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Super-efficient solar cells: 10 Breakthrough Technologies 2024

Solar cells that combine traditional silicon with cutting-edge perovskites could push the efficiency of solar panels to new heights.

• Emma Foehringer Merchant archive page

Beyond Silicon, Caelux, First Solar, Hanwha Q Cells, Oxford PV, Swift Solar, Tandem PV

3 to 5 years

In November 2023, a buzzy solar technology broke yet another world record for efficiency. The previous record had existed for only about five months—and it likely won’t be long before it too is obsolete. This astonishing acceleration in efficiency gains comes from a special breed of next-­generation solar technology: perovskite tandem solar cells. These cells layer the traditional silicon with materials that share a unique crystal structure.

In the decade that scientists have been toying with perovskite solar technology , it has continued to best its own efficiency records, which measure how much of the sunlight that hits the cell is converted into electricity. Perovskites absorb different wavelengths of light from those absorbed by silicon cells, which account for 95% of the solar market today. When silicon and perovskites work together in tandem solar cells, they can utilize more of the solar spectrum, producing more electricity per cell. 

Technical efficiency levels for silicon-­based cells top out below 30%, while perovskite-only cells have reached experimental efficiencies of around 26%. But perovskite tandem cells have already exceeded 33% efficiency in the lab. That is the technology’s tantalizing promise: if deployed on a significant scale, perovskite tandem cells could produce more electricity than the legacy solar cells at a lower cost. 

But perovskites have stumbled when it comes to actual deployment. Silicon solar cells can last for decades. Few perovskite tandem panels have even been tested outside. 

The electrochemical makeup of perovskites means they’re sensitive to sucking up water and degrading in heat, though researchers have been working to create better barriers around panels and shifting to more stable perovskite compounds. 

In May, UK-based Oxford PV said it had reached an efficiency of 28.6% for a commercial-size perovskite tandem cell, which is significantly larger than those used to test the materials in the lab, and it plans to deliver its first panels and ramp up manufacturing in 2024. Other companies could unveil products later this decade. 

Climate change and energy

Your future air conditioner might act like a battery

New technologies store cooling power for when it’s needed most.

• Casey Crownhart archive page

Hydrogen bikes are struggling to gain traction in China

Over a dozen Chinese cities are experimenting with hydrogen-powered shared bikes, partly because of safety concerns around lithium-ion batteries.

• Zeyi Yang archive page

These climate tech companies just got $60 million

Here’s how the funding could bring new energy technology to market.

How the auto industry could steer the world toward green steel

Using steel with lower emissions would add only 1% to the price of the average new vehicle.

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The Future of Solar Energy

Read the report.

Executive summary (PDF) Full report (PDF)

The Future of Solar Energy considers only the two widely recognized classes of technologies for converting solar energy into electricity — photovoltaics (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP), sometimes called solar thermal) — in their current and plausible future forms. Because energy supply facilities typically last several decades, technologies in these classes will dominate solar-powered generation between now and 2050, and we do not attempt to look beyond that date. In contrast to some earlier Future of studies, we also present no forecasts — for two reasons. First, expanding the solar industry dramatically from its relatively tiny current scale may produce changes we do not pretend to be able to foresee today. Second, we recognize that future solar deployment will depend heavily on uncertain future market conditions and public policies — including but not limited to policies aimed at mitigating global climate change.

As in other studies in this series, our primary aim is to inform decision-makers in the developed world, particularly the United States. We concentrate on the use of grid-connected solar-powered generators to replace conventional sources of electricity. For the more than one billion people in the developing world who lack access to a reliable electric grid, the cost of small-scale PV generation is often outweighed by the very high value of access to electricity for lighting and charging mobile telephone and radio batteries. In addition, in some developing nations it may be economic to use solar generation to reduce reliance on imported oil, particularly if that oil must be moved by truck to remote generator sites. A companion working paper discusses both these valuable roles for solar energy in the developing world.

Related publications

Shaping photovoltaic array output to align with changing wholesale electricity price profiles

December 2019

Spatial and temporal variation in the value of solar power across United States electricity markets

Solar heating for residential and industrial processes

Related news

MIT Energy Initiative Director Robert Armstrong shares perspectives on past successes and ongoing and future energy projects at the Institute.

Solar energy breakthrough could reduce need for solar farms

Oxford, 9 August 2024, Scientists at Oxford University Physics Department have developed a revolutionary approach which could generate increasing amounts of solar electricity without the need for silicon-based solar panels. Instead, their innovation works by coating a new power-generating material onto the surfaces of everyday objects like rucksacks, cars, and mobile phones.

Their new light-absorbing material is, for the first time, thin and flexible enough to apply to the surface of almost any building or common object. Using a pioneering technique developed in Oxford, which stacks multiple light-absorbing layers into one solar cell, they have harnessed a wider range of the light spectrum, allowing more power to be generated from the same amount of sunlight.

This ultra-thin material, using this so-called multi-junction approach, has now been independently certified to deliver over 27% energy efficiency, for the first time matching the performance of traditional, single-layer, energy-generating materials known as silicon photovoltaics. Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), gave its certification prior to publication of the researchers’ scientific study later this year.

“During just five years experimenting with our stacking or multi-junction approach we have raised power conversion efficiency from around 6% to over 27%, close to the limits of what single-layer photovoltaics can achieve today,” said Dr Shuaifeng Hu , Post Doctoral Fellow at Oxford University Physics. “We believe that, over time, this approach could enable the photovoltaic devices to achieve far greater efficiencies, exceeding 45%.”

This compares with around 22% energy efficiency from solar panels today (meaning they convert around 22% of the energy in sunlight), but the versatility of the new ultra-thin and flexible material is also key. At just over one micron thick, it is almost 150 times thinner than a silicon wafer. Unlike existing photovoltaics, generally applied to silicon panels, this can be applied to almost any surface.

“By using new materials which can be applied as a coating, we’ve shown we can replicate and out-perform silicon whilst also gaining flexibility. This is important because it promises more solar power without the need for so many silicon-based panels or specially-built solar farms,” said Dr Junke Wang , Marie Skłodowska Curie Actions Postdoc Fellow at Oxford University Physics.

The researchers believe their approach will continue to reduce the cost of solar and also make it the most sustainable form of renewable energy. Since 2010, the global average cost of solar electricity has fallen by almost 90%, making it almost a third cheaper than that generated from fossil fuels. Innovations promise additional cost savings as new materials, like thin-film perovskite, reduce the need for silicon panels and purpose-built solar farms.

“We can envisage perovskite coatings being applied to broader types of surface to generate cheap solar power, such as the roof of cars and buildings and even the backs of mobile phones. If more solar energy can be generated in this way, we can foresee less need in the longer term to use silicon panels or build more and more solar farms” Dr Wang added.

The researchers are among 40 scientists working on photovoltaics led by Professor of Renewable Energy Henry Snaith at Oxford University Physics Department. Their pioneering work in photovoltaics and especially the use of thin-film perovskite began around a decade ago and benefits from a bespoke, robotic laboratory.

Their work has strong commercial potential and has already started to feed through into applications across the utilities, construction, and car manufacturing industries.

Oxford PV, a UK company spun out of Oxford University Physics in 2010 by co-founder and chief scientific officer Professor Henry Snaith to commercialise perovskite photovoltaics, recently started large-scale manufacturing of perovskite photovoltaics at its factory in Brandenburg-an-der-Havel, near Berlin, Germany. This is the world’s first volume manufacturing line for ‘perovskite-on-silicon’ tandem solar cells.

“We originally looked at UK sites to start manufacturing but the government has yet to match the fiscal and commercial incentives on offer in other parts of Europe and the United States,” Professor Snaith said. “Thus far the UK has thought about solar energy purely in terms of building new solar farms, but the real growth will come from commercialising innovations – we very much hope that the newly-created British Energy will direct its attention to this.”

“The latest innovations in solar materials and techniques demonstrated in our labs could become a platform for a new industry, manufacturing materials to generate solar energy more sustainably and cheaply by using existing buildings, vehicles, and objects,” Professor Snaith added.

“Supplying these materials will be a fast-growth new industry in the global green economy and we have shown that the UK is innovating and leading the way scientifically. However, without new incentives and a better pathway to convert this innovation into manufacturing the UK will miss the opportunity to lead this new global industry,” Professor Snaith added.  

Further information, images and media interviews/ enquiries:

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About Oxford University Physics

Oxford University Physics is one of the largest physics departments in the world, top-ranked in the UK and among the lead research universities globally in all key areas of physics (currently number 3 in the QS World Rankings 2024). Its mission is to apply the transformative power of physics to the foremost scientific problems and educate the next generation of physicists as well as to promote innovation and public engagement with physics.

Oxford University Physics leads ground-breaking scientific research across a wide spectrum of challenges: from quantum computing, quantum materials and quantum matter to space missions and observation; from climate science to the development of next-generation technologies for renewable energy; and from designing experiments to understand the nature of existence to revolutionising medicine and healthcare through biophysics.

Oxford University Physics has spun out 18 companies since launching the University’s first commercial venture in 1959 and works with enterprises across most areas of its leading scientific research.

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Oxford University has been placed number 1 in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for the eighth year running, and ​number 3 in the QS World Rankings 2024. At the heart of this success are the twin pillars of our ground-breaking research and innovation and our distinctive educational offer.

Oxford is world-famous for research and teaching excellence and is home to some of the most talented people from across the globe. Our work helps the lives of millions, solving real-world problems through a huge network of partnerships and collaborations. The breadth and interdisciplinary nature of our research alongside our personalised approach to teaching sparks imaginative and inventive insights and solutions.

Through its research commercialisation arm, Oxford University Innovation, Oxford is the highest university patent filer in the UK and is ranked first in the UK for university spinouts, having created more than 300 new companies since 1988. Over a third of these companies have been created in the past five years. The university is a catalyst for prosperity in Oxfordshire and the United Kingdom, contributing  £15.7 billion to the UK economy  in 2018/19, and supports more than 28,000 full-time jobs.

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• Open access
• Published: 17 July 2023

Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review

• Modupeola Dada   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9227-197X 1 &
• Patricia Popoola 1  

Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences volume  12 , Article number:  66 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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In recent years, solar photovoltaic technology has experienced significant advances in both materials and systems, leading to improvements in efficiency, cost, and energy storage capacity. These advances have made solar photovoltaic technology a more viable option for renewable energy generation and energy storage. However, intermittent is a major limitation of solar energy, and energy storage systems are the preferred solution to these challenges where electric power generation is applicable. Hence, the type of energy storage system depends on the technology used for electrical generation. Furthermore, the growing need for renewable energy sources and the necessity for long-term energy solutions have fueled research into novel materials for solar photovoltaic systems. Researchers have concentrated on increasing the efficiency of solar cells by creating novel materials that can collect and convert sunlight into power.

