speech on formal language

Formal Vs Informal Speeches: An A-Z Guide

Hrideep barot.

• Public Speaking , Speech Writing , Workplace Communication

A speech is either formal or informal. Meaning, it can either be a formal address delivered to an audience or the daily use of grammar and words to communicate. The only purpose of either of those speeches is to put across a message well enough to invoke the desired response from your audience. Throughout history, humans all across the world cleverly inspired world-wide revolutions solely through the power of speech. Since then, a lot of tools and techniques of speeches have developed to ensure we use this power to its maximum capacity.  

The two broad classifications of events we use speeches are called formal events and informal events. Therefore, depending on the kind of audience, the situation, the message, the tone and the environment, the orator must decide whether they should address a formal speech or an informal speech. Working out where you use what kind of speech is the most important aspect of being a good communicator.

Formal Speeches

What are formal speeches.

Formal Speeches are made when you’re speaking to a sizable audience you don’t personally know. These are professional events where you’re expected to make a good impression on the audience. The nature of these events is often serious and decorous. These events therefore demand a similar respectable tone of language and speech.

For example, while at a job interview, speaking to an individual of authority, delivering a lecture, making a presentation, giving a pitch, motivating the audience, hosting a business event etc., you must ensure you speak formally. 

What makes a speech formal?

Formal speeches are also called orations. They are used in situations that are more ‘serious.’ They project a specific tone and specific characteristics. A few basic tools and attributes of formal speeches are:

The tone of a formal speech is always polite and respectful. Since formal speeches are mainly used to communicate with people in authority or strangers, it is important to structure your sentences suitably. The use of civilised words, appropriate grammar, complete sentences and enhanced vocabulary maintains the decorum of a formal speech.

Objectiveness

A formal communication style usually takes no stances. The sentence is spoken in a passive voice with a minimum use of personal pronouns. When we avoid using personal pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘We’ and ‘You’, the essence of the point changes from being an opinion to a fact. Therefore, the content of your speech sounds more objective than subjective.

Effectiveness

A formal speech is more effective than an informal speech because it comprises longer sentences and clear, non-colloquial phrases. It is well-spoken and the pronunciations are fathomable and precise. Its adherence to the Standard English language makes it comprehensible for the entire audience, even the non-native English speakers. It therefore proves to be extremely effective, suitable for a workplace or a business environment.

Standard English Language

A formal speech naturally follows the standards and rules formally set by the language. Languages tend to have regional differences and additional local slang to them. Even within England, British English and Scottish English tend to have different dialects and colloquial. For example, maybe phrases like “sure-fire” or “works like a charm” are deemed normal at your workplace but you cannot expect a non-English speaking trader to know them. When we adhere to the Standard English prescribed by Oxford, everybody who has academically learnt the English language is able to understand what one is trying to say.

The generous use of long sentences, no contractions, minimum abbreviations, proper grammar, complex sentence structure, clear pronunciation and overall objectiveness of the information brings a lot of clarity to one’s speech. There is seldom any room for doubts or misunderstandings. The extensive use of impersonal and formal language brings out professionalism and makes your information more credible.

What should you NOT include in a Formal Speech

The obvious ways of distinguishing between a formal speech and an informal speech are determined through the process of elimination. The following are a few things that you shouldn’t include in a formal speech:

Casual Greeting

There are a number of ways you can greet a person. Each kind of greeting has formal and informal versions that you can use based on how well you know the person and what degree of professionalism you are required to maintain with that person. For example,

• Formal: Hello, how do you do?
• Informal: Hey, how are ya?
• Formal: Nice to meet you/ Pleased to meet you.
• Informal: Good to see you.
• Formal: How have you been?
• Informal: Long time no see!

Slangs and Colloquialism

Slangs include a language that’s peculiar to a particular group, a regional reference, or even curse words. It’s extremely important to keep slang words at bay when you’re delivering a formal speech. A formal tone prescribes standard, professional English language. For example,

• Informal: Stats say, stress is the reason why this workplace is always screwing up.
• Formal: According to statistics, stress is one of the most frequent factors that disrupts efficiency and encourages problems in the workplace.
• Informal: Know yourself honestly and well enough to find what stresses you out.
• Formal: Being candid with ourselves is the most effective way to establish the triggers of stress we experience.

Contractions

Contracting words and sentences assert an informal and casual tone. If you are aiming to sound professional and polished, avoiding contractions is recommended. For example,

• Informal: I’ve had enough, I don’t think I’m gonna let this slide the next time.
• Formal: Your limit has been surpassed, I do not think this mistake will go unpunished the next time.

Personal Pronouns

The main characteristics of a formal speech are its impersonal nature and the precise, passive and objective delivery of information. While writing a formal speech, avoid using pronouns altogether. However, if required, try using neutral pronouns such as ‘one.’ For example,

• Informal: I was alarmed when I found out the effects of stress.
• Formal: The effects of stress were found to be quite alarming.
• Informal: You shouldn’t stress out about the things you can’t control.
• Formal: One shouldn’t take stress about the things beyond one’s control.

Poor Vocabulary

Gather your thesaurus before you write your formal speech because the better your vocabulary, more formal the content of your speech sounds. While both your sentences would mean the same thing, the tone in which they are delivered would classify them as informal speeches or formal speeches. For example,

• Informal: He took the item back to the shop.
• Formal: He returned the item to the shop.
• Informal: The CEO of this company gave up his position because his mental health was being affected.
• Formal: The CEO of this company relinquished his position due to his mental health being compromised.

How should you structure a Formal Speech?

The basic structure of a formal speech is no different than the structure of an essay. Organising your speech not only improves the clarity of thought but also amplifies the effectiveness of your content. A formal speech includes an introduction, a body and a conclusion.

The Introduction

A formal introduction establishes a respectful contact between the speaker and the listener. The introduction should last for one minute at the most. It should sound deferential and strictly adhere to formal English. How should you begin a formal speech?

The Greeting

The introduction of a formal speech can typically begin with a greeting. After wishing ‘good morning’ or ‘good evening’ depending on the time of the day, you may introduce yourself humbly. You can thank the organisers of the event for inviting you to speak or compliment a senior member of the event to pay respect. 

Acknowledging the Audience

It is polite to thank the audience for gathering to hear you out. Greet them with a genuine smile and express what an honour it is to be speaking before them today. After all, they have sacrificed their precious time to be here today.

Placing your Claim

The introduction is the most crucial segment of your speech. The curiosity you are able to pique in this part decides how much audience you will retain throughout your speech. It is extremely important you place your claim in the most catchy manner. Even in a formal speech, you can use quotes, rhetorical devices, imagery, startling elements, stories or even silence. As long as the language used is respectful, professional and follows the formal English, it can be a good opener for a formal speech. 

In case you’re looking for a few creative ways you can open your speech, you can refer to our blogpost for help!

The body makes up everything you have to say about the claim you placed in the introduction. It can have additional facts, supporting arguments and other temporal modes of organising your information. The temporal modes of organising information can be:

• Cause-effect relation in past, present or future tense
• Effect-cause relation which is basically inverting it and highlighting the effects before you state how they are achieved.
• Compare and contrast your entities.
• Narrate your topics as a story by organising the flow of the speech by finding relation and joint-relevance between two topics.
• Subdividing a large chunk of information into headings and subheadings is also a good topical way to organise your information formally.

The Conclusion

How do you end a formal speech? The conclusion follows the transition that was laid down by the body. The two main aims of a conclusion are to summarise the ideas of the speech and provide a closure. The conclusion of any formal speech can include:

• A summary of the speech.
• A ‘Now-What?’ statement elucidating the takeaway of the speech for the audience.
• A reference back to the introduction of the speech.
• An open-ended question to ponder upon.

If the last line of your speech is as important as the introduction segment where you make the claim. The weight and impact of the last sentence decides how memorable your speech would be. If you don’t feel like dropping the mic after the last sentence of your speech, maybe it’s not as mind-blowing and impactful as it ideally should be. 

If you are looking to seek more advice on how you can structure your formal speeches more professionally , be sure to check out our guidelines.

Informal Speeches

Informal speeches are casual and relaxed. They are made while talking to friends, colleagues or people you personally know. There are no hard and fast rules while making an informal speech other than somehow conveying the message you want to convey. 

What makes a speech informal?

Informal speeches radiate a very comfortable and relaxed energy. They’re friendlier than formal speeches and they often carry the personality of the person addressing them. A few characteristics that can help you identify informal speeches are:

Since casual speeches don’t require a very strict preparation like formal speeches, they are often easygoing. Informal speeches are made sporadically and are mostly off the record. The level of ease informal speeches carry can differ from person to person given how extroverted they are, or how comfortable they are with the audience. 

Informal speeches sound colourful. In the sense, the speaker is given the liberty to express themselves as they truly are. They don’t have a monotonous tone like formal speeches. The speaker can add their own slang, phrases they normally use, their personality, their dialects and in general make the speech as entertaining and fun as they please. 

Informal speeches give you the artistic and comedic liberty to put forth your message. While formal speeches usually adhere to the strictness of sounding ‘serious’ and ‘professional’, informal speeches are like laid back and pleasurable conversations.

You do not normally talk in complex sentence structures or dramatically use vocabulary. Likewise, informal speeches are often simple and straightforward. They use short sentences and terms and references from day-to-day life. You may use words and phrases like ‘that’s dope’, ‘don’t be salty’, ‘bruh’, ‘I’m shook’, ‘No cap’ etc. 

Informal speech is used in day-to-day life. Unlike other languages, most English speakers tend to speak informally with strangers on the street. While they’re friendly, they might not necessarily be polite if the listener cannot interpret the tone of your speech. 

Since informal speeches are more often used in everyday life, they don’t really have a structure. They do not require an introduction, a body or a conclusion. Apart from the unspoken rules of exchanging pleasantries and courtesy, you do not need to ‘prepare’ anything formal, just have the idea of what you want to say in mind.

