case study on different leadership styles

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How to Make Different Business Leadership Styles Work (With Case Studies)

Several thought leaders have referred to 2020 as the year of great reset. But if you want to be really strict about it, most of the biggest business shifts started way back at the onset of the 21st century. 

Traditional business leaders who are banking on traditional business leadership styles in this new century needlessly risk losing their businesses to unhealthy age-old leadership practices.

The pandemic just helped reiterate the need for business leaders to change the way they approach business problems primarily due to the following reasons:

• New technologies
• Pace of change
• Changing demographics and employee expectations
• Changing customer expectations

The chart below gives you a better glimpse of the reasons why there is a difference in the requirements for the kind of leaders we need to have in this era. The data depicted is from Deloitte’s Human Capital Trends Survey .

What are these particular requirements? According to the same study by Deloitte, business leaders need to have the following abilities:

• lead through more complexity and ambiguity
• lead through influence
• manage on a remote basis
• manage a workforce with a combination of humans and machines
• lead more quickly

See this second figure below.

According to Forbes , there are three notable leadership skill shifts for 2021 and these are the following:

• Communication to Empathy 
• Emotional Intelligence to Emotional Agility 
• Time Management to Context Management

Leaders are expected to be effective communicators, but the shift is now focused on empathy as a priority for business leaders this year. The Management Research Group found empathy to be the leading positive leadership competency and one of the biggest predictors of senior executive effectiveness . This makes a lot of sense especially now that the recent challenges brought about by the pandemic have highlighted the value of caring while communicating.

Emotional intelligence to emotional agility is another important shift. Susan David , a psychologist and the author of the book “Emotional Agility: Get Unstuck, Embrace Change, and Thrive in Work and Life” describes emotionally agile people be the type of people who are not only aware of their feelings but also know how to navigate through them.

Now the shift from time management to context management gives emphasis on how the change in the context of how and where we work requires realignment in managing our time and designing our days around how we work. 

While there are several leadership styles and the specific strategies vary depending on the field or industry, the concepts are basically the same. Let’s take note of these leadership skill shifts mentioned earlier in studying how we can better tailor the different leadership styles to suit the changing times. 

The following are six of the different leadership styles we will tackle further:

• Autocratic Leadership Style
• Democratic Leadership Style
• Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
• Situational leadership style
• Transactional Leadership Style
• Transformational Leadership Style

First off, let’s start with the traditional business leadership styles.

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1. autocratic leadership style.

Case Study: Howell Raines of The New York Times

The New York Times under Howell Raines as the Executive Editor decided at one point to only put resources on the stories that he deemed as worth covering. While this led to The New York Times winning a record-breaking seven Pulitzer awards in a single year, several staff members got demoralized.

There is no known theorist behind autocratic leadership so it is considered as an organic leadership style that has developed over the course of time that it has been used. 

Basically, an autocratic leader is the type of leader who would make decisions without proper consultation. You may think that this leadership style is unacceptable for who decides on his own especially if the decision concerns an entire organization, right? 

But, Cleverism articulates three situations where the autocratic leadership style can be used and these are the following:

• The situation requires fast and immediate decision-making
• There is no clarity in the process of the procedure and pushing ahead might only lead people to danger
• There are more inexperienced people in the group and most of them are demotivated

The tendency of most businesses with an autocratic leader is that the subordinates will become passive and mediocre, or conflicts may arise.

In these situations where a business leader must step up and use the autocratic leadership style, it is important to take note of communicating openly and regarding others with respect the entire time.

2. Democratic Leadership Style

Case Study: Sergey Brin and Larry Page of Google

Founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page hired Eric Schmidt to jump-start the Internet search engine. Blending autocratic, laissez-faire and democratic leadership styles, they allowed someone knowledgeable and experienced into Google which would then lead to more democratic teams composed of experienced talent. 

Also known as the participative leadership style, the democratic leadership style in business management is often characterized as the style that encourages collaboration with fellow leaders and team members. In other words, everyone is allowed to participate in the decision-making process. 

While this style of leadership is very motivating for most people as compared to the autocratic leadership style, it works best for businesses that employ experts in their departments so little supervision is required. 

According to St. Thomas University , the following organizations can take advantage of this:

• Biotech R&D divisions
• Housing construction sites
• Universities
• Information technology companies

Furthermore, the university lists the following as the disadvantages of this leadership style:

• Business leaders may become too dependent on their subordinates
• Getting everyone’s input may take a lot of time 
• Missed deadlines are possible 
• Consulting with people who lack accurate data or sufficient knowledge
• Too much burden for business leaders to oversee collaboration

The democratic leadership style can bring forth massive business growth if business leaders are willing to take responsibility for the decisions made and provide support and expertise during collaborations.

Such requires highly productive leaders who know what they do and will take action.

3. Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

Case Study: Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway

Warren Buffett is known for exemplifying the laissez-faire leadership style as he allows people he works with to do their jobs without his supervision or intervention. His great success over several years has been attributed to his style of leadership which allows a culture of motivation and confidence. He, however, sees to it that he only hires people he can trust to do their jobs.

The laissez-faire leadership style emerged from the French word laissez-faire which means “leave alone”. Also called the hands-off approach, this style is based on the concept that leaders can leave their employees or teams alone in coming up with ideas or decisions for the business departments they are part of. 

This used to be a very popular style before the 19th century, but as modernization started, more and more business leaders find the disadvantages of leading teams with no supervision to be detrimental. This is particularly possible for companies that lack expert talent.

What business leaders who employ this leadership style should note is that assuming that subordinates must be free from accountability. This only encourages the company’s people to be complacent.

The business leader must ensure that teams are composed of highly-skilled individuals who can be reliable in achieving business goals under their responsibility.

At this point, we’ve already discussed the three leadership styles that can be highly traditional unless approached with a fresh perspective that takes into account the new leadership needs and skill shifts.

How these three business leadership styles work is illustrated below.

Which leadership style can you resonate with the most?

We now have what we call modern leadership styles or approaches. These styles have emerged as a response to the traditional styles that do not allow much room for innovation. 

Although most of these new approaches are modified versions of the traditional leadership styles, they are identified mainly based on the following types of categories:

• Situational leadership
• Transactional leadership
• Transformational leadership
• Innovative leadership

4. Situational Leadership Style 

This leadership style follows the contingency-based leadership model when responding to situations or making decisions. Business leaders who employ this style are flexible and would normally use varying leadership strategies depending on the situation.

Goleman believes that a situational leader must be able to incorporate the six specific leadership styles given the right circumstances.

5. Transactional Leadership Style

Also known as managerial leadership, transactional leadership is a style that focuses on supervision, organization, and group performance.

Business leaders under this style use rewards and punishments to motivate subordinates in a given task.

According to Verywell Mind , the basic assumptions of transactional leadership are the following:

• When the chain of command is clear, your workforce performs their best
• Rewards and punishments are effective agents of motivation
• Obeying the leader is the most important goal of the subordinates
• Careful monitoring is a must

When giving assignments, the business leader must be clear when it comes to the instructions, rewards and consequences, as well as giving feedback. 

6. Transformational Leadership Style

Business leaders who subscribe to the transformational leadership style serve as inspirations to their subordinates.

They inspire as they lead by example and as they cultivate an environment that welcomes creativity and innovation. This suits employees who have entrepreneurial minds as transformational business leaders seek to inspire just the right amount of intellectual independence in the workplace.

In a roundup article, Harvard Business Review lists the following as the best examples of transformational leadership:

• Jeff Bezos , Amazon
• Reed Hastings , Netflix
• Jeff Boyd and Glenn Fogel , Priceline
• Steve Jobs and Tim Cook , Apple
• Mark Bertolini , Aetna
• Kent Thiry , DaVita
• Satya Nadella , Microsoft
• Emmanuel Faber , Danone
• Heinrich Hiesinger , ThyssenKrupp

The Harvard Business Review refers to this group as the Transformation 10 for exemplifying transformational leadership.

Strengthening Your Leadership Mindset

About 60% of the executives who participated in the 2021 Deloitte Global Human Capital Trends said that what prepared them for the unknown is leadership . This is the kind of leadership that takes into account the unpredictable and incorporates strategies surrounding that through coaching, teaming, and fostering.

But did you know that based on the research of the Corporate Executive Board , about 50%-70% of the new business executives or leaders fail within the first 18 months? Unless you have the right leadership mindset and you solidify that mindset, you will become part of this figure. 

Whenever a major business problem happens, you can either succumb to the pressure and give up, or find a solution to the problem . The most successful business leaders try their hardest to never give up.

Most business leaders would rather grind than get back to their regular jobs of 9-to-5.

In 1519, a Spanish explorer and conquistador Hernán Cortés pursued the treasures of the Aztecs with 11 ships and a crew of 100 sailors and 500 soldiers. His army was vastly outnumbered and some soldiers tried to escape. Cortés gave the order to burn the ships and left no choice but to fight until their last breath.

That wasn’t the end for everyone. Part of the army survived and they got a hold of the treasure.

At first, calmness is a myth. People are emotional by nature and react to any deviations from their plans. With time, those who choose to be in the captain’s spot until the end see problems that have to be solved and suppress the emotional part that is dragging them down.

The role of a business leader isn’t easy in the first place. Constant changes and surprises are not abnormal and at some point, they become a daily routine.

Plenty of problems appear to be critical, but in the end, they should be solved. You don’t run away from them. You step up as a business leader and inspire your teams to follow through.

The most effective leadership style for business is the leadership that inspires.

If being a business leader of a successful company is among your highest priorities, work on your leadership know-how, develop your management soft skills , and make it work for your people.

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The way leaders guide and influence their teams can significantly impact productivity, engagement, staff turnover, staff wellbeing, and overall morale.

In fact, Gallup (2023) estimates that 70% of team engagement is attributable to the team leader. And a recent study by CMI found that 28% of job leavers cited a negative relationship with their manager as a key reason for quitting.

It is thus fair to say that how we lead really matters, even more so than who we lead. This guide provides a comprehensive overview of different leadership styles and suggestions for further reading and development.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Leadership Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or others adopt positive leadership practices and help organizations thrive.

This Article Contains

Goleman’s leadership styles, the 4 most effective positive leadership styles, leadership coaching: improving your skills, 3 leadership programs to enhance your leadership style, 4 recommended leadership books, 4 recommended youtube videos, positivepsychology.com resources, a take-home message.

In their influential book Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence , the psychologists Daniel Goleman, Richard E. Boyatzis, and Annie McKee (2002) turned the term “emotional intelligence” into a household concept. They also demonstrated the importance of emotionally intelligent leadership.

The authors champion leadership that is self-aware, empathic, motivating, and collaborative. These qualities are ever-more important in our increasingly economically volatile, fast-changing, and technologically complex world.

In the book, they also discuss the core features of six distinctive leadership styles. According to Goleman et al. (2002), each style has its own strengths and limitations. Ideally, effective leaders learn to adapt their style to the situation at hand.

1. The visionary leadership style

Goleman et al. (2002) define the visionary leadership style as the ability to move people toward a shared dream or vision.

Visionary leaders have a clear and compelling dream of the future, and they know how to communicate it. They inspire their team members with a sense of purpose and direction.

Their ability to articulate a compelling vision motivates and energizes their followers and fosters a sense of unity and shared commitment.

2. The coaching leadership style

The coaching leadership style is characterized by the leader’s focus on helping employees reach their full potential. Above all, coaching leaders seek to support personal development and growth.

By providing guidance and mentoring, offering constructive feedback, and promoting skill building, coaching leaders create an environment conducive to continuous learning and improvement. This style promotes employee engagement and generates long-term organizational success.

3. The affiliative leadership style

An affiliative leader prioritizes harmony and bonding among their team members. They emphasize building strong relationships, cultivating a sense of belonging, and creating a supportive work environment.

Goleman et al. (2002) argue that affiliative leaders aim to resolve conflicts and enhance team cohesion by focusing their energies on open communication, empathy, and trust.

4. The democratic leadership style

The democratic leadership style entails involving team members in decision-making processes and truly valuing their input and perspectives.

Goleman et al. (2002) suggest that democratic leaders seek to empower their teams. They foster a collaborative culture where everyone’s opinions are respected. This inclusive approach tends not only to result in high levels of job satisfaction , but also promotes creativity and innovation within an organization.

5. The pacesetting leadership style

The pacesetting leadership style is characterized by leaders who consistently set high standards and expect their team members to meet them. This style can be both inspiring and demanding.

Pacesetting leaders strive for excellence and inspire their team members through role modeling. However, although effective in the short term, this style may leave little room for creativity, development, and autonomy in the long run. It is also important to remember that a great challenge should ideally be accompanied by significant support.

6. The commanding leadership style

The commanding leadership style is assertive, direct, top-down, and expects immediate compliance. While commanding leaders may excel in crisis situations, they may create a negative work environment if they overuse that style in non-urgent settings.

This style can be effective for short-term results but may impede employee engagement and creativity over time.

Adjectives to describe more problematic leadership styles include autocratic, top-down, transactional, bureaucratic, laissez-faire, or military. We will now explore four well-known effective leadership styles in more detail.

The four positive leadership styles that are currently attracting the most interest among researchers and positive psychology practitioners are coaching leadership, transformational leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership. All of them are viewed as positive and constructive leadership styles that bring out the best in the people who are being led.

Coaching leadership

Coaching leaders focus on developing those whom they lead and seek to support their growth and learning. Coaching leadership revolves around cultivating a supportive and encouraging environment that promotes growth and excellence in team members.

Unlike traditional leadership styles that emphasize top-down decision-making and unquestioning compliance, coaching leaders adopt a facilitative approach. They focus on building strong relationships, fostering collaboration, and nurturing individual talents.

A coaching leader is in effect a powerful catalyst who reminds people of their own resources and strengths and encourages them to use and develop them.

Key principles of coaching leadership include:

1. Active listening

Effective coaching leaders actively listen to their team members, encouraging them freely to express their thoughts, feelings, and aspirations. This practice helps leaders gain a deeper understanding of their team’s needs and enables them to provide tailored guidance. Because they listen carefully to what others say, coaching leaders can also truly benefit from the collective intelligence of their teams and their team members’ insights.

2. Empowerment

Coaching leaders strive to empower individuals by fostering a culture of autonomy and accountability. They encourage their team members to take ownership of their work, to make informed decisions, and to learn from both their successes and their failures.

3. Growth mindset

Coaching leaders promote a growth mindset culture, in which mistakes are seen as learning opportunities and continuous improvement is valued. This mindset encourages individuals to step out of their comfort zones , explore and develop their skills, and embrace new challenges.

Benefits of coaching leadership include enhanced employee engagement and a focus on skill development and improved communication. By valuing people’s needs and aspirations, coaching leaders create a more engaged and motivated team.

This commitment leads to increased productivity and better overall team performance (van Woerkom et al., 2016). Through mentoring, skill-building exercises, and feedback, coaching leaders help their people develop new competencies and refine existing ones (Webb, 2019).

By listening actively and providing constructive feedback, leaders can foster trust, improve team interactions, and boost collaboration among team members (van Woerkom et al., 2016).

Transformational leadership

Transformational leaders inspire and motivate their teams by articulating a compelling vision and encouraging personal growth. They seek to create a sense of community and commitment, challenge existing norms, and drive positive change within their organization (Bass & Riggio, 2006).

At its core, transformational leadership is about empowering and inspiring individuals to transcend their limits by promoting a collective sense of purpose and growth. This leadership approach moves beyond traditional managerial practices by focusing on developing strong relationships, cultivating vision, and promoting personal and professional growth.

The four pillars of transformational leadership are:

1. Idealized influence

Transformational leaders serve as role models. They lead by example and demonstrate high ethical standards. By being charismatic visionaries, they inspire team members to trust, respect, and emulate their behavior.

2. Inspirational motivation

These leaders are adept at articulating a compelling vision and conveying it in a passionate way that instills inspiration within their teams. By sharing a clear purpose and setting high standards, they inspire employees to achieve their full potential and support the bigger-picture aims of their teams and organizations.

3. Intellectual stimulation

Transformational leaders value creativity and encourage innovative thinking in their teams. They challenge employees to question the status quo and build environments that are conducive to learning, curiosity, and growth.