Main body of the abstract

This study provides an overview of the recent research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, is becoming increasingly important to address the growing energy demand and mitigate the impact of climate change. Hence, the development of materials with superior properties, such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability, can significantly enhance the performance of solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. This review discusses recent progress in the field of materials for solar photovoltaic devices. The challenges and opportunities associated with these materials are also explored, including scalability, stability, and economic feasibility.

The development of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices holds great potential to revolutionize the field of renewable energy. With ongoing research and technological advancements, scientists and engineers have been able to design materials with superior properties such as higher efficiency, lower cost, and improved durability. These materials can be used to enhance the performance of existing solar panels and enable the creation of new, more efficient photovoltaic devices. The adoption of these materials could have significant implications for the transition toward a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system. However, there are still challenges to be addressed, such as scalability, stability, potential environmental effects, and economic feasibility, before these materials can be widely implemented. Nonetheless, the progress made in this field is promising and continued reports on the research and development of materials for solar photovoltaic devices are crucial for achieving a sustainable future. The adoption of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices could lead to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy system, but further research and development are needed to overcome current limitations and enable large-scale implementation.

1 Background

Energy and environmental problems are at the top of the list of challenges in the world, attributed to the need to replace the combustion exhaust of fossil fuels, which has resulted in environmental contamination and the greenhouse effect as opposed to renewable energy sources [ 1 ]. This replacement will be achieved while keeping pace with the increasing consumption of energy resulting from an increase in population and rising demand from developing countries since the use of non-renewable energy sources would not meet the energy demand because they are an exhaustible and limited source of energy [ 2 ]. Thus, the search for clean and sustainable renewable energy resources has become an urgent priority. Researchers regard solar energy as one of the alternative sustainable energy resources that is low-cost, non-exhaustible, and abundantly available, giving solid and increasing output efficiencies compared to other sources of energy solutions and energy sources of renewable energy [ 3 ]. The sun radiates at 3.8 1023 kW, intercepting the Earth at 1.8 1014 kW, while the remaining energy is scattered, reflected, and taken in by clouds [ 4 ]. 1.7 × 1022 J of the energy from the sun in 1.5 days is equal to the energy produced from three trillion barrels of oil reserves on Earth [ 5 ]. The total annual energy used by the world in 1 year is 4 s.6 × 1020 J, and the sun provides this energy in 1 h [ 5 ]. The solar photovoltaic (SPV) industry heavily depends on solar radiation distribution and intensity. Solar radiation amounts to 3.8 million EJ/year, which is approximately 10,000 times more than the current energy needs [ 6 ]. Solar energy is used whether in solar thermal applications where solar energy is the source of heat or indirectly as a source of electricity in concentrated solar power plants, photo-assisted fuel cells, generating electricity in SPVs, hydrocarbons from CO 2 reduction, and fuels such as hydrogen [ 7 ].

Each technology harvests sunlight rays and converts them into different end forms. For instance, solar energy can be naturally converted into solar fuel through the process of photosynthesis. Also, through photosynthesis, plants store energy from the sun, where protons and electrons are produced, which can be further metabolized to produce H 2 and CH 4. Thus, 11% of solar energy is utilized in the natural photosynthesis of biomass [ 8 ]. Photovoltaics convert photons into electrons to get electrical energy, while in solar thermal applications, the photons are absorbed and their energy is converted into tangible heat [ 9 ]. This heat is used to heat a working fluid that can be directly collected and used for space and water heating [ 10 ].

However, the energy converted may be too low for consumption, and production efficiency can be improved by producing fuel from water and carbon dioxide through artificial bio-inspired nanoscale assemblies, connecting natural photosynthetic pathways in novel configurations, and using genetic engineering to facilitate biomass production [ 11 ]. One of the major challenges for photovoltaic (PV) systems remains matching intermittent energy production with dynamic power demand [ 12 , 13 ]. A solution to this challenge is to add a storage element to these intermittent power sources [ 14 , 15 ].

Furthermore, intermittent sources like SPV are allowed to address timely load demands and add flexibility to storage devices like batteries [ 16 , 17 ]. Nonetheless, compared with the photosynthesis process, which has conversion efficiencies of 5–10%, photovoltaic cells have better solar conversion efficiencies of approximately 22.5% [ 6 , 18 ]. There are other technologies used for enhancing the efficiency of PV systems encountered by temperature changes, which include floating tracking concentrating cooling systems (FTCC), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) cooled by water spraying, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric (PV/TE) systems cooled by a heat sink, hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems cooled by forced water circulation, improving the performance of solar panels through the use of phase change materials, and solar panels with water immersion cooling techniques [ 19 , 20 ]. SPV panels with transparent covering (photonic crystal cooling), hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal systems (PV/T) having forced air circulation, and SPV panels with thermoelectric cooling [ 21 ]

This review discusses the latest advancements in the field of novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices, including emerging technologies such as perovskite solar cells. It evaluates the efficiency and durability of different generations of materials in solar photovoltaic devices and compares them with traditional materials. It investigates the scalability and cost-effectiveness of producing novel materials for solar photovoltaic devices and identifies the key challenges and opportunities associated with the development and implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, such as stability, toxicity, and economic feasibility. Hence, proposing strategies to overcome current limitations and promote the large-scale implementation of novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including manufacturing processes and material characterization techniques, while assessing the potential environmental impact of using novel materials in solar photovoltaic devices, including the sustainability and carbon footprint of the production process.

2 Main text

2.1 solar photovoltaic systems.

Solar energy is used in two different ways: one through the solar thermal route using solar collectors, heaters, dryers, etc., and the other through the solar electricity route using SPV, as shown in Fig.  1 . A SPV system consists of arrays and combinations of PV panels, a charge controller for direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC); (DC to DC), a DC-to-AC inverter, a power meter, a breaker, and a battery or an array of batteries depending on the size of the system [ 22 , 23 ].

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic systems

This technology converts sunlight directly into electricity, with no interface for conversion. It is pollutant-free during operation, rugged and simple in design, diminishes global warming issues, is modular, has a lower operational cost, offers minimal maintenance, can generate power from microwatts to megawatts, and has the highest power density compared to the other renewable energy technologies [ 24 , 25 ]. A high rate of 100 megawatts (MW) of capacity installed per day in 2013 has been used to illustrate the rise in research interest in PV systems, with a record of 177 gigawatts (GW) of overall PV capacity taking place in 2015 [ 26 , 27 ]. However, according to Nadia et al. [ 19 ], solar photovoltaic systems have considerable limitations, including high prices as compared to fossil fuel energy resources, low efficiency, and intermittent operation. Hence, the solar tracker systems shown in Fig.  2 were designed to mitigate some of these challenges by keeping the solar devices at the optimal angle to track the sun’s position for maximum power production.

Solar tracking systems

Various environmental pressures and characteristics, such as angle of photon incidence, panel orientation, photovoltaic module conductivity, the material of solar cells, and time to measure the direction of the sun, can all impact the output of solar panel cells; therefore, before using tracker systems, a large number of measurement results are necessary [ 29 ]. There are active and passive tracking systems. Active tracking systems move the solar panel toward the sun using motors and gear trains, while passive tracking systems rely on a low-boiling-point compressed gas fluid through canisters generated by solar heat [ 30 ]. The disadvantages of passive solar tracking systems are their reliance on weather conditions and the selection of the right gas and glass to develop an efficient passive solar tracking system since the glass absorption levels depend on the color, strength, and chemical properties of the glass. While active solar is high maintenance and reduces power output if the panel is not directly under the sun [ 31 ]. There are also single- and double-axis solar trackers and closed- and open-loop solar trackers. Some trackers use electro-optical units, while others use microprocessor units [ 32 ]. However, the initial cost and running cost of the tracking system, coupled with the cost of energy generated by a PV tracking system, are greater than the cost of energy generated by a fixed system, making their tracking system’s economic advantages unclear. Thus, most recent research on tracking systems has concentrated solely on the optimization of tracking technologies, with little attention devoted to all other critical elements influencing cost and efficiency, PV cell materials, temperature, solar radiation levels, transport, auxiliary equipment, and storage techniques [ 6 ]. Hence, the future outlook on tracking systems includes developing innovative ways for tracking the sun cost-effectively and efficiently. Jamroen et al. [ 32 ] proposed the design and execution of a low-cost dual-axis solar tracking system based on digital logic design and pseudo-azimuthal mounting systems. Their findings reveal that the suggested tracking system improves electrical energy efficiency by 44.89% on average with power costs of 0.2 $/kWh and 0.3 $/kWh, which is relatively low when compared to other tracking methods. Chowdhury et al. [ 35 ], on an 8-bit microcontroller architecture, developed a stand-alone low-cost yet high-precision dual-axis closed-loop sun-tracking system based on the sun position algorithm. Their simulation results showed a very high prediction rate and a very low mean square error, which was concluded to be better than neutral and fuzzy network principles as photovoltaic energy sources.

2.1.1 Photovoltaic energy sources

Photovoltaic energy sources are used as grid-connected systems and stand-alone systems. Their applications include battery charging, water pumping, home power supplies, refrigeration, street lighting, swimming pools, hybrid vehicles, heating systems, telecommunications, satellite power systems, military space, and hydrogen production [ 28 , 29 ]. SPV and storage systems are classified into grid-tied or grid-direct PV systems, off-grid PV systems, and grid/hybrid or grid interaction systems with energy storage [ 30 , 31 ]. The grid-tied solar PV system does not have a battery bank for storage, but a grid-tied inverter is used to convert the DC generated into AC; hence, power can be generated and utilized only during the daytime, which may also be a limiting factor [ 31 , 32 ]. However, the disadvantage of only using the system during the day can be overcome by using a battery bank to store the generated power during the daytime, but this new setup will eventually increase the cost of the system [ 6 , 34 ]. Hence, just using this system during the day makes the grid-tied SPV system very cost-effective, simple to design, easily manageable, and requires less maintenance. Furthermore, solar panels mostly produce more electricity than is required by the loads. Hence, this excess electricity can be given back to the grid instead of being stored in batteries [ 35 , 36 ].