A few examples of informal speeches would be:

• A Best Man’s Speech for his Brother’s Wedding: In this example, the occasion is properly informal. The speaker is amongst friends and family, speaking about his brother and his new wife. It is hilarious and also contains a poem to deliver the message!

• A Valedictorian Speech for the Class of 2010: In this example, while the occasion is formal, the speaker has very cleverly added a subtle informal tone while still maintaining the collective polite structure. He framed all inside jokes in a way everybody could understand. It was overall confident, humorous, ingenious and a great valedictorian speech.

What are the Main Differences Between Formal and Informal Speeches?

The following table elucidates the main differences between formal and informal speeches, summarising all its characteristics.

Case Study: A Sales Pitch

Let’s study the an applied example of formal and informal speeches. The above video is a sales pitch for electric cars. There are two characters in this video, each used in informal speech and formal speech respectively. Let us analyse both their speeches to understand how you can implement the two styles in your communication. 

Informal Speech

The first man uses an informal style of speech. He begins his speech by saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, electric cars. They’re totally gay.” Naturally, in a work environment where formal tones are expected, the opening statement left all the members of the meeting stupefied. They found his speech disrespectful and all the faces around the room were either shocked, perplexed or disapproving. The casual tone could have easily been found offensive on the pretext of homophobia. He also says things like ‘rock-and-roll-ness’, ‘sexiness of the car’, ‘this model took more virginities than Francis Albert Sinatra’, which can come across as rather controversial in a formal business meeting. Gradually, the informal and blunt approach did work out for the salesperson. However, the chances of it being successful are bleak and you could just be overruled any time. Using a formal tone is therefore a safer option.

Formal Speech

The second man in the film, referred to as Nicholas, takes over and summarises the pitch using formal speech. He uses statements like, ‘We believe we can produce the technology to incorporate an electric motor in your current model.’ He said the exact same thing the first man was trying to communicate but in a far more classy manner. Instead of calling it ‘sexy’ or ‘rock-and-roll’, he refers to its features as ‘exhilarating’ and ‘aggressive’, making the experience ‘visceral’ and retaining a manly retro element of the car than making it look ‘gay’. 

This example distinguishing formal speech with informal speech hopefully gives you a thorough idea of what they are. However, when should you use formal speech? And when should you give an informal speech?

Should you use Formal Speech or Informal Speech?

Knowing what speech is best suited for the given situation always depends on the context. You should be intelligent enough to be able to recognize situations that demand a formal tone and situations that can be handled casually.

Generally, informal speeches are made at weddings while giving a toast or at birthdays to express love etc. Formal speeches are made in professional settings, work places, educational institutes, talking to authorities, job interviews, business meetings, negotiations, elders or people you don’t know.  

However, sometimes in job interviews, the interviewer can be looking for what your personality is like. In situations like this, you need to tone down how formally you talk. Some corporate cultures embrace a casual and informal tone in their business affairs while some companies prefer individuals who can maintain a strong formal and professional persona. 

When you are doubtful about what speech to use, always stick to formal speech. While informal speech is friendly, formal speech is polite. It establishes goodwill and credibility. Although it’s not good to be overly formal either. Saying “Greetings, let me guide you through the floorplans of this building so you can navigate the office easily.” is frankly absurd and foolish. Being too formal can also come across as cold, distant and ironically even impolite. You do not want to be a robot. Sometimes saying, “Good morning, allow me to give you an office tour.” does just the right thing.

To Conclude,

A good communicator can not only convey any kind of message to their audience but also convey their message to any kind of audience. And in order to achieve this, a good communicator is the master of the art of speech as well as the master of knowing the audience and what tone they would appreciate. 

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Formal Speech Style Examples

Formal speech is used in professional settings, such as business meetings, presentations and job interviews; it’s important to stay aware of your audience when using a formal style of speaking . This article will explain the various types of formal speech style examples available and how they should be used.

Formal speech style examples include using the active voice, avoiding slang and colloquialisms, using precise language to express ideas, and correctly using grammar in written form. When speaking in a formal setting, staying professional is key: use language that is measured and respectful.

If you are looking to improve your formal speech, you’re in the right place! Read on to learn more about formal speech style and how it can be used in the right situations.

4 Main Formal Speech Style Examples

1. using the active voice.

The active voice is when the subject of the sentence performs an action. This makes the sentence simpler to understand and is a common choice when speaking formally. For example: “I took out the trash.” or “The board approved the proposal.”.

This is important because it helps to ensure that your message is clear, and avoids any confusion.

2. Avoiding slang and colloquialisms

Slang and colloquialisms should be avoided when speaking formally in order to present information professionally. Instead of using informal words such as “gonna” or “wanna”, use words that are standard English such as “going to” or “want to”.

Instead of using sayings like “That’s a cool idea!” try using language that is more neutral yet still communicates the same message. For example, instead use: “That’s an interesting idea!”

3. Using precise language to express ideas

Formal speech should be clear, concise and direct – use precise language to effectively communicate your message without any confusion or ambiguity. This means avoiding long and drawn out sentences and using words that are specific enough to get the point across. For example: “The survey results show an increase in customer satisfaction.”

4. Correctly using grammar in written form

In a formal setting, it is especially important to use proper grammar and punctuation – this shows that you are knowledgeable and professional. It’s worth taking the time to double-check your work before submitting it or presenting it to ensure everything is correct.

These are just a few formal speech style examples, but the key takeaway is to stay professional and respectful when speaking in a formal setting.

The 5 Different Types of Speech Styles

How to Prepare and Deliver a Great Memorized Speech

An Easy Guide to All 15 Types of Speech

Why is formal speech important.

Formal speech is important in many situations, as it helps ensure that the messages are clear, concise and respectful. Not only does this make it easier for people to understand what’s being said but it also shows respect for the other person or persons involved.

Formal language can also help create a more professional atmosphere which can be beneficial if you want to come across in a positive light. Additionally, using formal language demonstrates that you have good command of the English language and are knowledgeable on a subject matter – both of which can help you stand out from the crowd!

Understanding how to effectively communicate in a formal setting will show your audience that you are confident and capable, and can help you to make an impactful impression.

The table below shows various settings where formal speech is crucial:

Note: The formal speech examples provided in the above table are hypothetical examples and may not reflect the specific language used in real-life situations. Additionally, the language used in formal speech can vary depending on the specific cultural and social norms of a given setting.

What are examples of formal and informal speech?

Formal speech is typically characterized by precise language, correct grammar and punctuation, respect for other individuals, and an overall professional atmosphere. Examples of formal speech include business meetings, lectures, interviews, presentations and speeches. 

Informal speech is more casual in nature and can be characterized by the use of slang words or colloquialisms as well as a more relaxed attitude towards grammar and punctuation. Examples of informal speech include conversations with friends, family, or acquaintances.

What are the two examples of formal writing?

Two examples of formal writing are business letters and academic essays. Business letters should adhere to a specific format and be written in a professional tone, using appropriate language and grammar. 

Academic essays typically require the use of precise language, correct grammar and punctuation, as well as an overall professional attitude towards the subject matter. Both types of formal writing also require research and the use of reliable sources to back up any claims made.

In conclusion, formal speech is an important skill that everyone should strive to master. Being able to effectively communicate in a professional manner will serve you well whether you are delivering a presentation or engaging in everyday conversations. By following the tips outlined above, you’ll be sure to impress those around you with your confident and polished speaking style !

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Formal Versus Informal English: 6 Key Differences with Example Sentences

Like many languages, English has a formal and informal register (how a language is used in different situations).

Knowing the differences between the two can significantly improve your level of fluency .

So how do you, say, talk to a superior versus a close family member in English?

We cover all that (and more) in the post below!

Formal Versus Informal English: Definitions and Differences

Contractions, phrasal verbs, colloquialisms and slang, first-person pronouns, everyday phrases in formal and informal english, and one more thing....

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

• Formal English is the standard and polished form of English used in academic, business and similar contexts (like communications from the government, for example). You use it for people in a higher position than you (like your teacher or boss) or complete strangers—as well as academic or business writing, interviews and presentations.
• Informal English  is used in everyday conversations and written communication in places like social media. You use it with family members, friends and peers (people who are your social equals) in casual settings. 

Here are some formal English phrases you can use and their informal counterparts:

As you can see from the video, formal English uses correct grammar and vocabulary appropriate for the context . Meanwhile, informal English uses contractions, colloquialisms, slang and the like.  

In case you’re wondering what “contractions,” “colloquialisms” and “slang” are, you’re in luck: that’s what we’ll cover in the next sections!

Contractions are common in informal language. Usually, they are two words merged together and are characterized  (differentiated from others) by an apostrophe ( ‘ ). 

Here are some of the most common contractions in the English language.

A phrasal verb is an  idiomatic phrase that consists of a verb and another element, typically an adverb or preposition. Phrasal verbs are more common in informal contexts than formal ones.

Here are some examples:

Colloquialisms and slang are  words and phrases regarded as very informal and rarely used in written speech. They typically vary between groups of people, regions, professions or age groups. 

In the English-speaking world, Americans use different slang from Brits (slang word for people from Britain) and Aussies (slang word for people from Australia), such as:

To paraphrase (explain in my own words) the definition from the Merriam-Webster dictionary , an idiom is an expression in which you can’t easily guess the actual meaning from the words used.  

Here are examples of idioms commonly found in informal conversations:

In informal contexts, first-person pronouns (I and we ) are more frequently used—this makes for sentences that use the active voice. On the other hand, you’ll typically see passive voice in formal settings, particularly in official or academic writing. 

Here are examples of sentences using first-person pronouns, along with their more formal versions. Notice how different they come across, even though they say the same thing!

If you want more examples (and need some handy phrases you can use for friends versus your boss), here’s another table for you!0

And if you want to see these phrases in action, you can browse any of the videos from FluentU ‘s library.

Learning the differences between formal and informal English will go a long way in improving your grasp of the language. The better you master words and phrases from both registers, the more natural your speech will sound and the more confident you’ll feel!  

