define general education

What Is General Education?

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General Education is the program of education that typically developing children should receive, based on state standards and evaluated by the annual state educational standards test. It is the preferred way of describing its synonym, " regular education ." It is preferred because the term "regular" connotes that children receiving special education services are somehow "irregular."

General Education is now the default position since the passage of the reauthorization of IDEA, now called IDEIA (The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act.) All children should spend a significant amount of time in a general education classroom, unless it is in the best interest of the child, or because the child is a danger to him/herself or others. The amount of time a child spends in the general education program is part of his or her Placement.

Once again, General Education is the curriculum designed for all children which is meant to meet state standards, or if adopted, the Common Core State Standards. The General Education program is also the program which the state's annual test, required by NCLB (No Child Left Behind,) is designed to evaluate. 

IEP's and "Regular" Education

​In order to provide FAPE for special education students, IEP goals should be "aligned" with the Common Core State Standards . In other words, they should show that a student is being taught to the standards. In some cases, with children whose disabilities are severe, IEP's will reflect a more "functional" program, which will be very loosely aligned with the Common Core State Standards, rather than directly linked to specific grade level standards. These students are most often in self-contained programs. They are also the most likely to be part of the three percent of students allowed to take an alternate test.

Unless students are in the most restrictive environments, they will spend some time in the regular education environment. Often, children in self-contained  programs will participate in "specials" such as physical education, art, and music with students in the "regular" or "general" education programs. When assessing the amount of time spent in regular education (part of the IEP report) time spent with typical students in the lunchroom and on the playground for recess is also credited as time in the "general education" environment. 

Until more states eliminate testing, participation in high stakes state tests aligned to the standards is required of special education students. This is meant to reflect how the student performs alongside their regular education peers. States are also permitted to require that students with severe disabilities are offered an alternate assessment, which should address the state standards. These are required by Federal Law, in the ESEA (Elementary and Secondary education act) and in IDEIA. Only 1 percent of all students are allowed to take an alternate test, and this should represent 3 percent of all students receiving special education services.

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An education designed to support the development of the learner as an individual, rather than to equip him or her with specific, vocationally related skills. In this sense, a general education may be defined as developmental rather than instrumental. It is a term which is often used in differentiating an academic route, such as that represented by General Certificate of Secondary Education and Advanced Level, from a vocational route, for example through the various levels of National Vocational Qualifications. A general education may be described as ‘broad’, in contrast with the acquisition of narrowly focused skills for work. For historical reasons, a general education still tends to be accorded a higher status in some quarters than a vocational education or training. The 14–19 Diploma and the Applied GCSE, while designed to have a broad vocational focus, are nevertheless often presented as consistent with a general education curriculum, perhaps in the same sense that led to the choice of name for the General National Vocational Qualification (1992–2007), suggesting that, while the contexts used are vocational, the skills and understanding developed, such as literacy, numeracy, analysis, and synthesis, are transferable and general. See also liberal education; parity of esteem; Taunton Report.

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general education

Definition of general education

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What Is General Education (Gen Ed)?

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If you’ve looked at your own college transcript, friends, or even siblings, you’ve likely seen something listed on it that says general education. In fact, you likely saw a lot of spots that said that, but what does that actually mean? And why do you need to take so many of those classes? Let’s discuss it together! 

General education definition

General education credits, also known as “Gen eds”, are a requirement that you will find when you begin to receive your undergraduate degree. A gen ed is just what it sounds like, it’s a generalized course of study in a certain subject, think classes like:

• English I and II
• Basic college math courses 
• Science (including social sciences)
• Arts and humanities

These are all some subject areas of general education classes that you might take throughout the course of your degree.

The purpose of gen eds

The gen ed classes you take in college won’t be all that different from the courses you took in high school. In high school, you likely had a certain number of classes you had to take in basic subjects such as math, English, history, science, and maybe even foreign language. Well, college is no different. No matter what subject you are majoring in, your school will want to make sure that you have a strong and balanced foundation in all areas of academics. 

It may feel like they’re just keeping you from major specific courses as many gen eds need to be completed before you enter higher level major specific classes. However, general education classes are expanding your foundation and exposing you to subjects that you may have never otherwise been exposed to!

Gen ed classes

Let’s take a look at more specific classes that you may come across at your college. Unfortunately, each college will have their own general education classes and requirements, which means there is no universal list of courses you’ll have to take. However, the range of courses you can take is what makes gen eds so great! Below are just a few examples of some classes that were recently offered that thanks to gen eds, you may have the chance to take! 

Conflict resolution in a divided world

Conflict Resolution in a Divided World is a class offered at Harvard . The goal of this course is to help prepare students in a practical way for something that they will face in all areas of their life!

Introduction to Scandinavian Folklore

Yes, you read the title of this class correctly. Introduction to Scandinavian Folklore is a course offered by UCLA . In this course you can expect to learn about all things fairy tales, but also explore a deeper side that asks why people tell the stories that they tell.

Mafia Movies 

Just like the previous class, this course is exactly what it sounds like, watching mafia movies . In this Ohio State University class you’ll get a chance to learn about all things mafia! Alongside watching movies you’ll get to learn about the real history behind the Italian and Italian American mafias!

There are literally hundreds of other courses available that are just as interesting and surprising as the ones listed above. Our point is that these classes don’t need to feel like they are just wasting your time. Take your time to look for classes that really interest you. We promise you will find some! 

When do you take gen eds

Most of your gen eds will be taken during your freshman and sophomore year of college. However, if you find that you still have a few leftovers during junior and senior year , that’s completely fine as well. Some of your last semesters in undergraduate can get quite heavy with major specific courses. When you have the option, adding in a gen ed that is about another topic can be a nice way to break up your mix of classes. 

Shouldn’t you just take easy gen eds?

If you’re at all familiar with gen eds, then you may have had people give you advice in the past that you should just take the easiest ones you can. While it’s true that taking hard, high level gen ed classes isn’t always the best option, that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t challenge yourself or take your time finding classes that really interest you. Each semester you can assess what sort of classes you need to take for your major. If you have a particularly heavy or light semester in terms of credit hours and degree of difficulty in classes, you can use that to measure the amount of time you’d be able to put into gen eds.  

Key Takeaways

• General education courses are classes that every college will require students to take throughout the course of their undergraduate degree
• The purpose of general education classes is to provide you a strong foundation and expose you to classes outside of your major
• General education classes are a part of your college journey that you can use to broaden your horizons and expand your portfolio 
• Take risks and explore some subjects that are out of your comfort zone, you never know what classes may lead you to something great

Frequently asked questions about general education 

What if my college doesn’t have general education courses, do gen eds matter in college, does yale have gen eds, scholarships360 recommended.

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General education

Education that is designed to develop learners’ general knowledge, skills and competencies and literacy and numeracy skills, often to prepare students for more advanced educational programmes at the same or higher ISCED levels and to lay the foundation for lifelong learning. General educational programmes are typically school- or college-based. General education includes educational programmes that are designed to prepare students for entry into vocational education, but that do not prepare for employment in a particular occupation or trade or class of occupations or trades, nor lead directly to a labour market relevant qualification.

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What is General Education? An Overview

Updated: August 30, 2022

Published: April 23, 2021

Aside from your major, most colleges require all students to take a certain number of general education courses. As a new student, you may be excited to begin learning subjects related to your chosen major, but it’s important not to overlook the general education classes you have to take and their potential value to your education.

General education classes cover a wide range of topics, and while they’re not always related to your main focus of studies, they do help by rounding out your knowledge and your education.

Let’s take a closer look at general education, including its purpose, classes you can take, and how to choose them.

What is General Education?

Just like you had required classes in high school, like math, science, and history, there are also similar required courses in college.

General education, often abbreviated as gen ed or GE, are courses that are part of your required curriculum that are necessary in order to complete an undergraduate degree.

What are General Education Credits?

General education credits are the credits you earn upon completing your gen ed requirements. Some schools treat these as elective credits, so you have a lot more freedom to choose which types of classes you take to complete your gen ed credits.

In other cases, schools will require you to acquire gen ed credits from specific fields of study, such as English, humanities, math, or foreign languages. Even if these subjects are completely unrelated to your field of study, these gen ed credits are necessary if you want to finish your degree.

Additionally, some students start their studies by completing general education classes before they declare a major. That way, they’re able to work towards earning their degree while studying different topics and deciding what they want to study long-term.

Purpose of General Education Courses

General education classes are meant to round out every student’s degree by exposing them to more topics that are relevant to society. Gen ed helps students become better members of society and more well-informed citizens.

It may seem counterintuitive to have to study something like English or social studies if you’re in a field like business or biology, but learning these subjects can have an impact on your future career.

For example, learning the basics of a foreign language can help if your career involves working with the public. Additionally, understanding things like socioeconomic backgrounds and history can make you a better doctor, lawyer, or employee in almost any other field.

A lot of colleges use general education courses to promote culture diversity and acceptance, as well as to instill an appreciation of arts and culture in the student body. This can be especially important for students with majors that don’t touch otherwise upon these issues so that they’re more aware of social issues that can impact them and their work.

What Courses are Considered General Education?

Normally, general education courses are more or less standardized across most colleges. However, there are some colleges that offer some different or unique gen ed classes based on things like their location, the background of their student body, or even current events.

The subjects listed here are ones that you’ll usually find in most gen ed course lists, so you can expect to take classes in a few of these concentrations:

Whether or not you enjoyed English lessons in high school, completing your GE requirements with credits in English can be one of the best things you do for your degree. Since most degrees will require you to submit some form of written work, either as an exam, essay, or written assignment, it’s important to understand how to write well and structure your work properly.

Gen ed English classes often cover topics like composition and essay structure, so taking this course can really help you develop your writing skills and earn higher grades in other classes.

Math may not be everyone’s favorite subject, but it’s definitely a topic that will follow you throughout your life. Developing your math skills, even basic ones, can be extremely helpful when you work in a business or even run your own. While it doesn’t equate to accounting, studying math will make your life easier whenever you need to work with numbers.

Even if you plan on a career in the arts, everyone has to deal with math and managing finances in their lives, so taking this general education course is a win-win.

Natural Sciences

Natural sciences covers a variety of different courses and interests. Most general education science courses aren’t very technical and don’t have strict prerequisites, making these ideal introductory classes for anyone who is curious about the field but doesn’t want it to be their main area of study.

Some natural science classes include biology, astronomy, physics, environmental sciences, astronomy, and more.

Social Sciences

Anyone can benefit from studying social sciences. Social sciences refers to the study of human society and relationships. While some people choose this as their major and make entire careers out of social science-related subjects, classes in their field are often of interest to a lot of students just because of sheer curiosity.

Social sciences classes can include courses in psychology, sociology, anthropology, political sciences, archaeology, geography, history, and more.

While social sciences focuses more on humanity in society, the humanities are more focused on studying human culture and expression in all its forms. Studying humanities can give you a closer insight into how humans express themselves in different cultures and often includes the study of different mediums of art.

Some general education courses in humanities include music, art, literature, ethics, philosophy, or religion. Since these classes tend to focus more on creativity, it can be a welcomed break to take humanities courses if your major is very analytical or demanding.

Foreign Languages

Foreign languages courses are often found as part of social sciences or humanities departments, however, the benefit of taking a language course to fulfill your general education requirements has its own set of benefits.

If you plan on traveling or moving abroad for an exchange or even for your career, then studying a language, even just an introductory course, can be very practical. Even if you don’t intend to use your second language skills right away, learning a new language is always fun, challenging, and can come in handy when you least expect it.

Can You Transfer Gen Ed Courses?

You might be surprised to learn how easily transferable gen ed courses are. Since a lot of colleges offer the same or similar general education classes, it’s quite easy to transfer credits if you decide you want to switch schools at any point.

Not only that, but if you decide during your degree that you want to switch majors, you might even be able to use relevant general education courses towards your new major, if it’s part of that degree’s curriculum.

Can You Take Gen Ed Courses Online?

Yes, you can.

If you’re working full time but you want to start a degree, or if you simply want to complete courses from home for any reason, a lot of general education classes are available online as well.

The online gen ed courses available to you will depend on your university. However, since it’s so easy to transfer general education credits, you can always complete your GE requirements elsewhere before starting at your chosen university.

University of the People offers tuition-free online general education courses so that you can study at your own pace and from your preferred location.

What Should You Consider When Choosing Gen Ed Courses?

Aside from your interests or passions when it comes to your education, there are a few other things to think about before choosing a gen ed class.

For starters, if you know you’re going to be transferring schools next year or next semester, then you might want to take as many general education classes as you can since you know they’ll transfer easily.

Furthermore, you should check the requirements for the program you’re applying to at your new school to see if you can start earning credits with gen ed classes.

From a more practical standpoint, you want to make sure your general education courses don’t cause too much of a burden on your studies. Your main focus is still your major, so you want to choose gen ed courses that are easy enough to ensure you’ll get a good grade.

Some students select their general education classes based on their academic strengths so that they’re more likely to get a good grade and increase their final GPA. While this shouldn’t be the only factor you consider when making your GE choices, it’s certainly an important one.

To Summarize

General education classes can be a fun addition to your time at university, but to ensure you’re getting the most out of your degree, make sure you’re studying something that can be relevant to your major and that aligns with your overall academic goals.

Finally, don’t be afraid to explore online learning , especially when it comes to general education credits. You can save yourself a lot of time and money by switching to online courses for your GE requirements. Pursuing a specialized certificate program online can also be potentially beneficial.

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General Education Program

Home » What is General Education?

What is General Education?

General Education is a system of courses designed to help you build skills and habits of mind that will help you flourish in your chosen profession and as a citizen of the global community. They are centered four common themes:

• Intellectual foundations and breadth of exposure
• Critical thinking
• Citizenship
• Multidisciplinary learning

Your required General Education credits will be distributed across four different categories.  Below, you can see how your total General Education credit count will breakdown into these four course categories.

Pursue diverse interests and gain fundamental skills for lifelong learning, apply, communicate, and integrate ideas from a variety of disciplines, and gain abilities to think and act critically as citizens of a complex and ever-changing world

First Year Seminars

Explore interesting topics in small classes while building foundational skills for college success

Foundations

Practice lifelong learning skills applicable throughout your college career

Exploring Knowledge

Discover new content and ideas through exploration of a wide variety of scholarly topics, while beginning your major and gaining knowledge beyond it

Integrating Knowledge

Use high impact practices and make connections between different areas of interest for deeper comprehension, as well as prepare for a dynamic, complex and interconnected world.