4. Individualized consideration

Recognizing the diverse needs and aspirations of each team member, transformational leaders provide individual support, coaching, and mentoring . They genuinely care about their employees’ personal and professional development, fostering a sense of belonging and creating a supportive work culture.

Numerous studies have shown the positive influence of transformational leadership on both individual wellbeing and organizational outcomes (see, for example, Avolio et al., 2004; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Wang et al., 2011).

Through its emphasis on inspiration and personal growth, this leadership style has been linked to higher employee engagement, job satisfaction, and overall workplace wellbeing . Transformational leaders also tend to foster stronger commitment, loyalty, and organizational citizenship behavior among employees.

Transformational leadership can have a ripple effect throughout organizations, enhancing team performance and increasing overall productivity. By encouraging open communication, generating a shared vision, and valuing innovation, transformational leaders cultivate an environment that nurtures creativity, adaptability, and continuous improvement.

Authentic leadership

Authentic leaders seek to lead with integrity and transparency, inspiring trust and creating an environment where individuals can be their true selves. They prioritize being genuine, self-aware, and acting consistently according to one’s values (Avolio & Gardner, 2005).

Authentic leadership emphasizes genuine self-awareness, transparency, and a commitment to one’s core values. At the core of authentic leadership lies self-awareness, a deep understanding of our values, beliefs, strengths, and weaknesses.

These leaders cultivate awareness through introspection, reflection, and a sincere desire to learn and grow. A study by George et al. (2007) suggests that self-awareness helps leaders align their actions with their core values, which enhances their credibility and authenticity.

Authentic leaders are transparent about their intentions and decisions. They also risk being vulnerable in front of their teams. This transparency promotes trust and psychological safety , enabling followers to reciprocate with their own authenticity. Research by Luthans and Avolio (2003) describes authentic leaders as being down to earth, approachable, and actively engaged with their teams.

Their words and actions are aligned. In other words, they say what they think and do what they say. Even when faced with challenging situations, they uphold their values and ethics. Research by Avolio et al. (2004) suggests that leaders who demonstrate this kind of consistency and integrity are more likely to inspire and motivate their followers, cultivating a sense of trust, purpose, and commitment within their teams.

Authentic leaders possess a high degree of emotional intelligence, which enables them to truly understand and empathize with others. They leverage this empathy to connect with their team members. Positive psychology research conducted by Clapp-Smith et al. (2008) suggests that authentic leaders who display empathy can provide effective support, understanding, and compassion to their followers.

Servant leadership

Servant leaders prioritize the needs of their team members and work to help them reach their full potential, always placing the team’s success above their own. They demonstrate humility, empathy, and a strong commitment to serving others (Greenleaf, 1977).

Servant leadership , as described by Robert K. Greenleaf (1977), centers on the idea that leaders should be driven by a deep-rooted desire to serve and support their team members and the organizations they work for. This counterintuitive approach presents an antidote to traditional leadership styles. It emphasizes the wellbeing, growth, and success of those within the leader’s sphere of influence.

Some key features of servant leadership include:

1. Empowerment rather than control

While many leaders exert their authority and micromanage their teams, servant leaders recognize the importance of empowering individuals to be creative and resourceful on their own terms (Laub, 1999).

By actively listening, providing guidance, and creating a culture of trust, they enable their team members to thrive, pursue innovative ideas, and take full ownership of their responsibilities and decisions (Laub, 1999).

2. Building trust and collaboration

One of the foundational pillars of servant leadership is the cultivation of trust and fostering collaboration among team members. Servant leaders seek to create an environment in which people feel safe, respected, and valued.

By promoting open communication, embracing diverse perspectives, and actively involving everyone in decision-making processes, servant leaders seek to create a cohesive and nurturing team culture.

3. Emotional intelligence

Servant leaders possess strong emotional intelligence, which enables them to empathize with their team members’ experiences, needs, and aspirations. This heightened understanding allows them to provide the necessary support, guidance, and motivation, which, in turn, leads to increased satisfaction and personal growth among team members (Van Dierendonck, 2011).

By practicing servant leadership, leaders not only enhance the wellbeing and productivity of their teams but also seed a legacy of ethical and compassionate leadership. Servant leadership creates a positive ripple effect, inspiring others to adopt a similar people-centric approach. In that way, servant leaders can create sustainable cultures of humility, empathy, and continuous learning in organizations (Greenleaf, 1977).

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Whichever leadership style appeals to you, the good news is that leadership can be learned. It is a teachable skill, and the best way to develop as a leader is by opting for leadership coaching.

Leadership coaching (which differs from the coaching leadership style discussed above) focuses on developing leadership skills through one-on-one coaching and feedback sessions. This personalized and experiential approach helps leaders identify their strengths and areas for improvement and unlock their full potential (Grant et al., 2019).

Leadership coaching is a collaborative and personalized process aimed at improving leadership effectiveness. It can maximize potential and foster growth in individuals or groups (Hattrick & Scholz, 2020). Rather than dictating solutions, coaches empower leaders to discover their unique leadership style, overcome challenges, and achieve their professional and personal goals. They educate their coaches to help themselves and strengthen their own problem-solving capacities and resilience.

Leadership coaching has the following positive effects:

1. Enhanced self-awareness

Leadership coaching aids in fostering self-awareness , enabling leaders to understand their strengths, weaknesses, values, and areas where personal growth is required (Kumari et al., 2020). By recognizing and harnessing their unique qualities, leaders can guide and inspire their teams more effectively.

2. Improved communication and emotional intelligence

Leadership coaching emphasizes developing strong interpersonal skills, effective communication, and emotional intelligence. By honing these qualities, leaders can build better relationships, resolve conflicts with more equanimity, and create a positive work environment (Oakley et al., 2019).

3. Clarifying goals and strategies

Coaches assist leaders in clarifying their goals and defining strategies to achieve them. This process helps leaders focus on their vision and align their actions with their objectives (Salas-Vallina et al., 2021).

4. Increased resilience

Leadership coaching plays a crucial role in fostering resilience in leaders . By developing adaptive and coping strategies, leaders who are receiving coaching can better handle challenges, setbacks, and pressures (Passarelli et al., 2019). This resilience leads to improved decision-making and enhanced overall leadership performance.

To further develop your leadership skills, consider participating in the following leadership programs. Each program focuses on specific aspects of leadership, equipping individuals with the tools and knowledge to become more effective leaders.

Organizations such as the Harvard Business School, the Center for Creative Leadership, and the Henley Business School in the United Kingdom offer some of the most renowned leadership development programs.

1. Harvard Business School

The Harvard Business School is perhaps one of the most prestigious business schools. It offers four comprehensive leadership programs that offer business management and leadership curriculum and personalized coaching.

Find out more about their offerings to choose an option that appeals: Comprehensive leadership programs .

2. The Center for Creative Leadership

The Center for Creative Leadership offers numerous different and inspiring leadership development programs too, including one that focuses specifically on transformational leadership.

You can have a look at their options here: Leadership programs .

3. The Henley Business School

The Henley Business School, which is affiliated with the University of Reading, offers a comprehensive six-day in-person leadership program.

Find out more about The Leadership Programme .

To deepen your understanding of leadership and to develop new insights, you may enjoy reading one of the following books.

1. Leadership: A Very Short Introduction – Keith Grint

This book is a great comprehensive overview of leadership and leadership styles. No longer than a long essay, it is a perfect choice for those pressed for time and needing a good overview, and thereafter you can dive into styles and topics most appealing.

Keith Grint invites us to rethink our understanding of leadership in Leadership . His guide includes valuable reflections on how leadership has evolved over time and also considers the different contexts from which different leadership theories emerge.

Grint goes back all the way to the early reflections on leadership by writers including Plato, Sun Tzu, and Machiavelli.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. The Leadership Challenge: How to Make Extraordinary Things Happen in Organizations – James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner

This international bestseller, which is now in its seventh edition, offers valuable practical guidance for becoming an exemplary leader.

The two authors deliver an essential strategic playbook for effective leadership. They explore the five practices of exemplary leadership, providing real-life examples and actionable strategies.

Crucially, the authors also emphasize that leadership is a skill to be learned as well as a practice grounded in relationships. New sections include reflections on how to lead in hybrid environments and how to combat disengagement and cynicism.

3. Dare to Lead: Brave Work, Tough Conversations, Whole Hearts  – Brené Brown

In this famous book and number one New York Times bestseller, Brené Brown combines research, personal stories, and practical advice to explore the qualities that make courageous leaders.

Brown’s take on the topic is unique. Above all, she emphasizes vulnerability, as well as self-awareness, curiosity, and empathy, as the key qualities of a great leader. She invites us to see power not as something we should hoard but as something to share with others.

Brown writes:

From corporations, nonprofits, and public sector organizations to governments, activist groups, schools, and faith communities, we desperately need more leaders who are committed to courageous, wholehearted leadership and who are self-aware enough to lead from their hearts, rather than unevolved leaders who lead from hurt and fear.

(Brown, 2018, p. 4)

4. Leaders Eat Last: Why Some Teams Pull Together and Others Don’t – Simon Sinek

In Leaders Eat Last , the international bestselling author Simon Sinek investigates great leaders who sacrifice not just their place at the table, but often their own comfort and even their lives for those in their care.

They range from Marine Corps officers to the heads of big business and government. They all share that they put aside their own interests to protect their teams. For them, leadership is not a rank, but a responsibility.

If you do not have time to read a book on leadership, you may enjoy watching one of our four recommended YouTube videos instead.

In this short video, Brian Tracy explains five different leadership styles that people can use to lead their teams to success: structural, participative, servant, freedom, and transformational leadership.

Kurt Lewin describes different leadership styles in this slightly longer video. Lewin focuses on autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership. He discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each style as well as the situations in which each style is most useful.

In this much-watched TED talk, Peter Anderton argues that great leadership requires only two simple rules. Curious to find out what they are? Watch the video.

In this last video, Jenn, a career coach, shares insights into eight key leadership styles. Importantly, she also discusses how we can find out which style might be best suited for us. Many of us will have been wondering about this question. Jenn shares practical advice on how we can choose and develop our own natural leadership style.

PositivePsychology.com offers a range of resources to enhance your understanding of various leadership styles. On our website, you will find numerous in-depth articles on specific leadership theories and styles, many of which were only briefly discussed in this article.

In addition, there are a multitude of articles to assist in improving leadership as well as creating a positive working environment.

• How to Use the Johari Window to Improve Leadership
• Assertiveness in Leadership: 19 Techniques for Managers
• Strength-Based Leadership: 34 Traits of Successful Leaders
• 15 Ways to Give Negative Feedback, Positively (+ Examples)
• Job Satisfaction Theory: 6 Factors for Happier Employees
• Why Team Building Is Important + 12 Exercises

Free tools and numerous inspiring activities to identify and enhance your leadership style can be found in our article offering leadership activities , games, and exercises.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others develop positive leadership skills, check out this collection of 17 validated positive leadership exercises . Use them to equip leaders with the skills needed to cultivate a culture of positivity and resilience.

17 Exercises To Build Positive Leaders

Use these 17 Positive Leadership Exercises [PDF] to help others inspire, motivate, and guide employees in ways that enrich workplace performance and satisfaction. Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Perhaps the most important point about leadership is that leadership can be improved. Remember that great leadership is, after all, a combination of skills and qualities that we can work on, practice, and enhance.

As leadership expert Warren Bennis puts it:

“The most dangerous leadership myth is that leaders are born — that there is a genetic factor to leadership. This myth asserts that people simply either have certain charismatic qualities or not. That’s nonsense; in fact, the opposite is true. Leaders are made rather than born.”

(Bennis, as cited in Hunter 2004, p. 42)

Everyone can be a great leader — introverts as well as extroverts, feelers as well as thinkers, visionaries as well as people who care for detail and process.

What matters most is that we cultivate self-awareness, that we remain humble, that we truly care for those whom we lead, that we keep learning, and that we foster a growth mindset both in ourselves and others.

We hope you enjoy using these resources to advance your leadership journey and that they will help you unfold your true potential as a leader.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Leadership Exercises for free .

• Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly , 16 (3), 315–338.
• Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly , 15 (6), 801–823.
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• George, B., Sims, P., McLean, A. N., & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic leadership. Harvard Business Review , 85 (2), 129–138.
• Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Unleashing the power of emotional intelligence . Harvard Business Review Press.
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• Hunter, J. C. (2004). The world’s most powerful leadership principle: How to become a servant leader. Crown Business.
• Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology , 89 (5), 755–768.
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• Oakley, C. A., Baker, V. L., Baca, L., & Rowland, K. R. (2019). A strategic approach to coaching leaders: Expanding aftercare models to include emotional intelligence and psychological capital. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .
• Passarelli, A., Caroli, M. E., Caetano, A., & Correia, A. M. (2019). Effects of a cognitive-behavioral leadership coaching program on the stress levels of leaders. Frontiers in Psychology , 10 .
• Salas-Vallina, A., Salanova, M. Martínez, I. M., Bresó, E., Schaufeli, W. B., & García-Renedo, M. (2021). Truly understanding work engagement: Efficacy, discipline, and extraversion as burnout antidotes. Frontiers in Psychology , 12 .
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Recognizing Leadership Styles

By: Konstantin Korotov

The case is designed to help undergraduate and graduate students, as well as participants in executive education programs recognize the differences between six leadership styles identified by the…

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The case is designed to help undergraduate and graduate students, as well as participants in executive education programs recognize the differences between six leadership styles identified by the work of Litwin & Stringer (1971) and further popularized by Goleman (2000), Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee (2013), and Korn & Ferry (2017). The case presents employee descriptions of their superior's behaviors that are indicative of one of the six leadership styles: directive, visionary, affiliative, participative, pacesetting, and coaching. The vignettes, each describing a typical application of a particular style, can be used in class for the purpose of developing students' leadership style diagnostic skills, as a group discussion material, or as test material for post-class examination.

Learning Objectives

To understand the leadership styles model; To identify differences between manifestations of various leadership styles; To recognize the predominant style used by managers.

Oct 2, 2018

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3 Common Leadership Styles—and When to Use Them

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different leadership styles. Here are three common ones and when to deploy them. Coercive leadership, which entails demanding immediate compliance. This is the least-effective style in most situations. But in certain crises where decisive action and a clear chain of command are needed, this […]

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different leadership styles. Here are three common ones and when to deploy them.

Source: This tip is adapted from “6 Common Leadership Styles—and How to Decide Which to Use When,” by Rebecca Knight

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How to Lead: 6 Leadership Styles and Frameworks

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Aaron Johnson is a fact checker and expert on qualitative research design and methodology. 

Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic)

Participative leadership (democratic).

• Delegative Leadership (Laissez-Faire)

Transformational Leadership

Transactional leadership, situational leadership.

Leadership styles are classifications of how a person behaves while directing, motivating, guiding, and managing groups of people. There are many leadership styles. Some of the most widely discussed include: authoritarian (autocratic), participative (democratic), delegative (laissez-faire), transformational, transactional, and situational.

Great leaders can inspire political movements and social change. They can also motivate others to perform, create, and innovate. As you start to consider some of the people who you think of as great leaders , you can immediately see that there are often vast differences in how each person leads.

Fortunately, researchers have developed different theories and frameworks that allow us to better identify and understand these different leadership styles.

Lewin's Leadership Styles

In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles of leadership.   While further research has identified more distinct types of leadership, this early study was very influential and established three major leadership styles that have provided a springboard for more defined leadership theories.

In Lewin's study, schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project while researchers observed the behavior of children in response to the different styles of leadership. The researchers found that democratic leadership tended to be the most effective at inspiring followers to perform well.

What Kind of Leader Are You? Take the Quiz

If you're curious about your leadership style, this fast and free leadership quiz can help you determine what kind of leader you are:

Authoritarian leaders, also known as autocratic leaders, provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be done. This style of leadership is strongly focused on both command by the leader and control of the followers. There is also a clear division between the leader and the members. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently, with little or no input from the rest of the group.

Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership.   Lewin also concluded that it is harder to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic style than vice versa. Abuse of this method is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and dictatorial.

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Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group. The autocratic approach can be a good one when the situation calls for rapid decisions and decisive actions. However, it tends to create dysfunctional and even hostile environments, often pitting followers against the domineering leader.