If you like learning English through movies and online media, you should also check out FluentU. FluentU lets you learn English from popular talk shows, catchy music videos and funny commercials , as you can see here:

If you want to watch it, the FluentU app has probably got it.

The FluentU app and website makes it really easy to watch English videos. There are captions that are interactive. That means you can tap on any word to see an image, definition, and useful examples.

FluentU lets you learn engaging content with world famous celebrities.

For example, when you tap on the word "searching," you see this:

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Learn all the vocabulary in any video with quizzes. Swipe left or right to see more examples for the word you’re learning.

FluentU helps you learn fast with useful questions and multiple examples. Learn more.

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How to Run a Formal Conversation in English (With Example Phrases)

Enhance your professional image with our guide to formal conversation basics. Ensure your communication skills reflect your professionalism!

Intermediate

Formal Greetings

Conversation starters, phrases to express your opinion, phrases to express agreement or disagreement, how to (politely) interrupt a person speaking, how to say goodbye formally, additional tips, the bottom line.

You have probably noticed that there are many things in English that you can separate into casual and formal: clothing, events, and even relationships. Conversations are no exception.

Every English learner should master different communication styles with other people to be able to hold conversations of different levels of importance — and with people of different levels of familiarity.

You need to keep proper expressions in mind to be able to use them depending on the situation. Sometimes, just a few words are all it takes to turn the conversation in a completely different direction. Choosing the right ones at the right time will allow you to show yourself as a professional at all times.

Below, you will find a step-by-step guide to maintaining a formal conversation in English, along with helpful tips. Let's begin!

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Any conversation begins with a greeting. Formal greetings in English are appropriate when you communicate with colleagues, business partners, as well as people you meet for the first time.

When meeting new people, you need to find out the person's name, give your name in response, and say that you are pleased to meet them .

Here is a set of phrases for a formal greeting:

Possible responses to the formal greeting:

Make sure to check our post about the difference between "How are you?" and "How are you doing?" to find out which one is suitable for the business environment and which one to use in less formal settings.

If you did not hear what the other person said, ask them to repeat using one of the phrases :

After you have greeted the person, you need to continue the conversation . When talking to a friend, you are likely to quickly find a topic of conversation. However, if you have just met a person at an official event, it is necessary to establish contact between you and your new acquaintance .

We've already discussed the basic rules for running a small talk in the previous article . Although they refer to more casual chatting, they are also applicable to a given setting, so make sure to check them as well.

At a formal event (contrasting small talk or everyday conversations), you can use the following phrases to start a formal conversation in English:

Once you have the person’s attention, it is important to be able to keep the conversation going . Most likely, your new acquaintance will ask a question or will be interested in your point of view on a topic. To answer them, you need to know how to express your opinion in a polite manner .

Here are several phases suitable for both formal and casual speech:

At an official event, try to formulate your thoughts more carefully and less emotionally than when communicating with friends. For example:

First of all, let's figure out how you can agree with someone in English .

All the phrases listed below are appropriate in both formal and informal settings. They are neutral : if you are at a business event or a meeting, say them in a calm tone, and at a party with friends, you can get a little bit emotional.

Choose a phrase to agree with the person in a proper way:

When you want to express disagreement in a professional context, you need to be very polite to avoid offending the other person , especially if you have just met them or are at an official event.

We recommend using the following expressions of disagreement in a formal English conversation:

Interrupting someone without offending them is a real skill. Of course, it is important to note that you should not interrupt the speaker and wait until they are finished to express your opinion .

However, if it's necessary to intervene in the conversation, make sure to say "Excuse me!" first and then use one of the following examples:

After you have expressed your opinion, do not forget to pass the word back to the person . To do this, you can say:

After the conversation, you need to say goodbye to your new acquaintance . Of course, the standard " Goodbye! " is suitable for almost any given setting. However, you can say goodbye with other phrases as well.

Here is a list of expressions for ending a formal conversation in English:

As you already know, the formal style is used in an official setting —  when communicating at conferences and presentations, conducting business negotiations , writing documents, corporate emails, and scientific articles.

You should follow several rules to make the speech sound formal:

Avoid Using Contractions

In formal writing, there is no place for contractions like “I'm,” “I'd,” or “I don't.” Instead, use the complete forms of the words : “I am,” “I would,” and “I do not.”

Moreover, the use of contractions is one of the primary reasons for the most common misspellings — for example, confusing " their " and " they're ."

Misspellings can hurt the initial meaning of a sentence and make you look unprofessional .

What Does “Duly Noted” Mean?

Speaking of misspellings, let's take a closer look at the formal go-to phrase " duly noted ," which means that something is properly recorded or taken into proper consideration, i.e., in strict accordance with requirements. The word “duly” alone means something is done in a due manner or time, e.g., “duly elected” or “duly apologized.”

Its common misspellings include "dually noted," "dully noted," and "duelly noted." " Dually " means a double capacity, while " dully " means something is done in a boring manner. And if you’ll ever see “duelly noted” written, just know it's an incorrect spelling of “duly noted.”

Is “Duly Noted” Rude?

When spelled correctly, you can use "duly noted" in a formal speech in the meaning of simple acknowledgment of an opinion or action. That's why you also don't want to confuse the word "duly" with "dully" — to avoid letting someone know you barely consider what they're saying.

Moreover, "duly noted" can also be used sarcastically, meaning that something is heard and ignored rather than taken into appropriate consideration. It’s not necessarily rude, but you should pay close attention to the context in which you use the phrase "duly noted."

Avoid Using Slang and Phrasal Verbs

When holding a formal conversation, there are a few things you should avoid to make it sound appropriate. Some of these things include:

• Avoiding slang and colloquial expressions . This point is pretty obvious: it is difficult to imagine a business partner who calls you "bro."If you want to ask how the representative of the partner company is doing, it is unlikely that you will say, "What's up?" And in response, you will not receive the colloquial "Yourself?" but a polite "Thank you, very well."
• Avoiding phrasal verbs . Phrasal verbs should be replaced by regular ones. For example, in an official setting, you are unlikely to hear "the inflation rate went up ." Instead, it would be better to say "the inflation rate increased ." In addition, avoiding phrasal verbs reduces your chances of making mistakes because they can be very confusing for non-native speakers.

Use the Passive Voice

The formal English language uses not only long phrases but also complex grammatical constructions . If you have started to express an idea, make sure to develop it, support it with clear arguments, justify it and bring it to a conclusion .

In addition, formal emails and oral speech allow you to use the passive voice much more often than in casual conversation, as it is more suitable for an official setting. The reason is that the active voice personifies speech, while the passive voice has a more formal connotation , compare:

• You are invited to the conference.
• We invite you to the conference.

As you can see, the first option sounds more discreet and respectful.

If you want to speak formally, do not forget to use complex sentence structures (for example, independent clause + at least one adverbial phrase), participial phrases, conditional sentences, etc.

Use Special Terminology

Each industry has its own specifics, so try to use the appropriate jargon or vocabulary. For example, if you work for an accounting firm and check the financial statements of a business, it would be appropriate to say " audit " instead of " check ."

Try to use specific, industry-related words in an official setting and business correspondence — your English speaking skills will not only benefit from this, but the person you’re speaking to will also be pleasantly surprised.

Avoid Speaking for Yourself

If you are writing a business letter or conducting business negotiations, try to avoid expressions such as " I think " and " in my opinion ."

As a rule, you should speak on behalf of the company you work for — talk less about yourself and your personal opinion, and contact business partners as a representative of the company.

Here are the example sentences:

Be Discreet and Inclusive

Last but not least. Formal speech is an example of ethical, respectful, and inclusive communication . Choose your words carefully to avoid offending the people you’re addressing.

To write and speak inclusively, make sure to follow these principles:

• Use gender-neutral language and pronouns, such as the singular "they."
• Avoid gendered group language, such as "you guys."
• Avoid stereotyping and making neither positive nor negative generalizations.
• Avoid making assumptions regarding anyone’s sexuality or relationship status.
• Avoid outdated language .
• If you're not sure about something, ask!

As you can see, to maintain a formal conversation in the English language, you need to learn some common phrases that will help you start a conversation, and you’ll need to be careful with your choice of words. Fortunately, you don't have to memorize all the examples mentioned in this article — you can revisit it as frequently as you need to.

Furthermore, with practice, you will learn a lot of additional expressions from native English speakers and boost your English vocabulary.

If you're interested in expanding your vocabulary and picking proper phrasing, you can download our Langster app . It is full of bite-sized stories with grammar explanations for each, which will allow you to enjoy your English learning experience even more. See for yourself:

Click this box for a free Langster story

Ellis is a seasoned polyglot and one of the creative minds behind Langster Blog, where she shares effective language learning strategies and insights from her own journey mastering the four languages. Ellis strives to empower learners globally to embrace new languages with confidence and curiosity. Off the blog, she immerses herself in exploring diverse cultures through cinema and contemporary fiction, further fueling her passion for language and connection.

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Writing a speech

Topic outline.

The purpose of a speech is often to inform or persuade an audience. 

Speeches are usually written to be spoken directly to an audience and can be used to entertain, influencing the listeners that the viewpoint of the speaker is correct. 

Speeches can also be used to encourage the audience to take action or to change their behaviour in some way; for example, to join a particular school club or society, or to recycle more. 

The ways you use language and vocabulary when writing the words of a speech will depend on the audience and the purpose you are writing for; for example, in a speech to a group of teachers and parents giving your views on a recent proposal, formal language is most appropriate.