The off-grid PV system, on the other hand, uses a battery for the storage of the generated electricity during the daytime, which can be used in the future or during any emergency. This is beneficial when the load cannot be easily connected to the grid [ 37 , 38 ]. This system not only gives sufficient energy to a household, but it can also power places that are far away from the grid; hence, these systems use more components and are comparatively more expensive than grid-direct systems. Grid-connected PV systems run in parallel and are linked to the electric utility grid [ 39 , 40 ]. The power conditioning unit (PCU) or inverter is the main component of grid-connected PV systems, converting the DC power produced by the PV array into AC power that meets the voltage and power quality requirements of the utility grid for either direct use of appliances or sending to the utility grid to earn feed-in tariff compensation [ 41 , 42 ]. Grid-connected PV systems without backup energy storage (ES) are environmentally friendly, while systems with backup ES are usually interconnected with the utility grid [ 43 , 44 ].

Essential characteristics of PV technology are the operating range of 1 kW up to 300 MW, which can be used as fuel on residential, commercial, and utility scales. The efficiency of PV cells is about 12–16% for crystalline silicon, 11–14% for thin film, and 6–7% for organic cells [ 44 ]. There is no direct environmental impact due to the lack of CO 2 , CO, and NO x emissions. These systems have low operating and maintenance costs. The few drawbacks are higher installation costs, fluctuating output power due to the variation in weather patterns, and the need for mechanical and electronic tracking devices and backup storage for maximum efficiency. Installation costs can vary from 600 to 1300 USD/kW, while operation and maintenance annual costs vary from 0.004 and 0.07 USD/kWh (ac) for utility-scale generation and grid-connected residential systems, respectively [ 21 ].

3 Solar photovoltaic materials

Solar photovoltaic materials shown in Fig.  3 , when exposed to light, absorb the light and transform the energy of the light photons into electrical energy. Commercially available photovoltaic systems are based on inorganic materials, which require costly and energy-intensive processing techniques.

Schematic diagram of the solar photovoltaic materials

Moreover, some of those materials, like CdTe, are toxic and have a limited natural abundance. These problems are preventable by using organic photovoltaics. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of organic-based photovoltaic cells is still far below that of solely inorganic-based photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic devices usually employ semiconductor materials to generate energy, with silicon-based solar cells being the most popular. Photovoltaic (PV) cells or modules made of crystalline silicon (c-Si), whether single-crystalline (sc-Si) or multi-crystalline (c-Si) (mcSi). PV modules, which are fundamental components, can function in harsh outdoor environments and deliver high energy density to electronic loads. These are the most common forms of solar cells, accounting for over 90% of the PV industry. PV modules must have an efficiency of at least 14%, a price of less than 0.4 USD/Wp, and a service life of at least 15 years [ 22 ]. Now, wafer-based crystalline silicon technologies have best satisfied the criteria because of their high efficiency, cheap cost, and extended service life, and they are projected to dominate future PV power generation due to the abundance of materials. The greatest known energy conversion efficiency for research on crystalline silicon PV cells is 25%, although ordinary industrial cells are restricted to 15–18%. Optimizing these cells is a hard undertaking; hence, novel solutions to break past the efficiency barrier of 25% are wafer-slicing technologies and equipment for ultrathin (50 m) wafer technologies, and equipment for direct slicing ultrathin wafers with negligible kerf loss, solar cell and module manufacturing technologies and equipment based on ultrathin wafers. High-quality polycrystalline ingot technologies that outperform monocrystalline cells, contact-forming processes, and materials that are less expensive than screen-printed and burned silver paste are used. To reduce overall PV system costs, low-concentration, and high-efficiency module technologies are used [ 22 , 23 ].

Crystalline silicon solar cells are spectrally selective absorbers that are semiconductor devices. The percentage of incident solar irradiance absorbed by the cell is the absorption factor of a PV cell. Under operational settings, this absorption factor is one of the key criteria controlling cell temperature. The absorption factor may be calculated experimentally using reflection and transmission data. According to Santbergen et al. [ 23 ], using a two-dimensional (2D) computational model that agrees with experimental results, the AM1.5 absorption factor of a typical encapsulated c-Si photovoltaic cell can reach 90.5%. The existence of an appropriate steepness texture at the front of the c-Si wafer was used to obtain such a high absorption factor. As a result, by limiting reflecting losses over the solar spectrum, c-Si cell AM1.5 absorption may potentially be improved to 93.0%. Notably, there is widespread use of c-Si bifacial PV devices compared to their monofacial counterparts due to their potential to achieve a higher annual energy yield. Factors that promote these devices are the bifacial PV performance measurement method/standard for indoor characterization and comprehensive simulation models for outdoor performance characterization [ 24 ]. Non-commercial 3D tools such as PC3D, an open-source numerical analysis program for simulating the internal operation of silicon solar cells, have been reported to provide accurate simulation results that are only ≈1.7% different from their commercial counterparts [ 25 ]. In recent studies, Sun et al. [ 27 ] studied the high-efficiency silicon heterojunction solar cells, which were reported to be the next generation of crystalline silicon cells. The authors reported that increasing the efficiency limits can be achieved by increasing the short-circuit current while maintaining its high open-circuit voltage, and for mass production, there should be minimal consumption of indium and silver. Ibarra et al. [ 6 ] stated that high water quality is now commonplace for crystalline silicon ( c -Si)-based solar cells, meaning that the cell's efficiency potential is largely dictated by the effectiveness of its carrier-selective contacts based on highly doped-silicon, which can introduce negative side effects such as parasitic absorption. According to Chee et al. [ 37 ], carrier-selective crystalline silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells have already achieved remarkable lab-scale efficiencies, with SiOx/heavily doped polycrystalline silicon (n + -/p + -poly-Si) creating the most attractive polysilicon-on-oxide (POLO) junctions.

As a result, industry trends will shift away from p-Si passivated emitter and rear polysilicon (PERPoly) designs and toward TOPCon architectures. Costals et al. [ 38 ] described how vanadium oxide films provide excellent surface passivation with effective lifetime values of up to 800 s and solar cells with efficiencies greater than 18%, shedding light on the possibilities of transition metal oxides deposited using the atomic layer deposition technique. To solve the challenge of realizing a high aspect ratio (AR) of the metal fingers in a bifacial (BF) copper-plated crystalline silicon solar cell, Han et al. [ 31 ] created a new type of hybrid-shaped Cu finger device, electromagnetically fabricated in a 2-step deposition BF plating process, which shows a front-side efficiency of 22.1% and a BF factor of 0.99. Finally, using a grading technique to increase the efficiency of c-Si solar cells, Pham et al. [ 32 ] attained a conversion efficiency of 22%.

Other materials currently in use are low-cost solar cells based on hybrid polymer semiconductor materials containing a light-harvesting material, which absorbs photons with energy equal to or greater than the energy of the band gap ( E g). This leads to the creation of excitons (bound electron–hole pairs) ranging from 5 to 15 nm in most organic semiconductors, which diffuse in the material and may either undergo dissociation to the separate charge carriers or recombination with the emission of energy [ 32 ]. To improve the dissociation of excitons and enhance the efficiency of the PV cell, the photoactive material is combined with a strong acceptor of electrons of high electron affinity. Then, the separated electrons and holes migrate through different materials in the internal electric field generated across the device and are accommodated by the appropriate collecting electrodes. Organic particle–polymer (PCBM-P3HT) solar cells’ conversion efficiencies are much lower than those obtained for semiconductor devices [ 6 ]. Recent research on hybrid cells discusses performance analysis and the parameter optimization of hybrid PV cells [ 34 , 35 ], while porous organic polymer cells have received current research attention for drug delivery and biomedical applications [ 36 , 37 , 38 ].

Thin films (TF) only represent 10% of the global PV market. However, researchers around the world are exploring other options to produce electricity more efficiently using solar cells; hence, R&D for developing new materials is currently going on. A strategic approach to tuning absorbance, grain size rearrangement, conductivity, morphology, topography, and stoichiometric compositions for absorber layer solar cell applications is the incorporation of foreign dopants in the CdSe host lattice. Chasta et al. [ 18 ] using the thermal-evaporation approach, thin films of CdSe:Cu alloys with 1%, 3%, and 5% Cu contents were grown and annealed at 350 °C. Because of their efficiency, simplicity of manufacturing, and low cost, hybrid organic–inorganic halides are regarded as excellent materials when utilized as the absorber layer in perovskite solar cells (PSCs). According to Marí-Guaita et al. [ 39 ], its lower efficiency using MASnI3 as an absorber is more stable, which could be improved by enhancing the bandgap alignment of MaSnI3 [ 39 ]. Tarbi et al. [ 40 ] stated that the physical parameters of the absorption coefficients are more related to the variation of pressure than the temperature variation and deformation of a double-junction solar cell (Jsc) equal to 47.03 mA/cm 2 , and this results in a shift from maximum current density to low voltages while retaining its maximum value of 36.03 mW/m 2 . According to Chaudhry et al. [ 49 ], improving the optical absorption and current density in an active layer, under the standard AM-1.5 solar spectra, is achieved through the inclusion of semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs). The efficiencies were raised by 10% for the aluminum nanoparticles (NPs) design and by 21% and 30% for solar cells with and without anti-reflective thin film coating, respectively. In another study, Al- and Cu-doped ZnO nanostructured films were deposited using a sputtering technique, and doping resulted in enhanced conductivity as well as improved mobility in Al–ZnO and Cu–ZnO films in comparison with pure ZnO films, resulting in efficiencies of 0.492% and 0.559% for Al–ZnO- and Cu–ZnO-based solar cells, respectively.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) shown in Fig.  4 are an alternative concept to present-day p–n junction photovoltaic devices for optoelectronics applications. DSC is made up of a cathode, a photoactive layer, an electrolyte, and an anode [ 53 ]. The functional layers for flexible DSC, notably the electrodes that also serve as active layer substrates, must be flexible. In contrast to typical systems in which the semiconductor performs both light absorption and charge carrier transport, light is absorbed by a sensitizer attached to the surface of a wide-band semiconductor in this system [ 54 ]. The dye sensitizer absorbs incoming sunlight and uses the energy to initiate a vectorial electron transfer process. Around 10% of overall solar-to-current conversion efficiencies (IPCE) have been achieved [ 55 ]. However, DSC has no practical conversion efficiency breakthrough and suffers from low mechanical stability and problematic sealing, but enhancing the properties of the sensitizers, metal oxide/semiconductor film, substrate, redox electrolyte, and counter electrode (CE) accelerates DSC applications [ 56 ].