View the full breakdown of General Education categories, as well as links to approved courses, here:

First Year Seminars are a staple part of the General Education program. They offer students the opportunity to explore a wide range of topics while building foundational skills that are crucial to college success. Topics explored include The Arts, Historical Perspectives, Science, Tech & Data, and more. Click the button on the left to find the current term offerings, as well as the academic year course catalog.

Making the perfect schedule can be difficult. Luckily, some General Education courses offer sections online. Click on the button to the right to find some of the offerings. You can also use the “Distance Delivery” search function in the Schedule Planner (WOU Portal → WolfWeb → Schedule Planner) in conjunction with the “Search by Attribute” to search for online Gen Ed courses.

Additional General Education Resources:

If you have further questions about General Education, you can check out our Frequently Asked Questions page:

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AAC&U Definitions of General Education

According to the American Association of Colleges and Universities Greater Expectations National Panel Report (2002, pg 25)

Liberal Education A philosophy of education that empowers individuals, liberates the mind from ignorance, and cultivates social responsibility. Characterized by challenging encounters with important issues, and more a way of studying than specific content, liberal education can occur at all types of colleges and universities. “General education” and an expectation of in-depth study in at least one field normally comprise liberal education.

Liberal Arts Specific disciplines (the humanities, social sciences, and sciences).

Liberal Arts Colleges A particular institution type-often small, often residential-that facilitates close interaction between faculty and students, while grounding it's curriculum in the liberal arts disciplines.

General Education The part of a liberal education curriculum shared by all students. It provides broad exposure to multiple disciplines and forms the basis for developing important intellectual and civic capacities. General Education can take many different forms.

General Education: Definition, Requirements, Types & Credits

General education refers to a core curriculum of classes designed to give students a broad and interdisciplinary academic foundation to complement their studies in a specific major. The purpose of gen ed courses is to develop essential academic skills including critical thinking, analysis, problem solving, decision-making and effective communication.

General education requirements differ according to the school and the specific major being pursued. But most include classes in English, math, natural science, social science, arts and humanities and foreign language. More recently, schools have been adding courses in diversity to their general education requirements.

Most schools require 40 to 60 general education credits for a bachelor’s degree and 20 to 40 for an associate’s degree. General education credits are easier to transfer than credits from advanced classes within a major.

Table of Contents

What is General Education (General Education Courses)

General education is a set of classes that form the foundation of a well-rounded education as one of the key benefits. Also called gen ed, general education courses offer each student an interdisciplinary core curriculum regardless of the degree they are pursuing. As a result, students gain an understanding of a wider range of subjects than are covered in courses taken within a specific major.

Gen ed courses make up one-third to one-half of most associate’s and bachelor’s degrees.

General education courses are important because they develop key skills such as analysis, verbal and written communication, collaboration, problem solving, quantitative literacy, decision making and critical thinking required to be a successful student and to succeed in your future career field and as an engaged, ethical and knowledgeable member of society.

General education courses include information that a first-year or second-year student should master. In the third and fourth years of a bachelor’s degree, major courses in the same fields offer advanced learning and understanding of the subjects. For example, general college math is a gen ed core curriculum class while trigonometry and differential equations are courses that math majors must complete.

Gen ed courses are required courses. In that way, they are different from elective courses that the student decides whether to take. However, some college courses can be taken either as required gen ed courses or as elective courses.

What Are General Education Requirements?

General education classes are a set of courses that fulfill the school’s core curriculum objectives required for completing a degree program. The purpose is to provide each student with a foundational education and set of skills that is broader than they will receive in classes required to complete a major.

Each school decides on general education courses to include in its core curriculum. Another factor that determines specifically required gen ed courses are the major you are pursuing. For example, a portion of the gen ed courses for engineering students are often different from those required for liberal arts students.

Gen ed courses account for between one-third and one-half of the credit hours required for the degree. For an associate’s degree, 20-30 general education credits are commonly required. For a bachelor’s degree, from 40 to 60 credits of core curriculum classes must be completed.

Students must also fulfill general education requirements to declare a major and be accepted into the major program. This is because each major has its own set of gen ed class requirements, and the school must ensure that the students it accepts into each major have met those requirements. 

What Are Different Types of General Education Classes?

The general education requirements at most colleges and universities include some or all of the following types of general education classes:

English Language and Literature

Arts and humanities, mathematics, natural science, social sciences, foreign language.

General education classes that form the core curriculum are typically 100 and 200 level classes, though taking upper level courses to fulfill the requirement is allowed at many schools.

These classes are designed to provide general knowledge in each subject. The goal is a general education program covering many different academic disciplines that produces a well-rounded education and prepares the student to gain a depth of knowledge in a specific major.

English language and literature is the study of the English language that enables the student to effectively read, write and verbally communicate in English. English literature provides a broad knowledge of important books and genres in English. A strong grasp of the English language is a core competency in most gen ed programs.

English language and literature includes classes such as:

• English composition
• Creative writing
• Research and writing
• Linguistics
• Literary theory
• English literature
• British literature

English language and literature courses are required for majors such as English, communication, linguistics, journalism, creative writing, technical writing and public relations.

Arts and humanities involve the study of human culture and cultural perspectives, thought, musical and artistic expression.

Classes in the category of arts and humanities include:

• Art history
• Music appreciation
• Visual arts
• Performing arts

Courses in arts and humanities are often prerequisites and good preparation majoring in history, art history, fine arts, music education, performing arts, cultural studies, religious studies, philosophy, literature and comparative literature, and classics.

Mathematics is the science of numbers, quantities, patterns, changes and other numerical processes. It can be studied as pure math or applied math.

Core classes in math include:

• Trigonometry
• Statistics and Probability
• Quantitative reasoning

Majors that rely on classes in math are mathematics, engineering, physics, biology, psychology, business, economics, accounting, finance, computer science and other STEM majors.

Natural science is the branch of science that studies the physical world and scientific principles that apply to it.

Courses that are part of a natural science curriculum are:

• Environmental science

College majors that include a large number of natural sciences courses include physics, biology, chemistry, geology, environmental science and biochemistry.

Social sciences is the study of human society, culture, human behavior and relationships between individuals and groups.

Classes that are part of a social science curriculum include:

• Political science
• Anthropology
• Archaeology

Majors that require taking social science classes include political science, psychology, sociology, economics, history, criminology, social work and anthropology.

Foreign language is the study of modern languages from around the world that are non native to the country where it is studied.

Common foreign language classes included as general education are:

Foreign language studies are useful when majoring in a foreign language or in fields such as international relations, international business, international studies, linguistics, tourism and hospitality management, education and cultural studies. And taking 6 to 12 credits of a foreign language is also required at most schools for a wide range of majors including psychology, sociology, accounting and history. 

The field of diversity is the study of social differences within culture that include gender, race, ethnicity, religion, class, age and other characteristics of identity.

Classes taken as part of diversity studies include:

• Ethnic studies
• Gender studies
• Multicultural studies
• LGBTQ+ studies
• African American studies
• Gender psychology

Classes in diversity are required in majors such as women’s studies, sociology, social work, psychology, education, ethnic studies and human resources.

What are the Differences in General Education Among Different Majors?

Each college major has a unique set of general education courses that serve as prerequisites for the major. There is overlap in the gen ed course requirements for many majors. Here are popular college major categories representing different fields of studies and the differences in the general education classes among them.

It is important to check the specific gen ed requirements at any school for majors you are considering.

Business Majors: General education classes for business majors include college algebra and calculus, introductory business courses, economics, English composition, natural science courses such as biology and chemistry, social science courses like sociology and psychology, humanities classes like history and philosophy, political science, and courses in communication and public speaking, ethics and foreign language.

Computer Science Majors: Required general education courses for computer science majors are heavy in math such as linear algebra, calculus, and analytical skills. Students in this major also take gen ed classes in natural sciences like physics and chemistry, English comp classes, social science courses such as philosophy and economics, courses in humanities such as history, philosophy and literature, foreign language courses, and courses in communication, ethics and philosophy.

English Literature Majors: Students in the English Literature major take gen ed courses in English writing and composition, introduction to English literature, history of literature, foreign language, philosophy, poetry and creative writing, drama or playwriting and cultural studies.

Health and Science Majors: Students that major in health and science programs take general education classes in biology, chemistry, math, healthcare systems, medical research, physics, social sciences, communication, nutrition, medical ethics, public health, anatomy, physiology, medical terminology and microbiology.

Humanities Majors: Students that choose a humanities major take core curriculum classes in literature, English writing or composition, environmental studies, social sciences, philosophy, history, foreign language, ethics, cultural studies, visual arts and art history, comparative literature, religious studies and gender or women’s studies.

Social Science Majors: Students seeking a degree in a social science major take general education classes in sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, public health, communication, geography, math, history, philosophy, ethics, social work, English composition, research methods and environmental studies.

STEM Majors: Students in STEM majors take general education classes including English composition or writing, basic and advanced math, physics, computer science, statistics, biology, chemistry, communication, history, research methods, data analytics, foreign language and engineering ethics.

What Are General Education Credits?

General education credits are credits earned in a set of classes required in a student’s degree program with the goal of providing a well-rounded education. Gen ed credits are earned in classes that provide a broad range of knowledge that complements the narrower and deeper education received in classes within the student’s major.

A general education core curriculum is designed to give each student necessary skills for success beyond college in their future career and as an engaged citizen. Skills gained in earning gen ed credits include critical thinking, analysis, effective written and verbal communication, and decision-making.

Students earning an associate degree are required to complete approximately 20 to 30 general education credits. For a bachelor’s degree, 40 to 60 general education credits are required depending on the school and the degree program.

While each major has a unique set of general education credits, common class subjects include English composition, college math, and classes in natural science, social science and humanities.

What Other Methods Can Be Used to Earn General Education Credits?

General education credits can be earned by other methods than taking college courses. Additional ways to earn general education credits are:

• Advanced Placement Exams, or AP Exams
• College-level Examination Program or CLEP
• IB or International Baccalaureate Exams
• TECEP Exams
• University Challenge Exams
• School-specific Exams
• Military Training and Experience
• Portfolio Assessment
• Independent Study

Are General Education Credits Easier to Transfer Between Colleges Compared to Major Course Credits?

Yes, general education credits are more easily transferred than courses required for a specific major.

There are several reasons why it is easier to transfer gen ed courses than major courses. First, most schools have similar gen ed or core curriculum classes. Secondly, general education courses are often numbered the same or similarly, such as algebra 1 and algebra 2 or Spanish 1 and Spanish 2. And many schools have similar or reciprocal transfer policies that make it easier to transfer general education credits.

What Is the Intersegmental General Education Transfer Curriculum?

The Intersegmental General Education Transfer Curriculum is a set of gen ed requirements for community colleges in California. Known as the IGETC, this curriculum makes it easy for students in 2-year community colleges in California to transfer to 4-year schools within the University of California UC system and California State University CSU system.

What Is a General Education Degree?

A general education degree is a degree program designed to give students a broad educational foundation. Also called a general studies degree, a general education degree provides students with exposure to a wide range of academic disciplines.

Most general education degrees include classes with a high degree of transferability, meaning that the credit hours earned are easily transferred to another college or university.

General education is also a common associate’s degree program. Features of a general education associate’s degree are a broad range of essential courses in math, natural and social sciences, and humanities. General education associate’s degrees are known for their transferability to 4-year schools where the student can complete a bachelor’s degree. 

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What is General Education? Everything You Need to Know

Quick Highlights:

• General education courses cover a broad range of subjects to ensure a well-rounded education.
• These courses are one-third to one-half of an undergraduate degree.
• They’re designed to enhance critical thinking , communication skills, and appreciation for diversity.
• You may be able to save money by taking these courses at a community college .

Congratulations! You have been accepted to the university of your choice, and you are signing up for your first semester’s classes. You can hardly wait to get into your major and well on your way to your future career.

But, wait. Your academic advisor tells you that you need to first take gen ed courses.

What are these gen ed classes?

Why are they required?

What can be gained from them?

Most colleges and universities require their students to take general education courses, such as psychology, social sciences, and foreign language. You may be thinking gen ed courses are a waste of time, and honestly, some of them may feel like that. But, there are important reasons why college students are required to take gen ed courses.

Let’s explore this topic in depth.

Here is everything you need to know about general education courses .

See Also: What is a Bachelor’s Degree?

What are General Education Courses?

First, let’s look at the general education requirements’ definition:

General education courses are a broad range of classes in specific categories that meet specific criteria. These categories are your school’s general education requirements.

General education requirements are categories of knowledge your school requires you to gain a working knowledge of before you graduate.

These categories are usually include subjects like:

• Natural Science
• Social Science
• World studies
• Communication

Most of the time, gen ed requirements cover one-third to one-half of an undergraduate degree and are completed before you start working on the core curriculum of your major.

Related Resource: What is an Associate’s Degree?

Why Is General Education Required?

Colleges and universities want “well rounded” graduates. Higher education institutions require these general education courses to help students gain a comprehensive education which they hope will serve you throughout your life after graduation.

Gen ed classes are also a great opportunity for you to try out different topics to see if you like them. Some students don’t decide on their major until after they have taken a fabulous gen ed course. Some students may prepare to study one major, but then take some gen ed courses and decide to change their whole course of study.

Also, gen ed classes teach you valuable skills such as critical thinking and communication. Let’s face it: gen ed courses are ones you may not choose to take if they were not required. However, think of them as a comprehensive set of classes that each add something unique to your skill set. For example, diversity courses teach students how to appreciate and embrace differences and lead to working well in a diverse workplace. 

Many general education courses also afford students the opportunity of expanding their chosen field of study to gain an emphasis in a related aspect of their chosen majors. For example an English major can take some great in-depth general education classes on poetry. Or an engineering major could take general education courses on bio-mechanics.

See Also: Most Popular College Majors

What Can I Gain From Gen Ed Courses?

So much can be gained from taking gen ed classes. General education can give you the foundation you need to become highly intelligent in your field of study and in life after college. 

Gen ed courses can pave the way for you:

• To be better at your chosen field
• To provide you with new hobbies
• To develop meaningful relationships
• To perhaps even change your mind about your chosen field of study

Try to lose the mindset that taking gen ed courses is wasting time. First of all, all university programs require gen ed courses, so you are working your way toward your final goal. Secondly, you will learn new subjects, and you may develop a new passion.

You may also like: Picking a Major

What Is a Good Way to Take General Education Courses?

