.

But scholars say this infusion may not come quickly enough.

As Silicon Valley races to build chatbots and image generators, it is drawing would-be computer science professors with high salaries and the chance to work on interesting AI problems. Nearly 70 percent of people with PhDs in AI end up in private industry compared with 21 percent of graduates two decades ago, according to a 2023 report .

Amid explosive demand, America is running out of power

Big Tech’s AI boom has pushed the salaries for the best researchers to new heights. Median compensation packages for AI research scientists at Meta climbed from $256,000 in 2020 to $335,250 in 2023, according to Levels.fyi , a salary-tracking website. True stars can attract even more cash: AI engineers with a PhD and several years of experience building AI models can command compensation as high as $20 million over four years, said Ali Ghodsi, who as CEO of AI start-up Databricks is regularly competing to hire AI talent.

“The compensation is through the roof. It’s ridiculous,” he said. “It’s not an uncommon number to hear, roughly.”

University academics often have little choice but to work with industry researchers , with the companies footing the bill for computing power and offering data. Nearly 40 percent of papers presented at leading AI conferences in 2020 had at least one tech employee author, according to the 2023 report . And industry grants often fund PhD students to perform research, said Mohamed Abdalla, a scientist at the Canada-based Institute for Better Health at Trillium Health Partners and incoming assistant professor at the University of Alberta, who has conducted research on the effect of industry on academics’ AI research.

“It was like a running joke that, like, everyone is getting hired by them,” Abdalla said. “And the people that were remaining, they were funded by them — so, in a way, hired by them.”

Google believes private companies and universities should work together to develop the science behind AI, said Jane Park, a spokesperson for the company. Google still routinely publishes its research publicly to benefit the broader AI community, Park said.

David Harris, a former research manager for Meta’s responsible AI team, said corporate labs may not censor the outcome of research but may influence which projects get tackled.

“Anytime you see a mix of authors who are employed by a company and authors who work at a university, you should really scrutinize the motives of the company for contributing to that work,” said Harris, who is now a chancellor’s public scholar at the University of California at Berkeley. “We used to look at people employed in academia to be neutral scholars, motivated only by the pursuit of truth and the interest of society.”

These fake images reveal how AI amplifies our worst stereotypes

Tech giants procure huge amounts of computing power through data centers and have access to GPUs. These resources are expensive: A recent report from Stanford University researchers estimated that Google DeepMind’s large language model, Chinchilla, cost $2.1 million to develop. More than 100 top artificial intelligence researchers on Tuesday urged generative AI companies to offer a legal and technical safe harbor to researchers so they can scrutinize their products without the fear that internet platforms will suspend their accounts or threaten legal action.

The necessity for advanced computing power is likely to only grow as AI scientists crunch more data to improve the performance of their models, said Neil Thompson, director of the FutureTech research project at MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, which studies progress in computing.

“To keep getting better, [what] you expect to need is more and more money, more and more computers, more and more data,” Thompson said. “What that’s going to mean is that people who do not have as much compute [and] who do not have as many resources are going to stop being able to participate.”

Tech companies, including Meta and Google, have historically run their AI research labs to resemble universities where scientists decide what projects to pursue to advance the state of research, according to people familiar with the subject who spoke on the condition of anonymity to discuss private company matters.

Those workers were largely isolated from teams focused on building products or generating revenue, the people said. They were judged on influential papers they published or notable breakthroughs — similar to metrics used for their university peers, the people said. Top AI Meta scientists Yann LeCun and Joelle Pineau hold dual appointments at New York University and McGill University, blurring the lines between industry and academia.

Top AI researchers say OpenAI, Meta and more hinder independent evaluations

In an increasingly competitive market for generative AI products , research freedom inside companies could wane. In April, Google announced it was merging two of its AI research groups — DeepMind, which it acquired in 2014, and the Brain team from Google Research — into one department called Google DeepMind. Last year, Google started to take more advantage of its own AI discoveries, sharing research papers only after the lab work had been turned into products, The Washington Post has reported .

Meta has also reshuffled its research teams. The company placed its Fundamental AI Research team, known as FAIR, under the helm of its virtual-reality division, Reality Labs, in 2022 and last year reassigned some of the group’s researchers to a new generative AI product team. Last month, Zuckerberg told investors that FAIR would work “closer together” with the generative AI product team, arguing that while the two groups would still conduct research on “different time horizons,” it was helpful to the company “to have some level of alignment” between them.