• think about the audience that the speech is for  – are you giving your speech to a group of people you know, or do not know, or a mixture of both? If you know your audience well, you may be able to relax a little, but a speech is still a formal kind of talk and would usually not include slang
• whether your audience are likely to disagree with what you say – you will need to consider any possible objections and deal with them. Use language carefully to make objections seem less significant; for example, using phrases like ‘A few people may still think, however’
• the reason you are giving this speech and how you feel about this topic  – try to imagine the words of your speech as you would speak them out loud. Your tone of voice must match your message, so choose words that appeal to the emotions of your listeners. Focus on what you want your audience to know and feel by the end of your speech
• how to engage your listeners  – f or example, you might use inclusive words or phrases like ‘we’, ‘all of us’ and ‘our’ to make your listeners feel that you are all on the same side.
• Plan where you want to finish your speech and how you will get there before you start writing – t h e structure of a speech is usually in three parts. For example: 
• An opening that grabs your audience's attention and makes the overall topic of your speech clear  – for example, pose a question to the audience where you can predict the answer.
• A well-structured, supported and developed argument –  for example, to support your argument you might use real life examples or anecdotes.
• A powerful conclusion  –  for example, group your final words or ideas in threes to help make them memorable or end with a thought- provoking question or image and thank your audience for listening.
• Organise your ideas into paragraphs as appropriate – this will help you to develop and support your points convincingly, to build your argument and/or offer a full explanation of a particular point of view.
• S how the connectio ns between ideas in sentences and paragraphs  –  where a new point or idea follows on from what you have already said you might use linking words or phrases such as, ‘in addition’, ‘likewise’ or ‘similarly’.
• Example of a speech

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3.3: Formal and Informal Language

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 108259

• Lisa Coleman, Thomas King, & William Turner
• Southwest Tennessee Community College

Learning Outcomes

• Differentiate between informal and formal language.
• Determine the different types of informal language.
• Understand improper language and biased language.

Competent communicators adapt their words to their audience and the communication context. For example, in a text to your best friend, you are going to use more casual words and grammar than in a paper you turn in to your English professor. One of these contexts calls for formal language whereas informal language is fine for the other.

Formal vs. Informal Language

Formal language is official and academic language.  You should use formal language in papers, written discussions, tests, research papers, resumes, and cover letters. 

Informal Language

Informal language is a common, everyday language, which might include slang words. It is casual and continually changing. We use informal language when we talk to others, and when you look at your text messages, you will probably see several examples of informal language.

Jargon is the specialized or technical language of a specific group or profession that may not be understood by outsiders. If you are really into cars or computers, you probably know a lot about the different parts and functions as well as terms or jargon that a general audience wouldn’t understand. Jargon is usually appropriate when communicating with others in your profession or group but should be avoided unless you are certain the people you are speaking to are familiar with the terms. Your Dictionary.com provides a list of commonly heard jargon phrases used in the business world. ( https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-jargon-in-the-workplace.html ). 

• Blue-sky thinking - A creative idea that doesn't always have a practical application
• Think outside the box - Don't limit your thinking; use your creativity
• The helicopter view - An overview of a job or a project
• Drink our own champagne - A phrase meaning that a business will use the same product that they sell to their customers. The champagne is an indicator of a good product.
• Heavy lifting - The most difficult aspects of a project, as in, "Bill is doing all the heavy lifting for us!"
• Hammer it out - To type something up
• Win-win situation - A solution where all parties are satisfied with the results

Chances are you have heard a few of these jargon phrases, but others may be new to you. Take a minute and think through all of the jargon you hear on an average day.

Colloquialisms

What do you call a carbonated beverage?  Is it a soda, soft drink, a Coke, or a pop?  The colloquialism you use is most likely determined by where you grew up. Colloquialisms are informal words that vary from region to region. Examples might be “wanna” instead of “want to” or “gonna” instead of “going to.”

 How many of these colloquialisms do you use?

• Ballpark - used to describe something that is close to accurate
• Bomb - to do terribly on a test
• Flake - a person who cancels plans regularly or the act of regularly canceling plans
• Raincheck - a promise to reschedule plans that had to be canceled
• Ride shotgun - to sit in the front passenger seat of a car
• Go bananas, or go nuts – go insane or be very angry
• Pop into my head – to have a new thought
• Wanna – want to
• Y’all – you all
• Yinz – you all

Slang refers to informal words that are used within certain groups, such as young adults and teens. You most certainly use different slang expressions than your parents or grandparents. Slang is often used in conversations with those who are similar and have experience with each other and should be avoided in academic and professional writing (including emails), speeches and presentations, and even in class and group discussions (unless you are absolutely certain everyone else uses the same slang as you). How many of these slang expressions do you use?

• Bye Felicia (saying goodbye to someone you don’t like)
• The Tea (gossip)
• Bro (typically a male friend)
• Cash (money)
• Cheesy (cheap or tacky)
• Ship (wanting people to be in a relationship, whether real or fictional)
• Frenemy (someone who is both a friend and an enemy)
• Thirsty (being overly eager or desperate)
• Throw Shade (to insult another person)
• YOLO (you only live once)
• Woke (being acutely aware of social injustice within society)

What is common slang today could be completely outdated tomorrow? Dominic-Madori Davis gives examples of slang expressions from Gen. Z (people born 1997 ---) along with their Baby Boomer (people born 1946 – 1964) equivalent.

Gen Z: That movie was fire ; you have to check it out.                    Baby Boomer: I liked that movie; it was groovy .

Gen Z : You really look salty right now.  What happened?               Baby Boomer:  You really look hacked off .  What happened?

Gen Z : Their dress at prom was a lewk.                                        Baby Boomer : Yeah, they were all decked out.

Idioms are expressions or figures of speech that are used in everyday speech that has been given meaning over time because of common usage.  Idioms can be especially hard to grasp for new residents or citizens because the actual words in the idiom have very little relationship to the overall meaning of the phrase. Do you know the meaning of the following idioms?

• Stir up a hornet’s nest
• Bite off more than you can chew
• Under the weather
• Sat on a fence
• The ball is in your court

Clichés

A cliché is a once-clever word or phrase that has lost its impact through overuse. If you spoke or wrote in clichés, how would others react? Let’s try it. How do you react when you read this sentence: “A cliché is something to avoid like the plague, for it is nothing but a tired old warhorse, and if the shoe were on the other foot, you too would have an ax to grind”? As you can see, the problem with clichés is that they often sound silly or boring. Clichés are sometimes seen as a symptom of lazy communication—the person using the cliché hasn’t bothered to search for original words to convey the intended meaning. As a result, they can be obstacles to successful communication. Avoid cliches in academic or professional writing and speeches.

Textspeak is the language and spelling that people use when they are writing text messages.  Textspeak is fine in your personal life but is inappropriate for academic assessments and most communication in the workplace.  Most students realize that textspeak is inappropriate in essays and research papers, but the words and grammar still show up where they shouldn't, such as emails between students and instructors, or on classroom discussion boards.  Although emails and discussion boards are less formal than research papers, they still should be written with care and consideration for the reader.  It is important to use capital letters when called for and to use punctuation appropriately, important details that are often omitted in textspeak.

Mindfulness Activity

Researchers have found that when college students can address their emotions and are mindful of their feelings, it can enhance written communication with others. 31 After doing this activity, try to be more mindful of the things that you send to other people.

Key Takeaways

• Formal language is more careful and more mannered than everyday speech, whereas informal language is appropriate in casual conversation.
• Informal language includes (1) Jargon, or technical language; (2) Colloquialism, or informal expressions; (3) Slang, or nonstandard language; (4) Idioms, or expressions or figures of speech; (5) clichés, or sayings that are overused and predictable.
• Create a list of jargon or slang words that you use and what they mean. Ask your parents or grandparents to share some of the slang they grew up hearing.  Compare your lists. 
• Create a list of colloquialisms or idioms. Find an international student and see if these words make sense. What was confusing or unclear?
• Ask an international friend or classmate to share clichés that are used in his or her culture, or locate clichés through research. See if you can find an American equivalent of each cliché.

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3.3: Formal and Informal Language

Learning Objectives

• Explain the difference between informal and formal language.
• Identify and discuss the different types of informal language.
• Identify and explain improper language and biased language.

Competent communicators adapt their words to their audience and the communication context. For example, in a text to your best friend, you are going to use more casual words and grammar than in a paper you turn in to your English professor. One of these contexts calls for formal language whereas informal language is fine for the other.

Formal vs. Informal Language

Formal language  is official and academic language. You should use formal language in papers, written discussions, tests, research papers, resumes, and cover letters.

Informal Language

Informal language  is a common, everyday language, which might include slang words. It is casual and continually changing. We use informal language when we talk to others, and when you look at your text messages, you will probably see several examples of informal language.

Jargon  is the specialized or technical language of a specific group or profession that may not be understood by outsiders. If you are really into cars or computers, you probably know a lot about the different parts and functions as well as terms or jargon that a general audience wouldn’t understand. Jargon is usually appropriate when communicating with others in your profession or group but should be avoided unless you are certain the people you are speaking to are familiar with the terms. White (2022) provides a list of commonly heard jargon phrases used in the business world .

• Blue-sky thinking – A creative idea that doesn’t always have a practical application
• Think outside the box – Don’t limit your thinking; use your creativity
• The helicopter view – An overview of a job or a project
• Drink our own champagne – A phrase meaning that a business will use the same product that they sell to their customers. The champagne is an indicator of a good product.
• Heavy lifting – The most difficult aspects of a project, as in, “Bill is doing all the heavy lifting for us!”
• Hammer it out – To type something up
• Win-win situation – A solution where all parties are satisfied with the results

Chances are you have heard a few of these jargon phrases, but others may be new to you. Take a minute and think through all of the jargon you hear on an average day.

Colloquialisms

What do you call a carbonated beverage? Is it a soda, soft drink, a Coke, or a pop?  The colloquialism you use is most likely determined by where you grew up.  Colloquialisms  are informal words that vary from region to region. Examples might be “wanna” instead of “want to” or “gonna” instead of “going to.”

How many of these colloquialisms do you use?