College is expensive, and some universities have quite lengthy general education requirements. However, there are smarter ways to complete your gen eds.

If you’re going to an expensive university, you might just want to hold off attending until you’ve completed your gen ed courses at an in-state community college . Just make sure you can transfer general education credits before you take them and pay for them.

You can make sure the credits transfer by working with an advisor at both your university and your in-state community college.

Your school may require you to fulfill general education requirements that you know will not interest you or advance your career in any way. When you encounter these types of situations, take the easiest class you possibly can.

For example, if you know you will not ever become a fine arts major, but your school requires a fine arts general course, then pick the fine arts course that will be the simplest to complete for you. There is no reason to bog down your already busy schedule with a class that is more difficult than necessary.

Check out: 10 Best Careers for the Future

What Gen Ed Courses Should I Take?

Choosing gen ed courses can be a fun part of attending college. If you have chosen a field of study, look to see if there are any requirements that overlap with your gen ed courses (it happens sometimes), and then fill in the gaps with classes that interest you.

If you have not chosen a major, then it would be wise to take general education classes that cover subjects that interest you and could be potential majors.

Common gen ed courses include:

• English composition
• Mathematics
• Natural Sciences
• Social sciences
• Foreign languages
• Diversity and Inclusion

However, take a wide variety of courses so that you can experience as many possible fields of study as you can.

Remember, your college or university requires a certain number of general education credits. There’s no way of getting out of them, so you might as well have fun with them.

How Can I Know If A Gen Ed Class Will Work For Me?

When signing up for a gen course , you will see a description of the class. Additionally, there are many websites you can find that rate your professor, the course, and the course load. Do your research before committing to a class to make sure that you will be able to complete your gen eds, work well with your professor, and handle the course load.

Also, most colleges and universities make professor and course evaluation results available for you to see if the class would work well for you.

Do I Have to Complete Gen Eds Before Declaring My Major?

You do not have to complete all of your gen eds before declaring your major. In fact, if you know your major it would be good to check to see if any of the required courses in our major double as courses for your general education requirements.

If you do not have a chosen major, don’t worry. Most students don’t choose their majors right away. It is good to explore your options to be sure of your path.

Where Can I Get Advice On Which Gen Ed Courses Would Be Good For Me?

Your school will provide you with an academic advisor. These professionals can help you discuss your general education requirements, and if you would like they can suggest some great general education courses that will help you explore your options. Your advisors are also great resources on gaining information on specific classes.

When Should I Complete My General Education Classes?

For most majors, there is no specific time frame for completing your general education credits. Some students don’t complete them until their last semester, while others have them completed by their junior year.

Talk to your advisor to see if your major has any time frame requirements for completing your general education requirements.

Keep in mind that college majors with time frames for completing your general education are highly specified. For example, Med school, law school, and some teaching programs require you to have completed all generals before your senior year, or before a completion of an internship, or practicum.

How Do I Know If A General Education Course Is Worth the Effort?

Some general education courses are more difficult than others, but often they are all worth the effort. If a gen ed course interests you, advances your career, or makes you feel passionate about the work you are doing, then the extra effort is definitely worth it.

General Education Curriculum

By taking courses in a variety of disciplines and incorporating a range of skill sets, you will be prepared to engage in complex thinking and to develop an area of specialization. This combination of depth and breadth of study is the hallmark of Penn's liberal arts education.

As a student and a scholar, it’s your duty to be curious about everything, so nothing should be off-limits.

The General Education component of the Curriculum is comprised of two elements . Foundational Approaches  develop key intellectual capabilities demanded in a variety of disciplines , while Sectors of Knowledge allow you to tailor your own education in the arts and sciences while gaining valuable knowledge across a broad range of disciplines

To find courses that fulfill the General Education requirements, go to Path@Penn ->Search & Register for Courses. From the course search scroll down to the bottom and in the Course Attribute drop down, enter the name of any of the General Education requirements below to find courses that fulfill that requirement e.g. Cultural Diversity in the US or History and Tradition. 

Foundational Approaches

The ability to express oneself clearly and persuasively in writing is fundamental for success across all academic disciplines, and throughout one's personal and professional life.

For these reasons, writing plays a central role within the College curriculum. Students must take a writing seminar to fulfill the College's Writing Requirement. It is recommended that students take this course during their first year of study. Students are also encouraged to continue development of their writing skills by participating in Penn's writing programs.

Courses fulfilling Writing

Competence in more than one language is important for participation in the global community. Language study encourages us to understand and appreciate cultural difference, and nothing brings this more sharply into focus than the experience of learning of another language. It not only affords unique access to a different culture and its ways of life and thought; language study also increases awareness of one's own language and culture. For this reason, College students are required to attain a certain degree of competency.

While students often opt to satisfy the Language Requirement by continuing to study the language that they have already begun in high school or earlier, the wealth of languages that the University offers is such that many students decide to explore a new culture and area of our globe by beginning a language that they have never studied before. French, Spanish, and a few other languages are taught at the pre-collegiate level, but students are less likely to have been exposed to Arabic, Hindi or Japanese—let alone Uzbek or Hausa—and each of these languages is a mode of access to a fascinating culture and history.

In contemporary society, citizenship, work and personal decision-making all require sophisticated thinking about quantitative evidence.

Students in the College must complete a course that uses mathematical or statistical analysis of quantitative data as an important method for understanding another subject. Through such study, students learn to think critically about quantitative data and the inferences that can be drawn from these data. They also gain experience with the use of quantitative analysis to interpret empirical data and to test hypotheses.

Courses in calculus and computer science do not fulfill the requirement because these courses do not require students to analyze actual data sets with the goal of evaluating hypotheses or interpreting results. To count toward the Quantitative Data Analysis Requirement, a course must include such data analysis.

In contrast to Quantitative Data Analysis courses, which deal with inductive reasoning, courses designated for this requirement focus on deductive reasoning and the formal structure of human thought, including its linguistic, logical and mathematical constituents. These courses emphasize mathematical and logical thinking and reasoning about formal structures and their application to the investigation of real-world phenomena. In addition to courses in mathematics, this requirement includes courses in computer science, formal linguistics, symbolic logic and decision theory.

In our increasingly interconnected world, the Cross-Cultural Analysis Requirement aims to increase students' knowledge and understanding of socio-cultural systems outside the United States.

College students are required to take at least one course to develop their ability to understand and interpret the cultures of peoples with histories outside of the United States. The focus may be on the past or the present and it should expose students to distinctive sets of values, attitudes and methods of organizing experience that may not be obtained from U.S. cultures. This exposure to the internal dynamic of another society should lead students to understand the values and practices that define their own cultural framework.

The Cultural Diversity in the U.S. Requirement complements the Cross-Cultural Analysis Requirement and aims to develop students’ knowledge of the history, dynamic cultural systems and the many populations that make up the heterogeneous cultures of the United States.

College students are required to take at least one course to develop the skills necessary for understanding the population and culture of the United States as it becomes increasingly diverse. Through historical inquiry, the study of cultural expressions and the analysis of social data, students will develop their ability to examine issues of diversity with a focus on race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, class and religion. The goal is to equip graduates with the ability to become perceptive and engaged members of society.

Policies Governing Foundational approaches

Sectors of Knowledge

This sector focuses on the structure and norms of contemporary human society, including their psychological and cultural dimensions.

Courses in this sector use many analytical techniques that have been developed to study contemporary society, with its complex relations between individuals and larger forms of mass participation. Some Society courses are largely devoted to the analysis of aggregate forms of human behavior (encounters, markets, civil society, nations, supranational organizations, and so on), while others may focus on the relations between individuals and their various societies. While historical materials may be studied, the primary objective of Society courses is to enable students to develop concepts and principles, test theories, and perfect tools that can be used to interpret, explain and evaluate the behavior of human beings in contemporary societies. This objective will be realized through the specific content of the various courses, but the emphasis in each course should be on developing in students a general capacity for social analysis and understanding.

This sector focuses on studies of continuity and change in human thought, belief and action.

Understanding both ancient and modern civilizations provides students with an essential perspective on contemporary life. Courses in this sector examine the histories of diverse civilizations, their cultures and forms of expression, their formal and informal belief systems and ideologies, and the record of their human actors. Students should learn to interpret primary sources, identify and discuss their core intellectual issues, understand the social contexts in which these sources were created, pose questions about their validity and ability to represent broader perspectives and utilize them when writing persuasive essays.

This sector encompasses the means and meaning of visual arts, literature and music, together with the criticism surrounding them.

Most courses in this sector are concerned with works of creativity—paintings, films, poetry, fiction, theatre, dance and music. They generally address a considerable breadth of material rather than an individual work or artist. The objective of Arts and Letters courses is to confront students with works of creativity; cultivate their powers of perception (visual, textual, auditory); and equip them with tools for analysis, interpretation and criticism. This objective will be realized through the specific content of the various courses, but the emphasis in each course should be on developing and strengthening in students a general capacity for understanding meaning and the ways in which it is achieved in its distinctive environment of culture and moment.

This sector comprises courses that combine methods and approaches at work in at least two of the first three sectors.

Students will engage with diverse approaches to society, history, tradition and the arts more deeply than a single course from each domain can allow. Greater depth of experience is gained by bringing to bear several humanistic and social scientific perspectives upon a single issue or topic or by engaging directly in academically-based service or performance informed by these perspectives.

In this sector, students seek to broaden their perspective by taking a course in the humanities or social sciences that has been approved as a general education course but that cuts across two or more of sectors I, II, and III. Some courses approved for this sector will seek a more integrative approach by addressing a problem or topic from a variety of disciplinary perspectives. Others will combine disciplinary study with community service or activism, and constructively and reflectively connect the theoretical with the actual. Finally, some courses in the arts that combine creative or performance experience with reflection and grounding within a discipline may be found in this sector.

This sector deals substantively with the evolution, development, structure and/or function of living systems.

Courses in this sector study the variety of approaches that are useful in understanding the diversity of living organisms, their interrelatedness, and their interactions with their environment. Analytical approaches employed range from analyses at the molecular and cellular level, to analyses of the cognitive and neural bases of behavior, to analyses of evolutionary processes and ecological systems. Students learn the methods used by contemporary natural science to study these topics, including ways in which hypotheses are developed, tested, and reformulated in light of new research findings. A full understanding of living organisms incorporates insights from approaches at many different levels.

This sector focuses on the methodology and concepts of physical science.

Courses in this sector aim to provide insight into the content and workings of modern physical science. Some courses in this sector are part of a major, while others are designed primarily to provide an introduction to the field for non-science majors. Courses for non-science majors may include some discussion of the historical development of the subject as well as the most important conceptual notions and their mathematical expressions. All courses in this sector seek to demonstrate the generally accepted paradigm of modern science: experiment and observation suggest mathematically formulated theories, which are then tested by comparison with new experiments and observations.

Some courses in this sector use a mathematical prerequisite (advanced high school algebra through introductory calculus) - that is, students will actually be expected to use mathematical methods and concepts to achieve an understanding of subjects in physical science.

Students will engage with diverse perspectives generated by applying the principles of the natural sciences to broader applications. Courses in this sector emphasize the interrelationships and synergies gained from bringing together different perspectives in the form of: 1) two or more distinctive scientific disciplines (not just one discipline applied to a topic from another scientific field),  2) natural science and mathematics, or 3) natural science and societal issues.

The sector includes some intermediate and advanced courses that may be of special interest to STEM majors.

Policies Governing the Sector requirement

Example sentences general education

Definition of 'education' education.

Definition of 'general' general

Cobuild collocations general education, browse alphabetically general education.

• general disregard
• general downturn
• general drift
• general education
• general election
• general election campaign
• general electorate
• All ENGLISH words that begin with 'G'

Related terms of general education

• General Certificate of Education
• General Certificate of Secondary Education

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[ ej- oo - key -sh uh n ]

Synonyms: learning , schooling , instruction

• the act or process of imparting or acquiring particular knowledge or skills, as for a profession.

a university education.

to show one's education.

Synonyms: enlightenment , knowledge , learning

• the science or art of teaching; pedagogics.

/ ˌɛdjʊˈkeɪʃən /

• the act or process of acquiring knowledge, esp systematically during childhood and adolescence

his education has been invaluable to him

education is my profession

a course in education

a university education

consumer education

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Other words from.

• anti·edu·cation adjective
• noned·u·cation noun
• over·edu·cation noun
• preed·u·cation noun
• proed·u·cation adjective
• super·edu·cation noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of education 1

Synonym Study

Example sentences.

Simply listening to a lecture is not effective in the real world, and yet that largely remains the default mode of education online.

While Brunskill doesn’t believe there’s any silver bullet solution to fixing education or recruitment systems, he remains optimistic in Forage’s future.

A new study shows that academic medical researchers, who represent some of the most accomplished scientists with decades of education under their belts, are no exception to that trend.

Enormous investment in education going right the way back into the early 19th century.

In this bleak time for public education, I’ve been straining to decipher some silver linings.

Education controls the transmission of values and molds the spirit before dominating the soul.

What they believe impacts economic policy, foreign policy, education policy, environmental policy, you name it.

Congress is attempting to pass the buck on federal funding for education.

The Supreme Court eventually stepped in and ended legal segregation in the landmark 1954 decision, Brown v. Board of Education.

This is why arguments for little to no federal oversight of education are so disturbing.

It seems to be a true instinct which comes before education and makes education possible.

I am pleading for a clear white light of education that shall go like the sun round the whole world.

He became a doctor in two hours, and it only cost him twenty dollars to complete his education.

And now let me come to the second problem we opened up in connection with college education—the problem of its extension.

If we are to have a real education along lines of expression we must begin with the "content," or cause, of expression.

Related Words

• improvement
• information
• scholarship

More About Education

What is a basic definition of  education .

Education is both the act of teaching knowledge to others and the act of receiving knowledge from someone else. Education also refers to the knowledge received through schooling or instruction and to the institution of teaching as a whole. Education has a few other senses as a noun.

Education is a word that covers both the act of instructing and the act of learning. It usually refers specifically to the teaching of children or younger people and the learning done by them.

Real-life examples: Elementary schools, high schools, and colleges are institutions focused on education: People are taught important information and life skills at these places. Medical schools, law schools, and driving schools provide more specialized forms of education.

Used in a sentence: The proper education of children is considered important in every country. 

Related to this sense, education refers to the specific level or type of instruction a person has received.

Used in a sentence: He has a high school education. 