“In a lot of tech companies right now, they hired research scientists that knew something about AI and maybe set certain expectations about how much freedom they would have to set their own schedule and set their own research agenda,” Harris said. “That’s changing, especially for the companies that are moving frantically right now to ship these products.”

A previous version of this article incorrectly said that Google acquired DeepMind in 2010. Google acquired the AI start-up in 2014. The article has been corrected.

Scribbr Citation Generator

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Scribbr for Chrome: Your shortcut to citations

Cite any page or article with a single click right from your browser. The extension does the hard work for you by automatically grabbing the title, author(s), publication date, and everything else needed to whip up the perfect citation.

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Introduction
Finding sources

Evaluating sources

Integrating sources

Citing sources

Tools and resources, a quick guide to working with sources.

Working with sources is an important skill that you’ll need throughout your academic career.

It includes knowing how to find relevant sources, assessing their authority and credibility, and understanding how to integrate sources into your work with proper referencing.

This quick guide will help you get started!

Finding relevant sources

Sources commonly used in academic writing include academic journals, scholarly books, websites, newspapers, and encyclopedias. There are three main places to look for such sources:

Research databases: Databases can be general or subject-specific. To get started, check out this list of databases by academic discipline . Another good starting point is Google Scholar .
Your institution’s library: Use your library’s database to narrow down your search using keywords to find relevant articles, books, and newspapers matching your topic.
Other online resources: Consult popular online sources like websites, blogs, or Wikipedia to find background information. Be sure to carefully evaluate the credibility of those online sources.

When using academic databases or search engines, you can use Boolean operators to refine your results.

Generate APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard citations in seconds

Get started

In academic writing, your sources should be credible, up to date, and relevant to your research topic. Useful approaches to evaluating sources include the CRAAP test and lateral reading.

CRAAP is an abbreviation that reminds you of a set of questions to ask yourself when evaluating information.

Currency: Does the source reflect recent research?
Relevance: Is the source related to your research topic?
Authority: Is it a respected publication? Is the author an expert in their field?
Accuracy: Does the source support its arguments and conclusions with evidence?
Purpose: What is the author’s intention?

Lateral reading

Lateral reading means comparing your source to other sources. This allows you to:

Verify evidence
Contextualize information
Find potential weaknesses

If a source is using methods or drawing conclusions that are incompatible with other research in its field, it may not be reliable.

Integrating sources into your work

Once you have found information that you want to include in your paper, signal phrases can help you to introduce it. Here are a few examples:

Following the signal phrase, you can choose to quote, paraphrase or summarize the source.

Quoting : This means including the exact words of another source in your paper. The quoted text must be enclosed in quotation marks or (for longer quotes) presented as a block quote . Quote a source when the meaning is difficult to convey in different words or when you want to analyze the language itself.
Paraphrasing : This means putting another person’s ideas into your own words. It allows you to integrate sources more smoothly into your text, maintaining a consistent voice. It also shows that you have understood the meaning of the source.
Summarizing : This means giving an overview of the essential points of a source. Summaries should be much shorter than the original text. You should describe the key points in your own words and not quote from the original text.

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, you must include a citation crediting the original author.

Citing your sources is important because it:

Allows you to avoid plagiarism
Establishes the credentials of your sources
Backs up your arguments with evidence
Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions

The most common citation styles are APA, MLA, and Chicago style. Each citation style has specific rules for formatting citations.

Generate APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard citations in seconds

Scribbr offers tons of tools and resources to make working with sources easier and faster. Take a look at our top picks:

Citation Generator: Automatically generate accurate references and in-text citations using Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator, MLA Citation Generator , Harvard Referencing Generator , and Chicago Citation Generator .
Plagiarism Checker : Detect plagiarism in your paper using the most accurate Turnitin-powered plagiarism software available to students.
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Paraphrasing tool: Avoid accidental plagiarism and make your text sound better.
Grammar checker : Eliminate pesky spelling and grammar mistakes.
Summarizer: Read more in less time. Distill lengthy and complex texts down to their key points.
AI detector: Find out if your text was written with ChatGPT or any other AI writing tool. ChatGPT 2 & ChatGPT 3 supported.
Proofreading services : Have a human editor improve your writing.
Citation checker: Check your work for citation errors and missing citations.
Knowledge Base : Explore hundreds of articles, bite-sized videos, time-saving templates, and handy checklists that guide you through the process of research, writing, and citation.