• Ballpark – used to describe something that is close to accurate
• Bomb – to do terribly on a test
• Flake – a person who cancels plans regularly or the act of regularly canceling plans
• Raincheck – a promise to reschedule plans that had to be canceled
• Ride shotgun – to sit in the front passenger seat of a car
• Go bananas, or go nuts – go insane or be very angry
• Pop into my head – to have a new thought
• Wanna – want to
• Y’all – you all

Slang  refers to informal words that are used within certain groups, such as young adults and teens. You most certainly use different slang expressions than your parents or grandparents. Slang is often used in conversations with those who are similar and have experience with each other and should be avoided in academic and professional writing (including emails), speeches and presentations, and even in class and group discussions (unless you are absolutely certain everyone else uses the same slang as you). How many of these slang expressions do you use?

• The Tea (gossip)
• Bro (typically a male friend)
• Cash (money)
• Cheesy (cheap or tacky)
• Ship (wanting people to be in a relationship, whether real or fictional)
• Frenemy (someone who is both a friend and an enemy)
• Thirsty (being overly eager or desperate)
• Throw Shade (to insult another person)
• YOLO (you only live once)
• Woke (being acutely aware of social injustice within society)

Idioms  are expressions or figures of speech that are used in everyday speech that has been given meaning over time because of common usage. Idioms can be especially hard to grasp for new residents or citizens because the actual words in the idiom have very little relationship to the overall meaning of the phrase. Do you know the meaning of the following idioms?

• Stir up a hornet’s nest
• Bite off more than you can chew
• Under the weather
• Sat on a fence
• The ball is in your court

A  cliché  is a once-clever word or phrase that has lost its impact through overuse. If you spoke or wrote in clichés, how would others react? Let’s try it. How do you react when you read this sentence: “A cliché is something to avoid like the plague, for it is nothing but a tired old warhorse, and if the shoe were on the other foot, you too would have an ax to grind”? As you can see, the problem with clichés is that they often sound silly or boring. Clichés are sometimes seen as a symptom of lazy communication—the person using the cliché hasn’t bothered to search for original words to convey the intended meaning. As a result, they can be obstacles to successful communication. Avoid cliches in academic or professional writing and speeches.

Textspeak is the language and spelling that people use when they are writing text messages. Textspeak is fine in your personal life but is inappropriate for academic assessments and most communication in the workplace. Most students realize that textspeak is inappropriate in essays and research papers, but the words and grammar still show up where they shouldn’t, such as emails between students and instructors, or on classroom discussion boards. Although emails and discussion boards are less formal than research papers, they still should be written with care and consideration for the reader. It is important to use capital letters when called for and to use punctuation appropriately, important details that are often omitted in textspeak.

Key Terms & Concepts

• colloquialism
• formal language
• informal language

White, M. G. (2022, June 3). Examples of jargon in the workplace . YourDictionary.

Licensing and Attribution:  Content in this section is a combination of:

3.3: Formal and Informal Language  in  Competent Communication (2nd edition)  by Lisa Coleman, Thomas King, & William Turner. It is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA  license.

4.4: Improving Verbal Communication in  Interpersonal Communication by Jason S. Wrench, Narissra M. Punyanunt-Carter, and Katherine S. Thweatt is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Sociological Communication Copyright © 2023 by Veronica Van Ry is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Formal Languages: an Introduction and a Synopsis

• First Online: 04 January 2013

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• Alexandru Mateescu &
• Arto Salomaa  

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What is a language? By consulting a dictionary one finds, among others, the following explanations:

The body of words and systems for their use common to people who are of the same community or nation, the same geographical area, or the same cultural tradition.

Any set or system of signs or symbols used in a more or less uniform fashion by a number of people who are thus enabled to communicate intelligibly with one other.

Any system of formalized symbols, signs, gestures, or the like, used or conceived as a means of communicating thought, emotion, etc.

• Formal Language
• Regular Language
• Language Family
• Formal Language Theory
• Infinite Word

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

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A. Thue, “Über die gegenseitige Lage gleicher Teile gewisser Zeichenreihen”, Norske Vid. Selsk. Skr. , I Mat. Nat. Kl. , Kristiania, 1, (1912) 1–67.

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Mateescu, A., Salomaa, A. (1997). Formal Languages: an Introduction and a Synopsis. In: Rozenberg, G., Salomaa, A. (eds) Handbook of Formal Languages. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-59136-5_1

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Formal and informal language

Learn the difference between formal and informal language and when to use them.

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What is the difference between formal and informal language?

Formal and informal language serve different purposes. The tone, the choice of words and the way the words are put together vary between the two styles. Formal language is less personal than informal language. It is used when writing for professional or academic purposes like university assignments. Formal language does not use colloquialisms, contractions or first person pronouns such as ‘I’ or ‘We’.

Informal language is more casual and spontaneous. It is used when communicating with friends or family either in writing or in conversation. It is used when writing personal emails, text messages and in some business correspondence. The tone of informal language is more personal than formal language.

Examples of formal and informal language are shown below:

Contractions

Informal:    The improvements canʼt be introduced due to funding restrictions.

Formal:      Improvements cannot be introduced due to funding restrictions.

Informal:    I donʼt believe that the results are accurate.

Formal:       The results are not believed to be accurate.

Informal:    The research project wonʼt continue next year.

Formal:       The research project will not continue next year.

Phrasal verbs

Informal:    The balloon was blown up for the experiment.

Formal:       The balloon was inflated for the experiment.

Informal:    The patient got over his illness.

Formal:      The patient recovered from his illness.

Informal:    The results of the study were mixed up.

Formal:      The results of the study were confused.

Slang/Colloquialisms

Informal:    The mob was very rowdy during the protest against cuts to university funding.

Formal:       The crowd was very rowdy during the protest against the cuts to university funding.

Informal:    Lecturers still count on students to use correct grammar and punctuation in essays.

Formal:      Lecturers expect students to use correct grammar and punctuation in essays.

Informal:    It was raining cats and dogs.

Formal:       It was raining very heavily.

First person pronouns

Informal:    I considered various research methods for the study.

Formal:       Various research methods were considered for the study.

Informal:    We believe the practice is unsustainable.

Formal:       It is believed the practice is unsustainable.

Informal:    During the interview, I asked students about their experiences.

Formal:       During the interview, students were asked about their experiences.

TAFE           Technical and Further Education

ANZAC        Australian and New Zealand Army Corps

QANTAS      Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services

Initialisms

UTS             University of Technology Sydney

ISO              International Standards Organisation

OECD          Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

The first time an acronym or initialism is used in an essay, it is acceptable to write the name in full with the acronym or initialism in brackets after it. Every subsequent time it is used the acronym or initialism can be used on its own. Commonly known acronyms such as ANZAC and QANTAS do not need to be written in full. If an acronym or initialism needs to be made into a plural, add a small ‘s’ to it without an apostrophe.

Do not use the acronyms 'ATSI' or 'TSI' to refer to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. This must be written in full. Always capitalise the word 'Indigenous' when referring to Australia's Indigenous peoples.

Other academic style resouces

• UTS Publications Style Guide   is available on Staff Connect (requires UTS staff login).
• RMIT's Academic style

UTS acknowledges the Gadigal people of the Eora Nation, the Boorooberongal people of the Dharug Nation, the Bidiagal people and the Gamaygal people, upon whose ancestral lands our university stands. We would also like to pay respect to the Elders both past and present, acknowledging them as the traditional custodians of knowledge for these lands.

Northern Illinois University Effective Writing Practices Tutorial

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• Formal and Informal Style

Whether you use formal or informal style in writing will depend on the assignment itself, its subject, purpose, and audience.

Formal language is characterized by the use of standard English, more complex sentence structures, infrequent use of personal pronouns, and lack of colloquial or slang terms.

Informal language allows the use of nonstandard English forms, colloquial vocabulary and typically shorter sentence structures.

The choice of formal or informal style will affect the following areas:

• standard or nonstandard English
• choice of vocabulary
• use of contractions
• use of pronouns

Rule to Remember

Formal style affects the form of English, the choice of vocabulary, and the use of contractions and pronouns.

Standard or Nonstandard English

Standard English is the language used in professional and business communication. It is the form of English that follows the formal rules of the language.

Nonstandard English uses regional or social language variations. Nonstandard English should only be used when there is a purpose for it in writing. For example, it can be used in a narrative to describe a person with a specific regional dialect. Otherwise, the standard form of English should be used.

Choice of Vocabulary

Vocabulary  needs to be adjusted depending on the level of formality of any written work.

Consider the following words: investigate, examine, check out . Each of them has a different level of formality. While check out can be used in informal writing and speech, using it in a formal research paper would not be appropriate.

Use more formal vocabulary and avoid the use of contractions in formal writing.

Sometimes the whole sentence needs to be rephrased:

Contractions are more casual, and if you are striving for more formal style, they should not be used. Contractions in negative sentences should be especially avoided since they are easy to miss.

The Use of Pronouns

Formal language tends to be impersonal and precise. The use of pronouns , therefore, is restricted. In formal writing, when addressing the audience, you may use the passive voice or an adverbial clause in place of the personal pronoun:

Restrict the use of personal pronouns in formal writing.

The writer's presence, signaled by the use of the personal pronoun I , or we (if there are several authors), can also make writing more informal and less credible.

The second sentence is more formal and can be perceived by the audience to be more credible.

• Punctuation
• Organization
• General Document Format
• Formatting Visuals
• In-text Citations
• List of Sources
• Bias-free Language
• Sentence Structure

Module 9: Informative Speaking

Language in an informational speech, learning objectives.

Identify effective language for an informative speech.

Words are important! It is essential in any speech to be cognizant of your word choice. People will be listening to you and what you say will stick in the minds of many. So, careful consideration of language is important.

When presenting information, the main difference is that you are not trying to persuade or impassion your group. You can take a more casual and conversational approach. You want to hook them by making sure that the information and language are interesting and directly speaking to them.

It is a good idea to record yourself so that you can listen to the language and decide if it sounds conversational.