Schematic diagram of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC)

The N3 dye was reported to be stable as a pure solid in the air up to 280 °C, where decarboxylation occurs. It lasts 108 redox cycles under long-term light with no obvious loss of function. Metal oxides, such as TiO 2 , SnO 2 , ZnO 2 , In 2 O 3 , CeO 3 , and NbO 3 , have been employed as photoanodes to investigate materials for effective photoanodes [ 57 ]. Hence, the breakthrough in DSC was the use of a high-surface-area nanoporous TiO 2 layer, and the outstanding stability is the very rapid deactivation of its excited state via charge injection into the TiO 2 , which occurs in the femtosecond time domain [ 58 ].

TiO 2 became the preferred semiconductor because of its low cost, non-toxicity, and abundance. Although the N3/N3 + pair exhibits reversible electrochemical activity in various organic solvents, showing that the lifespan of N3 + is at least several seconds under these conditions, the oxidized form of N3 + , the dye created by electron injection, is significantly less stable [ 59 ]. However, when maintained in the oxidized state, the dye degrades through the loss of sulfur. To avoid this undesirable side reaction, regeneration of the N3 in the photovoltaic cell should occur quickly, i.e., within nanoseconds or microseconds [ 60 ]. Cell failure may occur due to the circumstances of the dye renewal. Recent advances in the field of sensitizers for these devices have resulted in dyes that absorb over the visible spectrum, resulting in better efficiencies. The DSC may be based on a huge internal interface prepared in a simple laboratory environment without strict demands on the purity of the materials or the absence of a built-in electric field. DSC offers low production costs and, interestingly, much lower investment costs compared with conventional PV technologies. It offers flexibility, lightweight, and design opportunities, such as transparency and multicolor options (building integration, consumer products, etc.). There is feedstock availability to reach the terawatt scale, and there is also a short energy payback time (< 1 year), where the enhanced performance is under real outdoor conditions, which are relatively better than competitors at diffuse light and higher temperatures [ 61 ].

In high-efficiency DSCs, ruthenium (Ru) complex dyes and organic solvent-based electrolytes such as N719, N3, and black dye are commonly utilized. Ru dyes, on the other hand, are costly and require a complicated chemical method. Its products, such as ruthenium oxide (RuO 4 ), are also very poisonous and volatile. Organic solvents are also poisonous, ecologically dangerous, and explosive, and their low surface tension can cause leakage difficulties [ 48 , 50 , 52 ]. Hence, organic solvents and Ru-based complex dyes may need to be replaced to realize low-cost, biocompatible, and environmentally benign devices. Water and natural dyes derived from plants could be excellent alternatives, according to Kim et al. [ 56 ]. Yadav et al. [ 60 ] assembled TiO 2  nanorod (NR)-based hibiscus dye with different counter electrodes such as carbon, graphite, and gold. The authors measured efficiencies of 0.07%, 0.10%, and 0.23%, respectively. The key to the breakthrough for DSCs in 1991 was the use of a mesoporous TiO 2 electrode with a high internal surface area to support the monolayer of a sensitizer and the increase in surface area by using mesoporous electrodes [ 42 ]. The standard DSC dye was tris (2,2′-bipyridyl-4,4′-carboxylate) ruthenium (II) (N3 dye), and the carboxylate group in the dye attaches the semiconductor oxide substrate by chemisorption; hence, when the photon is absorbed, the excited state of the dye molecule will relax by electron injection to the semiconductor conduction band. Since 1993, the photovoltaic performance of N3 dye has been irreplaceable by other dye complexes [ 42 ]. Bandara et al. [ 43 ] mentioned that recent developments comprising textile DSCs are being looked at for their sustainability, flexibility, pliability, and lightweight properties, as well as the possibility of using large-scale industrial manufacturing methods (e.g., weaving and screen printing) [ 62 ].

A conducting polymer such as pyrrole was electrochemically polymerized on a porous nanocrystalline TiO 2 electrode, which was sensitized by N3 dye. Polypyrrole successfully worked as a whole transport layer, connecting dye molecules anchored on TiO2 to the counter electrode. Conducting polyaniline has also been used in solid-state solar cells sensitized with methylene blue.

Light-emitting diodes based on halide perovskites have limited practical uses [ 63 ]. Additional drawbacks of the technique include a lack of knowledge of the influence of the electric field on mobile ions present in perovskite materials, a drop in external quantum efficiency at high current density, and limited device lifetimes [ 63 , 64 ]. Nonetheless, the technology has advanced rapidly in recent years, and it can currently provide external quantum efficiencies of more than 21%, equivalent to silicon solar cells [ 64 ]. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) were created in the same way as other SPV materials like organic photovoltaics, dye-sensitized solar cells, and vacuum-processed PVs such as CdTe and CIGSOne. PSCs have a high open-circuit voltage (VOC), which distinguishes them from all other photovoltaics (PVs). The loss in VOC induced by non-radiative recombination in the case of PSCs is significantly low, even as low as that reported for vacuum-processed Si. By enhancing the high open-circuit voltage VOC, all-inorganic and tin-based perovskites have the potential to exceed the Shockley–Queisser (S–Q) limitations [ 65 ]. Luo et al. [ 80 ] used a (FAPbI 3 )0.95(MAPbBr 3 )0.05 perovskite to produce a VOC of 1.11 V and an efficiency of 21.73% using a new fluorinated iron (III) porphine dopant for PTAA. Unlike Wu et al. [ 81 ], who achieved a 1.59 eV hybrid perovskite, the Jen group obtained a VOC of 1.21 V and a high efficiency of 22.31%.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have demonstrated a significant potential for enhancing polymer material characteristics. CNTs have better electrical and thermal conductivity, they are highly stiff, robust, and tough. Combining CNTs with brittle materials allows one to convey some of the CNTs' appealing mechanical qualities to the resultant composites, making CNT a good choice for reinforcement in polymeric materials. Zhu et al. [ 109 ] used carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with single walls to strengthen the epoxy Epon 862 matrix. The molecular dynamics method is used to investigate three periodic systems: a long CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, a short CNT-reinforced Epon 862 composite, and the Epon 862 matrix itself. The stress–strain relationships and elastic Young's moduli along the longitudinal direction (parallel to CNT) are simulated, and the results are compared to those obtained using the rule-of-mixture. Their findings reveal that when longitudinal strain rises, the Young's modulus of CNT increases whereas that of the Epon 862 composite or matrix drops. Furthermore, a long CNT may significantly increase the Epon 862 composite's Young's modulus (approximately 10 times stiffer), which is consistent with the prediction based on the rule-of-mixture at low strain level. Even a short CNT can improve the Young's modulus of the Epon 862 composite, with a 20% increase when compared to the Epon 862 matrix. Sui et al. [ 110 ] made CNT/NR composites after CNTs were treated in an acid bath and then ball-milled using HRH bonding methods. The thermal properties, vulcanization properties, and mechanical properties of CNT/NR composites were studied. When compared to CB, the absorption of CNTs into NR was quicker and consumed less energy. CNT/NR composites' over-curing reversion was reduced. The dispersion of CNTs in the rubber matrix and the interaction between CNTs and the matrix enhanced after acid treatment and ball milling. When compared to plain NR and CB/NR composites, the addition of treated CNTs improved the performance of the CNT/reinforced NR composites. Medupin et al. [ 111 ] used multi-walled carbon nanotube (WMCNT) reinforced natural rubber (NR) polymer nanocomposite (PNC) for prosthetic foot applications. On an open two-roll mill, the components were mixed according to the ASTM D-3182 standard during vulcanization. The nanocomposites (NCs) were cured in an electrically heated hydraulic press for 10 min at a temperature of 1502 °C and a pressure of 0.2 MPa. Mechanical testing found that NR/ MWCNT-3 had the maximum tensile and dynamic loading capability (449.79 MPa). It also had better filler dispersion, which increased crystallinity and cross-linking. The newly created prosthetic material is also said to have better wear resistance than conventional prosthetic materials as shown in Fig.  5 . The developed nanocomposite from MWCNTs for reinforced natural rubber is suited for the construction of the anthropomorphic prosthetic foot.

Wear rate of the carbon nanotube composites

4 Efficiency, stability, and scalability of solar photovoltaic materials

4.1 economic feasibility.

The economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their cost-effectiveness compared to other sources of energy. In the past, solar panels were relatively expensive, and their high cost made them less attractive to many consumers. However, in recent years, the cost of solar panels has dropped significantly, making them much more affordable. Recent advances in SPV technologies have driven this cost reduction in manufacturing technology and economies of scale. Additionally, many governments around the world offer incentives and subsidies to encourage the use of renewable energy sources like solar power, further increasing their economic feasibility. Angmo et al. [ 77 ] prepared polymer solar cell modules directly on thin flexible barrier polyethylene terephthalate foil, which is a cost-effective alternative to ITO-based devices with potential applications in information, communications, and mobile technology (ICT) where low humidity (50%) and lower temperatures (65 °C) are expected and operational lifetimes over one year are estimated.

4.2 PV device efficiencies

Several procedures are required to generate electricity from PVs. Strongly bonded holes and electron pairs, known as photo-produced excitons, are formed by incoming light and separated at the interface between the donor and acceptor. Materials with a greater electron affinity take electrons, while materials with a low electronization potential admit holes. The produced electrons and holes are then carried through the p-type and n-type material phases, respectively, toward both electrodes, resulting in an external photocurrent flow. Hence, the efficiency of power conversion in organic solar cells is determined by the combination of the following steps: dissociation of electron–hole pairs at the p-n interface; exciton formation following incoming solar light absorption; charge collection at the electrodes; and transport of electrons and holes to both electrodes. The first-generation solar cell has a recorded performance of around 15–20%, as displayed in Fig.  6 . The second-generation solar cell is made of amorphous silicon, CdTe, and CIGS and has a 4–15% efficiency. Because second-generation technologies do not rely on silicon wafers, they are less expensive than first-generation technologies.

Solar photovoltaic materials and their efficiencies

Hence, first-generation solar cells have higher reported efficiencies than thin-film solar cells, but they are more expensive due to the use of pure silicon in the production process. Thin-film solar cells, on the other hand, use less material, take less time, and are less expensive. Solar cells of the first generation are non-toxic and bountiful in nature. Second-generation solar cells have a lower per-watt price and efficiency when compared to other technologies. Organic materials and polymers are used in the third-generation solar cell. As compared to other varieties, the third-generation solar cell is more efficient and less expensive. The process for producing third-generation cells is simple and unique, but it has yet to be verified. The third-generation new kind of solar cell technology, the perovskite solar cell, has a record efficiency of more than 25% [ 78 ]. Nevertheless, UV light, oxygen, and moisture can all contribute to the poor stability of polycrystalline perovskite materials, the most pressing issue that must be addressed before the application of perovskite photovoltaic technology is the long-term stability of PSCs [ 79 ].