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How to Thrive as You Age

Women who do strength training live longer. how much is enough.

Allison Aubrey

Strength training is good for everyone, but women who train regularly get a significantly higher boost in longevity than men. Gary Yeowell/Getty Images hide caption

Strength training is good for everyone, but women who train regularly get a significantly higher boost in longevity than men.

Resistance training does more than help us build strong muscles.

A new study finds women who do strength training exercises two to three days a week are more likely to live longer and have a lower risk of death from heart disease, compared to women who do none.

"We were incredibly impressed by the finding," says study author Martha Gulati , who is also the director of preventive cardiology at Cedars Sinai in Los Angeles.

Of the 400,000 people included in the study, only 1 in 5 women did regular weight training. But those who did, saw tremendous benefits.

"What surprised us the most was the fact that women who do muscle strengthening had a reduction in their cardiovascular mortality by 30%," Gulati says. "We don't have many things that reduce mortality in that way."

Strength training is also good for bones, joints, mood and metabolic health. And at a time when many women focus on aerobic activity and hesitate to do weight training, the findings add to the evidence that a combination of both types of exercise is powerful medicine. "Both should be prescribed," Gulati says.

Shots - Health News

Millions of women are 'under-muscled.' these foods help build strength.

The findings are part of a larger study, published in The Journal of the American College of Cardiology, which evaluated the differences in the effects of exercise between men and women.

While the study finds that even small doses of exercise are beneficial for everyone, the data show that women need less exercise than men to get the same gains in longevity.

Women who did moderate intensity exercise, such as brisk walking, five times a week, reduced their risk of premature death by 24%, compared to 18% for men.

"The take home message is – let's start moving," says Eric Shiroma , a prevention-focused researcher at the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health, which provided grant support for the research..

It's not exactly clear what drives the variance between sexes, but there are physiological differences between men and women, and differences in heart disease risks , too.

People born female have less muscle and lower aerobic capacity in general. Also, women have more capillaries feeding part of their muscles, Shiroma says. The findings show women need to do less exercise to change their baseline of aerobic and muscular strength. "It might be that this relative increase in strength [in women compared to men] is what's driving this difference in benefit," he says.

The results show a little can go a long way. "The benefits start as soon as you start moving," Shiroma says.

It's increasingly common to see female weight lifters and body builders on social media, and many gyms and work-out studios now incorporate weight training into many of their classes and offerings. But, given that about 80% of women in the study said they don't participate in regular weight training, there's still a lot of hesitancy.

Ann Martin says her mood improves with resistance training. "It gets your blood flowing," she says. "It feels good." Deb Cutler/Ann Martin hide caption

"I was always the awkward one in gym class back in school days," says Ann Martin, 69, of Wilmington, Del. She shied away from gyms and weight-training machines. Martin has always been a walker, but she realized she needed to build more strength, so last year she started working out with a trainer to learn how to use the equipment. "It's fun now," she says. "I can feel my muscles getting stronger."

Strength training can be intimidating, Shiroma says. "But it's not all bodybuilders trying to lift super amounts of weight." He says there are many ways to incorporate resistance training into your life.

All activities that require your muscles to work against a weight or force count as strength training. This includes the use of weight machines, resistance bands or tubes, as well as all the many ways we can use our own body weight, as we do with push-ups and squats.

The findings of this new study fit with the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans , which recommend that adults get a minimum of 2.5 hours of moderate-intensity exercise a week, that's about 30 minutes, most days of the week. The guidelines also call for doing strength-based activities at least two days a week.

This 22-Minute Workout Has Everything You Need

The increase in lifespan can likely be explained in part, by the well-being that comes from the other hidden benefits. Here are 5 ways building strength can boost good health.

1. Strength training helps protect joints.

Physical therapists often recommend resistance training for patients with knee and hip pain. "Strength training protects joints, resulting in less stress through the body," says Todd Wheeler, a physical therapist at MedStar Health Physical Therapy in Washington, D.C . "If joints could talk, they would say 'It's not my fault I'm irritated," Wheeler says. They'd blame it on weak muscles. He says strong muscles support the joints, which can help decrease joint pain. Wheeler recommends starting small and simply. For instance, try a few squats and table pushups. "Listen to your body and gradually increase intensity over time," he says.

2. Building muscle burns more calories

Aerobic exercise – such as running and cycling – typically burns more calories in real time compared to strength training. But people who weight train can get a boost in calorie burning over the long-term.