Lewin’s study found that participative leadership, also known as democratic leadership, is typically the most effective leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewin’s study, children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but their contributions were of a higher quality.

Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say in the decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more motivated and creative. Democratic leaders tend to make followers feel like they are an important part of the team, which helps foster commitment to the goals of the group.

Delegative Leadership (Laissez-Faire)

Lewin found that children under delegative leadership, also known as laissez-faire leadership, were the least productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made more demands on the leader, showed little cooperation, and were unable to work independently.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave the decision-making up to group members. While this style can be useful in situations involving highly qualified experts, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of motivation.

Lewin noted that laissez-faire leadership tended to result in groups that lacked direction and members who blamed each other for mistakes, refused to accept personal responsibility, made less progress, and produced less work.

Observations About Lewin's Leadership Styles

In their book,  The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications , Bass and Bass note that authoritarian leadership is often presented solely in negative, often disapproving, terms. Authoritarian leaders are often described as controlling and close-minded, yet this overlooks the potential positives of stressing rules, expecting obedience, and taking responsibility.

While authoritarian leadership certainly is not the best choice for every situation, it can be effective and beneficial in cases where followers need a great deal of direction and where rules and standards must be followed to the letter. Another often overlooked benefit of the authoritarian style is the ability to maintain a sense of order.

Bass and Bass note that democratic leadership tends to be centered on the followers and is an effective approach when trying to maintain relationships with others. People who work under such leaders tend to get along well, support one another, and consult other members of the group when making decisions.

Additional Leadership Styles and Models

In addition to the three styles identified by Lewin and his colleagues, researchers have described numerous other characteristic patterns of leadership. A few of the best-known include:

Transformational leadership is often identified as the single most effective style. This style was first described during the late 1970s and later expanded upon by researcher Bernard M. Bass. Transformational leaders are able to motivate and inspire followers and to direct positive changes in groups.

These leaders tend to be emotionally intelligent , energetic, and passionate. They are not only committed to helping the organization achieve its goals, but also to helping group members fulfill their potential.

Research shows that this style of leadership results in higher performance and more improved group satisfaction than other leadership styles. One study also found that transformational leadership led to improved well-being among group members.

The transactional leadership style views the leader-follower relationship as a transaction. By accepting a position as a member of the group, the individual has agreed to obey the leader. In most situations, this involves the employer-employee relationship, and the transaction focuses on the follower completing required tasks in exchange for monetary compensation.

One of the main advantages of this leadership style is that it creates clearly defined roles. People know what they are required to do and what they will be receiving in exchange. This style allows leaders to offer a great deal of supervision and direction, if needed.

Group members may also be motivated to perform well to receive rewards. One of the biggest downsides is that the transactional style tends to stifle creativity and out-of-the-box thinking.

Situational theories of leadership stress the significant influence of the environment and the situation on leadership. Hersey and Blanchard's leadership styles is one of the best-known situational theories. First published in 1969, this model describes four primary styles of leadership, including:

• Telling : Telling people what to do
• Selling : Convincing followers to buy into their ideas and messages
• Participating : Allowing group members to take a more active role in the decision-making process
• Delegating : Taking a hands-off approach to leadership and allowing group members to make the majority of decisions

Later, Blanchard expanded upon the original Hersey and Blanchard model to emphasize how the developmental and skill level of learners influences the style that should be used by leaders. Blanchard's SLII leadership styles model also described four different leading styles:

• Directing : Giving orders and expecting obedience, but offering little guidance and assistance
• Coaching : Giving lots of orders, but also lots of support
• Supporting : Offering plenty of help, but very little direction
• Delegating : Offering little direction or support

Lewin K, Lippitt R, White K. Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates” . J Soc Psychol. 1939;10(2):271-301.

Bass BM.   The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications . 4th Ed. Simon & Schuster; 2009.

Choi SL, Goh CF, Adam MB, Tan OK. Transformational leadership, empowerment, and job satisfaction: The mediating role of employee empowerment . Hum Resour Health. 2016;14(1):73. doi:10.1186/s12960-016-0171-2

Nielsen K, Daniels K. Does shared and differentiated transformational leadership predict followers’ working conditions and well-being? The Leadership Quarterly . 2012;23(3):383-397. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.09.001

Hussain S, Abbas J, Lei S, Haider MJ, Akram T. Transactional leadership and organizational creativity: Examining the mediating role of knowledge sharing behavior . Cogent Bus Manag. 2017;4(1). doi:10.1080/23311975.2017.1361663

Kark R, Van Dijk D, Vashdi DR. Motivated or demotivated to be creative: The role of self-regulatory focus in transformational and transactional leadership processes . Applied Psychology . 2017;67(1):186-224. doi:10.1111/apps.12122

Hersey P, Blanchard KH. Life cycle theory of leadership . Training and Development Journal . 1969;23(5).

Blanchard KH, Zigarmi P, Drea Zigarmi.   Leadership and the One Minute Manager: Increasing Effectiveness Through Situational Leadership . William Morrow, An Imprint Of HarperCollins; 2013.

Hersey P, Blanchard KH. Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources . Prentice Hall, 1969.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.

We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.

Brief introduction to this section that descibes Open Access especially from an IntechOpen perspective

Want to get in touch? Contact our London head office or media team here

Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.

Home > Books > Contemporary Leadership Challenges

Critical Revision of Leadership Styles in Management and Company Cases

Submitted: 22 April 2016 Reviewed: 23 September 2016 Published: 01 February 2017

DOI: 10.5772/65952

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In this chapter, we expose from a critical point of view the main leadership styles and then three successful international case companies (Inditex, Santander, and Telefónica) that recognized their style and the strategies they developed. These cases will be the start point to discuss what kind of leadership seems to be more suitable for staff development and for a better management of human resources. Our hypothesis is that with these styles of leadership, effectiveness of human resources is enhanced, and productivity of enterprises is assured to remain competitive, adapted, and successful. Also, we assume that there are some cultures in which these styles of leadership are better prepared, as the culture predisposes employees to accept and assimilate them. We are aware that worldwide business culture has a long way to progress toward more evolved leadership styles. This business culture is partly linked, or it is concomitant to the value or condition that is given to citizens in societies.

• leadership styles
• case studies
• humanization

Author Information

Beatriz peña-acuña *.

• University of Saint Anthony, Spain

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

This approach has its origin in an international family background, after conducting several investigations during several years about leadership in companies, culture, and visiting some countries. This text, as some previous ones, comes from the passion for personal and business communication, and, if possible, the interest in contributing to the business world humanization—versus a materialistic view of this activity—after many years of study, teaching, and research. As Moreno-Jimenez states in his article “Psychosocial occupational factors and hazards,” greater attention to the company human resources in the current global context from the legal and state point of view is urgently needed.

Globalization and its products have given birth to a huge area of economic and labor deregulation which has lead to inequality among people and societies, resulting in an increasing social, public, and health decline. Deregulation has never been behind the progress in health, and inequality has never favored the welfare progress, according to the labor one, even less. In this process, recovery requires political action involving an appreciation of public, social, and organizational matters [ 1 ].

The research is a qualitative paradigm [ 2 – 4 ] focused on descriptive aspects through methods as an analysis of content and study cases of companies. We will revise recent literature about leadership. We will also research about the leadership styles of the company cases on some sources such as web pages of companies, blogs, forums, news on events, etc.

This “analysis methodology of texts” (scientific texts, curricula, laws, etc.) developed throughout the study was located in the descriptive area, trying to discover the basic components of a phenomenon extracting a given content.

We will also use the methodology of study case: to be concrete, a multiple study of three company cases as instrumental cases and as a sample of research. Merriam [ 5 ] defines the case study as particularistic, descriptive, heuristic, and inductive from her point of view. We can also understand it as procedural, systematic, and thorough investigation of a particular case. A case can be a person, a company, an organization, a program, an event, etc. We intend to study and deepen on these three cases, and the conclusions will be minor, not in general, that is, concretely for these three cases.

2. Leadership in business

A leader—from English—is the guide on the way, who goes ahead and who knows how to influence and motivate in order to achieve beneficial goals. It involves being capable of motivating people by means of authority, something very different from ordering them just by the mere exercise of power ( legal authority ) and different from manipulating. Rather, it involves making people move having their dignity and free consent. Leaders, rather than creating illusions, work on catalyzing the others’ unrealized dreams, and to do so, first of all, they have to respect the relatives, and then they have to know them—what they have done and who they are—and know their potential and what they could do and become. The leader must be an expert in human resources, in knowing people, and in their complexity. A leader should be good at socializing and that he must be human because that way, he will know the psychological and social reality around him, he knows how to adapt to others, he designs positive workspaces, and he knows how to create emotional and social ties to achieve a good teamwork.

The previous researches which we have been carried out [ 6 , 7 ] suggest that we should consider that the more the corporate social fabric of a company is humanized, the more productive and satisfied employees, middle managers, and directors will be. This depends on each of the actors and the climate that is created through the authentic experience of ethical values proposed by each company and the materialization through the tools and strategies available to it.

We think that being purely subordinate to materialist and speculative goals as a paradigm to address HR is a severe mistake in a company leadership style and a delay as a traditional approach. The working fluidity and creativity will be greater as managers get more instructed, they understand more what the human material is, and they know how to display leadership styles where the own working method and the employees’ conditions are adequate.

Valuing the environment: it is a multifunctional activity in which senior management should be involved through a continuous learning process.

Leading change through a series of successive steps, with the participation of directors, and creating the suitable climate for adaptation.

Connecting the strategic and operational change: it requires some attention from managers at various levels, to prevent operational aspects from modifying the initial strategy.

Developing a coherent approach: thanks to a strategy that possesses internal consistency and harmony with the environment, aimed at obtaining competitive and feasible advantages.

Dealing with human resources as assets and as “responsibilities” as the organization provides the knowledge base for learning, but sometimes, it is also necessary to unlearn concepts and skills that are no longer appropriate.

Carnota [ 9 ] explains that leadership is the act of organizing and directing the interests and activities of a group of people united for some project or company, by a person who encourages their cooperation by the fact of making all of them come to an agreement, more or less voluntarily, in relation to certain purposes and methods. Williams et al. [ 10 ] state: “It is Interpersonal influence exercised in a particular situation, through the process of communication, in order to achieve one or more objectives.” According to Camacho and others [ 11 ], among the desirable features, we could find the following ones: creativity, initiative, tenacity, tolerance for uncertainty, self-esteem, flexibility, strategic vision, ability to self-criticism, ability to communicate and interact with others and with different cultures, commitment, and above all, honesty and respect for ethical values.

A leadership style that takes care of the upward vertical communication is the one which tries to promote social dialogue in the company. It is the channel through which workers come into contact with some other middle managers, etc. until they establish contact with managers to make them suggestions, possible improvements in processes, etc. The care that is taken for this kind of communication is a key point in relation to how to take care of employees, how the human social fabric is protected, and how a participatory work environment is created. According to its essential principles, this approach responds to a more modern and evolved leadership style (opposed to an autarkic or tyrannical style). Employees are involved, in a way that they feel protagonists and the experience of workers is something beneficial so that they are integrated—knowledge management. The main means that are employed are meetings with superiors, open-day offices to consult doubts, notes that must be answered, employee mailboxes, e-mail, etc.

Among the main pillars of knowledge management, according to Del Moral et al. [ 12 ], self-motivation of the different individuals within the organization is primarily placed; they are aware of their appreciated role as generators and users of knowledge, providing their individual talent, which mainly depends on the climate and the existing leadership in the company at all levels.

This is a very interesting section of the study that is worth mentioning for us, “European Communication Monitor,” in 2014 [ 13 ] as a framework research in relation to the outlook. In this study, a factor that also interests us for this dissertation is to “communicate and demonstrate leadership” (p. 72). This is a new subject within the trends about communication strategies. It explains that communication professionals value in a very high degree effective communication as an organizational and personal leadership component [ 14 , 15 ]. While this issue is still under discussion, we will say that it has not been identified yet which communication activities are more suitable ones to influence public opinion or among the stakeholders of the companies.

3. Types of business leadership

In the following theories that will be presented, there is a chronological gradation, from the highest to the lowest, taking into account the progress about two variables: the power over decision-making and the participation of the employee. We have not made an exhaustive list but a selection of them. In order to get some more information, we will recommend the second chapter of the volume of Business Leadership [ 16 ].

(a)McGregor theories: task(X)- and people(Y)-oriented behaviors. Both styles should not be seen as opposite poles of a dimension, but they should be seen as two individual dimensions, according to Paños and others [ 18 ].

On the one hand, among the functions of a task-oriented leader, we can find that he assigns tasks to the group, he explains the working procedures that must be followed, he highlights that deadlines must be met, he also emphasizes competition, and he makes it clear what is expected of each of them.

Something characteristic from this kind of leader is that he knows everything, he is afraid of external initiatives, he decides everything, he does everything by himself, he sees his role as if he were a guard, he takes advantage of his authority to dominate the others, he remains above all the rest, and he is an inspector.

On the other hand, the functions of a people-oriented leader consist on that he listens to people, he is friendly and accessible, he helps subordinates in their personal problems, and he defends each member of the group.

(b)Rensis Likert model [ 19 ]

Authoritarian slave driver: they are autocratic leaders with little confidence in subordinates, they motivate through fear and punishment, they only participate in downward communication, and they are limited to decision-making at higher levels.

Benevolent authoritarian: he has an amenable confidence with his subordinates; he motivates them with some kind of rewards, and to some extent, with fear and punishments; and he allows them some delegation in decision-making but with a strict control.

Consultation leadership system: they show confidence in a high degree, but not completely; they motivate workers by rewards and punishments; they allow two-way communication; they make general decisions allowing specific decisions at the lower levels; and they make constructive use of the ideas and opinions of the subordinate ones.

Participatory and group leadership system: they completely trusts their workers, great upward and downward communication; they promote decision-making throughout the organization; they act as a group; and they provide economic and social rewards based on group participation in areas such as the establishment of goals and evaluation.

(c)Blake and Mouton [ 20 ]

-The deserter style: it provides minimal effort for the working fulfillment; it is only necessary to preserve integration in the organization.

-Authoritarian style: it is focused on the efficiency of the task, but it is not concerned about its subordinates’ development and morality.

-The commitment style: the goals of this style are efficiency in the appropriate task and a satisfactory morality.

-The participatory style: it makes task efficiency and high morality easier; it coordinates and integrates the work-related activities.

-The missionary style: it pays special attention to the needs of people in relation to those fundamental issues to get a satisfying relationship, a kind and friendly organization, and a comfortable working pace.

(d)Participatory management

Here begins the paradigm shift for the valuing of people, taking into account the conditions of the employees. The beginnings of participation in the management arose from the investigations of Mayo [ 21 ], Roethlisberger and Dickinson [ 22 ]. In their researches they concluded that not only environmental factors influenced productivity but also social needs. The methodological aspect began with the simplest tools (queries, suggestion programs, researches), but they could not talk about participation if managers did not have the maturity nor the intention to accept the suggestions of the workers. The most difficult part was the creation of work teams or committees, for example, the Scanlon plan and quality circles that began in Japan in 1962 which spread across the USA and EU.

These are models dealing with participation: Blake and Mouton [ 20 ], Fiedler [ 23 ], House [ 24 ], Vroom and Yetton [ 25 ], Ouchi [ 26 ], and Hersey and Blanchard [ 27 ].

Among the following theories, we can find Fiedler’s contingency ones (1967). This theory states that leadership success depends on the one hand on the leader’s style and on the demands of the group or company. Therefore, there is not a unique style, but success is based on applying the appropriate style for the group at the right time. Thus, it is necessary to know the group, and on this basis, applying the appropriate style.

(e)Strategic management

Here begins the most advanced paradigms regarding the management delegation, teamwork in improvement processes, and employee involvement in decision-making. Management models are changed and an important weight is given to the participation of workers in decision-making and to leadership, also to the formation of solid values, where it is given precedence to a future view considering that productivity depends on the pride of belonging to the company and the enthusiasm for work.

Changes in the various fields of social matters, globalization, new technologies, and the need to achieve a sustained competitiveness have affected the determination of the essential factors in the search for competitive advantages that allow higher levels of performance. Nowadays, it is said that the main asset is the person we are in the knowledge society [ 28 ], and HR strategic planning techniques are introduced to provide for staff organizations capable of facing the challenges of today’s society.