4.3 Stability of photovoltaics

The stability of solar photovoltaic devices refers to their ability to maintain their efficiency and reliability over time. In the past, solar panels had a reputation for being unreliable due to their sensitivity to weather and the environment. However, modern solar panels are much more stable and durable than earlier versions. They can withstand extreme temperatures and harsh weather conditions, making them suitable for use in a wide range of environments. Additionally, advances in solar panel technology have made them more efficient, which means they produce more energy for longer periods. However, increasing the long-term stability of perovskite solar cells is currently one of the most crucial concerns. According to Lee et al. [ 94 ], nanoscale metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with chemically, moistly, and thermally stable nanostructures have better PSCs’ stability as well as higher device performance, which has increased the interest of the perovskite photovoltaic community in recent times. This can be attributed to MOF’s flexible structure, considerable pore volume, high surface area, high concentration of active metal sites, controllable topology, and tuneable pore diameters [ 81 ]. MOFs are used to improve device stability in applications such as gas separation and storage, optoelectronics, and catalysis devices [ 67 , 82 , 83 ]. Furthermore, to improve operational stability in hybrid perovskite solar cells, a thorough understanding of photodegradation and thermal degradation processes is required [ 84 ]. Additionally, interfacial engineering with hydrophobic materials, or the 2D/3D concept, has significantly improved long-term stability.

4.4 Scalability of photovoltaics

Furthermore, the ability of solar photovoltaic devices to meet rising energy demands is referred to as their scalability. Solar panels can be installed on a wide range of structures, from homes to commercial and industrial structures. They can also be scaled up for utility-scale power generation, allowing solar energy to power entire communities. Furthermore, advancements in solar panel manufacturing have increased their efficiency, allowing them to be more scalable in terms of the amount of energy they can produce from a given surface area. The challenges for scaling up perovskite solar cells include developing scalable deposition strategies for the uniform coating of all device layers over large-area substrates, including the perovskite photoactive layer, electron-transport layer (ETL), hole-transport layer (HTL), and electrodes. Other challenges include developing procedures for fabrication and achieving better control of film formation across the device stack at large scales by improving the precursor chemistry to match the processing methods. Nonetheless, despite the challenges, in 2019, a stable solid-state perovskite solar cell with a certified power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 25.2% was recorded [ 75 ]. Although small-area cells are extremely efficient, scaling-up technology is required for commercialization. Scalable Technologies is now focused on high-efficiency module production and large-area perovskite coating, where dimethyl sulfoxide or N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF), which are perovskite precursor solutions used for spin coating and scalable depositions, may not be feasible due to sluggish evaporation and significant interactions with Lewis acid precursors. For producing a homogeneous perovskite coating over a large area substrate, Park [ 87 ] suggested using acetonitrile or 2-methoxyethanol solvents, while Li et al. [ 89 ] mentioned blade coating, meniscus coating, slot-die coating, spray coating, screen-printing, inkjet printing, and electrodeposition as scalable solution deposition processes for perovskite development. Altinkaya et al. [ 90 ] reported that tin oxide (SnO 2 ) is a scalable alternative to mesoporous titanium dioxide (TiO 2 )/compact TiO 2 stacks as electron-selective layers (ESLs) due to its wide bandgap, high carrier mobility, high optical transmission, decent chemical stability, and suitable band alignment with perovskites.

Finally, the scalability, stability, and economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic devices have all improved significantly in recent years. Advances in technology and manufacturing have made solar panels more efficient and affordable, while incentives and subsidies have encouraged their use. As a result, solar energy is becoming an increasingly popular source of renewable energy capable of meeting growing energy demands sustainably and reliably.

5 Environmental effects of solar photovoltaics

PV systems are recognized as clean and long-term energy sources. Although PV systems may generate little pollution while in operation, the environmental effects of such systems observed from manufacture through disposal must not be disregarded. The environmental problems of PV systems include the generation of hazardous chemicals, the pollution of water resources, and the emission of air pollutants during the production process, and the impact of PV installations on land utilization. According to Tawalbeh et al. [ 68 ], by improving PV design, recycling solar cell materials to reduce GHG emissions by up to 42%, creating novel materials with improved properties, improving cell lifespans, avoiding hazardous components, recycling, and making careful site selection, the negative environmental impacts of PV systems may be considerably reduced. These mitigation actions will reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, restrict solid waste accumulation, and save essential water resources. PV systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is 10 to 53 orders of magnitude lower than the emissions observed from oil burning (742 CO2-eq/kWh from oil). The carbon footprint of the PV system might be lowered by using novel production materials. When compared to traditional solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), Smith et al. [ 69 ] proposed the use of these novel material combinations leads to a reduction in embodied materials and toxicological impact, but a higher electrical energy consumption during manufacturing. Their findings provide support for the drive to reduce the operating temperatures of SOFCs using unique material designs, resulting in a lower overall environmental impact due to the lower operational energy from the constituents of the selected material. Blanco et al. [ 70 ] reported that thin-film silicon and dye-sensitized cells lead the way in terms of total environmental impact, followed by thin-film chalcogenide, organic, and silicon. Chetyrkina et al. [ 71 ] analyzed the constituents of perovskite cells for their environmental hazards: lead, tin, or bismuth iodide on the one hand, and methylammonium, formamidinium, or cesium iodide on the other. The authors stated that bismuth iodide was the least hazardous in the first round of cell testing. Cesium and formamidinium iodides were less harmful to cells than methylammonium iodide. This study argued that their reports show that perovskite cells will fully phase out silicon-based cells since the former is not as toxic as the latter [ 72 ].

6 Summary and outlook

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have been reported to exhibit covalent bond-supported crystallinity as well as capture and mass transport characteristics [ 90 ]. Organic semiconductors are gaining popularity in research, and materials for organic electronics are currently intensively researched for other purposes, such as organic photovoltaics, large-area devices, and thin-film transistors, benefiting from the emergence of non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) and the organic light-emitting diode (OLED) [ 91 ]. There have also been reports of issues arising from applications such as displays on flexible substrates, OLED lighting, huge area displays, and printable or solution processible greater area solar cells. Inorganic halide templates in carbon nanotubes of 1.2 nm, which are currently the smallest halide perovskite structures, have been reported to function as solar cells [ 92 ]. While other research has developed strategies to increase the durability of perovskites by using computer models based on density functional theory (DFT) to determine which molecules would be best at bridging the perovskite layer and the charge transport layers since the interface between the perovskite layer and the next layers is a critical location of vulnerability in perovskite solar cells. The results showed that inverted perovskite solar cells containing 1,3-bis(diphenylphosphine)propane, or DPPP, had the best performance because the cell's total power conversion efficiency remained high for around 3,500 h [ 93 ].

There are also environmental problems with PV systems, from production through installation and disposal [ 94 ]. Moreso, because perovskites are unstable, they must be protected with transparent polymers. Perovskite decomposes into chemicals that may pose environmental and human health hazards when this protection deteriorates [ 95 ]. Hence, PV solar systems have a carbon footprint of 14–73 g CO 2 -eq/kWh, which is lower than gas (607.6 CO 2 -eq/kWh), oil (742.1 CO 2 -eq/kWh), and coal-fired (975.3 g CO 2 -eq/kWh) power plants. New materials and/or recycled silicon material can reduce GHG emissions by up to 50% [ 96 ]. Floating PV systems and self-cleaning installations offer the benefit of using less water during the cleaning process. Except during installation, the PV modules have little noise and visual impact [ 97 ]. The life cycle analysis revealed that PV systems cannot be considered zero-emission technology due to the potential environmental effects imposed by land use, air quality, water use, the inclusion of hazardous materials, and possible noise/visual pollution; however, these effects can be mitigated by novel technologies such as hybrid power systems and/or floating PV systems [ 98 , 99 , 100 ]. Overall, future materials for solar photovoltaic devices must balance efficiency, cost, durability, toxicity, availability, and integration to provide a sustainable and cost-effective source of renewable energy [ 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 ].

7 Conclusion

Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic (PV) materials and systems have resulted in considerable efficiency, cost, and durability improvements. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications, including power production, water pumping, and space exploration, as a result of these advancements. The creation of high-efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells has been one of the most significant recent developments in PV technology. C-Si solar cells can currently convert more than 20% of the sun's energy into electricity.

This is a huge advance over early c-Si solar cells, which could only convert roughly 10% of the sun's energy into power. The creation of thin-film solar cells is another significant recent advancement in PV technology. Thin-film solar cells are constructed from substantially thinner materials than c-Si solar cells. As a result, they are lighter and less expensive to produce. Thin-film solar cells are also more flexible than c-Si solar cells, allowing them to be used in a broader range of applications. In addition to advancements in PV materials, substantial advancements in PV systems have occurred. PV systems today feature a number of components that aid in efficiency, durability, and dependability.

Solar trackers, inverters, and batteries are among the components. PV has become a more realistic choice for a wide range of applications due to advancements in PV materials and systems. PV is currently used to power homes and businesses, as well as to pump water and power satellites and other spacecraft. PV technology is expected to become more commonly employed in the future as it improves.

Other recent advances in solar PV materials and systems include the development of new materials, such as perovskites, that have the potential to achieve even higher efficiencies than c-Si solar cells, the development of new manufacturing processes that can lower the cost of PV modules, and the development of new PV applications, such as solar-powered cars and homes. These advancements make solar PV a more appealing alternative for a broader range of applications. As the cost of PV continues to fall, solar PV is anticipated to become the major form of renewable energy in the future.

Availability of data and material

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

• Solar photovoltaic

Photovoltaic

Floating tracking concentrating cooling system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal system

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermoelectric

Hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal

Direct current

Alternating current

Power conditioning unit

• Energy storage

Two-dimensional

Three-dimensional)

Silicon heterojunction

Polysilicon-on-oxide

Perovskite solar cells

Open-circuit voltage

Junction solar cell

Nanoparticles

Dye-sensitized solar cells

Counter electrode

Shockley–Queisser

Information and communications and mobile technology

Ultraviolet

Metal–organic frameworks

Electron-transport layer

Hole-transport layer

Power conversion efficiency

N-dimethylformamide

Electron-selective layers

Solid oxide fuel cells

Covalent organic frameworks

Non-fullerene acceptors

Organic light-emitting diode

Density functional theory

1,3 Bis(diphenylphosphino)propane

Greenhouse gas

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Dada, M., Popoola, P. Recent advances in solar photovoltaic materials and systems for energy storage applications: a review. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci 12 , 66 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-023-00405-5

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Solar Energy Basics

Solar energy is a powerful source of energy that can be used to heat, cool, and light homes and businesses.