Speaking, Not Writing : It is important to keep in mind that speaking and writing are different in the language choices you will be making to present your ideas. Oral language is designed to be listened to and to sound conversational , which means that word choice must be simpler, more informal, and more repetitive. Repetition is a strategy that helps the audience remember a point you find particularly important for them to know. Written language uses a larger vocabulary and is more formal. When you choose words for your speech, think about how your words will sound to your audience.

As you practice your speech out loud,  listen to how the words sound . Are they clear and easy to understand? You might even record yourself giving the speech on your phone or computer so you can listen to how the language you are using sounds and flows.

Audience Knowledge: In thinking about language to use in your speech, don’t assume your audience knows a lot about your topic. Are there terms , concepts , places , people , or events you will be speaking about that your audience might not be familiar with or only know a little about? Probably! So present any content that is likely to be unfamiliar to your audience in a clear, simple, and complete way so they’ll be sure to understand the information you are presenting.

Target Audience : Likewise, be careful with obscure or highly technical language and jargon —remember your audience. It’s perfectly fine to speak using the technical terminology of a structural engineer if you are speaking to an audience of engineers. But if you are speaking to a group of first- and second-grade teachers, you want to put technical engineering terms into everyday language that your audience is more likely to understand. If you do need to use words your audience may not be familiar with due to the nature of your topic, define those words for your audience.

Understandable: Informative speeches should contain clear, easy-to-understand language. Speeches aren’t generally the best occasion to pull out complex, multi-syllable words your audience may not know. Your goal is to inform your audience, not to confuse them with language they may not understand, so use language you think your audience finds familiar and relatable. Be conversational. As much as possible,  use concrete rather than abstract language . Abstract language usually refers to ideas, qualities, or concepts. Concrete language, in contrast, appeals to our senses by describing things or ideas in vivid, specific language.

Effectively Communicate Complex Information: 4 SIMPLE STEPS

In this video, communication professor Bruce L. Lambert offers four tips about communicating complex information, such as in an informative speech.

You can view the transcript for “Effectively Communicate Complex Information: 4 Simple Steps” here (opens in new window) .

To reiterate, the language you chose is contingent upon the audience you are addressing. Gauge your language by the audience’s knowledge, use language familiar to your audience, and structure your language to be understandable to the majority of audience members.

• Selfie. Authored by : Jelena Scheipers. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Effectively Communicate Complex Information: 4 Simple Steps. Authored by : How Communication Works. Located at : https://youtu.be/4Xr3FQgAA1s . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Language in the Informational Speech. Authored by : Mike Randolph with Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Language in the Informational Speech. Authored by : Sandra K. Winn with Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

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Deciding When to Use Formal and Informal Language

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When to Use Formal Language

Thurgood Marshall was a civil rights lawyer who became the first African American ever to serve on the Supreme Court. His biggest achievement, however, was his role in a legal case that changed America for the better.

Characteristics of formal language:

✓ teaching tone

✓ limited personal pronouns ( I, me, you ) and contractions ( you’d, we’ve )

✓ academic vocabulary

✓ longer sentences

✓ neutral voice

Your Turn Reread the sample paragraph about Thurgood Marshall and write down parts that show characteristics of formal language.

When to Use Informal Language

Other writing situations call for more casual, informal language. When your purpose is to share your personal thoughts and feelings or to tell a story, use language that sounds more like you are talking with your friends or classmates. This type of language works best for stories, personal narratives, and social forms (blogs, microblogs, personal email).

When I finally stepped on stage, my mind froze. “Oh no,” I thought. “I forgot my line.” I started to feel embarrassed, but then I looked at Chad. He pointed to his hat. That’s it! I remembered what I was supposed to say.

Characteristics of informal language:

✓ conversational tone

✓ frequent personal pronouns ( I, me, you ) and contractions ( you’d, we’ve )

✓ informal expressions ( what’s up? )

✓ shorter sentences

✓ personal feelings

Your Turn Reread the sample paragraph about the stage play and write down parts that show characteristics of informal language.

Your Turn Review the following writing scenarios. Decide which two should use formal language and which one should use informal language. Explain your choices.

• Jackie Robinson showed great courage in becoming the first African American to play major league baseball. Share a personal experience in which you demonstrated courage or witnessed someone else demonstrating courage.
• Write a biographical essay that explains the key events in the life of Jackie Robinson.
• In a classroom report, write about how Jackie Robinson broke baseball's racial barrier, showing causes and effects.

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Formal Versus Informal Speech Therapy Assessments

Speech therapy assessments are usually comprised of formal testing and informal testing. Formal testing may include tools such as standardized assessments, while informal testing may include caregiver/client interviews and usually use methods that are more flexible and adaptable.

In the field of speech-language pathology, assessments are broadly categorized into two types: formal assessments and informal assessments . For clinicians, educators, and parents, it's vital to understand the distinct nuances of each type of assessment to ensure they can be accurately interpreted and yield the most beneficial results for the individuals receiving the speech and language evaluations. Often, it is considered “best practice” for an SLP to obtain data from both assessment types when completing a comprehensive evaluation for the creation of an effective treatment plan. Should this always be the case?

In this article, we will describe and discuss different types of formal and informal assessment measures , the pros and cons of each , as well as considerations when deciding which assessment tools are appropriate for the client being evaluated. 

Understanding Formal and Informal Speech Therapy Assessments

Formal speech therapy assessments.

Formal assessments are standardized tests that have been scientifically developed and tested. They provide a systematic way to measure an individual's abilities in different areas of speech and/or language. These tests are usually administered under specific conditions (e.g., in a quiet, well-lit room, sitting at a desk) and are scored in a standardized manner. There are two types of formal assessments used in speech-language pathology: (1) norm-referenced assessments and (2) criterion-referenced assessments (or tests) .

(1) Norm-referenced tests : These tests are designed to compare an individual's performance to that of a larger, typically representative, group (e.g., a normative sample). These tests are standardized, meaning they have consistent procedures for administration and scoring.

Examples of speech therapy norm-referenced tests include: 

• The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals - Fifth Edition (CELF-5)
• The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Fourth Edition (PPVT - 4)

(2) Criterion-referenced tests: These tests assess an individual's performance against a specific set of criteria or learning standards rather than comparing them to others. These tests focus on what the individual can and cannot do concerning predefined objectives.

Examples of speech therapy criterion-referenced tests include: 

• The Functional Communication Profile - Revised (FCP - R)
• The Rossetti Infant-Toddler Language Scale

Note: The examples of formal, standardized tests in this post are for educational purposes only, illustrating various speech-language assessments. We do not endorse or have affiliations with any tests mentioned.

Informal speech therapy assessments

Informal assessments use more flexible tools that can be adapted to the individual's needs. There is a wide range of informal assessments, including observations of the individual in their natural settings (like home or school), speech and language samples, and questionnaires. See a fuller list below. SLPs can use these assessments to understand how the individual being evaluated communicates across everyday routines and activities, which can provide valuable insights that formal tests might not specifically address. Informal assessments can help in identifying specific areas of need and in planning personalized therapy sessions. 

Examples of informal speech therapy assessment measures include:

• Clinical observations
• Speech and language samples
• Interviews (including ethnographic interviews )
• Questionnaires
• Dynamic assessments
• Play-based assessments

Pros and Cons of Formal and Informal Speech Therapy Assessments

Formal speech therapy assessments: pros and cons.

NORM-REFERENCED TESTS

PROS to norm-referenced (formal) speech therapy assessments may include:

• Objective comparison: Allows for objective measurement and comparison of an individual's performance against a broader population.
• Identification of disorders : Useful in identifying and diagnosing speech and language disorders.
• Eligibility for services: Often required for qualifying individuals for special education or therapy services.

CONS to norm-referenced (formal) speech therapy assessments may include:

• Cultural biases : These may not be suitable for individuals from diverse cultural or linguistic backgrounds. Read more about this later in the article.
• Limited scope : Focuses more on the presence of a disorder rather than functional communication skills.

CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS 

PROS to criterion-referenced (formal) speech therapy assessments may include:

• Tailored goals: Useful for creating individualized educational or therapy plans.
• Functional assessment: More focused on practical, everyday communication skills.
• Flexibility: Can be adapted for various populations and purposes.

CONS to criterion-referenced (formal) speech therapy assessments may include:

• Limited comparability: Not designed for comparing an individual’s performance to a broader population.
• Subjectivity: Some degree of subjectivity in interpreting results, depending on the criteria.

Informal speech therapy assessments: pros and cons

PROS to informal speech therapy assessments may include:

• Personalization: They can be tailored to fit the unique context and needs of each individual.
• Real-world relevance : They tend to offer more insight as to how the individual is functionally using language in their natural environment.
• Reduced pressure : Often, client-led, this informal nature can increase comfortability and ease the pressures of feeling tested, leading to more representative performance.

CONS to informal speech therapy assessments may include:

• Subjectivity : Results can vary based on the evaluator's experience and perspective, affecting the reliability and validity of the information collected.
• Lack of standardization : Comparing results across different settings or over time can be challenging.

Understanding the pros and cons of formal and informal assessments is essential for choosing suitable diagnostic tools and planning effective treatments, ensuring that interventions are tailored to individual needs and backed by evidence. 