-Transformational or charismatic leadership is that of those people who exert a special influence through their energy and personal vision that inspires their followers and which have an impact on their organizations.

-Transactional theory (charismatic): it is based on the ability to assume the leadership to achieve goals taking advantage of the characteristics and qualities of each member of the group; leadership needs to be accompanied by the ability to find it in the group.

-Transcendent leadership: according to Nuria Chinchilla and Pablo Cardona (IESE, University of Navarra) [ 29 ], this leadership is dynamic because it allows leaders to commit to the followers, and they will be more active, creating with them new groups of leaders and producing different links between the collaborator and the leader, where this relationship takes an ethical character that reflects the behaviors and values of a leader.

(f)Other current theories

-Emotional labor by the sociologist Hochschild [ 30 ]: it states that emotional labor is a working requirement through which employees show their emotions to customers or others. The emotional labor comes into play during the communication between actors, workers, and customers, as well as between the workers. This includes the analysis and decision-making regarding the expression of emotions, either it is really felt or not, as well as the suppression of these emotions they feel, but they are not expressed. Professional roles that have been identified and which require emotional labor include those involved in jobs with customer contact: public administration, flight attendants, daycare workers, nursing home workers, nurses, doctors, shop assistants, call center workers, teachers, social workers, as well as most of the restoration jobs (hotels, motels, taverns, bars, pubs, restaurants, etc.), and also, those jobs related to the media, such as television and the radio.

According to Hochschild [ 30 ] jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those which at first require face-to-face or voice contact to talk to the public; secondly, they need the worker to produce an emotional state in another person’ and thirdly, they allow the employer, by means of training and supervision, exercise some degree of control over the emotional activities of the employees.

-Resonant leadership: formulated by Goleman et al. [ 31 ]. The authors explain how the limbic system—also called emotional brain—influences our lives to a higher extent than the cortex of the brain, the rational part of the brain, and why the mood of the leaders have such a deep effect on the people they lead.

-Figueroa [ 33 ] makes a socio-constructive theory, due to the development of the teamwork culture. The dynamics of getting organized and the organizational fragmentation in multiple working teams that interact mutually to negotiate organizational goals and to develop their own goals are something characteristic from organizations in the current context. These are the reasons that lead us to review the concept of leadership and to put the emphasis on the study of the working teams, understanding them as a community of people who share common meanings and goal(s) whose actions are interdependent and sociohistorically located. Leadership, under this socio-constructivist perspective of the organization, seems to be something transitory, more oriented toward coordination than toward management, since the mission and vision are not something imposed by the leader to the team, but it is the result of a process of collective construction, where everyone becomes responsible for the meanings that have been developed, and which have been placed as central to the development of the team and the organization, as Figueroa states [ 33 ].

4. Business cases and types of leadership

In a previous study in 2014 about Spanish companies, we discovered that democratic leadership is the most used one among senior managers in the Spanish companies that had been studied, with 36.5% out of the cases. However, dictator leadership is still used, more typical of earlier periods, 17.3% out of the managers evaluated.

We found that leadership styles among senior managers were the following, taking into account the percentage variable: dictator leadership, 17.3%; autocratic leadership, 19.2%; democratic leadership, 36.5%; patronizing leadership, and 19.2%; liberal leadership, 7.8% [ 6 ].

Among the sample of Spanish companies with business success and international projection, we find three cases: Santander Bank, Inditex, and Telefónica.

The leadership style of Santander Bank, acknowledged on its website, is the Situational Leadership of Hersey and Blanchard [ 27 ]. This style is based on the attitudes which are observed in the workers of the company. It is performed as follows:

First of all, the management indicates the rules or tasks to the group; this is a one-way issue.

Secondly, all of them listen and get involved in decision-making; this part is bidirectional.

Then, the group’s willingness to face the goals that had been established significantly affects their ability and willingness toward them.

Up-to-date Santander: it is a virtual platform for all employees (180,000 worldwide) with which they can be informed about the company daily news, publicity about new products, latest developments regarding the change in strategy, report results, and any other corporate information. A one-way communication is established.

Santander ideas: it is a social network in which employees are able to exchange ideas; they interact with each other, and this contributes to the continuous improvement of service quality. As an anecdote, with the first topic that was created on this platform, 8,000 contributions of its employees were achieved. A bidirectional communication is established.

With this strategy, Santander Bank actively involves its employees; however, the problem that may arise through this kind of leadership is that management establish unrealistic and very complicated goals to achieve that can frustrate their employees.

We believe that the Inditex group conducts a participatory and group leadership, according to the Rensis Likert model. The large ascendant communication that the Inditex group has allows to generate confidence in all the departments that compose it. This is something beneficial for decision-making of each of the workers in particular and that of departments in general. This way, employees are more motivated, and thus, they manage to increase their productivity. Thanks to this, they can also evaluate their activities and receive an opinion from the head of each department sooner.

The group has a very good ascendant internal communication, and when a necessity arises, such as lack of materials or any doubt related to any aspect in any department, it is communicated to the person on whom it depends, and this person, in turn, communicates it to senior management. This type of leadership is directed to employees; it is based on the efficacy of the functioning groups closely linked to the structure of the organization. That is, the great communication the Inditex group has generates confidence in all its departments, and it makes it easier for decision-making between them. Thanks to this, they can evaluate their activities and receive an opinion from the head of each department soon. He is a leader who supports his subordinates, and he does not assume a dictatorial position. However, the final authority when important matters arise is still in his hands.

In the website of this Telefónica, it is stated that the transformational leadership model is used. Transformational leadership is a common leader, and workers process to advance to a higher moral and motivation level. It is a transformation that produces significant changes in the company and among the people who are part of it. It could be said that it is a more motivating and closer to the worker push and with a more important exercise in the transmission of the company goals than other leadership styles. Hence, its name is that of the charismatic leadership too.

-Social skills development.

-The leader is an example to follow.

-Increase of the workers self-esteem, which means higher productivity and greater profits.

-Lesser costs because it is not necessary to rotate or replace workers.

-More likely to come up with new and better initiatives.

-Corporative learning.

-It is assumed that workers are motivated.

-Results are visible in the long term.

-Not every leader can transform people.

-It has no application details.

-There is a great abuse potential as it is not always used in a moral way.

5. Conclusions

There are two drawbacks if we analyze the situational leadership: first, if the business culture of this country or that sector motivates inefficiently, employees only through salary and/or of working prestige in that sector and/or employees are saturated with a stressful job: the attitude that employees be found in little strong as the root of their motivation is inadequate. Second, perhaps employees could be more motivated, but if they come from other companies with autocratic leadership styles, they will not be motivated to start. The advantage is that the goals are provided by the employees themselves and may have greater involvement and responsibility in the process of work and that effort is proportional to the expected. On the other hand, if the values of corporate culture, brand image, and objectives are supported by effective internal communication tools, the process of change of attitude and motivation on employees is almost assured.

The case of participatory and group leadership system is the classification of Rensis Likert, the most evolved regarding employee participation; however, we believe it is insufficient. The disadvantage we found is that decision-making is reduced to the evaluation and goal setting and decision-making is still very structured and in no position to consensus. Worker involvement is not full but partial. Yet, some companies still pay them to have better communication and collaborative environment if they manage with this style of leadership.

Transformational leadership makes the staff of the company improve, and it acts in a different way, innovating in how employees think and feel. This type of leadership requires a mental focus to get a new perception; this is necessary to have a radical change in the behavior, to be motivated when making permanent changes. Transformational leadership is the best way to make a change in the company, without affecting employee motivation and establishing interpersonal relationships. However, to operate the business culture, they must be prepared and have appropriate tools and evaluation systems to ensure it is running on the leaders, in middle management, and employees. We think this will be possible if they have a tool to communicate freely what they think, need, and want. By this all will have greater motivation and involvement in the business project and their tasks.

Strategic managements (transactional, transformational, and transcendent) are the most developed and most capable to face the new knowledge society in which the company must react more quickly to challenges and to the greater competitiveness of the global market and adaptation to new technologies. The example of economic performance is shown by these three case studies.

In addition, we highlight resonant leadership, which takes into account how emotional attitude of the leader affects the working atmosphere of the workers. Social constructive leadership brings a vision of teamwork, a mutual benefit mission that also encourages workers.

In all these leadership styles, we found freedom, autonomy, creativity, teamwork, personal growth of employees, and greater humanity in the culture. Human virtues and ethical values create stronger cultural ties with the company. Thus, these styles of leadership effectiveness of human resources are enhanced, and productivity of enterprises is assured to remain competitive. The culture of each country prepares leaders and employees to accept and assimilate them.

We consider that social improvement in this business context, at first, takes place from a cultural point of view, taking into account recent studies and leadership theories, if it is investigated and it seems that the humanization of labor and human conditions of business human tissue from more participatory leadership styles have more economic benefits. What will lately be expected is when the state will act and legislate in favor.

It is a pity that our civilization gives preference to material and economic matters, and, however, privilege does not reside in people yet, who are the source of wealth and for whom everything should be ready in order to get an optimal development. In this regard, it would be advisable to keep on disseminating a humanistic corporate culture that believes that the main value of a company is the human tissue that composes it; this is an approach on which we have insisted in previous publications [ 34 , 35 ] in which we have deeply demanded a change to more advanced paradigms, where people are more likely to develop the potential they have.

Acknowledgments

I thank my father for his vision, to impulse me to be as I am now: a woman, a professor, a leader, an intellectual, and a fighter for the human rights.

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The Five Different Leadership Styles

In today's ever-evolving business world, leadership plays a pivotal role in shaping an organization's culture, productivity, and overall success. Effective leadership isn't a one-size-fits-all concept; it encompasses a variety of styles, each with its unique attributes, advantages, and disadvantages. Understanding the different leadership styles and their effects in the workplace is crucial for aspiring leaders and existing ones alike.

What is Leadership Style?

Leadership style is the manner in which an individual or a group of leaders interacts with their team, makes decisions, and influences others in an organization. It reflects the leader's approach to guiding, motivating, and overseeing their team members. The diverse array of leadership styles acknowledges that there is no single "best" approach to leadership, and leaders often adopt different styles depending on the context and their team's needs.

Types of Leadership Styles

Leadership styles can be categorized into several broad types, each with its distinct characteristics and methods. These styles have a profound impact on organizational culture and the achievement of goals. Here are five prominent leadership styles and their strengths and weaknesses.

1. Servant Leadership

Definition: Servant leadership is a style characterized by leaders who prioritize the needs and well-being of their team members. They actively seek to serve and support their employees, putting their interests ahead of their own.

Examples: Prominent servant leaders include Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Mother Teresa.

Focus: Servant leaders focus on fostering a culture of empathy, empowerment, and inclusiveness. They believe that by addressing the needs of their employees, they can create a highly motivated and productive workforce.

• Enhances employee morale and loyalty.
• Encourages a collaborative and harmonious work environment.
• Promotes personal and professional growth among employees.
• May be perceived as weak or indecisive in certain situations.
• Requires a leader with a high degree of emotional intelligence.
• Balancing employees' needs with organizational goals can be challenging.

Learn More About Compassionate Leadership

2. Charismatic Leadership

Definition: Charismatic leadership involves leaders who possess an inspiring and magnetic personality. They have a compelling ability to influence and motivate others, often drawing followers into their vision.

Examples: Iconic charismatic leaders include Steve Jobs, Elon Musk, and Winston Churchill.

Focus: Charismatic leaders are unwavering in their pursuit of a vision. They lead through inspiration and persuasion, using their charm and confidence to rally their team behind them.

• Drives innovation and a sense of purpose.
• Energizes and excites team members.
• Can effectively steer organizations through challenging times.
• Reliance on a single charismatic leader can be risky.
• May overshadow the contributions of team members.
• Can lead to a cult of personality, reducing accountability.

3. Bureaucratic Leadership

Definition: Bureaucratic leadership is characterized by leaders who adhere to strict rules and procedures. They establish detailed processes and expect team members to follow these guidelines meticulously.

Examples: The military and government organizations often exhibit bureaucratic leadership.

Focus: Bureaucratic leaders prioritize consistency, efficiency, and adherence to established protocols. They believe that a structured environment is key to success.

• Ensures clear guidelines and procedures.
• Reduces ambiguity and potential for errors.
• Provides a sense of stability and predictability.
• May stifle creativity and innovation.
• Can lead to inflexibility in adapting to changing circumstances.
• Employees may feel micromanaged, leading to disengagement.

4. Democratic Leadership

Definition: Democratic leadership is centered on collaboration and team decision-making. Leaders seek input from their team members and engage them in shaping the organization's direction.

Examples: Companies with open and inclusive cultures like Google and Facebook often adopt democratic leadership.

Focus: Democratic leaders aim to foster a culture of participation, valuing diverse perspectives, and harnessing collective intelligence for decision-making.

• Encourages creativity and innovation.
• Boosts employee engagement and commitment.
• Promotes a sense of ownership and accountability among team members.
• Decision-making can be time-consuming.
• May be less effective in urgent situations.
• Requires effective communication and conflict resolution skills.

5. Coaching Leadership

Definition: Coaching leadership involves leaders who prioritize the development and growth of their employees. They invest time, energy, and personalized guidance to help their team members reach their full potential.

Examples: Leadership development programs and coaching-oriented managers exemplify this style.

Focus: Coaching leaders are committed to nurturing talent, offering guidance, and providing constructive feedback to aid their team's development.

• Fosters a high-performance culture.
• Enhances employees' skills, knowledge, and job satisfaction.
• Builds long-term relationships and loyalty.
• Requires a substantial time investment.
• Leaders need expertise in coaching and mentoring.
• Not all employees may respond positively to this approach.

Why is it important to know your own leadership style?

Understanding your leadership style is a crucial step in your journey as a leader. It allows you to leverage your strengths and mitigate your weaknesses, ultimately leading to improved performance and organizational success. Here's why it's essential:

• Self-Awareness: Identifying your leadership style helps you recognize your natural inclinations and tendencies, enabling you to make informed decisions about how you lead and interact with your team.
• Optimized Decision-Making: By knowing your leadership style, you can make better choices about which style to employ in various situations, ensuring that your approach aligns with your team's needs and the organizational context.
• Leveraging Strengths: Awareness of your leadership style enables you to capitalize on your strengths, enhancing your effectiveness as a leader. For instance, if you have a natural inclination towards coaching, you can use this to create a dynamic, high-performing team.
• Addressing Weaknesses: Recognizing your leadership style's limitations allows you to address areas where improvement is needed. You can take steps to develop the skills and knowledge required to overcome these limitations.

Effective leadership is the linchpin for success. The ability to adapt and apply different leadership styles is paramount. By understanding the nuances of various leadership styles, you can become a more versatile and influential leader, capable of driving your team towards excellence.

For those seeking further insight into leadership styles and personal development, leadership coaching is an invaluable resource. It provides tailored guidance and support, helping individuals uncover their unique leadership styles and harness their full potential.

Embark on your journey of leadership development with Valor Performance . Explore resources, articles, and programs to take your leadership skills to new heights, and begin your transformation into a modern leader who can make a lasting impact on your organization and its people. 

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Leadership Case Studies

Here is a sample of three case studies from the book, Leadership Case Studies, that are most instructive and impactful to developing leadership skills.

For the past 30 years, I have conducted seminars and workshops and taught college classes on leadership.

I used a variety of teaching aids including books, articles, case studies, role-plays, and videos.

I recently created a book, Leadership Case Studies that includes some of the case studies and role-plays that I found to be most instructive and impactful.

Here is a sample of three case studies.

Peter Weaver Case Study

Peter Weaver doesn’t like to follow the crowd. He thinks groupthink is a common problem in many organizations. This former director of marketing for a consumer products company believes differences of opinion should be heard and appreciated. As Weaver states, “I have always believed I should speak for what I believe to be true.”

He demonstrated his belief in being direct and candid throughout his career. On one occasion, he was assigned to market Paul’s spaghetti-sauce products. During the brand review, the company president said, “Our spaghetti sauce is losing out to price-cutting competitors. We need to cut our prices!”