Transcript and Audio Descriptions

More energy from the sun falls on the earth in one hour than is used by everyone in the world in one year. A variety of technologies convert sunlight to usable energy for buildings. The most commonly used solar technologies for homes and businesses are solar photovoltaics for electricity, passive solar design for space heating and cooling, and solar water heating.

Businesses and industry use solar technologies to diversify their energy sources, improve efficiency, and save money. Energy developers and utilities use solar photovoltaic and concentrating solar power technologies to produce electricity on a massive scale to power cities and small towns.

Learn more about the following solar technologies:

Solar Photovoltaic Technology

Converts sunlight directly into electricity to power homes and businesses.

Passive Solar Technology

Provides light and harnesses heat from the sun to warm our homes and businesses in winter.

Solar Water Heating

Harnesses heat from the sun to provide hot water for homes and businesses.

Solar Process Heat

Uses solar energy to heat or cool commercial and industrial buildings.

Concentrating Solar Power

Harnesses heat from the sun to provide electricity for large power stations.

Additional Resources

For more information about solar energy, visit the following resources:

Solar Energy Technology Basics U.S. Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon

Energy Kids Solar Basics U.S. Energy Information Administration Energy Kids

Clean Energy Education and Professional Development U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

• Solar Energy Technologies Office
• Fellowships
• Contact SETO
• Funding Programs
• National Laboratory Research and Funding
• Solar Technical Assistance
• Prizes and Challenges
• Cross-Office Funding Programs
• Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics
• Photovoltaic Technology Basics
• Soft Costs Basics
• Systems Integration Basics
• Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power
• Manufacturing and Competitiveness
• Photovoltaics
• Systems Integration
• Equitable Access to Solar Energy
• Solar Workforce Development
• Solar Energy Research Database
• Solar Energy for Consumers
• Solar Energy for Government Officials
• Solar Energy for Job Seekers
• Solar Energy for Professionals
• Success Stories

EERE SETO Postdoctoral Research Award 2018

The Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) Postdoctoral Research Awards are intended to be an avenue for significant energy efficiency and renewable energy innovation. The EERE Postdoctoral Research Awards are designed to engage early career postdoctoral recipients in research that will provide them opportunities to understand the mission and research the needs of EERE and make advances in research topics of importance to EERE programs. Research Awards will be provided to exceptional applicants interested in pursuing applied research to address topics listed by the EERE programs sponsoring the Research Awards.

Applicants may select one research proposal on one research topic. Proposals must be approved by the research mentor listed in the application. 

Solar Energy

S-501 Applying Data Science to Solar Soft Cost Reduction

Possible disciplines: Economics, computer science, business management

The emergence of new big data tools can revolutionize how solar technologies are researched, developed, demonstrated, and deployed. From computational chemistry and inverse material design to adoption, reliability, and correlation of insolation forecasts with load use patterns, data scientists have opportunities to dramatically impact the future scaling of solar energy.

EERE's Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) is seeking to support postdoctoral researchers to apply and advance cutting-edge data science to drive toward the national solar cost reduction goals.

Areas of interest include:

• Novel analysis of Green Button (smart meter) and PV performance data with the Durable Module Materials (DuraMAT) Consortium.
• Power system planning and operation modeling to better understand the performance of solar generation assets on both the transmission and distribution grid.
• Quantification of direct and total system cost and benefits of distributed energy generation and storage, especially as related to reliability and resiliency.
• Data analytics for prediction of solar generation and PV system performance.
• Computational methods for revealing insights about diffusion of solar technologies at the residential, commercial, and utility scales that integrate large administrative, geospatial, economic, and financial datasets.
• Data tools for advancing photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) to reduce the non-hardware-related costs for solar energy. Specifically this could include work related to transactive energy value, such as analysis of the potential for PV and CSP to act autonomously in response to different grid and market signals and/or creating software that can perform these activities, as well as other novel topics not included here.
• Studies of the impact of federal government funding of solar technologies and programs (e.g. connecting scientific articles, patents, and commercial press releases to understand how federal R&D dollars in clean energy are communicated to and understood by the marketplace).

S-502 Solar Systems Integration

Possible disciplines: Power systems engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, mechanical engineering, atmospheric sciences

The Systems Integration program of SETO aims to address the technical and operational challenges associated with connecting solar energy to the electricity grid. We seek postdoctoral research projects that will help address significant challenges in the following areas:

• Planning and operation models and software tools are essential to the safe, reliable and resilient operation of solar PV on the interconnected transmission and distribution grid, especially for understanding how power flows fluctuate due to clouds or other fast-changing conditions, as well as interacting with multiple inverter-based technologies.
• Sensors and cybersecurity communication infrastructures and big data analytics enable visibility and situational awareness of solar resources for grid operators to better manage generation, transmission and distribution, and consumption of energy, especially in the face of man-made or natural threats.
• Higher solar PV penetration will require more advanced protection systems in distribution grids given that normal power flow (and fault current) are no longer unidirectional. Directional and distance relays may no longer operate as expected with inverter-based distributed energy resources.
• Cybersecurity for PV systems integration into utility operations, such as isolated layers of trust and mutual authentication. Advanced PV cybersecurity may be needed to ensure access control, authorization, authentication, confidentiality, integrity, and availability for the future smart grid.
• Power electronic devices, such as PV inverters and relevant materials, are critical links between solar panels and the electric grid, ensuring reliable and efficient power flows from solar generation.
• Integrating solar PV with energy storage would help to enable more flexible generation and grid and provide operators more control options to balance electricity generation and demand, while increasing resiliency. When combined with the capability to island from the area power grid, solar -- plus energy storage microgrids -- support facility resiliency. Resiliency is particularly needed for strengthening the security and resilience of the nation's critical infrastructure (e.g. for safety, public health and national security.)
• The ability to better predict solar generation levels can help utilities and grid operators meet consumer demand for power and reliability.

S-503 Concentrating Solar Thermal for Electricity, Chemicals, and Fuels

Possible disciplines: Mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, materials science

Concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies use mirrors or other light collecting elements to concentrate and direct sunlight onto receivers.[1]  These receivers absorb the solar flux and convert it to heat. The heat energy may be stored until desired for dispatch to generate electricity, synthesize chemicals, desalinate water or produce fuels, among other applications. The dispatchable nature of solar thermal energy derives from the relative ease and cost-effectiveness of storing heat for later use, for example, when the sun does not shine or when customer demand increases or time value premiums warrant. Heat and/or extreme UV intensities from sunlight may also be used to synthesize chemicals or produce fuels. The ability to produce heat for chemical processes without the added cost of fuel and to shift electricity production to alternative energy forms can provide benefits. To realize these benefits operations must be efficient and cost-effective.

SETO seeks to develop processes that can occur at a competitive cost compared to traditional synthetic routes. Careful analysis of integrated solar thermochemical systems will be required due to the complexity of most chemical processes and the typically thin profit margins in commodity chemical markets.

Topics of interest include, but are not limited to:

• Novel thermochemical materials or cycles for high volumetric energy density storage systems (with accessible thermal energy storage densities > 3000 MJ/m3 of storage media). Of particular interest are designs that are capable of cost-effective, simple, periodic recovery from performance degradation.
• Novel concepts for using solar thermal sources to produce value-added chemicals, such as ammonia, methanol, dimethyl ether or other chemicals for which there is a sizeable market.
• Innovative catalysts, materials, and reactor designs to enhance the thermochemical conversion processes.
• Development of thermal transport systems and components. Generally, proposed innovations should support a 50% efficient power cycle (or other highly efficient end use), a 90% efficient receiver module, and multiple hours of thermal energy storage with 99% energetic efficiency and 95% exergetic efficiency, while minimizing parasitic losses. Novel concepts should also be compatible with 30 years of reliable operation at the targeted temperature conditions.

This is a broad call and postdoctoral applicants interested in using heat from solar installations to create value-added products at a national scale are encouraged to apply.

Stekli, J.; Irwin, L.; Pitchumani, R.  “Technical Challenges and Opportunities for Concentrating Solar Power With Thermal Energy Storage,” ASME Journal of Thermal Science Engineering and Applications; Vol. 5, No. 2; Article 021011; 2013; http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.4024143.

S-504 Photovoltaic Materials, Devices, Modules, and Systems

Possible disciplines: Materials science and engineering, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, applied physics, physics, chemistry

In photovoltaic hardware, substantial materials and system challenges remain in many current and near-commercial technologies.  Research projects are sought in applied and interdisciplinary science and engineering to improve the performance and reliability of photovoltaic materials, devices, modules, and systems in order to drive down energy costs.  Areas of interest include:

• New module architectures, module components, and innovative cell designs that enable modules to produce more electricity at lower cost and improved reliability; modules that are compatible with higher system voltage and/or have improved shading tolerance especially in monolithically integrated thin-film modules.
• Development or adaptation of new characterization techniques to evaluate defects and increase collection efficiency of absorber materials or interfaces. Projects should expand understanding of effective methods to control material quality in order to improve PV device efficiency and stability.
• Scalable, high-speed measurement and characterization methods and tools for cells, modules, panels and systems.
• Fundamental understanding of degradation mechanisms in PV devices, modules and systems. Development of models based on fundamental physics and material properties to predict PV device or module degradation and lifetime in order to enable shorter testing time and high-confidence performance prediction.
• Cost-effective methods to recycle PV modules and related components that can be implemented into the current recycling infrastructure or module architectures designed for improved recyclability.
• Stable, high-performance photovoltaic absorber materials and cell architectures to enable module efficiencies above 25% while reducing manufacturing costs.
• Transparent electrodes and carrier selective contacts to enable low-cost cell and module architectures amenable to mass production.
• Low-cost materials and high throughput, low cost processes for current collection and transport.

August 13, 2024

U.S. Wind and Solar Are on Track to Overtake Coal This Year

Two renewable resources, wind and solar, together have produced more power than coal through July—a first for the U.S.

By Benjamin Storrow & E&E News

Wind turbines spin near rows of solar panels in the California desert.

thinkreaction/Getty Images

CLIMATEWIRE | Wind and solar generated more power than coal through the first seven months of the year, federal data shows, in a first for renewable resources.

The milestone had been long expected due to a steady stream of coal plant retirements and the rapid growth of wind and solar. Last year, wind and solar outpaced coal through May before the fossil fuel eventually overtook the pair when power demand surged in the summer.