Assessment Considerations for Specific Populations

Formal or standardized evaluation tools used in speech therapy evaluations are designed to assess various aspects of speech and language disorders consistently and objectively. This ensures that outcomes produce reliable and valid results, as they claim to measure. However, several areas should be considered when interpreting the results of standardized assessments, especially when communicating these results to families:

• Cultural and linguistic diversity: Standardized tests are often developed based on a specific linguistic and cultural population, usually English-speaking populations from Western countries. This can lead to inaccuracies when used with individuals from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, tests may not account for different speech patterns (e.g., misjudge a difference for a delay/disorder ), vocabulary, and grammatical structures, leading to misdiagnoses or underdiagnoses in these populations.
• Individual differences: The tests might not adequately account for individual variations in language development, speech, and other diagnostic factors ( e.g., the client being evaluated is autistic; however, there are no reported autistic individuals part of the normative sample ). Factors like age, gender, socio-economic status, and educational background can influence a person's performance on these tests and lend to biases. A standardized test might not be sensitive enough to capture these individual differences, potentially leading to inaccurate information about various skills.
• Testing environment and conditions: The reliability of a test can be compromised by the environment in which it is administered. External factors like noise, distractions, or even the individual’s mood and health on the day of testing can affect their performance. Consistency in test administration is crucial for reliability, but this is not always achievable in real-world settings.
• Test construction and updating: If the standardized test is outdated or not regularly updated, it may not reflect current best practices or recent research findings in the field of speech-language pathology. Also, the test's construction, including the types of questions and the scoring system, can impact its validity and reliability.
• Practitioner expertise and bias: The expertise of the SLP administering the test can influence its outcomes. Inconsistent administration, interpretation of results, and unintentional bias can lead to variability in results.
• Over-reliance on quantitative data: Standardized tests primarily provide quantitative data, which might not capture the qualitative aspects of speech and language disorders. As a result, important nuances and characteristics of an individual's speech and language abilities might be overlooked.

Using Evidence-Based Information to Support Decisions for Assessment

Both formal and informal assessments have their place in speech-language pathology. It is important that whether you are the SLP performing the evaluation or the loved one of the individual participating in one, you are aware of the different results each may provide.

The choice of assessment selection can depend on many factors, including the purpose of the assessment, the characteristics of the individual, and the specific communication disorder being evaluated. Evidence-based practice requires the integration of the best available research with clinical expertise and client preferences.

Additionally, evidence-based decision-making also calls for careful consideration of special populations and deciding if the assessment tools the SLP has chosen yield the most reliable , valid, as well as ethical results. In some cases, standardized evaluation tools compromise the reliability and validity of cultural and linguistic diversity, individual differences, testing conditions, the construction and updating of the test, practitioner expertise and bias, and an over-reliance on quantitative data. These limitations highlight the importance of using a comprehensive and individualized approach to assessment.

References/further resources

• American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Assessment tools, techniques, and data sources. Retrieved from https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/late-language-emergence/assessment-tools-techniques-and-data-sources/
• Kearney, T. (2023, January 14). Incorporating Dynamic Assessment to Avoid Standardized Test Pitfalls. The ASHA Leader. Retrieved from https://leader.pubs.asha.org/do/10.1044/leader.scm.28012023.schools-dynamic-assess.30/full/
• Kleiman, L. I. (n.d.). FCP-R: Functional Communication Profile-Revised. Retrieved from https://www.proedinc.com/Products/34040/fcpr-functional-communication-profilerevised.aspx
• Nair, V., Farah, W., & Cushing, I. (July 2023). A Critical Analysis of Standardized Testing in Speech and Language Therapy. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools , Volume 54 (3), pages 781-793. https://doi.org/10.1044/2023_LSHSS-22-00141
• Pearson Assessments. (n.d.). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals | Fifth Edition (CELF-5). Retrieved from https://www.pearsonassessments.com/store/usassessments/en/Store/Professional-Assessments/Speech-%26-Language/Clinical-Evaluation-of-Language-Fundamentals-%7C-Fifth-Edition/p/100000705.html
• Pearson Assessments. (n.d.). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test | Fourth Edition (PPVT-4). Retrieved from https://www.pearsonassessments.com/store/usassessments/en/Store/Professional-Assessments/Academic-Learning/Brief/Peabody-Picture-Vocabulary-Test-%7C-Fourth-Edition/p/100000501.html
• Rossetti, L. (n.d.). The Rossetti Infant-Toddler Language Scale. Retrieved from https://www.proedinc.com/Products/34110/the-rossetti-infanttoddler-language-scale.aspx
• Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. (November 2021). Criterion-referenced assessments-language. Retrieved from https://dpi.wi.gov/sites/default/files/imce/sped/pdf/sl-criterion-referenced_assessments-language.pdf

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April 1, 2024

Does My Child Have a Speech Delay?

It’s hard to know whether a toddler needs help with early speech. Here are some tips and guidelines

By Yolanda F. Holt &

The Good Brigade/Getty Images

This piece is part of Scientific American's column The Science of Parenting. To learn more, go here .

My son Grayson was about two and a half years old when his preschool teacher called me. A child development specialist had visited his classroom and had some concerns about his development.

As a speech-language pathologist , I had been carefully monitoring my twins’ development since they were born, so I was surprised to receive the call. Even so, I was terrified that I had missed some critical issue in his development. I wondered: What if the specialist misdiagnosed my child? I couldn’t decide which scenario was worse: if I had missed something myself, or if my child was about to be misidentified. As those thoughts raced through my head, I asked to have the specialist call me immediately. I listened as she described Grayson’s typically developing motor and social/emotional abilities. Then she described his speech as mostly not intelligible.

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The specialist was telling me she thought my son had a developmental delay in his speech and language.

My experience is not unique. Every day in the U.S., some parent will field this sort of unsettling phone call about their child.

As a speech-language pathologist, I understand the duty to connect with parents to share professional concerns. As a parent, I understand how scary and confusing these calls can be. My son was two and a half! How many children that age engage in intelligible conversations with a stranger? Fortunately for all of us there are some benchmarks we can use to help us understand typical speech and language development and where our children’s skills fall.

Hearing : In the U.S. and other industrialized nations, audiologists test hospital-delivered newborns before the babies go home. While the child is sleeping, the audiologist places a small probe (sort of like an earbud) in the baby’s ear. The probe sends a signal into the ear. That signal causes organs in the ear to vibrate and send the signal back to the device. This hearing test is safe, short and causes no discomfort to a sleeping newborn. If they fail, a second test is completed with the audiologist sometime later. If additional testing reveals a hearing difficulty the child will receive early interventions. These can include family training, baby hearing aids or perhaps a cochlear implant. Parent counseling is also a part of this process. Speech and hearing professionals will work with the family to ensure the child never misses out on early language development because of a hearing difficulty.

Listening : Between birth and 18 months, children listen to the sounds of the language(s) spoken around them and learn the rules to combine those sounds to make words. They learn where to add stress or pauses, or to get louder in case you weren’t listening. There are universal linguistic rules , including the general order of speech sound acquisition, word acquisition and sentence development that are relatively consistent across languages. If an infant does not respond to environmental sounds or the voice of the caregiver, or a 4–10-month-old baby does not coo, babble and make many different sounds, or a 12-month-old is not attempting to say words “mama, dada, bubu, uh-oh,” you should consider a hearing evaluation .

What’s interesting is that children in multilingual households (even children with developmental disorders) don’t mix up the rules for different languages. For example a child learning both Mandarin (a tone-based language where rises and falls in pitch change word meaning) and English (which has different rules to change word meaning) doesn’t apply the English rules to Mandarin. So the final pitch rise typically produced to indicate an English question—“Can I go?”—won’t be used to distinguish questions from statements in Mandarin.

Telling : Children learning multiple languages may demonstrate a longer learning period (they have more to learn) than monolingual language-learners. However, the quality and quantity of language output for typically developing mono- and multilingual children should be roughly equivalent. Parents who grew up in households where multiple languages were spoken may be familiar with this construct. If, however you are new to this experience you may find your multilingual child spends more time using one language over the other; or speaks to one caregiver exclusively in one language; or responds in English to questions posed in another language. All these behaviors are typical. Parents of mono- and multilingual children should reach out for help if their child (a) doesn’t respond in the expected manner in any language; (b) has trouble following simple instructions; or (c) does not name, tell, comment, request using from one to four words by the age of three.

Children learn to talk through practice, even if we sometimes don’t understand it. Based on what parents report to researchers , strangers typically understand about 25 percent of the words spoken by a one-year-old. For typically developing children speech intelligibility increases at a rate of around 25 percent each year so by age four most children should be understood by most people nearly 100 percent of the time. At two and a half, a child would be roughly 50 percent understandable to unfamiliar listeners.

Understanding : At two and a half, a child can understand between 100 to 500 words, but may only use 50 to 150 words . The child will arrange those words to communicate many ideas such as “all gone,” “dada go night-night” and other routine phrases. Over time and with practice the toddler’s receptive (listening) and expressive (telling) vocabulary increases exponentially. By age three vocabulary may grow to 1,000 words, and by age five the young pre-reader may have a vocabulary of around 10,000 words. Child speech and language development are roughly the same regardless of languages used, family income or family structure.

In our case Grayson’s speech was just below the developmental target for his age. As the specialist observed, he said lots of words; she just didn’t understand most of them. She made the responsible decision to call us and share her concerns. Although we were quite surprised, we listened to her concerns and discussed them as a family. We chose not to pursue early intervention. Instead, we continued to read and talk to Grayson and his twin every day. By age three, both twins were well above the developmental milestones expected for their age.

Our choice not to pursue therapy was based on several factors. As a speech pathologist, I had the training to provide support at home. As a result of frequent chronic ear infections, Grayson had ear tubes placed at 18 months. His ear infections could have negatively affected his language development, but still Grayson was not three months behind the milestones. Without this knowledge and the intervention we could provide at home, we would have accepted the referral.

In thinking about a child’s speech and language development, parents need to remember that hearing is foundational for both. Children develop language only by interacting with other people. For more information, the CDC provides a helpful checklist to assist parents in deciding when to ask their pediatrician for a speech and language referral. In general, if children are three months behind in one or more areas, a request for referral, to a speech language pathologist or child development specialist, is probably a good idea. Talk to your pediatrician. As parents we all want to provide the greatest opportunity for our children’s success. Creating a language-rich environment by talking with, reading with and listening to your child is one of the best ways to do that.

This is an opinion and analysis article, and the views expressed by the author or authors are not necessarily those of Scientific American .

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Electrical Engineering and Systems Science > Audio and Speech Processing

Title: effective internal language model training and fusion for factorized transducer model.