Peter found the courage to say he disagreed with the president. He then explained the product line needed more variety and a larger advertising budget. Prices should not be cut. The president accepted Weaver’s reasoning. Later, his supervisor approached him and said, “I wanted to say that, but I just didn’t have the courage to challenge the president.”

On another occasion, the president sent Weaver and 16 other executives to a weeklong seminar on strategic planning. Weaver soon concluded the consultants were off base and going down the wrong path. Between sessions, most of the other executives indicated they didn’t think the consultants were on the right path. The consultants heard about the dissent and dramatically asked participants whether they were in or out. Those who said “Out” had to leave immediately.

As the consultants went around the room, every executive who privately grumbled about the session said “In.” Weaver was fourth from last. When it was his turn, he said “Out” and left the room.

All leaders spend time in reflection and self-examination to identify what they truly believe and value. Their beliefs are tested and fine-tuned over time. True leaders can tell you, without hesitation, what they believe and why. They don’t need a teleprompter to remind them of their core beliefs. And, they find the courage to speak up even when they know others will disagree.

• What leadership traits did Weaver exhibit?
• If you were in Weaver’s shoes, what would you have done?
• Where does courage come from?
• List your three most important values.

Dealing with a Crisis Case Study

Assume you are the VP of Sales and Marketing for a large insurance company. Once a year your company rewards and recognizes the top 100 sales agents by taking them to a luxury resort for a four-day conference. Business presentation meetings are held during the morning. Afternoons are free time. Agents and spouses can choose from an assortment of activities including golf, tennis, boating, fishing, shopping, swimming, etc.

On day 2 at 3:00 p.m., you are at the gym working out on the treadmill, when you see Sue your administrative assistant rushing towards you. She says, “I need to talk to you immediately.”

You get off the treadmill and say, “What’s up?” Sue states, “We’ve had a tragedy. Several agents went boating and swimming at the lake. Randy, our agent from California died while swimming.”

(Background information – Randy is 28 years old. His wife did not come on the trip. She is home in California with their three children).

• Explain what you would communicate to the following people.
• Your Human Resources Department
• The local police
• The attendees at the conference (Would you continue the conference?)
• How will you notify Randy’s wife?
• If Randy’s wife and a few family members want to visit the location of Randy’s death, what would you do?
• What are some “guiding principles” that leaders need to follow in a crisis situation?

 Arsenic and Old Lace Case Study

Review the YouTube video, “ I’ll show them who is boss Arsenic and Old Lace.”   

Background Information

The Vernon Road Bleaching and Dyeing Company is a British lace dyeing business. It was purchased in bankruptcy by the father/son team of Henry and Richard Chaplin. Richard has been acting as “Managing Director” which is the same as a general manager or president of a company.

The company has had 50-to-150 employees with 35-to-100 being shop floor, production employees. The company produces and sells various dyed fabrics to the garment industry.

Gerry Robinson is a consultant who was asked to help transform methods of conducting business to save the company.

Jeff is the factory manager.

• What are Richard’s strengths and weaknesses as a leader?
• What could Richard have done to make the problems of quality and unhappy customers more visible to the workforce?
• What do you think Richard’s top three priorities should be for the next 12 months?
• What could Richard have done to motivate the workforce?
• Evaluate Jeff’s approach and effectiveness as a leader.

The book contains 16 case studies, four role-plays, and six articles. I hope you find some of the content useful and helpful in your efforts to teach leadership.

Click for additional leadership case studies and resources .

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The Relationship Between Leadership Styles And Innovation- Case Study Using Sem

The main objective of this study is to determine the relationship between leadership styles and innovation. For the employees of the National Electricity and Gas Distribution Company. The study included 104 questionnaires collected from the employees of the National Electricity and Gas Distribution Company in BECHAR. Data were analyzed using SPSS and AMOS. Which is used in modeling structural equations (SEM). After the questionnaires were adopted, the following conclusions were reached: There is no statistically significant relationship between autocratic style and innovation, there is statistically significant relationship between democratic style and innovation, there is statistically significant between relationship The Laissez-faire leadership style and innovation The study also concluded with a set of recommendations the most important of them: Instilling in individuals a sense of belonging to create and develop innovation and creativity, promoting democratic style and Laissez-faire leadership style because of their positive results on innovation, Holding seminars and workshops discussing leadership styles, and what is attributed to each style of advantages and disadvantages. Keywords: Leadership styles autocratic style democratic style laissez-faire leadership style innovation

Introduction

The accelerating trend of globalization and the changing technology have many companies positively promote innovation or individual creativity ( Wu & Lin, 2018 ). It is worth mentioning that there are various factors in employees’ innovation or creativity, and leadership might be the most influential factor in employee creativity, In particular, leadership's role in promoting innovation has been the subject of study over the past decade. Leadership is one of the popular subjects that are currently receiving attention in terms of research, theory, and practice, There are many strong indications that leadership is important for managing innovation ( Denti & Hemlin, 2012 ). Somech ( 2006 ) believes that “it is corporate leaders who promote or prevent innovation management in the organization” (p. 135). The failure of innovation projects is probably due to ineffective leadership skills ( Łukowski, 2017, p. 106 ), Through this paper we try to clarify the relationship between leadership styles and innovation.

Hypotheses of Research:

H1: There is a significant relationship between the Autocratic leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

H2: There is a significant relationship between the democratic leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

H3: There is a significant relationship between the Laissez-faire leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

Literature Review

The concept of leadership.

According to Rost ( 1993 ), there are approximately 220 definitions of leadership concept, Wart ( 2003 ) argues that there are limitations to conducting scientific leadership research because it is difficult to find appropriate definitions of managerial leadership. So creating a deforming leadership framework is a difficult task. In order to develop an understanding of the concept of leadership, we offer some definitions of leadership below:

According to Bass and Stogdill ( 1990 ), “in order to achieve organizational goals, leadership works to influence the attitudes and behaviors of individuals and the interaction within groups among themselves” (p. 21). Leadership is a process in which an individual influences a group of people in order to achieve a common goal ( Northouse, 2018 ). Chemers ( 1997 ) defines leadership as “A process of social influence through which a person has the ability to help and support other people to reach a specific goal” (p. 3). The leadership style that leaders use to interact with their subordinates consists of a set of different characteristics, characteristics, and behaviors (p. 6). Wu and Lin ( 2018 ) defined leadership as the capability to affect a team achieving the objectives. Such an influential capability was perceived by people or teams.

According to Jackson and Parry ( 2011 ), leadership is the process of leaders using their skills and knowledge of a group of employees, to guide them in the direction that relates to the goals and objectives of the organization, Lee and Chuang ( 2009 ) believe that a superior leader meets secondary requirements in the process of achieving organizational goals, and not only inspires the potential of subordinates to enhance efficiency.

Leadership Styles

Autocratic style.

Autocratic leadership style is mission-oriented, more persuasive and efficiently manipulated to deliver a clear vision and vision of strategic goals ( Clark et al., 2008 ). Followers of autocratic leaders are bore their time, awaiting the inevitable failure of this leadership and removing the next leader ( Bass & Stogdill, 1990 ). The leader believes that humans are evil, weak, unwilling to work, unable to self-determination, and have limited causes. Therefore they must be directed, pushed and forced to work ( Akor, 2014 ). The autocratic leaders are characterized by making vital decisions themselves ( Dyczkowska & Dyczkowski, 2018 ). The autocratic leadership does not inculcate the learning mindset, which is necessary in proactive situations in order to motivate employees According to the experiences of Probst and Raisch ( 2005 ), autocratic leadership can make leaders have so much power that they can resort to negative impacts on an organization's performance. To enforce this, it will be implemented whether or not the minimum management agrees. Autocratic leadership also contributes to a low level of job satisfaction and confidence in the organization, because it limits the capabilities of other members to excel and discourages employee participation ( Dalluay & Jalagat, 2016 ).

Democratic Style

Democratic leaders often embrace a very collaborative, participatory and collaborative decision-making environment ( Trinidad & Normore, 2005 ). In a democratic leadership style, employees are an important part of the decision-making process, so they are collaborative and participatory. The Democratic manager informs his staff of everything that affects their work and shares decision-making and problem-solving responsibilities ( Khan et al., 2015 ). The Democratic Leader strives to be a regular member of the group spirit while doing a little work ( Lippitt, 1960 ). Anderson ( 1959 ) defined the Democratic Leader “as the person who participates with other members in decision-making. He stressed that democratic leadership in most situations is related to the higher meaning. He denied the claim that democratic leadership is associated with low productivity and high morale and unlike autocratic leadership” (p. 204).

In democratic leadership, participation is an important and ideal feature of this leadership style. Therefore, participation is of a friendly, beneficial and encouraging nature ( Choi, 2007 ). Collective and leadership participation in policy making is important in the style of democratic leadership. Access to organizational decisions of critical importance is related to the extent of strong communication between individuals and their consultation. Each member of the organization must be aware of the importance of being in the decision-making process, this is one of the most important duties of a democratic leader ( Dolly & Nonyelum, 2018 ).

Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

According to the definition Luthans and Youssef ( 2007 ), laissez-faire style as “Abdicates responsibilities avoids making decision. In the authors viewpoint of the Laissez-Faire Leadership Style do not want their interference in decision making process. They usually allow their subordinates to have the power to make personal decisions about work. They are free to do work in their own way and they are also responsible for their decision. Normally Leaders avoids to making decision and they give subordinates complete freedom in the decision-making process, and they do not participate in working units ( Chaudhry & Javed, 2012 ).

It maybe manifested in a lack of presence and/or being avoidant of intervention Laissez-faire leadership in lower perceived leader effectiveness ( Wong & Giessner, 2018 ). Laissez-faire leaders They do nothing and this omission could have negative consequences for the institutions ( VonBergen, 2012 ). Laissez-faire leaders who hide reinforcement (for example,), whether Intentional or unintentional, It may lead to negative impacts and consequences on the organization This finding is supported by research by Hinkin and Schriesheim ( 2008 ). An organization that does not have much staff in the long-term, this style does not suit them. In addition, it is not suitable for environments that need guidance, quick reactions and praise ( Al Rahbi et al., 2017 ).

The Concept Of Innovation

According to Twiss, innovation - is a combination of science, technology, management, and economics, because it aims to achieve novelty and proceeds from the emergence of an idea to the goal of marketing it in the form of a product that can be exchanged and consumed ( Twiss & Goodridge, 1989 ). According to Covin and Miller ( 2014 ), it is the ability of a business enterprise to be up to date with a new idea, new technologies and improved creative processes to provide products. There is growing evidence from the literature that innovation plays a vital role in shaping corporate growth and competitiveness ( Forsman & Temel, 2011 )

There are different perspectives on the definition of innovation that analysis can be used to know. Innovation according to West and Farr ( 1990 ). It is the introduction and intentional application within a role, group, or organization of ideas, processes, products, or procedures, that are new to the business unit. Adopting concerned, designed to bring great benefit to the individual, group, organization and society. OECD ( 2005 ) defined innovation as “Implement a new or significantly improved product, marketing or business style, or a new organizational style within business practices, workplace organization or external relations” (p. 16). while Woodman et al., ( 1993 ) defined creativity as “It is a process of creating or presenting a new idea or a new and useful procedure or process “(p. 295). There is a broad definition by Baregheh et al. ( 2009 ), “innovation aims to advance, compete, differentiate and position in the market, so organizations, through a multi-stage process, transform ideas into improved products, services, or processes” (p. 1325).

Materials And Methods

Research method and conceptual model of study.

This study was applied in terms of objective and is descriptive in terms of data collection method. Data were collected by questionnaire through the survey method. The sample size was estimated using the Cochrane formula to 135 members of the National Electricity and Gas Distribution Company BECHAR. The number of questionnaires distributed is 135, and 117 questionnaires were retrieved. After screening, 104 questionnaires were valid for statistical analysis. All elements were measured using a five-point Likert scale: strongly agree: (5 degrees), agree (4 degrees), neutral (3 degrees), disagree (2 degrees), strongly disagree (one score). Exploratory factor analysis was used to delineate elements, which hinder confirmatory factor analysis (having Factor loading less than 0.50). No element has been scrapped. Because all Factors loading are greater than 0.50 (see table 2 ). This study also adopted the Structural Equation Model (SEM) to analyze data and test hypotheses through a program AMOS V.21. The Figure 01 illustrates the conceptual model of the study and consists of three leadership styles (Autocratic Style, Democratic Style, Laissez-Faire Leadership Style) and innovation.

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

From Table (1) it is clear that the majority of respondents are the sex of males by 84.2%, while the percentage of females is 15.8%. The majority within the age group between 31-40 years is 49.5%, followed by the age group between 41-50 years with 34.7% and then 8.4% for the group for more than 51 years and 7.4% for the age group less than 30 years. The respondents have a university education level of 64.2%, the remaining percentage of secondary education level is lower by 24.2% and graduate studies by 11.6%, while the maximum percentage of professional experience is 61.1% with 6 to 15 years of experience, and 7.4% as the lowest percentage and they are experienced from 16 to 20 years.

Reliability And Validity

Internal reliability.

The value of Cronbach Alpha is greater than 0.60. The internal reliability was achieved the

required level (Refer Table 2 ).

Construct Reliability

For all constructs, the CR value is greater than 0.60. The composite reliability was achieved the required level (Refer Table 2 ).

Average Variance Extracted

The value of AVE for all constructs are greater than 0.50. The required level was achieved. (Refer Table 2 ) All items in a measurement model are statistically significant. Other than that, the value of AVE for all construct is greater than 0.50. The Convergent Validity was achieved the required level.

The bold diagonal values in the Table 03 are the square root of the AVE for the constructed. While the rest of the other values are the correlation between the respective constructs. The discriminant validity is achieved when the diagonal value in bold is higher than the values in its row and column. This condition is fulfilled if when looking at the Table 03 , therefore the discriminant validity was achieved.

Evaluating Model Fit

According to table 4 , general indexes of testing the structural equation model of the research show the appropriateness of the model’s goodness of fit. This goodness can be resulted from the fact that X2/df is less than 3, RSMEA is less than 0.08 and nearer to zero, and also because the indexes of CFI, TLI are nearer to 1; therefore, the proposed model has been confirmed and table 5 possesses all standards.

Hypotheses testing

The first hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between the Autocratic leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

As shown in table (5), since observed value is equal to P-value and 0.100 is more than Sig level 0.05 and T v a l u e < 1.96 , so there is no relationship between the Autocratic leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company with 95% confidence.

The second hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between the democratic leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

As it is obvious in table (5), since observed value is equal to P-value and 0.000 is less than Sig level 0.05 T v a l u e ≥1.96, so there is a relationship between The democratic leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company with 95% confidence.

The third hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between the Laissez-faire leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company

As it is shown it table (5), since observed value is equal to P-value and 0.036 is less than Sig level 0.05, and T v a l u e ≥1.96, so there is a relationship The Laissez-faire leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company with 95% confidence.

Through statistical analysis of field research data, the following conclusions can be drawn:

there is no relationship between the Autocratic leadership styleand innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

there is a relationship between The democratic leadership style and innovation in the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

there is a relationship The Laissez-faire leadership styleand innovationin the National Gas Electricity Distribution Company.

Based on the results of the research we can give some of the following recommendations:

Promoting democratic style and Laissez-faire leadership style because of their positive results on innovation.

The development of a sense of belonging is essential in the development of innovation and creativity.

Holding seminars and workshops discussing leadership styles, and what is attributed to each style of advantages and disadvantages.

Creation of a department for innovation and creativity that is interested in the creators and innovators, and benefit from them and help them.

To simplify the rules and procedures of the work procedures, and to move away from the centralization and strictness in the implementation of the issues, this would give employees a margin. It is freedom for employees to show their innovations on the ground.