Education also means the specific knowledge or scholarship a person has acquired from being taught.

Real-life examples: Doctors have an education in medicine. Chemists have an education in chemistry. Bankers have an education in finance or economics.

Used in a sentence: She has an education in languages and is fluent in French and Italian. 

Education is also used to refer to the process or institution of teaching in general.

Real-life examples: Most teachers have college degrees in education. Nations often devote a portion of their budget to education.

Used in a sentence: My brother decided to pursue a career in education.

Where does  education come from?

The first records of education come from around 1525. It comes from the Latin ēducātiōn-. Education combines the verb educate , meaning “to teach or to train,” and the suffix -ion , which turns a verb into a noun.

Did you know ... ?

What are some other forms related to education ?

• antieducation (adjective)
• noneducation (noun)
• overeducation (noun)
• preeducation (noun)
• proeducation (adjective)
• supereducation (noun)

What are some synonyms for education ?

• instruction

What are some words that share a root or word element with education ? 

• educational

What are some words that often get used in discussing education ?

• elementary school
• high school

How is  education used in real life?

Education is a common word used to refer to teaching and learning. Almost everyone agrees that a person should receive some form of education.

For 80% of foreign business executives, the education and training of France's workforce make France attractive for foreign investment. — Gérard Araud (@GerardAraud) May 11, 2017

Too many of our young people cannot afford a college education and those who are leaving college are faced with crushing debt. — Bernie Sanders (@BernieSanders) June 24, 2015

We need to continuously invest in education. That means early childhood education, AP classes, and investing in New York City’s teachers. — Bill de Blasio (@BilldeBlasio) November 15, 2017

Try using  education !

True or False?

If a person has a college education, that means they have gained knowledge and instruction at a college.

Mission Statement

In order to become informed and productive citizens, undergraduate students need to think critically and creatively about substantive and often interlinked aesthetic, cultural, ethical, historical, linguistic, philosophical, societal, scientific, and quantitative global challenges and issues.

Therefore, in addition to being prepared to complete a major course of study, Clemson University undergraduate students are required to undertake a general education core course of study to develop and to demonstrate the ability to synthesize information relevant to complex issues, to evaluate the quality and utility of the information, and to use the outcomes of their analysis to reach persuasive logical conclusions.

The Clemson University undergraduate curriculum is designed such that arts and humanities, mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, and written and oral communication contribute to the holistic development of its students.

General Education Student Learning Outcomes

Communication Students will demonstrate competence in communication through organization of a central message with supporting materials in the chosen medium.

Arts and Humanities Students will analyze, interpret, and employ aesthetic, ethical, linguistic, and/or philosophical discourse in relevant contexts; or students will create, perform, interpret, reinterpret, and/or criticize artistic works.

Mathematics Students will demonstrate mathematical literacy through interpretation of mathematical forms and performing calculations.

Natural Sciences Students will demonstrate the process of scientific reasoning through experimental activity and critical comparison of their results to those predicted by accepted natural science principles.

Social Sciences Students will use social science concepts and evidence to explain human actions or behaviors in the past, the present, and/or the future.

Global Challenges Students will demonstrate critical thinking through analysis of global challenges; evaluate how varying perspectives influence global challenges; and demonstrate the integration of ethics into analysis of global challenges.

An undergraduate student whose enrollment in a curriculum occurs after May 15, 2022, must fulfill the general education requirements in effect at that time. If a student withdraws from the University and subsequently returns or does not remain continuously enrolled (summers excluded), the student’s curriculum year will be changed to the one in effect at the time of the return for students with fewer than 90 credits. The curriculum year will remain the same as when they were last enrolled for seniors (90 credits or more). The student’s major department can approve an exception. Students should submit a Change of Academic Program Request via iROAR to request the approval.

For students who have already earned a bachelor’s degree from a regionally or nationally accredited college or university, please see the Academic Regulations    section for the policy on waiver of requirements.

Requirements (31 Credit Hours)

To meet general education student learning outcomes, 31 total credit hours are required, distributed as follows.

Note: General education requirements in some major courses of study are more restrictive than those shown below.

A. Communication (minimum of 6 credit hours)

English composition (3 credit hours).

• ENGL 1030 - Composition and Rhetoric 3 Credits

Oral Communication (3 credit hours)

• COMM 1500 - Introduction to Human Communication 3 Credits
• COMM 2500 - Public Speaking 3 Credits
• HON 1950 - First-Year Seminar: Oral Communication 3 Credits
• HON 2230 - Studies in Communication 3 Credits

Or an approved cluster of courses such as:

• ARCH 1510 - Architecture Communication 5 Credits 1
• ARCH 2510 - Architecture Foundations I 6 Credits
• ARCH 2520 - Architecture Foundations II 6 Credits
• AS 3090 - Leading People and Effective Communication I 4 Credits
• AS 3100 - Leading People and Effective Communication II 4 Credits
• AS 4090 - National Security Policy I 4 Credits
• AS 4100 - National Security Policy II 4 Credits
• BIOE 3700 - Bioinstrumentation and Bioimaging 3 Credits 2
• BIOE 4030 - Applied Biomedical Design 3 Credits
• CE 2100 - Springer: Conceptual Site Design and Professional Communication 2 Credits 3
• CE 4590 - Keystone Design Project 3 Credits
• CHE 3070 - Unit Operations Laboratory I 3 Credits 4
• CHE 4070 - Unit Operations Laboratory II 3 Credits
• CHE 4330 - Process Design II 3 Credits
• GEOL 3920 - Research Methods II 2 Credits 5
• GEOL 4920 - Research Synthesis II 3 Credits
• HIST 2990 - Seminar: The Historian’s Craft 3 Credits 6
• HIST 4900 - Senior Seminar 3 Credits
• ME 4010 - Mechanical Engineering Design 3 Credits 7
• ME 4020 - Internship in Engineering Design 3 Credits
• ML 1010 - Leadership Fundamentals I 2 Credits
• ML 1020 - Leadership Fundamentals II 2 Credits

Students taking clusters must still earn the requisite credit hours from the student learning outcome areas below.

1 Students in the Architecture BA program only. 2 Students in the Bioelectrical Concentration and the Biomaterials Concentration of the Biomedical Engineering BS program only. 3 Students in the Civil Engineering BS program only. 4 Students in a Chemical Engineering BS program only. 5 Students in a Geology BS program only. 6 Students in the History BA program and the Secondary Education: Teaching Area - Social Studies/History BA program only. 7 Students in the Mechanical Engineering BS program only.

B. Mathematics (minimum of 3 credit hours)

• MATH 1010 - Essential Mathematics for the Informed Society 3 Credits
• MATH 1020 - Business Calculus I 3 Credits
• MATH 1060 - Calculus of One Variable I 4 Credits
• MATH 1070 - Differential and Integral Calculus 4 Credits
• MATH 1080 - Calculus of One Variable II 4 Credits
• MATH 2070 - Business Calculus II 3 Credits
• STAT 2220 - Statistics in Everyday Life 3 Credits
• STAT 2300 - Statistical Methods I 3 Credits
• STAT 3090 - Introductory Business Statistics 3 Credits
• STAT 3300 - Statistical Methods II 3 Credits

Note: For Early Childhood Education, Elementary Education, and Special Education majors only, the approved cluster of MATH 1150    and  MATH 2150    satisfies the requirement.

C. Natural Sciences with Lab (minimum of 4 credit hours)

• ASTR 1010 - Solar System Astronomy 3 Credits and
• ASTR 1030 - Solar System Astronomy Laboratory 1 Credits
• ASTR 1020 - Stellar Astronomy 3 Credits and
• ASTR 1040 - Stellar Astronomy Laboratory 1 Credits
• BIOL 1030 - General Biology I 3 Credits and
• BIOL 1050 - General Biology Laboratory I 1 Credit
• BIOL 1040 - General Biology II 3 Credits and
• BIOL 1060 - General Biology Laboratory II 1 Credit
• BIOL 1090 - Introduction to Life Science 4 Credits
• BIOL 1100 - Principles of Biology I 4 Credits
• BIOL 1110 - Principles of Biology II 4 Credits
• BIOL 1200 - Biological Inquiry Laboratory 1 Credits and
• BIOL 1220 - Keys to Biodiversity 3 Credits
• BIOL 1200 - Biological Inquiry Laboratory    1 Credit and
• BIOL 1230 - Keys to Human Biology 3 Credits
• CH 1010 - General Chemistry 4 Credits
• CH 1020 - General Chemistry 4 Credits
• CH 1050 - Chemistry in Context I 4 Credits
• CH 1060 - Chemistry in Context II 4 Credits
• GEOG 1060 - Geography of the Physical Environment 4 Credits
• GEOL 1010 - Physical Geology 3 Credits and
• GEOL 1030 - Physical Geology Laboratory 1 Credits
• GEOL 1120 - Earth Resources 3 Credits and
• GEOL 1140 - Earth Resources Laboratory 1 Credits
• GEOL 2020 - Earth History 4 Credits
• PHSC 1170 - Introduction to Chemistry and Earth Science 4 Credits
• PHSC 1180 - Introduction to Physics, Astronomy, and Earth Science 4 Credits
• PHYS 1220 - Physics with Calculus I 3 Credits and
• PHYS 1240 - Physics Laboratory I 1 Credit
• PHYS 1800 - Physics of Sports 3 Credits and
• PHYS 1820 - Physics of Sports Laboratory 1 Credit
• PHYS 2000 - Physics for Everyone 4 Credits
• PHYS 2070 - General Physics I 3 Credits and
• PHYS 2090 - General Physics I Laboratory 1 Credit
• PHYS 2080 - General Physics II 3 Credits and
• PHYS 2100 - General Physics II Laboratory 1 Credit
• PHYS 2210 - Physics with Calculus II 3 Credits and
• PHYS 2230 - Physics Laboratory II 1 Credit
• PHYS 2400 - Physics of the Weather 4 Credits

D. Arts and Humanities (minimum of 6 credit hours)

Literature (3 credit hours).

Any 2000-level ENGL literature course or any of the other courses listed

• ENGL 2020 - Literary Forms and Creative Writing 3 Credits
• ENGL 2120 - World Literature 3 Credits
• ENGL 2130 - British Literature 3 Credits
• ENGL 2140 - American Literature 3 Credits
• ENGL 2150 - Literature in 20th- and 21st-Century Contexts 3 Credits
• ENGL 2160 - African American Literature 3 Credits
• CHIN 4010 - Pre-Modern Chinese Literature in Translation 3 Credits
• CHIN 4020 - Modern Chinese Literature in Translation 3 Credits
• FR 2600 - Selected Topics in French Literature 3 Credits
• FR 3000 - Survey of French Literature 3 Credits
• FR 3040 - French Short Story 3 Credits
• GER 2600 - Selected Topics in German Literature 3 Credits
• GER 3060 - The German Short Story 3 Credits
• GER 3600 - German Literature to 1832 3 Credits
• GER 3610 - German Literature from 1832 to Modernism 3 Credits
• HON 1900 - First-Year Seminar: Arts and Humanities (Literature) 3 Credits
• HON 2210 - Studies in Literature 3 Credits
• ITAL 3020 - Modern Italian Literature 3 Credits
• JAPN 4010 - Japanese Literature in Translation 3 Credits
• JAPN 4060 - Introduction to Japanese Literature 3 Credits
• RUSS 3600 - Russian Literature to 1910 3 Credits
• RUSS 3610 - Russian Literature Since 1910 3 Credits
• SPAN 3040 - Introduction to Hispanic Literary Forms 3 Credits
• SPAN 3110 - Survey of Spanish-American Literature 3 Credits
• SPAN 3130 - Survey of Spanish Literature I 3 Credits

Non-Literature (3 credit hours)

• AAH 1010 - Survey of Art and Architectural History I 3 Credits
• ART 2100 - Art Appreciation 3 Credits
• ASL 2050 - Deaf Studies in the United States 3 Credits
• CHIN (PHIL) 3120 - Philosophy in Ancient China 3 Credits
• CHIN (PHIL) 3130 - Philosophy in Modern China 3 Credits
• CHIN (PHIL) 4140 - Philosophy in Medieval China 3 Credits
• CHIN 4990 - Selected Topics in Chinese Culture 3 Credits
• ENGL (GW) 3010 - Great Books of the Western World 3 Credits
• ENGL (WCIN) 3570 - Film 3 Credits
• ENGL (LANG, WCIN) 4540 - Selected Topics in International Film 3 Credits
• FR 3070 - French Civilization 3 Credits
• FR 3170 - Contemporary French Civilization 3 Credits
• GER 2400 - Selected Topics in German Culture 3 Credits
• GER 3400 - German Culture 3 Credits
• GW (ENGL) 3010 - Great Books of the Western World 3 Credits
• GW 4050 - The Darwinian Revolution 3 Credits
• HIST 1930 - Modern World History 3 Credits
• HON 1910 - First-Year Seminar: Arts and Humanities (Non-Literature) 3 Credits
• HON 2030 - Society, Art, and Humanities 3 Credits
• HON 2100 - Experiencing the Arts 3 Credits
• HON 2220 - Studies in Arts and Humanities 3 Credits
• HUM 3010 - Humanities 3 Credits
• HUM 3020 - Humanities 3 Credits
• HUM 3090 - Studies in Humanities 3 Credits
• JAPN 3070 - Japanese Civilization I 3 Credits
• JAPN 3080 - Japanese Civilization II 3 Credits
• JAPN (WCIN) 4560 - Japanese Film 3 Credits
• LANG 3400 - Cosmopolis: The Myth of the City 3 Credits
• LANG 3420 - Sacred and Profane Bodies 3 Credits
• LANG (ENGL, WCIN) 4540 - Selected Topics in International Film 3 Credits
• MUSC 1510 - Applied Music 1 Credits
• MUSC 1520 - Applied Music 1 Credits
• MUSC 1530 - Applied Music for Majors 1 Credits
• MUSC 1540 - Applied Music for Majors 1 Credits
• MUSC 2100 - Music Appreciation: Music in the Western World 3 Credits
• MUSC 2510 - Applied Music 1 Credits
• MUSC 2530 - Applied Music for Majors 1 Credits
• MUSC (THEA) 3080 - Survey of Broadway Musicals I 3 Credits
• MUSC (THEA) 3090 - Survey of Broadway Musicals II 3 Credits
• MUSC 3110 - History of American Music 3 Credits
• MUSC 3120 - History of Jazz 3 Credits
• MUSC 3130 - History of Rock and Roll 3 Credits
• MUSC 3140 - World Music 3 Credits
• MUSC 3170 - History of Country Music 3 Credits
• PHIL 1010 - Introduction to Philosophic Problems 3 Credits
• PHIL 1020 - Introduction to Logic 3 Credits
• PHIL 1030 - Introduction to Ethics 3 Credits
• PHIL (CHIN) 3120 - Philosophy in Ancient China 3 Credits
• PHIL (CHIN) 3130 - Philosophy in Modern China 3 Credits
• PHIL 3230 - Theory of Knowledge 3 Credits
• PHIL 3260 - Science and Values 3 Credits
• PHIL 3440 - Business Ethics 3 Credits
• PHIL (WS) 3490 - Theories of Gender and Sexuality 3 Credits
• PHIL (CHIN) 4140 - Philosophy in Medieval China 3 Credits
• PRTM 2140 - Wilderness Perspectives 3 Credits
• REL 1010 - Introduction to Religion 3 Credits
• REL 1020 - World Religions 3 Credits
• REL 3010 - The Old Testament 3 Credits
• REL 3020 - Survey of New Testament Literature 3 Credits
• REL 3030 - The Quran 3 Credits
• REL 3060 - Judaism 3 Credits
• REL 3070 - The Christian Tradition 3 Credits
• REL 3090 - The Religious History of the American South 3 Credits
• REL 3120 - Hinduism 3 Credits
• REL 3130 - Buddhism 3 Credits
• REL 3150 - Islam 3 Credits
• RUSS 3400 - Russian Culture of the Nineteenth Century 3 Credits
• SPAN 3070 - The Hispanic World: Spain 3 Credits
• SPAN 3080 - The Hispanic World: Latin America 3 Credits
• STS 1010 - Survey of Science and Technology in Society 3 Credits
• STS 2150 - A Critical Approach to the Global Challenge of Technological Revolutions 3 Credits
• STS 3010 - Science in Context 3 Credits
• THEA 2100 - Theatre Appreciation 3 Credits
• THEA (MUSC) 3080 - Survey of Broadway Musicals I 3 Credits
• THEA (MUSC) 3090 - Survey of Broadway Musicals II 3 Credits
• THEA 3160 - Theatre History II 3 Credits
• THEA 3170 - African-American Theatre I 3 Credits
• WCIN (ENGL) 3570 - Film 3 Credits
• WCIN (ENGL, LANG) 4540 - Selected Topics in International Film 3 Credits
• WCIN (JAPN) 4560 - Japanese Film 3 Credits
• WS 3010 - Introduction to Women’s Studies: Women’s Lives 3 Credits
• WS (PHIL) 3490 - Theories of Gender and Sexuality 3 Credits