Abstract: The internal language model (ILM) of the neural transducer has been widely studied. In most prior work, it is mainly used for estimating the ILM score and is subsequently subtracted during inference to facilitate improved integration with external language models. Recently, various of factorized transducer models have been proposed, which explicitly embrace a standalone internal language model for non-blank token prediction. However, even with the adoption of factorized transducer models, limited improvement has been observed compared to shallow fusion. In this paper, we propose a novel ILM training and decoding strategy for factorized transducer models, which effectively combines the blank, acoustic and ILM scores. Our experiments show a 17% relative improvement over the standard decoding method when utilizing a well-trained ILM and the proposed decoding strategy on LibriSpeech datasets. Furthermore, when compared to a strong RNN-T baseline enhanced with external LM fusion, the proposed model yields a 5.5% relative improvement on general-sets and an 8.9% WER reduction for rare words. The proposed model can achieve superior performance without relying on external language models, rendering it highly efficient for production use-cases. To further improve the performance, we propose a novel and memory-efficient ILM-fusion-aware minimum word error rate (MWER) training method which improves ILM integration significantly.

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Formal and informal language

We use formal language in situations that are serious or that involve people we don’t know well. Informal language is more commonly used in situations that are more relaxed and involve people we know well.

Formal language is more common when we write; informal language is more common when we speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for example, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages. There are also examples where spoken English can be very formal, for example, in a speech or a lecture. Most uses of English are neutral; that is, they are neither formal nor informal.

Formal language and informal language are associated with particular choices of grammar and vocabulary.

Contractions, relative clauses without a relative pronoun and ellipsis are more common in informal language.

More formal vocabulary commonly involves longer words or words with origins in Latin and Greek. More informal vocabulary commonly involves shorter words, or words with origins in Anglo-Saxon. Most dictionaries indicate very informal and/or formal words.

We often choose to use certain modal verbs to be more formal and polite:

Can I suggest you try this new model? (neutral)

May I suggest you try this new model? (more formal)

Might I suggest you try this new model? (very formal)

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cloak-and-dagger

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used to describe an exciting story involving secrets and mystery, often about spies, or something that makes you think of this

Shoots, blooms and blossom: talking about plants

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A Body Language Expert Says Barron Trump’s Behavior Around Donald & Melania Shows a Clear Difference in Their Relationships

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Barron Trump’s actions around his parents over Easter weekend speak volumes about the different relationships he has with his dad Donald Trump and mom Melania Trump , according to one body language expert. The former president’s 18-year-old son has often been pictured shyly walking behind his parents at formal events, but his behavior showed a marked shift on Sunday. Videos from the Trumps’ appearance at their Mar-a-Lago resort in Florida posted on TikTok showed the 6’7” teen looking more confident.

“Barron is growing into his height now and his confidence signals are increasing although we can see two different body language states when he accompanies his mother versus when he is with his father,” body language expert Judi James told Mirror .

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James commented on one video that showed Barron catching up to his mom during one walk. “With Melania here, Barron seems to feel the need to virtually take his father’s place and share the appearance,” she said. “Although Melania walks ahead here Barron quickly catches up to walk by her side, suggesting a quiet desire for status and to raise his own profile in what looks like a more leadership-style capacity.”

She felt this change signified a shift from the “’shy teen’ stage of adolescence to the ‘adult’ identification and socialization with other adults around.”

The body language expert analyzed another TikTok video, this time showing Barron giving a thumbs-up, which is something Donald always does. “Barron’s identification with his father is strong here though,” she told the outlet, adding that this gesture “mimics one of his father’s signature gestures and one that Trump is using increasingly to signal all is fine despite the many court cases he’s having to pick his way through.”

Barron Trump, son of Donald and Melania Trump, recently attended an Easter event with his parents. His reaction to his father's dance moves suggests he shares a common teenage trait: parental embarrassment. https://t.co/Wt49Wb7aZg — SheKnows (@SheKnows) April 2, 2024

However, that doesn’t mean things are all peachy keen when it comes to Barron and Donald. “When Barron is with his father here though,” she said about a different video, “his signals of some awkwardness increase.”

James mentioned this could be due to the “pressure” he feels around his dad. “His father’s status and power signals as he works the room seem to make Barron keep his distance a little rather than catching up to make his presence felt as he did with his mother,” she explained.

At one point in the outing, Donald even seems to embarrass Barron. “ Trump’s ‘dad dancing’ does seem to bring on a bend of the arms and some clutching movements from Barron’s hands to hint at what could be a small moment of cringe, though,” she added.

It makes sense that Barron is closer to his mom. One insider told The Blast that Melania is spending most of her time with Barron and her father Viktor Knavs after her mother passed away earlier this year.

“Melania’s main job is taking care of Barron, and I think it’s possible that she will follow him wherever he goes to school. Barron is shy and reserved, and she has been a good mother to him all of these years,” the source said.

Before you go, check out this list of celebrity parents who won’t spoil their kids with huge inheritances .

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• Publication of IIMM Analytical Reports

Mar 27, 2024

Reports on Myanmar military’s anti-Rohingya hate speech campaign and Myanmar authorities’ failure to investigate and punish sexual violence committed against Rohingya

Statement by Nicholas Koumjian, Head of the Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar

Geneva, 27 March 2024 – Today the Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar is publicly releasing two analytical reports. One report details the Myanmar military’s covert Facebook network that systematically distributed hate speech against the Rohingya at the time of the 2017 clearance operations. The second report examines the response of Myanmar state authorities to allegations of sexual and gender-based crimes committed by security forces against the Rohingya. This report concludes that the authorities failed in their duty under international law to investigate and punish these acts.

These reports form a small part of the evidence and analysis that the Mechanism has shared with authorities working on ongoing cases concerning the Rohingya at the International Criminal Court, the International Court of Justice and in Argentina.

These two reports have been made public on an exceptional basis. The vast majority of the material the Mechanism has collected and analyzed must remain confidential. Confidentiality protects the security and privacy of witnesses and sources. It is also standard procedure to maintain the confidentiality of ongoing criminal investigations before evidence is presented at trial to prevent efforts to hide or destroy evidence, to protect the integrity of witness testimony, and to avoid alerting suspects who could evade arrest or detection.

However, the Mechanism recognizes that there is a significant public interest in our work, and we aim to be transparent whenever possible. Perhaps some of our analysis can be used by others to advance the purpose of creating the Mechanism: ensuring accountability for the most serious international crimes committed in Myanmar and contributing to ending the very worst violence inflicted upon Myanmar’s people.

After careful evaluation we have decided to publish these reports. Some redactions have been made in the versions of the reports released today in order to preserve future investigative opportunities, avoid disclosing information that could assist perpetrators’ efforts to destroy or conceal evidence, and protect the safety and privacy of witnesses, sources and other persons. The material that has been redacted includes several annexes to the hate speech report.

Report on hate speech

The hate speech report provides a rigorous analysis of content posted on 43 Facebook Pages between July and December 2017. All of these Pages were removed by Facebook in 2018. Six Pages were removed because they were connected to individuals or organizations that Facebook banned from the platform as international experts had found evidence that they had “committed or enabled serious human rights abuses (in Myanmar)”. The other 37 Pages were removed for engaging in “coordinated inauthentic behaviour” in violation of the company’s misrepresentation policies. 1

The Mechanism’s analysis concluded that these seemingly unrelated Pages, some of which were devoted to celebrity news and popular culture, were part of a network with clear ties to the Myanmar military. These Pages often shared creators, administrators, and editors and regularly posted material using the same IP addresses used by the Myanmar military. Identical material was often posted on multiple Pages in this network, sometimes within minutes. The report identifies more than 10,000 posts on these Pages that the Mechanism considered hate speech. One such post received more than 200 comments calling for Rohingya to be shot, killed, or permanently removed from Myanmar.

The report concludes that at the very time of mass violence against the Rohingya, the Myanmar military was carrying out a coordinated hate speech campaign against the group. 

Report on failure to investigate and punish sexual and gender-based crimes

The report analyzes how state authorities in Myanmar responded to multiple allegations of sexual and gender-based crimes against the Rohingya during the 2016 and 2017 clearance operations.

Under international law, military and civilian leaders are obliged to investigate and, where appropriate, punish acts of those under their command that could amount to serious international crimes, including acts of sexual violence. Furthermore, rape can constitute an underlying act of genocide if committed with the intent to destroy a group. Therefore, the failure to investigate and punish these crimes could amount to a violation of Myanmar’s obligations under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.

The report summarizes a variety of material that was publicly available about sexual and gender-based crimes against the Rohingya during the clearance operations, including information published by the media, NGOs and various UN bodies, as well as discussions in the UN Security Council and findings of the International Criminal Court Pre-Trial Chamber and demonstrates that Myanmar state authorities would have been aware of these very serious allegations. The report then examines the response of Myanmar state authorities, including several investigations and inquiries, and explains why these were grossly inadequate both in the process and the results. The report notes that there is no evidence that any soldier or police officer was charged or prosecuted for sexual and gender-based crimes, nor any commander dismissed, demoted, or sanctioned for failing to stop or punish those committing these crimes.

The Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar (IIMM or Mechanism) was created by the United Nations Human Rights Council in 2018 to collect and analyze evidence of the most serious international crimes and other violations of international law committed in Myanmar since 2011. It aims to facilitate justice and accountability by preserving and organizing this evidence and preparing case files that can be used by authorities to prosecute individuals in national, regional, and international courts.

For more information, visit   iimm.un.org  or contact   [email protected]

• “Removing Myanmar Military Officials from Facebook”, 28 August 2018, https://about.fb.com/news/2018/08/removing-myanmar-officials ↩︎

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• New graphic novels explain the Mechanism’s work
• Three years of widespread, systematic violence in Myanmar and the evidence against perpetrators is mounting
• Statement by Mr. Nicholas Koumjian, Head of the Independent Investigative Mechanism for Myanmar, at the 78th Session of the Third Committee of the General Assembly
• October 2023 issue of the Bulletin

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