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13 February 2021

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https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2021.02.3

978-1-80296-100-3

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National interest, national identity, national security, national consciousness, social relations, public relation, public organizations, linguocultural identity, linguistics

Cite this article as:

Kamel, B., Abdeljalil, M., & Abdelhakim, B. (2021). The Relationship Between Leadership Styles And Innovation- Case Study Using Sem. In C. Zehir, A. Kutlu, & T. Karaboğa (Eds.), Leadership, Innovation, Media and Communication, vol 101. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 27-36). European Publisher. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2021.02.3

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Research Article

Laughter and effective presidential leadership: A case study of Ronald Reagan as the ‘great communicator’

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Project administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (PAS); [email protected] (CS)

Affiliation Department of Political Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, United States of America

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Political Science, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Psychology, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom

• Patrick A. Stewart, 
• Reagan G. Dye, 
• Carl Senior

• Published: April 17, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301324
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Former United States President Ronald Reagan’s use of media and his charismatic connection with viewers earned him the moniker “the great communicator”. One aspect of his charisma, the influence of elicited laughter, during a highly critical 5-minute news story by CBS reporter Leslie Stahl during the 1984 US presidential election is examined here. Two experiments examining the effects of audience laughter on perceptions of charismatic leadership are reported. In the first experiment the effects of audience laughter in response to Reagan’s comments were investigated. Here, Reagan’s perceived warmth as an effective leader significantly diminished when strong laughter is removed, whereas perceptions of competence remained unaffected. The second study carried out on an older cohort replicated and extended the first in a pre-registered design by considering the perception of trait charisma. Here, the presence or absence of audience laughter did not affect judgements of charisma. Additionally, the affective response before, and then after, the presentation of the news story was measured. Emotions associated with a positive appraisal all decreased after being shown the news story while emotions associated negative appraisal all increased. However, only participant anger was significantly increased when audience laughter was removed. Taken together the findings of both studies converge on the fact that subtle changes in media presentation of political leaders can have a significant effect on viewers. The findings show that even after 40 years in office the social psychological effects of presidential charisma can still influence observers.

Citation: Stewart PA, Dye RG, Senior C (2024) Laughter and effective presidential leadership: A case study of Ronald Reagan as the ‘great communicator’. PLoS ONE 19(4): e0301324. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301324

Editor: Hans H. Tung, National Taiwan University, TAIWAN

Received: April 24, 2023; Accepted: March 14, 2024; Published: April 17, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Stewart et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The data for study 1 are publicly accessible by contacting the authors. Study 2 is a preregistered replication and is available here ( https://osf.io/cq5d8/?view_only=fdab9c5c07f94ea0b9c6d01f706121f5 ).

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

One of the most important areas of study regarding politics and social psychology considers how social behaviours affect political interaction and, more specifically, how nonverbal signals influence perceptions of political leaders, especially as presented in television news. With the introduction of high-definition portrayals and ubiquitous hand-held devices, the role of the visual media in the portrayal of political leaders has grown. Experimental research on the visual primacy effect has also demonstrated that when there is conflicting information between the verbal and nonverbal channels in an audio-visual presentation, viewers have difficulty processing the verbal attributes of television news reports and remember the visuals with far more fidelity [ 1 ]. More attention is also paid to affectively important nonverbal communication when the nonverbal attributes of televised leader displays appear inappropriately matched to the rhetorical context [ 2 – 4 ].

The majority of research concerning the influence of nonverbal leader communication on social perception focuses on how visual attributes of posture, body movements, and facial display behaviours affect viewer perceptions and trait attributions [ 5 ]. At the same time, there is a small but growing literature that considers the role played by audible signals. Specifically, research considering the influence of the observable audience response to political figures suggests there is a significant intra-audience effect of emotional and evaluative signalling on other audience members while watching mediated events [ 6 ]. Applause-cheering, laughter, booing, chanting and combinations of these audible signals significantly influence how audience members view the televised political event or news coverage [ 6 ]. Viewers may unknowingly monitor and respond to the expressed intensity and type of follower utterance in support or opposition to the speaker and their stated political positions [ 7 ]. Media audiences, whether streaming debates, watching on television, or viewing through other media platforms, and perhaps more crucially, journalists who may be reporting on the event, may likewise be influenced by information conveyed via this audible channel. In other words, the social influence asserted through a specific audience response is similar to emotional contagion effects [ 6 ] and can affect viewer and listener perceptions with or without express awareness. However, the specific influence of different audience responses such as applause-cheering, laughter, and booing has yet to be studied in depth.

Despite the influence that observable audience responses may have on perceptions of leaders, systematic evaluation of these behaviours to political figures and how they affect the efficacy of politician narratives is limited. The few studies providing insight into the social influence of audience behaviour on political figures and policy issues tend to incorporate both audible and visually observable responses. Wiegman’s field experiment involved a videotaped studio audience either reacting positively, negatively, or neutrally to a well-known Dutch politician through audible utterances and different visible nonverbal behaviours [ 8 ]. Likewise, Fein and colleagues’ experiments considering Ronald Reagan’s second 1984 presidential debate performance did not differentiate between applause and laughter nor the moderator’s verbal and nonverbal response [ 9 ]. A study by Axsom and colleagues considering the verbal channel alone with regards to specific policy issues (e.g., imprisonment/probation) provided for comparison of “enthusiastic applause-cheering” to unenthusiastic and polite applause with occasional derisive cries [ 10 ] and found a tendency towards a simple consensus heuristic to make social judgments. Thus, while the limited research regarding political candidates and issues provides useful insights, it does not differentiate between different observable audience response types and often conflates visual and audible stimuli. In the work that follows we focus on one form of observable audience response–laughter–considering first its evolutionary roots and social influence briefly before focusing on its presence in politics and the types of humour that might elicit this type of behavioural response. We then evaluate group laughter’s role in providing a heuristic by which individuals may evaluate a political figure in ambiguous situations.

Laughter has been studied extensively across a broad range of social contexts with a wide range of approaches and techniques. Indeed, it is one of the few positive emotions considered in great detail, likely due to the social and survival benefits it confers. Across such species as canines [ 11 ], rats [ 12 ], and multiple primate species [ 13 ]–including humans–laughter signals playfulness, and with it benign intent [ 14 ]. In other words, social animals are more likely to cooperate and learn when in a playful state of mind as signalled by laughter.

Within humans, laughter emerges early and is seen across different cultures. Spontaneous laughter is observed in infants as young as 17 to 26 days [ 15 ], well before socially stimulated laughter occurs at three-to-four months of age [ 16 ]. Laughter is also observed within individuals who are blind since birth suggesting a possible adaptive function in social bonding [ 17 ].

The study of laughter is thus rightfully situated as a social phenomenon and would benefit from application of multiple different types of inquiry techniques; despite this, the primary method for analysing laughter has been naturalistic observational studies. Here, the effects of laughter tend to be studied in its social ecology. For instance, the ground-breaking work of Provine and colleagues took a “side-walk scientist” approach to laughter, finding that its role as a social lubricant by which mutual conversational grooming occurred was underappreciated, whereas its role as response to humorous comments was over-stated [ 16 ].

Laughter can be seen as socially influential due in large part to it being reliably identified through audible and visual characteristics. When nonverbal signals are easily and accurately identified, the more they are likely to affect perceptions and behaviour by being part of a highly learned (near automatic) repertoire of behaviours and responses that are likely to have been evolutionarily selected for survival purposes [ 18 ]. Thus, accurate recognition of the emotional state and behavioural intent of communicators provides relevant social information that influences perceptions and evaluations of others [ 19 ].

Reliable indicators of emotion may be defined as first, leading to an accurate recognition of the emotional state of the communicator, along with their resultant behavioural intent (e.g., bonding), and second, providing an index of the sender’s underlying state as one that is costly to produce [ 20 ]. Such signals are emotionally costly to produce due to their communicating underlying physiological states potentiating specific behaviour; furthermore, even when such signals are faked, physiological change can and does occur through the posing or acting out of these display behaviours.

Laughter may be classified as a costly, and hence reliable, signal when evoked or when it is difficult to control; even when faked, the initially emitted laughter leads to physiological change [ 21 ]. Individual laughter likewise serves as a social emollient by affecting perceiver mood states by dampening negative affect, increasing positive affect (and pain tolerance), while increasing social cooperation and group identity [ 22 ]. Laughter thus serves as a highly reliable social signal regarding behavioural intent [ 14 ].

Laughter across differing social contexts

Because laughter provides a mechanism for the facilitation of affiliative social interactions that go beyond physical contact and is inclusive of large numbers of individuals, it should be easily and accurately recognized to indicate the underlying behavioural intent of the senders. Socially important utterances, such as laughter, can be seen as stereotyped activities by having coherent and identifiable vocalic, facial and even postural displays reliably associated with them. As pointed out by Gaspar and colleagues, the multimodal nature of this affiliative display behaviour, together with its early emergence in ontogenetic development and its stability throughout an individual’s lifespan, make it a predictable and reliable signal even as context changes [ 13 ]. Thus, due to the important role it plays in facilitating extended social interaction laughter may be one of the most reliable of nonverbal signals [ 23 ].

That is not to say that laughter cannot function in varying contexts, or convey differing or nuanced information, rather, that it is reliably recognized across cultures. Research regarding laughter at the individual level focuses on the role of such expressiveness being a pervasive social signal during interpersonal interactions. Here, laughter may serve to punctuate speech and indicate turn-taking and transitions within conversations [ 24 , 25 ].

Laughter by individuals indicates social intent through the conveyance of vocalic qualities. Voiced laughter, with its sing-song characteristics, can communicate the experience of amusement, contempt, and even schadenfreude [ 26 , 27 ]. Unvoiced laughter on the other hand, with its gruntlike characteristics [ 28 ], can be seen as signalling more competitive intent by being connected with aggressive statements [ 29 ]. This is perhaps due to the interrelationship between vocalic and facial movements seen with laughter and the amusement smile; facial display behaviour immediately after laughter-eliciting comments help convey social intent by punctuating the preceding statement [ 30 ]. In summary, laughter at the individual level serves a multitude of social functions based upon reliable multi-modal nonverbal signalling that is easily recognized. At the same time, the nuanced expression of individual laughter allows for subtle differences in to be conveyed in its meaning.

Intra-audience effects of audience laughter

Laughter, as an important communicative signal, should also be socially contagious, or at least mimicked, to allow for the cohesion, broadening, and building of groups. Hatfield and colleagues [ 31 ] define social contagion as the “tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize facial expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person’s and, consequently, to converge emotionally” (p. 169). Thus, laughter would meet the definition of a socially contagious behaviour and indeed might provide the modal behaviour by meeting each of the above criteria in the convergence of mimicry and emotional response [ 13 ]. While group laughter is readily identifiable and distinct from other types of audience responses, it does not appear to have distinguishable characteristics that allow for the differentiation of members of different social groups from each other [ 32 ], nor in identifying nuanced social intent, as is the case with individual laughter.

Experimental research considering how individuals respond to group laughter tends to focus mainly on perceptions of how funny a stimulus is, whether visually with cartoons and written jokes [ 33 – 37 ], audio tapes of jokes, funny stories and stand-up routines [ 38 – 46 ], bloopers [ 47 , 48 ], or scenes from television shows and movies [ 49 – 52 ]. When the source of the humour is taken into account, findings show that group laughter leads to individuals within the group being perceived more favourably across multiple dimensions relevant to leadership, including potential for success [ 45 ], authoritativeness, character, dynamism and interestingness [ 41 ], and credibility, likability, and lowered aggressiveness [ 53 ].

While each of the above studies were influenced by multiple factors, Vraga and colleagues [ 53 ] incisively comment that, “a humorous cue might be more important when faced with a more ambiguous context… as people have substantially less information on which to rely” (p. 145). Much of this research focuses on entertainment figures in which preconceptions either do not play a role due to low awareness, or by being so heterogeneous as to be randomly distributed. Political figures are different. Not only does their humour play a role in audience response, their group membership and social status predisposes perceptions [ 45 ]. Politicians, through their leadership role in society, belong to a clearly demarcated social group that is defined by a more restrictive set of social rules. Thus, the effects of receiving and perceiving laughter within a political context could be manifestly greater than in a non-political context, where it is expected and therefore part of the routine dialogue.

Political laughter

When one considers group level behaviour in political contexts, research regarding observable audience responses tends to focus on the target and intent of verbal statements rather than the social influence process that laughter facilitates [ 30 , 54 , 55 ]. Current analyses describe audience response to political figures, by considering the length, strength, and intensity of audience laughter during political events [ 6 , 56 , 57 ]; however, the results reflect descriptive and correlational findings regarding response to individual speakers rather than group-related outcomes.

In group interactions, laughter is arguably more stereotyped and easily identified than other types of observable audience responses. The vocalic utterances that constitute laughter are much shorter in duration than applause-cheering, for instance. Analysis shows that group laughter in political contexts lasts on average 1–3 seconds in comparison with 2–8 seconds for applause-cheering [ 56 – 59 ]. Booing, another form of observable audience response, is surprisingly rare in political contexts. Interestingly, when an audience shows their appreciation for a humourous comment, applause-cheering prolongs the laughing response [ 30 , 59 ]. This points to high levels of social mimicry in the case of group laughter, and then likely social contagiousness through its continuation via applause.

Studies regarding the use of humour during US presidential primary debates in 2008 [ 30 ] and the 2016 general election presidential debates [ 6 , 56 , 57 ] suggest that the main targets of humour during electoral campaigns tend to be out-group members. Here, ridicule and other forms of disparagement humour are used as a form of political rhetoric. In addition, self-deprecatory humour, where speakers poke fun at themselves or other in-group members, also occurs with regularity. The use of these different types of humour, ridicule and self-deprecation, likely holds strategic value, as ridicule can be used to derogate the competition or set normative boundaries on behaviour. On the other hand, self-deprecatory humour is useful for making a candidate more likable [ 60 ].

While there is an emerging body of research examining the type of humour employed by political candidates and the strength and duration of the laughter response, the correlational nature of this work limits the kinds of inferences that may be drawn. Furthermore, failed humour–which may be defined by the absence of laughter, its muted presence, or even booing–is rarely studied due to the difficulty of identifying enough occurrences for analysis [ 61 ].

The experimental research discussed in the previous section suggests that audience laughter certainly affects perceptions of humorousness and trait evaluations of the speaker. A number of scholars have shown that audience responses affect perceptions of political candidates [ 6 , 8 , 9 ]; however, the question remains as to how robust a role laughter, and the eliciting humour, plays in perceptions of political figures.

This question may be elaborated by considering what leadership traits are influenced by group laughter—and in what direction. The perception of competence and warmth are considered central to the identification and choice of leaders [ 62 – 66 ]. At the same time, these traits may be moderated or mediated by perceptions of leader charisma [ 67 – 72 ]. In the present study the effects of the observable audience response of laughter on the perception of trait charisma is examined by considering an individual considered to be amongst the most charismatic of presidents in United States history, Ronald Reagan.

Humour types and political laughter

When humour in conjunction with laughter has been experimentally studied, the stimuli has tended to have been presented to the participants in the written form [ 73 ]. In other words, vignette studies varying the type of humour used, in combination with the asserted presence of laughter (or its absence), indicates success or lack thereof. As observed by Bitterly, Brooks, and Schweitzer in their extensive analysis of the effect of humour on interpersonal status [ 73 ]:

Though humor can boost status , using humor is risky . Humor attempts can fail in several ways : by being too boring (i . e ., not funny) , too bold (i . e ., inappropriate) , or failing to elicit laughter from the audience . How the audience reacts profoundly influences perceptions . If the audience does not laugh , observers are less likely to view the humor attempt as appropriate or funny , and the joke teller may lose status . (p. 17)

While the work of Bitterly and colleagues’ is indeed informative, their use of written vignettes as experimental treatments limits generalizability. Likewise, their focus on inappropriate humour relied upon sexually-charged quips; while important for the workplace with mixed sexes and fluid power dynamics, this type of humour is not used much by politicians in our technologically mediated era [ 30 , 74 ]. Indeed, the use of sexualized humour in today’s political climate would probably be unsuccessful in eliciting laughter but would also likely alienate a substantial proportion of the electorate.

Regardless, their focus on perceptions of competence and status in response to humour–and the laughter that it elicits–is applicable to contests for leadership within politics. This is especially the case in viewer observations regarding leader competence, which in addition to perceptions of prestige is key to understanding why followers defer to, and confer status on, potential leaders.