E. Social Sciences (minimum of 6 credit hours)

Social Sciences credit hours must be selected from two different fields.

• AGRB 2020 - Agricultural Economics 3 Credits
• ANTH 2010 - Introduction to Anthropology 3 Credits
• COMM 1070 - Media Representations of Science and Technology 3 Credits
• COMM 1800 - Introduction to Cross-Cultural Communication 3 Credits
• COMM 3080 - Public Communication and Popular Culture 3 Credits
• ECON 2000 - Economic Concepts 3 Credits
• ECON 2050 - Why Business? 3 Credits
• ECON 2110 - Principles of Microeconomics 3 Credits
• ECON 2120 - Principles of Macroeconomics 3 Credits
• GEOG 1010 - Introduction to Geography 3 Credits
• HIST 1010 - History of the United States to 1877 3 Credits
• HIST 1020 - History of the United States Since 1877 3 Credits
• HIST 1720 - The West and the World I 3 Credits
• HIST 1730 - The West and the World II 3 Credits
• HON 1920 - First-Year Seminar: Social Science 3 Credits
• HON 2020 - Science, Culture, and Human Values 3 Credits
• HON 2200 - Studies in Social Science 3 Credits
• POSC 1010 - American National Government 3 Credits
• POSC 1030 - Introduction to Political Theory 3 Credits
• PRTM 3010 - Recreation and Society 3 Credits
• PSYC 2010 - Introduction to Psychology 3 Credits
• SOC 2010 - Introduction to Sociology 3 Credits
• SOC 2020 - Social Problems 3 Credits

Note: AGRB and ECON are considered the same field.

F. Global Challenges (minimum of 6 credit hours)

Global Challenges credit hours must be selected from two different fields unless identified below as interdisciplinary. At least three credit hours must be selected from a course(s) at the 3000-level or higher. A transfer course at the 3000/4000 level may not be used to satisfy the General Education Global Challenges Requirement. While a 3000/4000 level transfer course may fulfill other degree requirements, students must enroll in a Clemson course(s) on the Global Challenges list to fulfill the upper level Global Challenges Requirement.

• AAH 3050 - Contemporary Art History 3 Credits
• AGED 4160 - Ethics and Issues in Agriculture and the Food and Fiber System 3 Credits
• AGED (EDF) 4800 - Foundations of Digital Media and Learning 3 Credits
• AGRB 2050 - Agriculture and Society 3 Credits
• ANTH 3010 - Cultural Anthropology 3 Credits
• ANTH 3200 - North American Indian Cultures 3 Credits
• ANTH 3250 - The Anthropology of Food 3 Credits
• ANTH (LANG) 3910 - Medical Anthropology 3 Credits
• ARCH 3040 - Critical Perspectives on Modern Architecture in a Global Context 3 Credits
• ASL 3500 - The Global Deaf Experience 3 Credits
• AVS 3700 - Principles of Animal Nutrition 3 Credits
• BIOE 4010 - Bioengineering Design Theory 3 Credits
• BIOL 2000 - Biology in the News 3 Credits
• BIOL (WFB) 3130 - Conservation Biology 3 Credits
• BIOL 4930 - Senior Seminar 2 Credits
• BSHS 3330 - Engaging Global Challenges Through Creative Inquiry 1-3 Credits
• CPSC 2920 - Computing, Ethics and Global Society 3 Credits
• CSM 3070 - Principles and Practices of Sustainable Construction 3 Credits
• ECAS 1900 - Global Challenges: Service Learning I 1-3 Credits 1
• ECAS 2900 - Global Challenges: Service Learning II 1-3 Credits 1
• ECAS 3210 - Design Elements of Global Challenges 3 Credits 1
• ECAS 3900 - Global Challenges: Service Learning III 1-3 Credits 1
• ECAS 3910 - Global Challenges: Leadership Development III 3 Credits 1
• ECON 3190 - Environmental Economics 3 Credits
• ED 3010 - Principles of American Education 3 Credits
• EDF (AGED) 4800 - Foundations of Digital Media and Learning 3 Credits
• EDHC 3300 - Concepts of Human Capital Education and Development 3 Credits
• EDHD 4310 - Selected Topics in Education and Human Development 1-3 Credits
• EDSC 4260 - Teaching Secondary Mathematics 3 Credits
• EES 4140 - Radioecology 3 Credits
• EES 4860 - Environmental Sustainability 3 Credits
• ENGL 3490 - Technology and the Popular Imagination 3 Credits
• ENGL 3560 - Science Fiction 3 Credits
• ENGR 1020 - Engineering Disciplines and Skills 3 Credits
• ENGR 1510 - Engineering Skills 3 Credits
• ENSP (GEOL) 1250 - Sustainable Resource Use 3 Credits 1
• ENSP 2000 - Introduction to Environmental Science 3 Credits 1
• ENSP 2010 - Exploring Environmental Science 3 Credits 1
• ENT 2000 - Six-Legged Science 3 Credits
• FDSC 3010 - Food Regulation and Policy 3 Credits
• FNPS 2140 - Food Resources and Society 3 Credits
• FNPS 3680 - Packaging and Society 3 Credits
• FOR 4160 - Forest Policy and Administration 3 Credits
• GBS 1000 - Introduction to Global Black Studies 3 Credits 1
• GEOG 1030 - World Regional Geography 3 Credits
• GEOG 4500 - Geographies of Food 3 Credits
• GEOG 4600 - Migration and Mobilities 3 Credits
• GEOL 1200 - Natural Hazards 3 Credits
• GEOL (ENSP) 1250 - Sustainable Resource Use 3 Credits 1
• GER 4160 - German for International Business II 3 Credits
• GLCH 1550 - Debunking Pseudoscience 3 Credits 1
• GLCH 1990 - Selected Topics in Global Challenges I 1-6 Credits 1
• GLCH 2990 - Selected Topics in Global Challenges II 1-6 Credits 1
• GLCH 3510 - Marginality and Health Outcomes 3 Credits 1
• GLCH 3520 - The Health Impact of Abuse 3 Credits 1
• GLCH 3990 - Selected Topics in Global Challenges III 1-6 Credits 1
• HIST 1220 - History, Technology, and Society 3 Credits
• HIST 1240 - Environmental History Survey 3 Credits
• HIST 2150 - Introduction to Digital History 3 Credits
• HIST 3120 - African American History from 1877 to the Present 3 Credits
• HIST 3210 - History of Science 3 Credits
• HIST 3230 - History of American Technology 3 Credits
• HIST 4370 - Slavery in Africa 3 Credits
• HLTH 2980 - Human Health and Disease 3 Credits
• HON 1960 - First-Year Seminar: Global Challenges 3 Credits 1
• HON 2060 - Controversies in Science and Technology 3 Credits 1
• HON 2830 - Global Policy Process 3 Credits 1
• HON 3960 - Global Challenges Seminar 1-3 Credits 1
• HPA 2010 - Global Experiences in Health Professions 1 Credit
• HUM 3060 - One Big Book 1-3 Credits
• IE 4880 - Human Factors Engineering 3 Credits
• INNO 3930 - Cross-Disciplinary Creative Inquiry with Global Challenges 1-4 Credits 1
• INT 3010 - International Internship 3 Credits
• INT 3500 - Global Challenges Internship Part-Time 3 Credits
• INT 3600 - Global Challenges Internship Full-Time 3 Credits
• IS 1020 - Global Challenges: Place, Nations and Identities 3 Credits 1
• IS 1030 - Global Challenges: Science and Sustainability 3 Credits 1
• IS 1040 - Global Challenges on Gender: Health and Human Rights 3 Credits 1
• JUST 4130 - Race and Crime 3 Credits
• JUST 4950 - Critical Issues in Policing 3 Credits
• LANG 3100 - East Asian Pop Culture 3 Credits
• LANG 3480 - Special Topics in Languages and Global Challenges 3 Credits
• LANG (ANTH) 3910 - Medical Anthropology 3 Credits
• LANG 4620 - Borders 3 Credits
• LARC 1160 - History of Landscape Architecture 3 Credits
• LARC 4530 - Key Issues in Landscape Architecture 3 Credits
• MATH 2190 - Introduction to Cryptography 3 Credits
• MATH 2800 - Introduction to Data Science 3 Credits
• ME 3120 - Manufacturing Processes and Their Application 3 Credits
• MGT 4150 - Business Strategy 3 Credits
• MICR 4930 - Senior Seminar 2 Credits
• MKT 3030 - Marketing and Society 3 Credits
• MSE 4070 - Senior Capstone Design 3 Credits
• MUSC 3150 - The Music of Black Americans 3 Credits
• NURS 1400 - Fostering Innovation in Nursing 3 Credits
• NURS 3300 - Research in Nursing 3 Credits
• PHIL 1040 - Introduction to Law, Liberty, and Justice 3 Credits
• PHIL 1240 - Technology and Its Discontents 3 Credits
• PHYS 2450 - Physics of Global Climate Change 3 Credits
• PKSC 3200 - Packaging Design Theory 3 Credits
• POSC 1020 - Introduction to International Relations 3 Credits
• POSC 1040 - Introduction to Comparative Politics 3 Credits
• POSC 3760 - Democratization 3 Credits
• POSC 4480 - International Political Economy 3 Credits
• POSC 4570 - Terrorism and Violent Extremism 3 Credits
• PRTM 3500 - Global Challenges in Parks, Recreation, Tourism, Sport, and Events 3 Credits
• PSYC 2500 - Pursuing Happiness 3 Credits
• PSYC 3570 - Psychology and Culture 3 Credits
• REL 2010 - Global Challenges and Religion 3 Credits
• REL 3350 - Islam and the West 3 Credits
• RS (SOC) 3010 - Rural Sociology 3 Credits
• SOC (RS) 3010 - Rural Sociology 3 Credits
• SOC 4030 - Environmental Sociology 3 Credits
• SOC 4140 - Policy and Social Change 3 Credits
• SOC 4440 - Sociology of Education 3 Credits
• SOC 4600 - Race and Ethnicity 3 Credits
• SOC 4710 - World Population and Society 3 Credits
• SOC 4810 - Aging and Death 3 Credits
• STS 1020 - Science and Technology in Society: The Ethics of Progress 3 Credits 1
• STS 3030 - Technology, Culture and Society 3 Credits 1
• SUST 2040 - Ocean and Climate Sustainability 3 Credits 1
• THEA 3150 - Theatre History I 3 Credits
• WFB (BIOL) 3130 - Conservation Biology 3 Credits
• WS 1030 - Women in Global Perspective 3 Credits 1

1 This course is interdisciplinary.

Justices Seem Ready to Limit the 2020 Election Case Against Trump

Such a ruling in the case, on whether the former president is immune from prosecution, would probably send it back to a lower court and could delay any trial until after the November election.

• Share full article

Charlie Savage and Alan Feuer

Charlie Savage reported from Washington, and Alan Feuer from New York.

Here are four takeaways from the Supreme Court hearing on Trump’s claim to immunity.

The Supreme Court heard arguments on Thursday about Donald J. Trump’s claim that the federal charges accusing him of plotting to overturn the 2020 election must be thrown out because he is immune from being prosecuted for any official act he took as president.

Here are some takeaways.

Several justices seemed to want to define some level of official act as immune.

Although Mr. Trump’s claim of near-absolute immunity was seen as a long shot intended primarily to slow the proceedings, several members of the Republican-appointed majority seemed to indicate that some immunity was needed. Some of them expressed worry about the long-term consequences of leaving future former presidents open to prosecution for their official actions.

Among others, Justice Brett Kavanaugh compared the threat of prosecution for official acts to how a series of presidents were “hampered” by independent counsel investigations, criticizing a 1984 ruling that upheld a now-defunct law creating such prosecutors as one of the Supreme Court’s biggest mistakes. Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. criticized an appeals court ruling rejecting immunity for Mr. Trump, saying he was concerned that it “did not get into a focused consideration of what acts we are talking about or what documents are talking about.”