"When you're doing resistance training, you're building muscle. That muscle requires energy," says Bryant Johnson , a trainer who wrote The RBJ Workout . So, adding muscle mass can help people burn more calories.

Dr. Gulati also points to research that shows weight lifting and resistance training can help people lose more fat and improve body composition.

3. Resistance training protects against injuries and falls

As we've reported, millions of Americans, especially women, are under-muscled, and muscle mass is a predictor of longevity .

Since muscle mass peaks in our 30s and then starts a long, slow decline, we need to take steps to slow this down. If we don't do strength training exercise, we're more likely to become weak, increasing the risk of falls, which is the top cause of death among older adults in the U.S.

And since muscle loss - also known as sarcopenia - affects more than 45% of older adults in the U.S., "it's important to know about it and take steps to prevent it," says Richard Joseph , a wellness focused physician. He says strength training improves bone density which also protects against injuries and falls.

Joseph says people can get the biggest bang for their buck when they're starting out by focusing on lower body exercises that work big muscle groups in the legs.

4. Strength training helps control blood sugar

About 1 in 3 adults in the U.S. has prediabetes. Strength training can help control blood sugar by clearing glucose out of the bloodstream.

When we use our muscles during exercise, whether it's pushing, pulling, lifting or moving, they require more glucose for energy. This explains why exercise after meals can help control blood sugar.

And a recent study found strength training can be even more effective than aerobic activity in controlling blood sugar in people with diabetes.

5. Muscle building may help boost mood

A meta-analysis published in the medical journal JAMA Psychiatry in 2018, which included the results of more than 30 clinical trials, found a reduction in symptoms of depression among people who did weight training two times a week or more.

Strength training has also been shown to improve depressive symptoms in people at risk of metabolic disease. And, research shows strength training can tamp down anxiety, too.

Ann Martin says it makes sense that our moods improve when we move. "It gets your blood flowing," she says. "It feels good."

Scientists can tell how fast you're aging. Now, the trick is to slow it down

This story was edited by Jane Greenhalgh

resistance training
strength training
weight training
heart disease

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Reference List: Basic Rules

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

This resourse, revised according to the 7 th edition APA Publication Manual, offers basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules. However, because sources obtained from academic journals carry special weight in research writing, these sources are subject to special rules . Thus, this page presents basic guidelines for citing academic journals separate from its "ordinary" basic guidelines. This distinction is made clear below.

Note: Because the information on this page pertains to virtually all citations, we've highlighted one important difference between APA 6 and APA 7 with an underlined note written in red. For more information, please consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , (7 th ed.).

Formatting a Reference List

Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.

Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page "References" in bold, centered at the top of the page (do NOT underline or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Basic Rules for Most Sources

All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
All authors' names should be inverted (i.e., last names should be provided first).
For example, the reference entry for a source written by Jane Marie Smith would begin with "Smith, J. M."
If a middle name isn't available, just initialize the author's first name: "Smith, J."
Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors ( this is a new rule, as APA 6 only required the first six authors ). Separate each author’s initials from the next author in the list with a comma. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final author’s name.
Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
Note again that the titles of academic journals are subject to special rules. See section below.
Italicize titles of longer works (e.g., books, edited collections, names of newspapers, and so on).
Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as chapters in books or essays in edited collections.

Basic Rules for Articles in Academic Journals

Present journal titles in full.
Italicize journal titles.
For example, you should use PhiloSOPHIA instead of Philosophia, or Past & Present instead of Past and Present.
This distinction is based on the type of source being cited. Academic journal titles have all major words capitalized, while other sources' titles do not.
Capitalize the first word of the titles and subtitles of journal articles , as well as the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and any proper nouns .
Do not italicize or underline the article title.
Deep blue: The mysteries of the Marianas Trench.
Oceanographic Study: A Peer-Reviewed Publication

Please note: While the APA manual provides examples of how to cite common types of sources, it does not cover all conceivable sources. If you must cite a source that APA does not address, the APA suggests finding an example that is similar to your source and using that format. For more information, see page 282 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th ed.