Existing research in the use of humour by political figures suggest that it is used to either attack opponents, often through ridicule, or make light of oneself or allies [ 30 , 56 , 75 , 76 ]. Smith and Powell found in the case of other- and self-disparaging humour by group leaders that those making ridicule attempts directed downwards at lower status group members were perceived as less effective, less encouraging, less helpful, and less socially attractive than those using self-directed humour [ 77 ]. However, this investigation also showed that not using humour was perceived as leading to better outcomes; in almost all leadership-based attributions that were considered save for tension relief and opinion offering, leaders who did not attempt any humorous remarks were perceived in a more positive light.

Arguably, the key factor here is the presence or absence of the laughter that is recognized to be an observable audience response to the politician. In the case of other-deprecatory humour, ridicule may increase perceived competence by virtue of martialling an audience together in their response to a tangible target; likewise, failure would see its reduction, negatively affecting the joke-teller. On the other hand, self-deprecatory humour successfully eliciting audience laughter would presumably lead to greater perceptions of warmth and communication effectiveness for the joke-teller [ 77 ]. Ultimately, observable (here audible) support for specific leader comments helps followers to identify leadership potential and other related traits.

Ronald Reagan’s leadership style

Former US President Ronald Reagan’s moniker as “The Great Communicator” inspired a large body of literature assessing his communication style and its effects on public perceptions and the expectations of the American presidency [ 78 ]. As the first “celebrity” politician, Reagan provides insight into the role of media notoriety in politics. Consequently, re-examining Reagan’s relationship with the press and his ability to manipulate public perception is relevant in the current American political climate. The return of the celebrity presidency with the ascension of Donald Trump further warrants an historical examination of Reagan to glean insight into his unique communication style and public perception of populist leaders.

Reagan’s leadership style developed from his natural ability to connect with audiences and years of experience as a recognized film actor and television personality [ 79 ]. Upon entering national politics, Reagan was successful in enjoining his conservative agenda with the Republican Party establishment, garnering successful victories in the 1980 and 1984 presidential elections, and passing supply side economic policies. Although he suffered from periods of public scrutiny during his time in office, he was known as the “Teflon president” for his ability to rebound from criticism and controversy and gainfully employed rhetorical strategies to develop a reputation as humorous, charismatic, and likeable [ 75 ]. Now some 30 years since the Reagan era, the study of Reagan’s communication and leadership style has much to offer our current understanding of the normative behaviour of presidents and candidates operating under conditions of constant media scrutiny. Whereas Reagan was adept at connecting with Americans through television, contemporary office holders (and presidential hopefuls) must be able to compete with the flood of media choices now available across numerous platforms [ 80 ] and the fast pace of the issue-attention cycle.

Now more than ever, Converse’s assertion that the public pays more attention to, and takes cues from individuals in politics, rather than to politics and policy making itself is apparent in the individual-centred nature of the contemporary political environment [ 81 ]. If politicians possess the capacity to control the political agenda and how they are perceived by voters, then they have the ability to “go public” without relying on the mass media to set the agenda [ 82 ]. The specific case of Leslie Stahl’s mini-documentary on Reagan from the 1984 campaign is exemplary of this ability to skirt around the media narrative and control perceptions simply through imagery and audience response. Reagan’s mastery of image management in relation to television, including the use of self-deprecatory humour and direct appeals to supporters, provides a blueprint for understanding how presidential contenders must operate to maximize effectiveness in today’s hybrid media era [ 83 ].

The case study approach employed provides a historically relevant example that is recognized by many political communication scholars as a turning point in how nonverbal behaviour and social signals are considered [ 84 , 85 ], it also presents an emotionally evocative stimuli that better reflects the “real world” of media consumption. Here, we test specific hypotheses concerning the influence of the observable audience response of laughter, leadership traits, and also perceived charisma. Reagan’s ability to elicit audience laughter sets up following hypothesis that are addressed in two studies:

• H1: Laughter in response to Reagan’s humorous comments will increase perceptions of his competence, warmth, and charisma.

Furthermore, due to Ronald Reagan’s effective and prolific use of a range of humour types with strategic intent, we can further test the effect of successful and unsuccessful humour, as marked by the presence of absence of laughter. Specifically, the literature reviewed suggests differential impact of Reagan’s use of self-deprecatory and ridicule humour.

• H2: Laughter in response to Reagan’s ridicule of audience members will increase perceptions of his competence.
• H3: Laughter in response to Reagan’s self-deprecatory comments will increase perceptions of his warmth.
• H4: Laughter in response to Reagan’s humour will increase perceptions of his charisma.

The perception of audience laughter to Reagan’s humour will increase judgments of his leadership competence and approachability. However, this will be dependent on whether the humour is self-depreciatory or directed to other parties. Thus, there will be a main effect of humour on judgments of leadership traits and an interaction between the different types of humour that Reagan displays.

Content coding of the Reagan-Stahl News Story (1984)

The key news story was shown on Thursday, October 4, 1984 via a CBS network primetime television news broadcast, one month before Reagan’s landslide election victory. The news story as analysed had a video clip length of five minutes and forty-five seconds (5:44.85/100s; 345 seconds) with the story length after the introduction by Dan Rather being five minutes and twelve seconds. In the five-minute (306 seconds) news story, Leslie Stahl narrated for just over three minutes (194 seconds), while Reagan had twenty-seven seconds of speaking time dispersed throughout five sound bites. These sound bites all took place during the second half of the news story.

Throughout the news story, two minutes and five seconds of audience applause cheering, laughter, and mixed response could be heard. Applause-cheering can be heard throughout almost two minutes of the story (111 seconds). This is notable because support from partisans in the form of audible responses took place in over one-third of a purportedly critical news-story. While Stahl talked over much of the applause-cheering and mixed applause-cheering and booing, laughter was presented without interruption. Indeed, of Reagan’s five sound bites, three were presented with elicited laughter uninterrupted. The first of these laughter events started at two minutes and forty-five seconds into Stahl’s story, whereas the last occurred just under 2 minutes (114 s) from the end. This news story contained a range of examples of Reagan’s performative style and is thus an ideal means to study the effects of the different types of humour used and the interaction between observable audience responses.

While the placement of the humorous comments did not give Reagan the first or final word in the story, these three laughter-eliciting comments provided him with punctuated support from the audience when he did talk. ANVIL content coding software was used to characterize and analyse the news story [ 86 ]. ANVIL allows for frame-by-frame analysis of speaking time and the ability to disambiguate the observable audience responses by considering both audible response by the audience [ 59 ], and camera shots of the audience [ 85 ]. Adobe Premier Pro software was then used to edit the video and develop the various experimental conditions.

A content analytic approach was applied to the visual coding of the key news report [ 85 ]. Specifically, the presence of large (16 of 59 camera shots; 80s and 26.2% of camera time) and approving audiences (15/59 shots; 62.12s and 20.3% of camera time) were coded. When the audible response by the audience is considered in tandem with these types of camera shots, it is found that large, yet non-responsive, audiences were presented in three shots (19.72s), whereas thirteen shots and just over a minute of applause-cheering (60.28s) was heard from large audiences. Audiences seen as approving were evident in fourteen shots for just under one minute (55.52s) where applause-cheering occurred, while laughter was seen in one nearly seven second shot (6.60s). It was expected that the applause-cheering would be most likely observed in media coverage of group settings such as political speeches [ 75 , 76 ] and intra-party debates [ 87 ]. This is due to such observable audience responses predominating in political discourse because of the ease with which candidates can evoke it among supporters in partisan settings. As a result, applause-cheering plays a role as an important barometer of a politicians’ individual appeal during speeches [ 76 , 88 ] or when in direct competition with other candidates during debates [ 59 ]. However, the production decision to incorporate applause-cheering as a major part of a critical news story may be seen as at odds with the perceived intent. So too was the decision to incorporate laughter in response to humorous comments by the then presidential candidate Ronald Reagan.

The objective of the first study is to examine the effects of the observable audience response of laughter and how it moderated the perception of Reagan as an effective presidential leader. It can be expected from the literature reviewed that audience laughter in response to Reagan’s humorous comments will affect perceptions of the leadership traits he holds, whether warmth or competence. The question is, to what extent will the presence or absence of laughter, indicating success or failure of Reagan’s humorous comments differentially affect perceptions of these traits.

While Stahl spoke over the great majority of applause, the first three of Reagan’s sound bites led to observable audience laughter in response to his quips. These occurrences were not spoken over and ensued during a middle portion of the story where Stahl commented on Reagan by stating, “This tight control has baffled those who think that Mr. Reagan is at his very best when he is spontaneous….” With this in mind, three edits totalling just under six seconds (5. 46/100s = 2. 93 +. 83 +1. 7 ) were made. The video was presented in a between subjects design with three different conditions. The first, presented unedited video as the control condition, with participants seeing what viewers of the CBS news story viewed in 1984. The second two treatments involved either the audience laughter being removed completely, with no noise from the video during the edits, or the audience laughter being faded-out to a level at just under fifty percent of that presented during the original news story. As a result, the treatment effect being considered equals 0.016% of audio-visual time (5.46s/344.83) for the total video.

The first edit took place at 3:19:02 (until 3:21:25) of the video clip after Reagan was shown commenting “I’ll raise his taxes” in response to audience members shown as heckling him. The audience, presumably at a campaign speech held during the Missouri State Fair (based upon the scene prior) responded with loud laughter followed by mixed cheering and applause. At the same time Reagan, shown with his suit jacket off in front of hay bales, displayed a smile of amusement after delivering his punchline and during the audience’s laughter and applause-cheering.

The second edit, of less than a second (3:26:29–3:27:21), took place after Stahl commented positively on Reagan’s ability for “tossing off one-liners,” Here Reagan, dressed in a suit and tie and presumably sitting down for an interview, quipped “I never get good reviews from TASS” after shaking his head, presumably to a difficult question. As a small group of individuals laughed at his response Reagan smiled in amusement.

The third edit (3:41:26–3:43:03) was set up by Stahl as Reagan being “masterful at deflecting a hostile question” when he responded to a reporter at a press conference commenting on his keeping Republican Party representatives in line. Here Reagan responded with a self-deprecatory comment, “How can you say that about a sweet fellow like me?” and laughed while displaying a smile of amusement.

Participants

Participants were recruited from introductory-level political science classes and were provided extra course credit for taking part in the study. Written consent to participate was obtained prior to taking part. A total of 317 participants took part in the study that lasted from March 2 to April 28, 2018. So as to ensure task compliance, those individuals who stopped engaging within the first 7 minutes and who did not respond to the open-ended prompt “(P)lease list some of the thoughts you had while watching the video clip” were removed from subsequent analysis, which resulted in a final sample of 283 participants. All procedures were approved by the University of Arkansas IRB.

Of these participants, 61.8% identified as female, 81.3% identified as Caucasian (with 5.3% African-American, 2.1% Asian, 8.5% Hispanic, .4% Native American, and 2.5% other ethnicity), and the average age was twenty-one years old (range 18–71, SD = 4.55). The majority of participants identified themselves as identifying with the Republican Party (40.3%), followed by Democratic Party identifiers (35.3%), as independent (15.2%), Libertarian Party (6.7%), Green Party (.7%) and other (1.8%). Random assignment of participants to the different treatments was balanced (unedited video/laughter-in/control [ n = 96], laughter faded out [ n = 95], and laughter removed [ n = 92]) across the three conditions. When tested for randomness in assignment to the treatment condition, we found no statistical bias (all p-values = ns) for sex, ethnicity, age, party identification, and political ideology (social, economic, overall conservative-liberal).

Prior to the taking part in the protocol, participants were asked to provide basic demographic information (age, sex, ethnicity), whether they were registered to vote, the political party they best identify with and their attitudes towards the main US political parties, as well as their own political ideology. At this point, participants were randomly assigned to one of the three different treatment categories (i.e., control condition, laughter faded out or no laughter).

Immediately after the video clips were viewed, participants were first asked to describe their thoughts on the video, how strongly they felt in reference to different emotions at that moment (anxious, proud, angry, reassured, fearful, irritated, disgusted, sad, and happy) on a 0–10 (not at all to extremely). They were then asked their evaluation of the reporter, Leslie Stahl, in terms of their overall impressions of her, as well as how credible, appropriate, and likable she was on a seven-point scale. These items were then combined into an additive index (Cronbach’s a = .873). A final measure, that of how aggressive Stahl was perceived to be, due to weak correlations with the other measures, was analysed separately.

Participants were then asked to evaluate Ronald Reagan’s leadership traits in terms of his competence , which was based upon measures of how sincere, aggressive, strong, active, competent he appeared to be (Cronbach’s a = .779); additional measures considered a scale of his warmth with questions regarding how intelligent, caring, trustworthy, agreeable, and warm (Cronbach’s a = .928) he appeared during the news story. Responses regarding evaluation of both Leslie Stahl and Ronald Reagan ranged from “Not at all” to “Extremely” on a seven-point (0–6) scale. Finally, to evaluate whether participants noticed the treatment, we asked “How believable did you find the video clip to be?” on the same seven-point scale. Throughout the reported statistical tests an alpha level of >0.05 is designated as n/s.

Emotional response to the video showed that, how anxious ( F = .283, p = ns), proud ( F = .465, p = ns), angry ( F = 1.448, p = ns), reassured ( F = .644, p = ns), fearful ( F = 1.848, p = ns), disgusted ( F = .632, p = ns), sad ( F = .192, p = ns), and happy ( F = .119, p = ns) participants felt was unaffected by the laughter. However, when least significant differences are considered, participants felt significantly less irritated ( F = 4.124, p = .017, partial η 2 = .029) when watching the original video ( M = 3.646) when compared with the treatment videos with laughter faded out ( M = 2.611, p = .008) and laughter completely removed ( M = 2.793, p = .029).

Participant ratings of Leslie Stahl in a similar manner suggested the treatment had little effect. Specifically, the index considering overall performance, perceived credibility, appropriateness, and likability, exhibited no significant violations of homogeneity ( F [2, 280] = 1.298, p = ns) according to the Levene’s test. Analysis of the index shows participants were largely unaffected by whether there was laughter present, faded, or removed entirely ( F [2, 280] = 0.480, p = ns). Likewise, Stahl’s perceived aggressiveness failed to reach statistical significance ( F [2, 280] = 2.722, p = ns).

Similarly, participants did not seem to notice a difference between the different videos. When asked “how believable did you find the video clip to be,” there was no significant difference between the treatments ( F = 1.005, p = ns). In combination with the preceding findings, there was not apparently a cognitively perceived effect from the video as participants were not aware of the treatment.

Analysis of the effect of laughter on evaluation of Ronald Reagan’s leadership traits tells a more nuanced story. Tests for homogeneity of variance regarding the competence index finds no significant violations ( F [2, 280] = 1.536, p = ns) as does the between-subjects ANOVA between the three groups: F [2, 280] = 2.677, p = ns. Although the patterns of response mirror those of perceived warmth (Laughter in M = 23.80; Laughter faded out M = 22.31; Laughter removed M = 22.20).

When Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance regarding the index of Reagan’s warmth is considered, no significant violations were found ( F [2, 280] = 1.699, p = ns). However a highly significant between-subjects effect across the three humour groups was revealed: F [2, 280] = 4.078, p = .018, partial η 2 = .028. Here, Reagan’s trait evaluations were enhanced by the presence of the loud laughter evident in the original news story, with post-hoc comparisons showing that the laughter remaining condition (M = 25.94, p = 0.05) was significantly greater than the faded-out condition (M = 23.39) and the complete removal of the laughter (M = 23.60). Thus, while perceptions of his warmth are all relatively high, they are significantly reduced by the laughter either being faded out or removed entirely (p = ns).

Finally, as a control item a single measure of how humorous participants thought Reagan to be was included. No significant violations of homogeneity were found ( F [2, 280] = 1.497, p = ns) and the pattern revealed was similar to that regarding Reagan’s warmth index. Namely, a significant between-subjects effect between the three humor groups, F [2, 280] = 3.411, p = .034, partial η 2 = .024. When post-hoc least significant differences are considered, there were no significant differences between the laughter faded out (M = 5.13) and laughter completely removed (M = 4.96) groups, as was the case with perceptions of Reagan’s warmth . However, Reagan was considered significantly more humorous with the laughter in (M = 5.52) at the .05-level.