“It’s a serious constitutional question whether a statute can be applied to the president’s official acts. So wouldn’t you always interpret the statute not to apply to the president, even under your formulation, unless Congress had spoken with some clarity?” “I don’t think across the board that as serious constitutional question exists on applying any criminal statute to the president.” “The problem is the vague statute — obstruction and 371, conspiracy to defraud the United States can be used against a lot of presidential activities historically with a creative prosecutor who wants to go after a president.” “I think that the question about the risk is very serious. And obviously it is a question that this court has to evaluate. For the executive branch, our view is that there is a balanced protection that better serves the interests of the Constitution that incorporates both accountability and protection for the president.”

The Democrat-appointed justices — Sonia Sotomayor, Elena Kagan and Ketanji Brown Jackson — asked questions indicating greater concern about opening the door for presidents to commit official crimes with impunity.

“This is what you’re asking us to say, which is that a president is entitled not to make a mistake — but more than that, a president is entitled for total personal gain to use the trappings of his office. That’s what you’re trying to get us to hold — without facing criminal liability.” “Your honor, I would say three things in response to that. First, the doctrine that immunity does not turn on the allegedly improper motivation or purpose is something that this court has reaffirmed in at least nine or 10 —” “That’s absolute immunity. But qualified immunity does say that whatever act you take has to be within what a reasonable person would do. I’m having a hard time thinking that creating false documents, that submitting false documents, that ordering the assassination of a rival, that accepting a bribe, and countless other laws that could be broken for personal gain, that anyone would say that it would be reasonable for a president or any public official to do that.”

The arguments signaled further delay and complications for a Trump trial.

If the Supreme Court does place limits on the ability of prosecutors to charge Mr. Trump over his official actions, it could alter the shape of his trial.

A decision to send all or part of the case back to the lower courts could further slow progress toward a trial, increasing the odds that it does not start before Election Day.

Of the matters listed in the indictment, some — like working with private lawyers to gin up slates of fraudulent electors — seem like the private actions of a candidate. Others — like pressuring the Justice Department and Vice President Mike Pence to do things — seem more like official acts he took in his role as president.

At one point, Justice Amy Coney Barrett suggested that prosecutors could simply drop Mr. Trump’s arguably official actions from their case and proceed to a swift trial focused only on his private actions. And D. John Sauer, the lawyer for Mr. Trump, told the court that no evidence of Mr. Trump’s official actions should be allowed into the trial.

But Michael R. Dreeben, a Justice Department lawyer arguing on behalf of the special counsel’s office, said the indictment laid out an “integrated conspiracy” in which Mr. Trump took the official actions to bolster the chances that his other efforts to overturn the election would succeed.

He argued that even if the court holds that Mr. Trump has immunity from liability for his official actions, prosecutors should still be allowed to present evidence about them to the jury because the actions are relevant to assessing his larger knowledge and intentions — just as speech that is protected by the First Amendment can still be used as evidence in a conspiracy case.

The hearing revolved around two very different ways of looking at the issue.

Looming over the hearing was a sweeping moral question: What effect might executive immunity have on the future of American politics?

Not surprisingly, the two sides saw things very differently.

Mr. Sauer claimed that without immunity, all presidents would be paralyzed by the knowledge that once they were out of office, they could face an onslaught of charges from their rivals based on the tough calls they had to make while in power. He pictured a dystopian world of ceaseless tit-for-tat political prosecutions that would destroy the “presidency as we know it.”

If a president can be charged, put on trial and imprisoned for his most controversial decisions as soon as he leaves office, that looming threat will distort the president’s decision-making precisely when bold and fearless action is most needed. Every current president will face de facto blackmail and extortion by his political rivals while he is still in office. The implications of the court’s decision here extend far beyond the facts of this case. Could President George W. Bush have been sent to prison for obstructing an official proceeding or allegedly lying to Congress to induce war in Iraq? Could President Obama be charged with murder for killing U.S. citizens abroad by drone strike? Could President Biden someday be charged with unlawfully inducing immigrants to enter the country illegally for his border policies? The answer to all these questions is no.

Envisioning the opposite scenario, Mr. Dreeben worried that any form of blanket immunity would place presidents entirely outside of the rule of law and encourage them to commit crimes, including “bribery, treason, sedition, even murder,” with impunity.

“The framers knew too well the dangers of a king who could do no wrong,” he said.

This court has never recognized absolute criminal immunity for any public official. Petitioner, however, claims that a former president has permanent criminal immunity for his official acts unless he was first impeached and convicted. His novel theory would immunize former presidents for criminal liability; for bribery, treason, sedition, murder and here, conspiring to use fraud to overturn the results of an election and perpetuate himself in power. Such presidential immunity has no foundation in the Constitution. The framers knew too well the dangers of a king who could do no wrong.

Both sides found advocates for their positions on the court.

Justice Samuel A. Alito Jr. clearly seemed worried that without some form of criminal immunity, former presidents would be vulnerable to partisan warfare as their successors used the courts to go after them once they were out of office. And that, he added, could lead to endless cycles of retribution that would be a risk to “stable, democratic society.”

Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson appeared more concerned that if presidents were in fact shielded by immunity, they would be unbounded by the law and could turn the Oval Office into what she described as “the seat of criminality.”

If someone with those kinds of powers, the most powerful person in the world with the greatest amount of authority, could go into office knowing that there would be no potential penalty for committing crimes, I’m trying to understand what the disincentive is from turning the Oval Office into the seat of criminal activity in this country? If the potential for criminal liability is taken off the table, wouldn’t there be a significant risk that future presidents would be emboldened to commit crimes with abandon while they’re in office? It’s right now the fact that we’re having this debate, because O.L.C. has said that presidents might be prosecuted. Presidents from the beginning of time have understood that that’s a possibility. That might be what has kept this office from turning into the kind of crime center that I’m envisioning. But once we say no criminal liability, Mr. President, you can do whatever you want, I’m worried that we would have a worse problem than the problem of the president feeling constrained to follow the law while he’s in office.

What happens next?

There did not seem to be a lot of urgency among the justices — especially the conservative ones — to ensure that the immunity question was resolved quickly. That left open the possibility that Mr. Trump could avoid being tried on charges of plotting to overturn the last election until well after voters went to the polls to decide whether to choose him as president in this election.

And if he is elected, any trial could be put off while he is in office, or he could order the charges against him dropped.

It could take some time for the court to do its own analysis of what presidential acts should qualify for the protections of immunity. And even if the justices determine that at least some of the allegations against Mr. Trump are fair game for prosecution, if they do not issue a ruling until late June or early July, it could be difficult to hold a trial before November.

That would become all but impossible if the court took a different route and sent the analysis back to the trial judge, Tanya S. Chutkan. If Judge Chutkan were ordered to hold further hearings on which of the indictment’s numerous allegations were official acts of Mr. Trump’s presidency and which were private acts he took as a candidate for office, the process could take months and last well into 2025.

Aishvarya Kavi

Reporting from Washington

A spectacle outside the Supreme Court for Trump’s defenders and detractors.

Just as the Supreme Court began considering on Thursday morning whether former President Donald J. Trump was entitled to absolute immunity, rap music started blaring outside the court.

The lyrics, laced with expletives, denounced Mr. Trump, and several dozen demonstrators began chanting, “Trump is not above the law!”

Mr. Trump was not in Washington on Thursday morning — in fact, he was in another courtroom , in New York. But the spectacle that pierced the relative tranquillity outside the court was typical of events that involve him: demonstrations, homemade signs, police, news media, and lots and lots of curious onlookers.

One man, Stephen Parlato, a retired mental health counselor from Boulder, Colo., held a roughly 6-foot-long sign with a blown-up photo of Mr. Trump scowling that read, “Toxic loser.” The back of the sign featured the famous painting by Cassius Marcellus Coolidge of dogs playing poker, adorned with the words, “Faith erodes … in a court with no binding ethics code.” He made the sign at FedEx, he said.

The Supreme Court’s decision to even hear the case, which has delayed Mr. Trump’s election interference trial , was “absurd,” he said.

“I’m a child of the late ’60s and early ’70s and the Vietnam War,” said Mr. Parlato, dressed in a leather jacket and cowboy hat. “I remember protesting that while in high school. But this is very different. I’m here because I’m terrified of the possibility of a second Trump presidency.”

Inside the court, Jack Smith sat to the far right of the lawyer arguing on behalf of his team of prosecutors, Michael R. Dreeben, a leading expert in criminal law who has worked for another special counsel who investigated Mr. Trump, Robert S. Mueller III.

Among those in attendance were Jane Sullivan Roberts, who is married to Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr., and Ashley Estes Kavanaugh, who is married to Justice Brett M. Kavanaugh.

In an orderly line outside along the side of the court, people were calmly waiting to listen to the arguments from the court’s public gallery. More than 100 people, many of them supporters of Mr. Trump, were in line as of 8:30 a.m. Reagan Pendarvis, 19, who had been waiting there since the middle of the night, said the first person in line had gotten there more than a day before the arguments began.

Mr. Pendarvis, a sophomore at the University of California, San Diego who is living in Washington for the spring semester, was wearing a black suit and bright red bow tie. He said he had been struggling to keep warm since he took his place in line.

Mr. Pendarvis, a supporter of Mr. Trump, said he thought that the cases brought against the former president were an uneven application of the law.

“I think a lot of the cases, especially that happen for Donald Trump, don’t really happen for Democrats on the other side,” he said. “That’s just my take on it.”

David Bolls, 42, and his brother, Jonathan, 43, both of Springfield, Va., also in line for the arguments, also contended that the prosecutions against Mr. Trump were an abuse of judicial power.

“For me, I want to see an even application of justice,” David Bolls said.

For others in line, the Supreme Court’s deliberations were not the main draw. Ellen Murphy, a longtime Washington resident, was trying to sell buttons she designs, though she acknowledged that it was unlikely she would be allowed in with all of her merchandise.

Dozens of the buttons, which said, “Immunize democracy now” and “Trump is toast” over a toaster with two slices of bread, were pinned to a green apron she was wearing.

“We lose our democracy,” Ms. Murphy said, “if the president can do whatever he wants just because he’s president.”

Eileen Sullivan contributed reporting.

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Adam Liptak

What’s next: Much will turn on how quickly the court acts.

The justices heard arguments in the immunity case at a special session, the day after what had been the last scheduled argument of its term. Arguments heard in late April almost always yield decisions near the end of the court’s term, in late June or early July.

But a ruling in early summer, even if it categorically rejected Mr. Trump’s position, would make it hard to complete his trial before the election. Should Mr. Trump win at the polls, there is every reason to think he would scuttle the prosecution.

In cases that directly affected elections — in which the mechanisms of voting were at issue — the court has sometimes acted with unusual speed.

In 2000, in Bush v. Gore, the court issued its decision handing the presidency to George W. Bush the day after the justices heard arguments.

In a recent case concerning Mr. Trump’s eligibility to appear on Colorado’s primary ballot, the justices moved more slowly, but still at a relatively brisk pace. The court granted Mr. Trump’s petition seeking review just two days after he filed it , scheduled arguments for about a month later and issued its decision in his favor about a month after that.

In United States v. Nixon, the 1974 decision that ordered President Richard M. Nixon to comply with a subpoena for audiotapes of conversations with aides in the White House, the court also moved quickly , granting the special prosecutor’s request to bypass the appeals court a week after it was filed.

The court heard arguments about five weeks later — compared with some eight weeks in Mr. Trump’s immunity case. It issued its decision 16 days after the argument , and the trial was not delayed.

Abbie VanSickle

The oral argument lasted nearly three hours, as the justices tangled with a lawyer for the former president and a Justice Department lawyer. A majority of the justices appeared skeptical of the idea of sweeping presidential immunity. However, several of them suggested an interest in drawing out what actions may be immune and what may not — a move that could delay the former president’s trial if the Supreme Court asks a lower court to revisit the issues.

Many of the justices seemed to be considering the idea that presidents should enjoy some form of protection against criminal prosecution. The devil, however, will be in the details: How should that protection extend?

And that question will have profound relevance not only for future presidents, but much more immediately for Donald Trump. The court could decide to draw those rules itself in a broad way for history. Or it could send this case back to a lower court to set the rules of what form immunity could take. If the case is sent back for further proceedings, it could have a dramatic effect on the timing of Trump’s trial, pushing it well past the election in November.

Looking back, one of the main points of discussion turned on the question of which situation would be worse: a world in which presidents, shorn of any legal protections against prosecution, were ceaselessly pursued in the courts by their rivals in a never-ending cycle of political retribution, or allowing presidents to be unbounded by criminal law and permitted to do whatever they wanted with impunity.

Charlie Savage

Sauer, Trump’s attorney, declines to offer a rebuttal. The argument is over.

If the court finds that there is some immunity for official actions, one of the most important questions will be whether prosecutors can still present evidence to the jury of Trump’s official actions (like pressuring the Justice Department and Vice President Mike Pence to do certain things) as evidence that helps illuminate Trump’s knowledge and intent for his private acts as a candidate. Dreeben says the jury needs to understand the whole “integrated conspiracy” but prosecutors would accept a jury instruction in which the judge would say they cannot impose liability for the official actions but may consider them as evidence of his knowledge and intent for the other actions. That’s how courts handle protected speech that is evidence to a larger conspiracy, he notes.

Justice Barrett picks up the question of timing again. She suggests that if prosecutors want to take Trump quickly to trial, they could simply drop those parts of the indictment that seem to be his official acts as president and proceed with only those parts of the indictment that reflect Trump’s private actions taken as a candidate for office. Dreeben is not wild about that idea.

Dreeben suggests that allegations in the “private acts bucket,” as Justice Jackson just called it, would include things like the scheme to create fake electors and the way in which Trump fomented a mob of his supporters to violently attack the Capitol on Jan. 6.

Justice Barrett seems to signal that she is less likely to find that presidents have blanket immunity for their official acts. When Dreeben says the system needs to balance the effective functioning of the presidency and accountability for a former president under the rule of law, and the existing system does that pretty well or maybe needs a few ancillary rules but that is different from the “radical proposal” put forward by Trump’s legal team, she says: “I agree.”

Dreeben, in a balancing act that seems to acknowledge that the court is looking for some form of criminal immunity for presidents, says he is trying to do two things at once, neither of them easy. He wants to design a system to find some rules that preserve the “effective functioning of the presidency” but that still allows for “accountability” if presidents violated the law.