An official website of the United States government Here's how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

Secretary Buttigieg Announces First Industry-Wide Privacy Review of U.S. Airlines

Review will look at airline policies and training to ensure that passengers’ sensitive personal information is not improperly monetized or shared with third parties

WASHINGTON – U.S. Secretary of Transportation Pete Buttigieg today announced the Department of Transportation (DOT) will undertake a privacy review of the nation’s ten largest airlines regarding their collection, handling, maintenance, and use of passengers’ personal information. The review will examine airlines’ policies and procedures to determine if airlines are properly safeguarding their customers’ personal information. In addition, DOT will probe whether airlines are unfairly or deceptively monetizing or sharing that data with third parties. As DOT finds evidence of problematic practices, the Department will take action, which could mean investigations, enforcement actions, guidance, or rulemaking.

“Airline passengers should have confidence that their personal information is not being shared improperly with third parties or mishandled by employees,” said U.S. Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg . “This review of airline practices is the beginning of a new initiative by DOT to ensure airlines are being good stewards of sensitive passenger data. DOT is grateful for the expertise and partnership of Senator Wyden as we undertake this effort to protect passengers.”

“Secretary Buttigieg and the Biden Administration deserve serious credit for working with me to launch a new initiative to review the privacy practices of the major U.S. airlines,” said Senator Ron Wyden . “Because consumers will often never know that their personal data was misused or sold to shady data brokers, effective privacy regulation cannot depend on consumer complaints to identify corporate abuses. I will continue to work with DOT to ensure that it is holding the airlines responsible for harmful or negligent privacy practices.”

DOT has stated that mishandling consumers’ private information may be considered an unfair or deceptive practice by airlines. DOT enforces airlines’ compliance with the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) rules implementing COPPA, and DOT and FTC share jurisdiction over ticket agents with respect to COPPA. DOT has the authority to investigate complaints and take enforcement action against airlines and ticket agents that engage in unfair or deceptive practices involving passenger information – and impose civil penalties where appropriate.

The privacy review is the first of what will be periodic reviews of airline privacy practices by the Department to ensure that carriers adequately protect consumers’ personal information and follow the law. This year, DOT’s Office of Aviation Consumer Protection (OACP) will conduct a privacy review of Allegiant, Alaska, American, Delta, Frontier, Hawaiian, JetBlue, Southwest, Spirit, and United. OACP staff conferred with Senator Wyden’s office to take advantage of their deep expertise on consumer privacy issues to assist in the creation of the privacy review program.

As part of the privacy review, DOT sent a letter to the airlines requesting information in the following three areas.

Policies and procedures relating to the collection, maintenance, handling, and use of airline passengers’ personal information, including policies and procedures relating to monetization of passenger data, targeted advertising, and prevention of data breaches.
Complaints alleging that airline employees or contractors mishandled personal information or otherwise alleging that an airline violated an individual’s privacy.
Information regarding privacy training, including materials used for training, types of personnel that receive the training, and the frequency of the training.

The privacy review is part of the Biden-Harris Administration’s broader push to protect consumer privacy across the economy. The FTC recently proposed changes to the COPPA rule that would place new restrictions on the use and disclosure of children’s data and further limit the ability of companies to condition access to services on monetizing children’s data. The FTC is also exploring rules to more broadly crack down on the harms stemming from surveillance and lax data security.

Under the Biden-Harris Administration, DOT has worked to significantly expand consumer rights for airline passengers and is currently pursuing rulemakings that would:

Propose to ban family seating junk fees and guarantee that parents can sit with their children for no extra charge when they fly. Before President Biden and Secretary Buttigieg pressed airlines last year, no airline committed to guaranteeing fee-free family seating. Now, four airlines guarantee fee-free family seating, as the Department is working on its family seating junk fee ban proposal.
Ensure fee transparency so that consumers know the cost of flying with a checked or carry-on bag and for changing or canceling a flight before they buy a ticket. The rule was proposed to help consumers make informed decisions, save money, and avoid surprises at checkout.
Propose to make passenger compensation and amenities mandatory so that travelers are taken care of when airlines cause flight delays or cancellations.
Ensure that airlines promptly provide a refund when they cancel or significantly change a flight without rebooking the passenger.
Guarantee refunds for passengers for significantly delayed bags and for services they paid for that are not actually provided, such as broken Wi-Fi.

Consumers can continue to file privacy-related complaints or comments with the U.S. Department of Transportation at https://secure.dot.gov/air-travel-complaint . For general information on DOT’s privacy authority, please visit https://www.transportation.gov/individuals/aviation-consumer-protection/privacy .

To revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories .

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Apple’s MM1 AI Model Shows a Sleeping Giant Is Waking Up

While the tech industry went gaga for generative artificial intelligence , one giant has held back: Apple. The company has yet to introduce so much as an AI-generated emoji, and according to a New York Times report today and earlier reporting from Bloomberg, it is in preliminary talks with Google about adding the search company’s Gemini AI model to iPhones .

Yet a research paper quietly posted online last Friday by Apple engineers suggests that the company is making significant new investments into AI that are already bearing fruit. It details the development of a new generative AI model called MM1 capable of working with text and images. The researchers show it answering questions about photos and displaying the kind of general knowledge skills shown by chatbots like ChatGPT. The model’s name is not explained but could stand for MultiModal 1. MM1 appears to be similar in design and sophistication to a variety of recent AI models from other tech giants, including Meta’s open source Llama 2 and Google’s Gemini . Work by Apple’s rivals and academics shows that models of this type can be used to power capable chatbots or build “agents” that can solve tasks by writing code and taking actions such as using computer interfaces or websites. That suggests MM1 could yet find its way into Apple’s products.

“The fact that they’re doing this, it shows they have the ability to understand how to train and how to build these models,” says Ruslan Salakhutdinov , a professor at Carnegie Mellon who led AI research at Apple several years ago. “It requires a certain amount of expertise.”

MM1 is a multimodal large language model, or MLLM, meaning it is trained on images as well as text. This allows the model to respond to text prompts and also answer complex questions about particular images.

One example in the Apple research paper shows what happened when MM1 was provided with a photo of a sun-dappled restaurant table with a couple of beer bottles and also an image of the menu. When asked how much someone would expect to pay for “all the beer on the table,” the model correctly reads off the correct price and tallies up the cost.

When ChatGPT launched in November 2022, it could only ingest and generate text, but more recently its creator OpenAI and others have worked to expand the underlying large language model technology to work with other kinds of data. When Google launched Gemini (the model that now powers its answer to ChatGPT ) last December, the company touted its multimodal nature as beginning an important new direction in AI. “After the rise of LLMs, MLLMs are emerging as the next frontier in foundation models,” Apple’s paper says.

MM1 is a relatively small model as measured by its number of “parameters,” or the internal variables that get adjusted as a model is trained. Kate Saenko , a professor at Boston University who specializes in computer vision and machine learning, says this could make it easier for Apple’s engineers to experiment with different training methods and refinements before scaling up when they hit on something promising.

Saenko says the MM1 paper provides a surprising amount of detail on how the model was trained for a corporate publication. For instance, the engineers behind MM1 describe tricks for improving the performance of the model including increasing the resolution of images and mixing text and image data. Apple is famed for its secrecy, but it has previously shown unusual openness about AI research as it has sought to lure the talent needed to compete in the crucial technology.

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Saenko says it’s hard to draw too many conclusions about Apple’s plans from the research paper. Multimodal models have proven adaptable to many different use cases. But she suggests that MM1 could perhaps be a step toward building “some type of multimodal assistant that can describe photos, documents, or charts and answer questions about them.”

Apple’s flagship product, the iPhone, already has an AI assistant—Siri. The rise of ChatGPT and its rivals has quickly made the once revolutionary helper look increasingly limited and out-dated. Amazon and Google have said they are integrating LLM technology into their own assistants, Alexa and Google Assistant. Google allows users of Android phones to replace the Assistant with Gemini. Reports from The New York Times and Bloomberg that Apple may add Google’s Gemini to iPhones suggest Apple is considering expanding the strategy it has used for search on mobile devices to generative AI. Rather than develop web search technology in-house, the iPhone maker leans on Google, which reportedly pays more than $18 billion to make its search engine the iPhone default. Apple has also shown it can build its own alternatives to outside services, even when it starts from behind. Google Maps used to be the default on iPhones but in 2012 Apple replaced it with its own maps app .

Apple CEO Tim Cook has promised investors that the company will reveal more of its generative AI plans this year. The company faces pressure to keep up with rival smartphone makers, including Samsung and Google, that have introduced a raft of generative AI tools for their devices.

Apple could end up tapping both Google and its own, in-house AI, perhaps by introducing Gemini as a replacement for conventional Google Search while also building new generative AI tools on top of MM1 and other homegrown models. Last September, several of the researchers behind MM1 published details of MGIE , a tool that uses generative AI to manipulate images based on a text prompt.