The finding that observers’ emotion was largely unaffected by the treatment, with the exception of feeling irritated, is perhaps not unexpected. The treatment, which is comprised of less than five seconds of laughter across the three Reagan excerpts, is a subtle and unobtrusive stimulus that potentially would not have an observable effect on self-reports of introspective evaluation of emotional response. Furthermore, by only considering between-subjects effects we cannot tease out whether the news story had a greater influence on participant emotional response and how this might have differed across the treatments. Even though the sole finding concerning irritation was aligned too the expectations both in the pattern of response, with greater irritation felt by those either not hearing laughter or diminished laughter, suggesting a failed humour attempt, and the comparatively weak effect of the treatment, future studies should consider change in self-reported emotional state through within-subjects design.

The lack of significant effect on evaluation of the reporter, Leslie Stahl, is likely due to the average age of the participants, which may have rendered her work as a nationally known figure unknown. While Ronald Reagan is recognized as a Republican Party icon and is mentioned in both glowing and critical terms by participants, Stahl is not so well recognized. As noted by Vraga and colleagues [ 53 ] when comparing participant response to a famous U.S. talk show host and an unfamiliar moderator “… a laugh track has very different effects when a host is a well-known comedian versus an unknown talk show host." (p.143) In other words, the perceptions of newscaster Stahl and the presentation of Reagan’s (un)successful humour may be premised upon the humour being interpreted as a benign violation of expectations [ 89 ], as opposed to ridicule that is received as more aggressive and less socially acceptable.

Type of humour likely play a role in perceptions of Ronald Reagan and how he is portrayed in this news story. As noted by Baumgartner, not only does “prior knowledge of the target of the humour affects susceptibility to attitude change” but also the context of political humour plays a role [ 90 ]. Whether the humour is other-deprecatory and ridicule-oriented or self-deprecatory plays a role in its perceptions especially upon considering the audience [ 60 ] when Reagan ridicules an audience member. Because of Reagan’s standing as a Republican Party icon, the effect of the audience’s response to his rejoinder to the dissenter within the audience might be accentuated if participants perceive his response being received in a less than flattering manner. This finding is consistent with considerable prior research considering the target of the humour, especially political figures [ 60 , 90 – 94 ].

The first experimental study is extended here by including control and full treatment levels, with all three laughter events present or removed; this allows replication of the first hypotheses regarding responses to laughter in the evaluation of leadership competence and warmth. This study will also examine the presence of laughter in response to Ronald Reagan’s humour and the effect that it will have on his perceived charismatic traits. The influence of specific laughter-eliciting comments removing concomitant laughter to consider the influence of different types of (un)successful humour will also be examined here. As a result, the second experimental study will have five different levels.

Additionally, the charisma of presidents is driven in part by perceived leadership traits of competence and warmth [ 68 ]. Even with participants not knowledgeable about Reagan, the positive visuals as well as the extensive applause-cheering throughout the news report, whether included inadvertently or not, does convey his charismatic presence. However, whether charisma plays a moderating or mediating role in conjunction with the observable audience response of laughter is still in question.

The second study utilizes three edits that totalled just under six seconds (5.46/100s = 2.93+.83+1.7) with a five condition between-subjects design. The first condition presented unedited video as a control with participants seeing what the 1984 CBS news viewers saw. The second replication treatment removed all three observable audience responses of laughter completely, with no noise from the video during the edits leading to the treatment effect 5.46 seconds of the total video (344.83s).

The next three conditions involved the removal of laughter from the three specific humorous comments. The third treatment, taking place from 3:19:02 until 3:21:25 of the video, showed Reagan responding to a heckler with the comment “I’ll raise his taxes” eliciting loud laughter followed by mixed cheering and applause. The fourth treatment involved the removal of less than a second of laughter from a small group of individuals and occurred from 3:26:29–3:27:21 of the video when a seated Reagan quipped “I never get good reviews from (the Russian news agency) TASS” after shaking his head. The final treatment condition saw Reagan use self-deprecatory humour to deflect an aggressive journalist’s question, leading to brief laughter at 3:41:26–3:43:03 of the video.

A power analysis using G*Power was carried out to determine sample size. Here, the traditional power estimation parameters for the least explained variable, the trait of competence , (1 –β err probability = 80%; α error probability = .05; effect size of f = .136). Findings based upon the effect likely, given the means and standard deviations uncovered in experimental study one, suggests a sample size of 650 participants would be required.

Participants were recruited using a snowball sampling approach in which upper-division undergraduate students received course credit for taking part in and recruiting participants. To better reflect the general population, older participants were systematically recruited, leading to a more age diverse sample. A total of 1041 individuals entered the study that lasted from November 16, 2020 to November 11, 2021; of those 315 did not spend at least seven minutes (420 seconds) in the study and were removed as per the previous study parameters. An additional 60 participants were removed due to their not responding to the open-ended prompt and a further 15 for not answering any post-treatment questions, leaving a total of 651 participants in the study. All ethical considerations, including consenting of the participants were identical to that reported for study 1.

Of those taking part, 61.4% identified as female, 83.3% identified as Caucasian (with 3.7% African-American, 0.5% Asian, 7.5% Hispanic, 2.6% Native American, and 2.3% other ethnicity); the average year of birth was 1982 old (range 1934–2005, SD = 16.3). The majority of participants identified themselves as identifying with the Democratic Party (38.9%), followed by Republican Party identifiers (33.3%), as independent (16.7%), Libertarian Party (3.9%), Green Party (1.4%) and other (5.6%). Random assignment of participants to the different treatments was balanced. We first replicated study 1 by having the unedited video control condition [ n = 119] and the treatment condition with all laughter removed [ n = 139]. The other three conditions considered the effect of removing individual laughter events, with the first removing laughter from Reagan’s response to a heckler [ n = 126], the second removing small group laughter [ n = 131], and the third removing group laughter in Reagan’s response to journalistic aggression [ n = 136]. When tested for randomness in assignment to across the five treatment conditions, we found no statistical bias (p = ns in all cases) for sex, ethnicity, age, party identification, and political ideology (social, economic, overall conservative-liberal).

As was the case with the first experimental study, participants were asked basic demographic questions (age, sex, ethnicity), as well as questions about whether they were registered to vote, the political party they identify with and self-reported political ideology. Additionally, they were asked to state how familiar they were with President Ronald Reagan, especially as this more externally valid sample had a greater distribution of ages and experience with Reagan, potentially influencing response. The distribution of participants was therefore examined as a separate, exploratory, and hypothesis-generating model with this variable as a moderator.

However, as the first experiment suggested differences in response to the video treatments, participants were asked to state their feelings both prior to and immediately after the presentation of the stimuli in terms of their emotions at that moment (anxious, proud, angry, reassured, fearful, irritated, disgusted, sad, and happy) on a 0–10 (not at all to extremely) scale. The evaluation of perceived charisma was based upon whether “This leader…” “moves people toward a goal,” “has a vision,” “inspire dares to take risks,” and “elicits a feeling of involvement in me.” [ 69 ]. The resulting scale showed strong reliability (Cronbach’s a = .865).

In line with the first experimental study, participants were asked to evaluate the reporter, Leslie Stahl, based upon their overall impressions of her, as well as how credible, appropriate, and likable she appeared in this video (Cronbach’s a = .919). Participants were also asked to evaluate Ronald Reagan’s leadership traits in terms of his competence , based upon measures of how sincere, aggressive, strong, active, competent he appeared to be (Cronbach’s a = .826). We also consider perceptions of his warmth with questions regarding how intelligent, caring, trustworthy, agreeable, and warm he appeared to be during the news story (Cronbach’s a = .908). All these were measured on a seven-point (0–6) scale ranging from “Not at all” to “Extremely”.

Change in emotional response from immediately before watching the video to immediately afterwards using repeated-measures ANOVA suggests that the video had a significant effect on how participants felt across all emotions (see Table 1 ). There was a small effect with a slight increase in fear (pre M = 1.567, se = .092; post M = 1.775, se = .097); sadness likewise showed a slight increase (pre M = 1.600, se = .088; post M = 2.059, se = .101) with a small-to-medium effect size, whereas felt anxiety decreased (pre M = 3.177, se = .115; post M = 2.719, se = .112) to a small-to-medium extent due to the video.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301324.t001

Emotions associated with pleasantness and positive appraisal all decreased as a result of the video, showing either medium-to-large (proud pre-M = 4.002, se = .129) or large (reassured pre-M = 3.412, se = .122; post-M = 2.174, se = .105; happy pre-M = 5.843, se = .108; post-M = 4.272, se = .122). For their part, the negative appraisal emotions of irritated (pre-M = 1.786, se = .093; post-M = 3.101, se = .114), disgusted (pre-M = 1.023, se = 077; post-M = 2.540, se = .116) and anger (pre-M = 1.070, se = .076; post-M = 2.173, se = .116) all increase with the video having a large effect size.

While all emotional state measures changed because of the video, only anger was affected by the treatment condition. As can be expected, the least amount of increased anger came in the treatment with all three laughter elements present; while the four other treatments between the video with laughter and with it removed failed to reach statistical significance.(M = 1.626, se = .172, p =.ns; vs M = 1.567, se = .170, p = ns), significant differences only occurred when anger in the laughter-present video (M = 1.223, se = .181) was compared with all laughter absent (M = 1.745, se = 167, p = .034) and with the first treatment condition in which the first laughter utterance was removed (M = 1.948, se = .167, p = .004).

Participant ratings of Leslie Stahl in a similar manner suggested the treatment had little effect. Specifically, the index considering overall performance, perceived credibility, appropriateness, and likability, exhibited no significant violations of homogeneity ( F [4, 686] = 1.070, p = ns) according to the Levene’s test. Analysis of the index shows participants were largely unaffected by whether there was laughter present, faded, or removed entirely ( F [4, 686] = 0.387, p = ns). Likewise, Stahl’s perceived aggressiveness ( F [2, 280] = .174, p = ns) failed to reach statistical significance.

Similarly, participants did not seem to notice a difference between the different videos. When asked “how believable did you find the video clip to be,” there was no significant difference between the treatments ( F = .242, p = ns). In combination with the preceding findings, there was not apparently a cognitively perceived effect from the video as participants were not aware of the treatment.

Analysis of the effect of laughter and its removal from the video treatment on evaluation of Ronald Reagan’s leadership traits does not replicate the first experiment. Tests for homogeneity of variance regarding the competence index finds no significant violations ( F [4, 686] = 1.682, p = ns). The between-subjects ANOVA between the five groups does not reveal significant differences: F [4, 686] = 1.313, p = ns.

Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance revealed a significant violation ( F [4, 686] = 2.480, p = .043) when considering the index of Reagan’s warmth . When the Brown-Forsythe robust test was used, no significant between-subjects effects across the five humour groups was revealed: F [4, 686] = 1.299, p = ns. Likewise, while with perceptions of Reagan’s charisma no significant violations of homogeneity of variance were found using Levene’s test ( F [4, 686] = 1.919, p = ns); no significant between-subjects effects across the five humour groups was revealed; F [4, 686] = .516, p = ns.

Finally, as a control item a single measure of how humorous participants thought Reagan to be was included. Significant violations of homogeneity were found with the Levene test ( F [4, 686] = 5.377, p < .001), yet no significant differences between the groups were seen, F [4, 686] = .589, p = ns, when the Brown-Forsythe robust test was used.

The second study provides insight regarding the importance of the population used and methods employed. First, by using a more representative sample in terms of age, with the first study’s average age being twenty-one years old, and the second study’s average age of thirty-nine years old, we can expect that perceptions of President Ronald Reagan, to be well-established for good or bad. While a historical figure, allowing us to carry out an experiment over a long period of time without worries over external validity, Reagan remains a powerful political symbol in terms of social identity. Indeed, when considering the distributions on the constructs of charisma and warmth, eight percent of participants held a ceiling perception of him on both measures. Thus, even though age, gender, and party identity were randomly distributed through the different treatments, the likelihood of such a weak treatment—between less than a second of laughter to six seconds of laughter—embedded within a roughly five-minute video having an effect was diminished.

Second, the use of trait measures may not be sensitive enough to capture contemporaneous stimuli, especially regarding well known figures (and even those not so well known as in the case of Leslie Stahl). That we found significant and predictable change in all the participant emotional state self-report measures prior to and after watching the video, and that anger was most affected by the absence of laughter, both overall and in Reagan’s response to the heckler, suggests that the presence of laughter does have an effect on participants–even ones with strongly held opinions.

General discussion

Our findings cohere with the expectations of Vraga and colleagues [ 53 ] that when people have limited information to deal with ambiguous situations, they will rely upon subtle signals–especially those socially influential and reliable indicators of positive regard as audience laughter. In this paper, we find two substantially different groups of study participants responding in line with Vraga and colleagues’ results, as the much younger–and likely less politically knowledgeable–study 1 participants used audience laughter, or its absence, as a factor in their evaluating Ronald Reagan’s warmth and, to a lesser extent, competence. The older and more politically experience and involved experimental study 2 participants were not affected by audience laughter’s presence or absence in their evaluation of Reagan’s leadership traits. This was likely due to either experiencing Reagan as an active and polarizing political figure or as seeing him as a historically relevant political figure.

The second, subtle, and perhaps more compelling indicator that audience laughter does have an effect on participants lies with the indicators of appraised emotion. In the first experiment, there were between-subject treatment differences in felt irritation, with participants feeling less irritated when viewing the video with the laughter in than with the video with the laughter removed or faded out. While experimental study 2 participants felt irritation was not significantly affected, their felt anger was. In other words, the older and more politically experienced participants had a response in the same emotion family that replicated that of irritation, with those not hearing audience laughter more angry than those who did hear audience laughter, and both studies having similar effect sizes. Furthermore, the experimental extension in the second study, which teased out the effects of the success–as measured by audience laughter or its absence–of humorous statements found that Reagan’s aggressive quip in response to protesters (“I’ll raise his taxes”) had the strongest treatment effect when post-hoc comparisons were made, stronger even than all laughter removed. This suggests, in line with Stewart’s [ 60 ] finding that other-deprecating and aggressive humour, including ridicule, can be dangerous for a leader if supporters are not there to respond to a quip or joke with laughter.

Taken together, these findings point to a greater awareness of how even very subtle stimuli might affect various measures differently, especially given distinct populations. Having multiple measures thus not only makes sense in assessing discriminant validity of treatment effects it also provides for greater comprehension of how individual differences exhibit themselves. Because the traits of warmth, competence, and charisma can be seen as the crystallization of emotional appraisals in response to individuals over a period of time—albeit one that is more malleable in the absence of pre-existing information–choosing and paying attention to distinct measures based upon population characteristics makes eminent sense when planning a study. It also points towards the more extensive use of highly responsive measures of affect, such as provided by psychophysiology, when crafting an experiment and viewing appraisal and response as a continuum affected by multiple internal and external factors.

Conclusions

Perhaps the most pertinent finding from this paper pertains to the use of an externally valid stimulus that, while nearly forty years old, still resonates today both in experimental effects and lessons imparted. First, historically relevant stimuli remain impactful, as can be seen by the cornerstone work by Fein, Goethals, and Kugler [ 9 ] upon which this paper builds, as the fresh eyes (and brains) of undergraduates in our first experiment had their perceptions significantly affected nearly three decades after Ronald Reagan left the presidency. Perhaps more important is that such a minor treatment in our study–up to 5 ¾ seconds removed from a five-minute+ video–had a small-to-moderate effect size suggests that even perceived minor production choices can have subtle, yet impactful implications for the perceptions and choices of low-information voters reliant on the social influence of others. Despite the fact that the key news story was produced decades ago the use of humour is often seen in contemporary political settings. Future work exploring the social psychological effects of different types of humour that is displayed by politicians should focus on the interactions between humour types and the strength of the observable audience response. As we have shown here it is the interaction between the two that impacts audience perceptions, in turn likely shaping attitudes and, potentially, behaviour.

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Leadership Styles Lesson (Lesson Plan, Case Study, Questions & Answers)

Subject: Business and finance

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Lesson (complete)

Last updated

13 February 2024

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Lesson Plan: Leadership Styles in Action

Students will understand the different leadership styles, their characteristics, and how they are exemplified in real-world business scenarios. They will analyze case studies and engage in discussions to demonstrate their comprehension of each leadership style.

Materials Needed:

• Whiteboard and markers
• Chart paper and markers
• Website article

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