Kavanaugh asks Dreeben about Obama’s drone strike that killed an American citizen suspected of terrorism, Anwar al-Awlaki, which Trump’s lawyer invoked in his opening. Dreeben notes that the Office of Legal Counsel analyzed the question and found that the murder statute did not apply to presidents when they were acting under public authority, so authorizing the strike was lawful. This is the way the system can function, he said — the Justice Department analyzes laws carefully and with established principles.

Justice Kavanaugh signals that he is likely to find that presidents must have immunity for their official actions. He talks about how the threat of prosecution by independent counsels (under a law that lapsed in 1999) hampered Presidents Reagan, George H.W. Bush and Clinton, and says a 1984 ruling upholding that structure as constitutional was one of the Supreme Court’s biggest mistakes. (Notably, Kavanaugh was a prosecutor on the staff of independent counsel Ken Starr during his investigation into President Bill Clinton, before becoming a White House lawyer under President George W. Bush.)

Dreeben tries to push back on Kavanaugh’s argument by saying that even after Watergate, even after all of the independent counsel investigations mentioned above, the legal system has survived without “having gone off on a runaway train” of actual criminal prosecutions against former presidents.

The Supreme Court rejected Bill Clinton’s claim of immunity.

In Clinton v. Jones in 1997, the Supreme Court unanimously allowed a sexual harassment suit against President Bill Clinton to proceed while he was in office, discounting concerns that it would distract him from his official responsibilities. Both of his appointees, Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen G. Breyer, voted against him.

“The president is subject to judicial process in appropriate circumstances,” Justice John Paul Stevens wrote for the court, adding, “We have never suggested that the president, or any other official, has an immunity that extends beyond the scope of any action taken in an official capacity.”

The case was in one sense harder than the one against Mr. Trump, as it involved a sitting president. In another sense, though, it was easier, as it concerned an episode said to have taken place before Mr. Clinton took office (Paula Jones, an Arkansas state employee, said Mr. Clinton had made lewd advances in a hotel room when he was governor of the state).

The case is best remembered for a prediction in Justice Stevens’s majority opinion that “it appears to us highly unlikely to occupy any substantial amount of petitioner’s time.” In fact, it led to Mr. Clinton’s impeachment.

In the same paragraph, Justice Stevens made a second prediction.

“In the more than 200-year history of the Republic, only three sitting presidents have been subjected to suits for their private actions,” he wrote. “If the past is any indicator, it seems unlikely that a deluge of such litigation will ever engulf the presidency.”

Suits against Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman were dismissed, and one against President John F. Kennedy involving a car accident during his 1960 campaign was settled. The case against Mr. Clinton added a fourth.

Justice Stevens, who died in 2019, failed to anticipate the enormous volume of civil and criminal litigation in which Mr. Trump and his businesses have been named as defendants.

We are now over the two-hour mark of the Supreme Court’s arguments in the Trump immunity case. The Justice Department lawyer has continued to face skeptical questions from many of the court’s conservatives, several of whom appear particularly focused on how to draw the line between a president’s core powers and non-core powers. In other words, what actions by a president might be shielded from prosecution and what would not. The questioning suggests that some of the justices may favor a ruling that could lead to more lower-court proceedings, perhaps delaying the trial.

The Supreme Court’s relatively new process (coming out of Covid) of letting each justice ask questions at the end in order of seniority has an interesting consequence, as seen here. Dreeben kept wanting to say these things about government legal memos and to go into the details about the actions Trump is accused of taking, but the Republican-appointed justices kept cutting him off. It’s the turn of Kagan, a Democratic appointee, to ask any final questions she wants, and she is letting him talk on and on.

Much of the discussion this morning has swirled around the question of whether, without immunity, presidents will be hounded by their rivals with malicious charges after leaving office. Alito and other conservatives on the court seem concerned that the Trump prosecutions will open the door to endless attacks against future presidents.

The other main topic of discussion has been whether presidents enjoy some form of immunity for carrying out their official duties and, if so, how those official actions are defined. That’s an important question for the Trump election case because Trump has claimed he was acting in his role as president when, by his own account, he sought to root out fraud in the 2020 vote count. It’s also important for a different reason: the justices could send the official acts question back to a lower court to sort out, and that process could take a long time, delaying the case's trial until after this year’s election.

Justice Alito suggests that there is a risk to our stable democracy if presidents who lose close elections would not be allowed to retire in peace but could face prosecution. He has essentially flipped the situation under consideration upside down: that Trump is being prosecuted for having used fraud to remain in power after losing a close election.

A part of this exchange between Justice Alito and the Justice Department's lawyer, Dreeben, gets at a pressure point in American-style democracy and the rule of law. One of the safeguards against illegitimate prosecutions of ex-presidents, Dreeben says, is that if the Justice Department has advised the president that doing something would be lawful, the department could not later turn around and prosecute the now-former president for relying on that advice and doing that thing.

Alito points out that this creates an incentive for presidents to appoint attorneys general who will just tell them that anything they want to do would be legal. Indeed — that is a critique of the Office of Legal Counsel system, in which politically appointed lawyers decide what the law means for the executive branch.

An example: During the George W. Bush administration, memos about post-9/11 surveillance and torture were written by a politically appointed lawyer with idiosyncratically broad views of a president’s supposed power, as commander in chief, to authorize violations of surveillance and torture laws. The Justice Department later withdrew those memos as espousing a false view of the law, but held that officials who had taken action based on those memos could not be charged with crimes.

Justice Alito suggests there are not enough legal safeguards in place to protect presidents against malicious prosecution if they don’t have some form of immunity. He tells Dreeben that the grand jury process isn’t much of a protection because prosecutors, as the saying goes, can indict a ham sandwich. When Dreeben tries to argue that prosecutors sometimes don’t indict people who don’t deserve it, Alito dismissively says, “Every once in a while there’s an eclipse too.”

If you are just joining in, the justices are questioning the Justice Department lawyer, Michael Dreeben, about the government’s argument that former President Trump is not absolutely immune from prosecution on charges that he plotted to subvert the 2020 election. Dreeben has faced skeptical questions from several of the conservative justices, including both Justices Alito and Kavanaugh, who have suggested that the fraud conspiracy statute being used against the former president is vague. That statute is central to the government’s case against Trump.

Justice Alito now joins Justice Kavanaugh in suggesting that the fraud conspiracy statute is very vague and broadly drawn. That is bad news for the indictment brought against Trump by Jack Smith, the special counsel.

The scope and viability of this fraud statute, which is absolutely central to the Trump indictment, wasn’t on the menu of issues seemingly at play in this hearing. Kavanaugh and Alito appear to have gone out of their way to question its use in the Trump case.

Justice Sotomayor points out that under the Trump team’s theory that a criminal statute has to clearly state that it applies to the presidency for it to cover a president’s official actions, there would essentially be no accountability at all. Because only a tiny handful of laws mention the president, that means a president could act contrary to them without violating them. As a result, the Senate could not even impeach a president for violating criminal statutes, she says — because he would not be violating those laws if they don’t apply to the president.

Dreeben is under heavy fire from the court’s conservatives.

The precedent most helpful to Trump: Nixon v. Fitzgerald.

In 1982, in Nixon v. Fitzgerald , the Supreme Court ruled that former President Richard M. Nixon had absolute immunity from civil lawsuits — ones brought by private litigants seeking money — for conduct “within the ‘outer perimeter’ of his official responsibility.”

The ruling is helpful to former President Donald J. Trump, establishing as it does that immunity can be expansive, lives on after a president leaves office and extends to the very limits of what may be said to be official conduct.

But the decision also falls well short of dictating the outcome in the case that is being argued on Thursday, which concerns a criminal prosecution, not a civil suit.

The 1982 case arose from a lawsuit brought by an Air Force analyst, A. Ernest Fitzgerald, who said he was fired in 1970 in retaliation for his criticism of cost overruns. By the time the Supreme Court acted, Nixon had been out of office for several years.

“In view of the special nature of the president’s constitutional office and functions,” Justice Lewis F. Powell Jr. wrote for the majority 5-to-4 decision, “we think it appropriate to recognize absolute presidential immunity from damages liability” for Nixon’s official conduct, broadly defined.

But the decision drew a sharp line between civil suits, which it said can be abusive and harassing, and criminal prosecutions like the one Mr. Trump is facing.

“In view of the visibility of his office and the effect of his actions on countless people, the president would be an easily identifiable target for suits for civil damages,” Justice Powell wrote, adding, “The court has recognized before that there is a lesser public interest in actions for civil damages than, for example, in criminal prosecutions.”

Chief Justice Warren E. Burger underscored the point in a concurring opinion. “The immunity is limited to civil damages claims,” he wrote.

Even in the context of civil suits, Nixon v. Fitzgerald conferred immunity only on conduct within the “outer perimeter” of a president’s official duties. Jack Smith, the special counsel, has said that Mr. Trump’s efforts to subvert democracy are well outside that line.

The Justice Department has already granted sitting presidents immunity while they are in office.

Former President Donald J. Trump’s claim that former presidents must enjoy “complete immunity” from prosecution for any crimes they committed in office would significantly expand the temporary immunity that sitting presidents already have.

Nothing in the Constitution or federal statutes says that presidents are shielded from being prosecuted while in office, and no court has ever ruled that way. But political appointees in the Justice Department’s Office of Legal Counsel, whose interpretations are binding on the executive branch, have declared that the Constitution implicitly establishes such immunity.

This argument boils down to practicalities of governance: The stigma of being indicted and the burden of a trial would unduly interfere with a president’s ability to carry out his duties, Robert G. Dixon Jr. , then the head of the Justice Department’s Office of Legal Counsel, wrote in a memo in September 1973 . This would prevent the executive branch “from accomplishing its constitutional functions” in a way that cannot “be justified by an overriding need,” he added.

Mr. Dixon, an appointee of President Richard M. Nixon, wrote his memo against the backdrop of the Watergate scandal, when Mr. Nixon faced a criminal investigation by a special counsel, Archibald Cox. The next month, Nixon’s solicitor general, Robert H. Bork , in a court brief , similarly argued for an “inference” that the Constitution makes sitting presidents immune from indictment and trial.

(That same month, Mr. Nixon had Mr. Cox fired in the so-called Saturday Night Massacre. Mr. Nixon’s attorney general and deputy attorney general resigned rather than carry out his orders to oust the prosecutor; Mr. Nixon then turned to Mr. Bork, the department’s No. 3, who proved willing to do it. Amid a political backlash, Mr. Nixon was forced to allow a new special counsel, Leon Jaworski , to resume the investigation.)

The question arose again a generation later, when President Bill Clinton faced an investigation by Kenneth Starr, an independent counsel, into the Whitewater land deal that morphed into an inquiry into his affair with Monica Lewinsky, a White House intern. Randolph D. Moss , Mr. Clinton’s appointee to lead the Office of Legal Counsel, reviewed the Justice Department’s 1973 opinions and reaffirmed their conclusions .

Legal scholars, as well as staff for prosecutors investigating presidents, have disputed the legitimacy of that constitutional theory. In 1974, Mr. Jaworski received a memo from his staff saying he could, in fact, indict Mr. Nixon while he was in office, and he later made that case in a court brief .

And in a 56-page memo in 1998, Ronald Rotunda, a prominent conservative constitutional scholar whom Mr. Starr hired as a consultant on his legal team, rejected the view that presidents are immune from prosecution while in office. Mr. Starr later said that he had concluded that he could indict Mr. Clinton.

“It is proper, constitutional, and legal for a federal grand jury to indict a sitting president for serious criminal acts that are not part of, and are contrary to, the president’s official duties,” Mr. Rotunda wrote. “In this country, no one, even President Clinton, is above the law.”

Mr. Starr commissioned the Rotunda memo as he was drafting a potential indictment of Mr. Clinton, and Mr. Starr decided that he could charge the president while in office. In the end, however, both Mr. Jaworski and Mr. Starr decided to let congressional impeachment proceedings play out and did not try to bring indictments while Mr. Nixon and Mr. Clinton remained in office.

The question may never be definitively tested in the courts. In 1999, Congress allowed a law that created independent counsels like Mr. Starr — prosecutors who do not report to the attorney general — to expire, and the Justice Department issued regulations to allow for the appointment of semiautonomous special counsels for inquiries into potential high-level wrongdoing in the executive branch.

Special counsels are, however, bound by Justice Departments policies and practices — including the Office of Legal Counsel’s proclamation that sitting presidents are temporarily immune from criminal indictment or trial.

Alan Feuer and Charlie Savage

Is there such a thing as executive immunity?

There are no direct precedents on the broad question of whether presidents have criminal immunity for their official actions.

The Supreme Court has held that presidents are absolutely immune from civil lawsuits related to their official acts , in part to protect them against ceaseless harassment and judicial scrutiny of their day-to-day decisions. The court has also held that presidents can be sued over their personal actions .

The Supreme Court has further found that while presidents are sometimes immune from judicial subpoenas requesting internal executive branch information, that privilege is not absolute. Even presidents, the court has decided, can be forced to obey a subpoena in a criminal case if the need for information is great enough.

But until Mr. Trump wound up in court, the Supreme Court has never had a reason to decide whether former presidents are protected from being prosecuted for official actions. The Justice Department has long maintained that sitting presidents are temporarily immune from prosecution because criminal charges would distract them from their constitutional functions. But since Mr. Trump is not in office, that is not an issue.

The closest the country has come to the prosecution of a former president over official actions came in 1974, when Richard M. Nixon resigned to avoid being impeached over the Watergate scandal. But a pardon by his successor, President Gerald R. Ford, protected Nixon from indictment by the Watergate special prosecutor.

Mr. Smith’s team has argued that Ford’s pardon — and Nixon’s acceptance of it — demonstrates that both men understood that Nixon was not already immune. Mr. Trump’s team has sought to counter that point by arguing — inaccurately — that Nixon faced potential criminal charges only over private actions, like tax fraud. But the special prosecutor weighed charging Nixon with abusing his office to obstruct justice.

Mr. Trump’s team has argued that denying his claims risks unleashing a routine practice of prosecuting former presidents for partisan reasons. But Mr. Smith’s team has argued that if courts endorse Mr. Trump’s theory, then future presidents who are confident of surviving impeachment could, with impunity, commit any number of crimes in connection with their official actions.

“Such a result would severely undermine the compelling public interest in the rule of law and criminal accountability,” prosecutors wrote.