Salakhutdinov believes his former employer may focus on developing LLMs that can be installed and run securely on Apple devices. That would fit with the company’s past emphasis on using “on-device” algorithms to safeguard sensitive data and avoid sharing it with other companies. A number of recent AI research papers from Apple concern machine-learning methods designed to preserve user privacy. “I think that's probably what Apple is going to do,” he says.

When it comes to tailoring generative AI to devices, Salakhutdinov says, Apple may yet turn out to have a distinct advantage because of its control over the entire software-hardware stack. The company has included a custom “neural engine” in the chips that power its mobile devices since 2017, with the debut of the iPhone X. “Apple is definitely working in that space, and I think at some point they will be in the front, because they have phones, the distribution.”

In a thread on X, Apple researcher Brandon McKinzie, lead author of the MM1 paper wrote : “This is just the beginning. The team is already hard at work on the next generation of models.”

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Roles of references in research papers
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Research and Citation Resources
APA Style (7th Edition) These OWL resources will help you learn how to use the American Psychological Association (APA) citation and format style. This section contains resources on in-text citation and the References page, as well as APA sample papers, slide presentations, and the APA classroom poster.
How to Cite in APA Format (7th edition)
APA Style is widely used by students, researchers, and professionals in the social and behavioral sciences. Scribbr's APA Citation Generator automatically generates accurate references and in-text citations for free.. This citation guide outlines the most important citation guidelines from the 7th edition APA Publication Manual (2020). Scribbr also offers free guides for the older APA 6th ...
References in Research
Journal Articles. References to journal articles usually include the author's name, title of the article, name of the journal, volume and issue number, page numbers, and publication date. Example: Johnson, T. (2021). The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health. Journal of Psychology, 32 (4), 87-94.
Citation Styles Guide
The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It's widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines. Bluebook footnote citation. 1 David E. Pozen, Freedom of Information Beyond the Freedom of Information Act, 165, U. P🇦 . L.
How to Cite Sources
An alternative to this type of in-text citation is the system used in numerical citation styles, where a number is inserted into the text, corresponding to an entry in a numbered reference list. Example: Numerical citation (Vancouver) Evolution is a gradual process that "can act only by very short and slow steps" (1, p. 510) .
A Quick Guide to Referencing
Harvard. Vancouver. APA. MHRA. OSCOLA. Harvard referencing, the most commonly used style at UK universities, uses author-date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical bibliography or reference list at the end. In-text citation. Sources should always be cited properly (Pears and Shields, 2019). Reference list.
References
References provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each work cited in the text. Consistency in reference formatting allows readers to focus on the content of your reference list, discerning both the types of works you consulted and the important reference elements with ease.
Referencing Skills
Tips. Several referencing styles have been developed over the years to record details of the sources you have used for your work. Examples include Harvard and American Psychology Association (APA) which are known as author date systems. Other styles include Chicago, MLA, Oxford and Vancover. Different subject areas tend to use different styles.
A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing
Sources with multiple authors in the reference list. As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ' et al. ': Number of authors. Reference example. 1 author. Davis, V. (2019) …. 2 authors. Davis, V. and Barrett, M. (2019) …. 3 authors.
Citing Sources: What are citations and why should I use them?
Different subject disciplines call for citation information to be written in very specific order, capitalization, and punctuation. There are therefore many different style formats. Three popular citation formats are MLA Style (for humanities articles) and APA or Chicago (for social sciences articles). MLA style (print journal article):
Research and Citation
If you need help with research and citation, Purdue OWL® is your go-to source for comprehensive and reliable guidance. You can find information on various citation styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and more, as well as tips on how to conduct and evaluate research using different methods and sources. Purdue OWL® also offers examples and exercises to help you master the skills of academic ...
APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition)
Reference List. Resources on writing an APA style reference list, including citation formats. Basic Rules Basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper Author/Authors Rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors that apply to all APA-style references in your reference list ...
Quick guide to Harvard referencing (Cite Them Right)
There are different versions of the Harvard referencing style. This guide is a quick introduction to the commonly-used Cite Them Right version. You will find further guidance available through the OU Library on the Cite Them Right Database. For help and support with referencing and the full Cite Them Right guide, have a look at the Library's ...
Citations, References and Bibliography in Research Papers [Beginner's
Reference in research papers: A reference is a detailed description of the source of information that you want to give credit to via a citation. The references in research papers are usually in the form of a list at the end of the paper. The essential difference between citations and references is that citations lead a reader to the source of ...