But the most recent statistics showed why wind and solar are on track in 2024 to exceed coal generation for an entire calendar year — with the renewable resources maintaining their lead through the heat of July. Coal generation usually declines in the spring months, due to falling power demand and seasonal plant maintenance, and picks up when electricity demand rises in the summer.

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Renewables’ growth has been driven by a surge in solar production over the last year. The 118 terawatt-hours generated by utility-scale solar facilities through the end of July represented a 36 percent increase from the same time period last year, according to preliminary U.S. Energy Information Administration figures. Wind production was 275 TWh, up 8 percent over 2023 levels. Renewables' combined production of 393 TWh outpaced coal generation of 388 TWh.

“I think it is an important milestone,” said Ric O’Connell, who leads GridLab, a clean electricity consulting firm. “I think you’re seeing a solar surge and a coal decline and hence the lines are crossing.”

EIA previously reported that renewable generation eclipsed coal in 2020 and 2022 and then repeated the feat in 2023 . But those figures notably included other resources such as hydropower. Now wind and solar are posed to overtake coal on their own. The pair accounted for 16 percent of U.S. power generation through July, slightly more than coal's share of the power generation market.

The development comes at a time when the reliability of the electric grid is in the spotlight amid increasing power demand due to the growth of artificial intelligence, data centers, and more frequent and severe heat waves — which drive up air conditioning use. EIA statistics show electricity demand through the first seven months of the year was up 4 percent to 2,436 TWh through the end of July.

The growth in demand has been a boon for power generators. Nuclear generation was 459 TWh through July, a 3 percent increase helped by two new reactors in Georgia coming online within the last year. Hydro was up a slight 1 percent to 159 TWh. Gas has been particularly important for supplying additional demand, increasing 5 percent over 2023 levels to 987 TWh.

Mark Repsher, an analyst who tracks the power industry at PA Consulting Group, said the figures point to larger challenges facing the power grid. Additional power plants that can be turned on at the flip of a switch will be needed to meet demand, he said. The question is whether it will come from natural gas or zero-carbon resources, such as nuclear or geothermal.

“Renewables will continue to be a huge part of the industry, but I think there will be an inflection point where the incremental value of an additional megawatt-hour from renewables will be less than some other alternatives,” he said.

Others were less sure. The rapid growth of wind, solar and batteries in Texas shows that renewables can be built quickly and stabilize the electric grid, said O’Connell. The state is “sailing through a crazy summer” thanks to record wind, solar and battery output, he said.

Coal may yet hold off wind and solar with a strong five months to close 2024. But renewables are likely to overtake the former king of the power sector sooner rather than later.

The last coal plant built in the continental United States came online in 2013. American coal capacity then declined 38 percent over the following decade.

Renewables, meanwhile, are booming. The U.S. installed almost 12 gigawatts of new solar capacity through June, meaning 2024 already ranks as the third best year for U.S. solar installations with six more months to go. Another 25 GW is planned to come online this year, according to EIA. Wind added 2.5 GW through June and is expected to install another 4.5 GW by the end of the year.

One piece of positive news for the coal industry is that plant retirements are on track to hit their lowest level in 13 years. EIA projects 3.2 GW of coal capacity will close this year, the lowest annual retirement figure since 2011 and down from the 9.5 GW of coal capacity shut down last year.

Reprinted from E&E News with permission from POLITICO, LLC. Copyright 2024. E&E News provides essential news for energy and environment professionals.

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Metal-free and natural dye sensitized solar cells: recent advancement and future perspectives.

Currently, the predominant energy source utilized by humanity is fossil fuels. However, as demand surges and supplies wane, identifying alternative sources of energy becomes increasingly critical. Solar energy has emerged as a promising solution to this energy crisis, and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) represent a particularly viable technology. DSSCs are the most confident choice for a cost-effective and reliable substitute for other types of photovoltaic devices including organic, inorganic and hybrid solar cells. DSSCs help to convert light energy into electrical energy directly. DSSCs are simple to manufacture, require less energy to produce, and can be made from abundant and non-toxic materials. In addition, they can function effectively even in environments with low levels of lighting conditions, making them a versatile option for various applications. This review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the operating principle, components, and progress of DSSCs. It begins by explaining the operational mechanics of DSSCs. Specifically, it highlights the process by which the cells convert solar energy into electrical energy via a photoelectrochemical mechanism. This report also delves into the various components of DSSCs, including the photoanode, counter electrode, and electrolyte, and their respective roles in the conversion process. This review investigates the recent advancements in the field of DSSC technology which encompasses novel approaches such as the utilization of new materials to enhance light harvesting efficiency and the development of efficient DSSCs. It also discusses the present state of development of DSSCs, including their commercial availability and widespread adoption. Finally, the review highlights the potential future prospects for DSSCs, such as their integration with other renewable energy sources and their use in building-integrated photovoltaics. By gaining a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and limitations of DSSCs, we can make informed decisions on how to optimally harness this technology to meet our energy requirements sustainably and efficiently.

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S. S. Malhotra, M. Ahmed, M. K. Gupta and A. Ansari, Sustainable Energy Fuels , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4SE00406J

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JSmol Viewer

Advances in solar energy towards efficient and sustainable energy.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. analysis by documents.

• Michael Gräetzel (ID 35463345800) has 46 publications with more than 1000 citations. Two of them have more than 10,000 citations, [ 9 ] with 23,972 citations and [ 10 ] with 11,058 citations, has published with 2735 co-authors in 1653 publications indexed in Scopus, with 324,084 total citations.
• George M. Whitesides, (ID 55711979600) is the second largest H-index author with 1367 documents published in collaboration with 1494 co-authors. It has 236,664 citations. In total, 39 of their papers have more than 1000 citations, standing out [ 11 ] with 6401 citations.
• Zhong Lin Wang (ID 56430045300) is the third largest H-index author. He has 27 documents with more than 1000 citations, for example [ 12 ] with 5492 citations. The author has published 1873 documents indexed in Scopus, in collaboration with 2681 co-authors, with 217,018 total citations.

3.2. Establishing and Analysis of Communities

3.2.1. community sustainability assessment.

• “Sustainability assessment of energy systems: Integrating environmental, economic and social aspects” with 258 cites [ 13 ].
• “Using a sustainability index to assess energy technologies for rural electrification” with 50 cites [ 14 ].
• “Energy system assessment with sustainability indicators” with 168 cites [ 15 ].

3.2.2. Community Sustainable Energy Solutions

• “A review on clean energy solutions for better sustainability” with 196 cites [ 18 ].
• “A key review on exergetic analysis and assessment of renewable energy resources for a sustainable future” with 584 cites [ 19 ].
• “Energy, exergy, environmental, enviroeconomic, exergoenvironmental (EXEN) and exergoenviroeconomic (EXENEC) analyses of solar collectors” with 39 cites [ 20 ].

3.2.3. Community Environmental Payback Time Analysis

• “Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems” with 343 cites [ 25 ].
• “The sustainability indicators of power production systems” with 81 cites [ 26 ].
• “Environmental payback time analysis of a roof-mounted building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system in Hong Kong” with 119 cites [ 27 ].

3.2.4. Community Sustainability of Solar Energy in Different Scenarios

• “Sustainability of off-grid photovoltaic systems for rural electrification in developing countries: A review” with 32 cites [ 31 ].
• “Renewable rural electrification: Sustainability assessment of mini-hybrid off-grid technological systems in the African context” with 88 cites [ 32 ].
• “Sustainability assessment of renewable energy projects for off-grid rural electrification: The Pangan-an Island case in the Philippines” with 50 cites [ 33 ].

3.2.5. Community Environmental Sustainability

• “Monitoring patterns of sustainability in natural and man-made ecosystems” with 293 cites [ 38 ].
• “Environmental sustainability of wind power: An emergy analysis of a Chinese wind farm” with 49 cites [ 39 ].
• “Emergy evaluation of the performance and sustainability of three agricultural systems with different scales and management” with 122 cites [ 40 ].

3.2.6. Community Solar Energy Applications

• “A review of renewable energy technologies integrated with desalination systems” with 273 cites [ 44 ].
• “Energy sustainable greenhouse crop cultivation using photovoltaic technologies” with 20 cites [ 45 ].
• “Solar radiation distribution inside a greenhouse with south-oriented photovoltaic roofs and effects on crop productivity” with 102 cites [ 46 ].

3.2.7. Community Sustainable Energy Optimisation

• “A review of Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE) issues of solar energy system” with 99 cites [ 49 ].
• “Multi-objective optimum design of hybrid renewable energy system for sustainable energy supply to a green cellular networks” with 1 cite [ 50 ].
• “Hybrid off-grid SPV/WTG power system for remote cellular base stations towards green and sustainable cellular networks in South Korea” with 25 cites [ 51 ].

3.2.8. Community Energy Transition

• “Structural changes of global power generation capacity towards sustainability and the risk of stranded investments supported by a sustainability indicator” with 92 cites [ 55 ].
• “How to achieve a 100% RES electricity supply for Portugal?” with 132 cites [ 56 ].
• “The features of sustainable Solar Hydroelectric Power Plant” with 40 cites [ 57 ].

3.2.9. Community Energy and Sustainable Scenarios

• “Life cycle assessment of a parabolic trough concentrating solar power plant and the impacts of key design alternatives” with 133 cites [ 60 ].
• “A review on development of solar drying applications” with 95 cites [ 61 ].
• “A review on energy scenario and sustainable energy in Malaysia” with 249 cites [ 3 ].

4. Conclusions

Author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Novas, N.; Garcia, R.M.; Camacho, J.M.; Alcayde, A. Advances in Solar Energy towards Efficient and Sustainable Energy. Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 6295. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116295

Novas N, Garcia RM, Camacho JM, Alcayde A. Advances in Solar Energy towards Efficient and Sustainable Energy. Sustainability . 2021; 13(11):6295. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116295

Novas, Nuria, Rosa María Garcia, Jose Manuel Camacho, and Alfredo Alcayde. 2021. "Advances in Solar Energy towards Efficient and Sustainable Energy" Sustainability 13, no. 11: 6295. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116295

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Global Energy Crisis

How the energy crisis started, how global energy markets are impacting our daily life, and what governments are doing about it

• English English

What is the energy crisis?

Record prices, fuel shortages, rising poverty, slowing economies: the first energy crisis that's truly global.

Energy markets began to tighten in 2021 because of a variety of factors, including the extraordinarily rapid economic rebound following the pandemic. But the situation escalated dramatically into a full-blown global energy crisis following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. The price of natural gas reached record highs, and as a result so did electricity in some markets. Oil prices hit their highest level since 2008. 