Hypothetical questions test the limits of Trump’s immunity claim.

An exchange during an appeals court argument in January about a hypothetical political assassination tested former President Donald J. Trump’s claim that he is absolutely immune from prosecution for his official conduct.

His lawyer, D. John Sauer, has urged the justices to consider only what he is actually accused of: plotting to subvert the 2020 election. But hypothetical questions are routine at the Supreme Court, and they have a way of illuminating the contours and implications of legal theories.

That is what happened in January, when Judge Florence Y. Pan of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia had to press Mr. Sauer to get an answer to a hypothetical question: Are former presidents absolutely immune from prosecution, even for murders they ordered while in office?

“I asked you a yes-or-no question,” Judge Pan said. “Could a president who ordered SEAL Team 6 to assassinate a political rival, who was not impeached, would he be subject to criminal prosecution?”

Mr. Sauer said his answer was a “qualified yes,” by which he meant no. He explained that prosecution would be permitted only if the president were first impeached by the House and convicted by the Senate.

Impeachments of presidents are rare: There have been four in the history of the Republic, two of them of Mr. Trump. The number of convictions, which require a two-thirds majority of the Senate: zero.

Mr. Sauer’s statement called to mind a 2019 federal appeals court argument over whether Mr. Trump could block state prosecutors from obtaining his tax and business records. He maintained that he was immune not only from prosecution but also from criminal investigation so long as he was president.

At that time, Judge Denny Chin of the Second Circuit pressed William S. Consovoy, a lawyer for Mr. Trump, asking about his client’s famous statement that he could shoot someone on Fifth Avenue without losing political support.

“Local authorities couldn’t investigate?” Judge Chin asked, adding: “Nothing could be done? That’s your position?”

“That is correct,” said Mr. Consovoy. “That is correct.”

This headline followed: “If Trump Shoots Someone on 5th Ave., Does He Have Immunity? His Lawyer Says Yes.”

For his part, Mr. Sauer does not seem eager to revisit the question about assassinations. Indeed, in asking the Supreme Court to hear Mr. Trump’s appeal, Mr. Sauer urged the justices not to be distracted by “lurid hypotheticals” that “almost certainly never will occur.”

What counts as an official act as president?

Another issue that has come up in lower courts in this case was what counted as an official act for a president, as opposed to a private action that was not connected to his constitutional responsibilities.

If the justices want to dispose of the dispute without definitively ruling on whether presidents are immune from prosecution for official acts, they could do so by finding that the specific steps former President Donald J. Trump took to remain in office that are cited in the federal indictment were not official actions. If so, the broader immunity question would not matter, and the prosecution could proceed.

The acts by Mr. Trump cited in the indictment include using deceit to organize fake slates of electors and to try to get state officials to subvert legitimate election results; trying to get the Justice Department and Vice President Mike Pence to help fraudulently alter the results; directing his supporters to the Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021; and exploiting the violence and chaos of their ensuing riot.

In its court filings, Mr. Trump’s team has sought to reframe those accusations not only as official actions, but innocuous or even admirable ones.

“All five types of conduct alleged in the indictment constitute official acts,” they wrote. “They all reflect President Trump’s efforts and duties, squarely as chief executive of the United States, to advocate for and defend the integrity of the federal election, in accord with his view that it was tainted by fraud and irregularity.”

Mr. Smith’s team has argued that they should be seen as the efforts of a person seeking office, not of an officeholder carrying out government responsibilities.

“Those alleged acts were carried out by and on behalf of the defendant in his capacity as a candidate, and the extensive involvement of private attorneys and campaign staff in procuring the fraudulent slates as alleged in the indictment underscores that those activities were not within the outer perimeter of the office of the presidency,” they wrote.

Judge Tanya S. Chutkan, who is overseeing Mr. Trump’s case in Federal District Court in Washington, issued her ruling rejecting Mr. Trump’s immunity claim without including any detailed analysis of whether his acts were “official.”

If the Supreme Court were to send the matter back to her to take a stab at answering that question before restarting the appeals process, Mr. Trump will, at a minimum, have used up additional valuable time that could help push any trial past the election.

Noah Weiland and Alan Feuer

Here are the lawyers arguing before the Supreme Court.

The two lawyers arguing before the Supreme Court on Thursday have each played a role in some of the defining legal battles stemming from Mr. Trump’s term in office.

Arguing the case for the special counsel Jack Smith will be Michael Dreeben, who worked for a different special counsel’s office that scrutinized Mr. Trump’s presidency: Robert S. Mueller III’s investigation into links between Russia and associates of Mr. Trump. Mr. Dreeben, one of the nation’s leading criminal law experts, has made more than 100 oral arguments before the Supreme Court, including when he served as deputy solicitor general.

On Mr. Mueller’s team, he handled pretrial litigation, defending the scope of the investigation and preventing the office from losing cases on appeal. He also helped with a second part of Mr. Mueller’s investigation, examining whether Mr. Trump had tried to obstruct the inquiry in his dealings with associates involved in the case.

Mr. Dreeben, who was heavily involved in the writing of Mr. Mueller’s final report on his investigation, supported an interpretation of presidential power that emphasized limits on what a president could do while exercising his or her powers, according to “Where Law Ends,” a book written by Andrew Weissmann, another prosecutor on Mr. Mueller’s team.

After Mr. Mueller’s investigation concluded, Mr. Dreeben took a teaching position at Georgetown University’s law school and returned to private practice at O’Melveny, arguing in front of the Supreme Court on behalf of the city of Austin over a First Amendment dispute about the placement of digital billboards.

Opposing Mr. Dreeben in front of the Supreme Court will be D. John Sauer, a lawyer based in St. Louis who once served as the solicitor general of Missouri. Mr. Sauer joined Mr. Trump’s legal team late last year to handle appellate matters, including his challenge to a gag order imposed on him in the election case in Washington.

As Missouri’s solicitor general, Mr. Sauer took part in a last-ditch effort to keep Mr. Trump in power after his defeat in the 2020 election, filing a motion on behalf of his state and five others in support of an attempt by Texas to have the Supreme Court toss out the results of the vote count in several key swing states.

He also joined in an unsuccessful bid with Texas in asking the Supreme Court to stop the Biden administration from rescinding a Trump-era immigration program that forces certain asylum seekers arriving at the southwestern border to await approval in Mexico.

When he left the solicitor general’s office last January, Mr. Sauer, who once clerked for Justice Antonin Scalia, returned to his private firm, the James Otis Law Group. The firm is named after a prominent Revolutionary War-era lawyer who built a career out of challenging abuses by British colonial forces.

To justify his defense in the immunity case, Trump turns to a familiar tactic.

When the Supreme Court considers Donald J. Trump’s sweeping claims of executive immunity on Thursday, it will break new legal ground, mulling for the first time the question of whether a former president can avoid being prosecuted for things he did in office.

But in coming up with the argument, Mr. Trump used a tactic on which he has often leaned in his life as a businessman and politician: He flipped the facts on their head in an effort to create a different reality.

At the core of his immunity defense is a claim that seeks to upend the story told by federal prosecutors in an indictment charging him with plotting to overturn the 2020 election. In that indictment, prosecutors described a criminal conspiracy by Mr. Trump to subvert the election results and stay in power.

In Mr. Trump’s telling, however, those same events are official acts that he undertook as president to safeguard the integrity of the race and cannot be subject to prosecution.

In many ways, Mr. Trump’s immunity claim is breathtaking. In one instance, his lawyers went so far as to say that a president could not be prosecuted even for using the military to assassinate a rival unless he was first impeached.

But the wholesale rewriting of the government’s accusations — which first appeared six months ago in Mr. Trump’s motion to dismiss the election interference case — may be the most audacious part of his defense. It was certainly a requisite step his lawyers had to take to advance the immunity argument.

Other courts have ruled that presidents enjoy limited immunity from civil lawsuits for things they did as part of the formal responsibilities of their job. To extend that legal concept to criminal charges, Mr. Trump’s lawyers needed to reframe all of the allegations lodged against him in the election interference case as official acts of his presidency rather than as the actions of a candidate misusing his power.

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Biden’s new Title IX rules protect LGBTQ+ students, but avoid addressing transgender athletes

FILE - Demonstrators advocating for transgender rights and healthcare stand outside of the Ohio Statehouse on Jan. 24, 2024, in Columbus, Ohio. The rights of LGBTQ+ students will be protected by federal law and victims of campus sexual assault will gain new safeguards under rules finalized Friday, April19, 2024, by the Biden administration. Notably absent from Biden’s policy, however, is any mention of transgender athletes. (AP Photo/Patrick Orsagos, File)

FILE - House Education and the Workforce Committee Chair Rep. Virginia Foxx R-N.C., speaks on Capitol Hill in Washington, April 17, 2024. The rights of LGBTQ+ students will be protected by federal law and victims of campus sexual assault will gain new safeguards under rules finalized Friday, April19, 2024, by the Biden administration. Foxx said the new regulation threatens decades of advancement for women and girls. (AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana, File)

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The rights of LGBTQ+ students will be protected by federal law and victims of campus sexual assault will gain new safeguards under rules finalized Friday by the Biden administration.

The new provisions are part of a revised Title IX regulation issued by the Education Department, fulfilling a campaign pledge by President Joe Biden. He had promised to dismantle rules created by former Education Secretary Betsy DeVos , who added new protections for students accused of sexual misconduct.

Notably absent from Biden’s policy, however, is any mention of transgender athletes.

The administration originally planned to include a new policy forbidding schools from enacting outright bans on transgender athletes, but that provision was put on hold. The delay is widely seen as a political maneuver during an election year in which Republicans have rallied around bans on transgender athletes in girls’ sports.

Instead, Biden is officially undoing sexual assault rules put in place by his predecessor and current election-year opponent, former President Donald Trump. The final policy drew praise from victims’ advocates, while Republicans said it erodes the rights of accused students.

The new rule makes “crystal clear that everyone can access schools that are safe, welcoming and that respect their rights,” Education Secretary Miguel Cardona said.

“No one should face bullying or discrimination just because of who they are, who they love,” Cardona told reporters. “Sadly, this happens all too often.”

Biden’s regulation is meant to clarify schools’ obligations under Title IX , the 1972 sex discrimination law originally passed to address women’s rights. It applies to colleges and elementary and high schools that receive federal money. The update is to take effect in August.

Among the biggest changes is new recognition that Title IX protects LGBTQ+ students — a source of deep conflict with Republicans.

The 1972 law doesn’t directly address the issue, but the new rules clarify that Title IX also forbids discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. LGBTQ+ students who face discrimination will be entitled to a response from their school under Title IX, and those failed by their schools can seek recourse from the federal government.

Many Republicans say Congress never intended such protections under Title IX. A federal judge previously blocked Biden administration guidance to the same effect after 20 Republican-led states challenged the policy .

Rep. Virginia Foxx, a Republican from North Carolina and chair of the House Education and the Workforce Committee, said the new regulation threatens decades of advancement for women and girls.

“This final rule dumps kerosene on the already raging fire that is Democrats’ contemptuous culture war that aims to radically redefine sex and gender,” Foxx said in a statement.

In the last few years, many Republican-controlled states have adopted laws restricting the rights of transgender children , including banning gender-affirming medical care for minors. And at least 11 states restrict which bathrooms and locker rooms transgender students can use, banning them from using facilities that align with their gender identity.

But the rule makes clear that treating transgender students differently from their classmates is discrimination, putting the state bathroom restrictions in jeopardy, said Francicso M. Negron Jr., an attorney who specializes in education law.

The revision was proposed nearly two years ago but has been slowed by a comment period that drew 240,000 responses, a record for the Education Department.

Many of the changes are meant to ensure that schools and colleges respond to complaints of sexual misconduct. In general, the rules widen the type of misconduct that institutions are required to address, and it grants more protections to students who bring accusations.

Chief among the changes is a wider definition of sexual harassment. Schools now must address any unwelcome sex-based conduct that is so “severe or pervasive” that it limits a student’s equal access to an education.

Under the DeVos rules, conduct had to be “severe, pervasive and objectively offensive,” a higher bar that pushed some types of misconduct outside the purview of Title IX.

Colleges will no longer be required to hold live hearings to allow students to cross-examine one another through representatives — a signature provision from the DeVos rules.

Live hearings are allowed under the Biden rules, but they’re optional and carry new limits. Students must be able to participate from hearings remotely, for example, and schools must bar questions that are “unclear or harassing.”

As an alternative to live hearings, college officials can interview students separately, allowing each student to suggest questions and get a recording of the responses.

Those hearings were a major point of contention with victims’ advocates, who said it forced sexual assault survivors to face their attackers and discouraged people from reporting assaults. Supporters said it gave accused students a fair process to question their accusers, arguing that universities had become too quick to rule against accused students.

Victims’ advocates applauded the changes and urged colleges to implement them quickly.

“After years of pressure from students and survivors of sexual violence, the Biden Administration’s Title IX update will make schools safer and more accessible for young people, many of whom experienced irreparable harm while they fought for protection and support,” said Emma Grasso Levine, a senior manager at the group Know Your IX.

Despite the focus on safeguards for victims, the new rules preserve certain protections for accused students.

All students must have equal access to present evidence and witnesses under the new policy, and all students must have equal access to evidence. All students will be allowed to bring an advisor to campus hearings, and colleges must have an appeals process.

In general, accused students won’t be able to be disciplined until after they’re found responsible for misconduct, although the regulation allows for “emergency” removals if it’s deemed a matter of campus safety.

The American Council on Education, which represents higher education institutions, praised the new guidelines. But the group criticized the Aug. 1 compliance deadline. The timeline “disregards the difficulties inherent in making these changes on our nation’s campuses in such a short period of time,” ACE said in a statement.

The latest overhaul continues a back-and-forth political battle as presidential administrations repeatedly rewrite the rules around campus sexual misconduct.

DeVos criticized the new rule, writing on social media site X that it amounts to “ an assault on women and girls .” She said the new procedures for handling sexual assault accusations mark a return to “days where sexual misconduct was sent to campus kangaroo courts, not resolved in a way that actually sought justice,” she wrote.

The DeVos rules were themselves an overhaul of an Obama-era policy that was intended to force colleges to take accusations of campus sexual assault more seriously. Now, after years of nearly constant changes, some colleges have been pushing for a political middle ground to end the whiplash. ___

Associated Press writers Geoff Mulvihill, Annie Ma and Moriah Balingit contributed to this report.

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