Free Referencing Generator
Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions. The most common citation styles in the UK are APA, MLA, Harvard, Vancouver, MHRA, and Oscola. Each citation style has specific rules for formatting citations. Scribbr's free Reference Generator can generate perfect references and in-text citations in both APA and MLA styles.
APA Formatting and Citation (7th Ed.)
Throughout your paper, you need to apply the following APA format guidelines: Set page margins to 1 inch on all sides. Double-space all text, including headings. Indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 inches. Use an accessible font (e.g., Times New Roman 12pt., Arial 11pt., or Georgia 11pt.).
The art of referencing: Well begun is half done!
Importance of Proper Referencing. Scientific research is usually developed on previously established ideas/scientific knowledge. A meticulous literature review at the beginning of the study enables the researcher to identify the work done in the field, identify the gaps in knowledge, and recognize the need for further research.[] The most relevant sources from this literature search ...
Research Guides: GSAS Writing Toolkit: Style and Citation
Manuals of style, commonly referred to as citation manuals or style manuals, are invaluable not only because they prescribe the proper format for source documentation and citation, but because they recommend the latest best practices for writing in your field of study, from proper punctuation to preferred terminology to accepted discourse conventions; ignore their advice at your peril.
Research and Reference Services
To help us better serve you, r equest a research appointment to ensure collection material is accessible during your visit at the Library. The Library of Congress asks all visitors to follow our COVID-19 health screening protocols, which are based on guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and the Office of the Attending Physician of the ...
Free Harvard Referencing Generator [Updated for 2024]
A Harvard Referencing Generator is a tool that automatically generates formatted academic references in the Harvard style. It takes in relevant details about a source -- usually critical information like author names, article titles, publish dates, and URLs -- and adds the correct punctuation and formatting required by the Harvard referencing style.
In-Text Citations: The Basics
When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, like, for example, (Jones, 1998). One complete reference for each source should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.
A Cell-free DNA Blood-Based Test for Colorectal Cancer Screening
44 References; 2 Citing Articles; Related Articles; Abstract Background. Colorectal cancer is the third most diagnosed cancer in adults in the United States. Early detection could prevent more ...
Preventing Falls in Hospitals
Each year, somewhere between 700,000 and 1,000,000 people in the United States fall in the hospital. A fall may result in fractures, lacerations, or internal bleeding, leading to increased health care utilization. Research shows that close to one-third of falls can be prevented. Fall prevention involves managing a patient's underlying fall risk factors and optimizing the hospital's physical ...
A rapid review to inform the policy and practice for the implementation
More than 35% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults live with cardiovascular disease, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease. There is a pressing need for chronic disease prevention and management among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia. Therefore, this review aimed to synthesise a decade of contemporary evidence to understand the barriers and enablers of chronic ...
Silicon Valley is pricing academics out of AI research
Big Tech's AI boom has pushed the salaries for the best researchers to new heights. Median compensation packages for AI research scientists at Meta climbed from $256,000 in 2020 to $335,250 in ...
Free Citation Generator
Citation checker: Check your work for citation errors and missing citations. Knowledge Base : Explore hundreds of articles, bite-sized videos, time-saving templates, and handy checklists that guide you through the process of research, writing, and citation.
Strength training boosts longevity, mood and metabolism as it builds
And, research shows strength training can tamp down anxiety, too. Ann Martin says it makes sense that our moods improve when we move. "It gets your blood flowing," she says. "It feels good."
Reference List: Basic Rules
Reference List: Basic Rules. This resourse, revised according to the 7 th edition APA Publication Manual, offers basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules. However, because sources obtained from academic journals carry special weight in research writing, these sources are subject to special ...
Secretary Buttigieg Announces First Industry-Wide Privacy Review of U.S
Review will look at airline policies and training to ensure that passengers' sensitive personal information is not improperly monetized or shared with third parties
Apple's MM1 AI Model Shows a Sleeping Giant Is Waking Up
A research paper quietly released by Apple describes an AI model called MM1 that can answer questions and analyze images. It's the biggest sign yet that Apple is developing generative AI ...

References in Research – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

References in Research

Types of References

Journal Articles

Web sources

Formats of References

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style

Chicago Manual of Style

Harvard Style

Vancouver Style

Turabian Style

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) Style

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

Bluebook Style

Oxford Style

AAA (American Anthropological Association) Style

AIP (American Institute of Physics) Style

References Writing Guide

Purpose of References in Research

Importance of References in Research

Advantages of References in Research

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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