Higher energy prices have contributed to painfully high inflation, pushed families into poverty, forced some factories to curtail output or even shut down, and slowed economic growth to the point that some countries are heading towards severe recession. Europe, whose gas supply is uniquely vulnerable because of its historic reliance on Russia, could face gas rationing this winter, while many emerging economies are seeing sharply higher energy import bills and fuel shortages. While today’s energy crisis shares some parallels with the oil shocks of the 1970s, there are important differences. Today’s crisis involves all fossil fuels, while the 1970s price shocks were largely limited to oil at a time when the global economy was much more dependent on oil, and less dependent on gas. The entire word economy is much more interlinked than it was 50 years ago, magnifying the impact. That’s why we can refer to this as the first truly global energy crisis.

Some gas-intensive manufacturing plants in Europe have curtailed output because they can’t afford to keep operating, while in China some have simply had their power supply cut. In emerging and developing economies, where the share of household budgets spent on energy and food is already large, higher energy bills have increased extreme poverty and set back progress towards achieving universal and affordable energy access. Even in advanced economies, rising prices have impacted vulnerable households and caused significant economic, social and political strains.

Climate policies have been blamed in some quarters for contributing to the recent run-up in energy prices, but there is no evidence. In fact, a greater supply of clean energy sources and technologies would have protected consumers and mitigated some of the upward pressure on fuel prices.

Russia's invasion of Ukraine drove European and Asian gas prices to record highs

Evolution of key regional natural gas prices, june 2021-october 2022, what is causing it, disrupted supply chains, bad weather, low investment, and then came russia's invasion of ukraine.

Energy prices have been rising since 2021 because of the rapid economic recovery, weather conditions in various parts of the world, maintenance work that had been delayed by the pandemic, and earlier decisions by oil and gas companies and exporting countries to reduce investments. Russia began withholding gas supplies to Europe in 2021, months ahead of its invasion of Ukraine. All that led to already tight supplies. Russia’s attack on Ukraine greatly exacerbated the situation . The United States and the EU imposed a series of sanctions on Russia and many European countries declared their intention to phase out Russian gas imports completely. Meanwhile, Russia has increasingly curtailed or even turned off its export pipelines. Russia is by far the world’s largest exporter of fossil fuels, and a particularly important supplier to Europe. In 2021, a quarter of all energy consumed in the EU came from Russia. As Europe sought to replace Russian gas, it bid up prices of US, Australian and Qatari ship-borne liquefied natural gas (LNG), raising prices and diverting supply away from traditional LNG customers in Asia. Because gas frequently sets the price at which electricity is sold, power prices soared as well. Both LNG producers and importers are rushing to build new infrastructure to increase how much LNG can be traded internationally, but these costly projects take years to come online. Oil prices also initially soared as international trade routes were reconfigured after the United States, many European countries and some of their Asian allies said they would no longer buy Russian oil. Some shippers have declined to carry Russian oil because of sanctions and insurance risk. Many large oil producers were unable to boost supply to meet rising demand – even with the incentive of sky-high prices – because of a lack of investment in recent years. While prices have come down from their peaks, the outlook is uncertain with new rounds of European sanctions on Russia kicking in later this year.

What is being done?

Pandemic hangovers and rising interest rates limit public responses, while some countries turn to coal.

Some governments are looking to cushion the blow for customers and businesses, either through direct assistance, or by limiting prices for consumers and then paying energy providers the difference. But with inflation in many countries well above target and budget deficits already large because of emergency spending during the Covid-19 pandemic, the scope for cushioning the impact is more limited than in early 2020. Rising inflation has triggered increases in short-term interest rates in many countries, slowing down economic growth. Europeans have rushed to increase gas imports from alternative producers such as Algeria, Norway and Azerbaijan. Several countries have resumed or expanded the use of coal for power generation, and some are extending the lives of nuclear plants slated for de-commissioning. EU members have also introduced gas storage obligations, and agreed on voluntary targets to cut gas and electricity demand by 15% this winter through efficiency measures, greater use of renewables, and support for efficiency improvements. To ensure adequate oil supplies, the IEA and its members responded with the two largest ever releases of emergency oil stocks. With two decisions – on 1 March 2022 and 1 April – the IEA coordinated the release of some 182 million barrels of emergency oil from public stocks or obligated stocks held by industry. Some IEA member countries independently released additional public stocks, resulting in a total of over 240 million barrels being released between March and November 2022.

The IEA has also published action plans to cut oil use with immediate impact, as well as plans for how Europe can reduce its reliance on Russian gas and how common citizens can reduce their energy consumption . The invasion has sparked a reappraisal of energy policies and priorities, calling into question the viability of decades of infrastructure and investment decisions, and profoundly reorientating international energy trade. Gas had been expected to play a key role in many countries as a lower-emitting "bridge" between dirtier fossil fuels and renewable energies. But today’s crisis has called into question natural gas’ reliability.

The current crisis could accelerate the rollout of cleaner, sustainable renewable energy such as wind and solar, just as the 1970s oil shocks spurred major advances in energy efficiency, as well as in nuclear, solar and wind power. The crisis has also underscored the importance of investing in robust gas and power network infrastructure to better integrate regional markets. The EU’s RePowerEU, presented in May 2022 and the United States’ Inflation Reduction Act , passed in August 2022, both contain major initiatives to develop energy efficiency and promote renewable energies. 

The global energy crisis can be a historic turning point

Energy saving tips

1. Heating: turn it down

Lower your thermostat by just 1°C to save around 7% of your heating energy and cut an average bill by EUR 50-70 a year. Always set your thermostat as low as feels comfortable, and wear warm clothes indoors. Use a programmable thermostat to set the temperature to 15°C while you sleep and 10°C when the house is unoccupied. This cuts up to 10% a year off heating bills. Try to only heat the room you’re in or the rooms you use regularly.

The same idea applies in hot weather. Turn off air-conditioning when you’re out. Set the overall temperature 1 °C warmer to cut bills by up to 10%. And only cool the room you’re in.

2. Boiler: adjust the settings

Default boiler settings are often higher than you need. Lower the hot water temperature to save 8% of your heating energy and cut EUR 100 off an average bill.  You may have to have the plumber come once if you have a complex modern combi boiler and can’t figure out the manual. Make sure you follow local recommendations or consult your boiler manual. Swap a bath for a shower to spend less energy heating water. And if you already use a shower, take a shorter one. Hot water tanks and pipes should be insulated to stop heat escaping. Clean wood- and pellet-burning heaters regularly with a wire brush to keep them working efficiently.

3. Warm air: seal it in

Close windows and doors, insulate pipes and draught-proof around windows, chimneys and other gaps to keep the warm air inside. Unless your home is very new, you will lose heat through draughty doors and windows, gaps in the floor, or up the chimney. Draught-proof these gaps with sealant or weather stripping to save up to EUR 100 a year. Install tight-fitting curtains or shades on windows to retain even more heat. Close fireplace and chimney openings (unless a fire is burning) to stop warm air escaping straight up the chimney. And if you never use your fireplace, seal the chimney to stop heat escaping.

4. Lightbulbs: swap them out

Replace old lightbulbs with new LED ones, and only keep on the lights you need. LED bulbs are more efficient than incandescent and halogen lights, they burn out less frequently, and save around EUR 10 a year per bulb. Check the energy label when buying bulbs, and aim for A (the most efficient) rather than G (the least efficient). The simplest and easiest way to save energy is to turn lights off when you leave a room.

5. Grab a bike

Walking or cycling are great alternatives to driving for short journeys, and they help save money, cut emissions and reduce congestion. If you can, leave your car at home for shorter journeys; especially if it’s a larger car. Share your ride with neighbours, friends and colleagues to save energy and money. You’ll also see big savings and health benefits if you travel by bike. Many governments also offer incentives for electric bikes.

6. Use public transport

For longer distances where walking or cycling is impractical, public transport still reduces energy use, congestion and air pollution. If you’re going on a longer trip, consider leaving your car at home and taking the train. Buy a season ticket to save money over time. Your workplace or local government might also offer incentives for travel passes. Plan your trip in advance to save on tickets and find the best route.

7. Drive smarter

Optimise your driving style to reduce fuel consumption: drive smoothly and at lower speeds on motorways, close windows at high speeds and make sure your tires are properly inflated. Try to take routes that avoid heavy traffic and turn off the engine when you’re not moving. Drive 10 km/h slower on motorways to cut your fuel bill by around EUR 60 per year. Driving steadily between 50-90 km/h can also save fuel. When driving faster than 80 km/h, it’s more efficient to use A/C, rather than opening your windows. And service your engine regularly to maintain energy efficiency.

Analysis and forecast to 2026

Fuel report — December 2023

Europe’s energy crisis: Understanding the drivers of the fall in electricity demand

Commentary — 09 May 2023

Where things stand in the global energy crisis one year on

Commentary — 23 February 2023

The global energy crisis pushed fossil fuel consumption subsidies to an all-time high in 2022

Commentary — 16 February 2023

Fossil Fuels Consumption Subsidies 2022

Policy report — February 2023

Background note on the natural gas supply-demand balance of the European Union in 2023

Report — February 2023

Analysis and forecast to 2025

Fuel report — December 2022

How to Avoid Gas Shortages in the European Union in 2023

A practical set of actions to close a potential supply-demand gap

Flagship report — December 2022

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To the Editor:

Re “ Scientist Wants to Block Sunlight to Cool Earth ” (“Buying Time” series, front page, Aug. 4):

Your article about solar geoengineering raises serious concerns about a complex issue that demands diverse voices and rigorous scrutiny of the potential effects of these speculative interventions on climate, ecosystems and human rights.

Claims that solar radiation modification, or S.R.M., could control the sun’s warming effects ignore the immense risks and the reality of sudden temperature spikes if deployment is stopped. This technology could never “restore” the climate but would further destabilize an already disturbed climate system, leading to unforeseen and irreversible ecological disasters, and severely affecting current and future generations.

Almost 500 leading scientists and more than 2,000 civil society organizations worldwide are calling for a solar geoengineering non-use agreement. Both African ministers and the European Parliament have called for such a mechanism, reflecting a growing consensus against these dangerous experiments.

It’s alarming that the key lesson learned from the Harvard solar geoengineering research project’s failure appears to be to proceed with less transparency, denying the public’s right to know about future experiments — while ignoring a global de facto moratorium of the United Nations on all geoengineering.

Solar geoengineering is no insurance to “buy time” to tackle the climate crisis. It is a recipe for disaster that distracts from the urgent need to transition away from fossil fuels.

Lili Fuhr Berlin The writer is director of the fossil economy program at the Center for International Environmental Law.

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