literature review earth science

Exploring Every Corner: Strategies for Exhaustive Literature Review in Earth Science

The best way to thoroughly exhaust the literature.

When conducting research in the geosciences or any other discipline, it is critical to thoroughly exhaust the existing literature. Exhausting the literature involves systematically reviewing and comprehensively understanding the relevant publications, research articles, books, and other scholarly sources that contribute to the body of knowledge on a particular topic. By conducting a thorough literature review, researchers can identify existing gaps in knowledge, build on existing research, and ensure that their work has a solid foundation.

1. Define the scope

Before you begin a literature review, it is important to define the scope of your research. Clearly defining the boundaries of your study will help you narrow down the relevant literature and avoid being overwhelmed by the vast amount of information available. Begin by identifying the specific research question or objective of your study. This will serve as a guiding principle throughout your literature review process.

Once you have identified your research question, identify the key concepts and keywords that are central to your topic. These keywords will be critical for conducting efficient searches in academic databases and libraries. Consider both broad and specific terms related to your research question to ensure that you capture a comprehensive range of relevant literature.

2. Use academic databases

Academic databases are invaluable resources for accessing scholarly literature in the geosciences and related fields. Platforms such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar provide access to a vast array of research articles and publications. When using these databases, it is important to employ effective search strategies to obtain the most relevant results.

Begin your search by typing the keywords and concepts you have identified into the search bar of your chosen database. To refine your search, you can use Boolean operators (such as AND, OR, and NOT) to combine or exclude terms. You can also take advantage of advanced search options offered by the databases, such as filters for publication date, language, and study type, to further narrow your results.

After conducting the initial search, carefully review the abstracts and titles of the retrieved articles to determine their relevance to your research question. Pay attention to the methodology, key findings, and conclusions presented in the articles. This initial screening will help you select the most relevant articles for further analysis.

3. Explore citation networks

Exploring citation networks is another effective strategy for thoroughly exploring the literature. When conducting a literature review, it is important to consider both the seminal works on your topic and the most recent research. By examining the reference lists of relevant articles, you can identify key sources and seminal works that have contributed to the development of the field.

Start by identifying a few influential articles or books that are highly cited in the literature. Locate these works using academic databases or by consulting experts in the field. Once you have identified these seminal sources, examine their reference lists to identify additional relevant literature that may not have appeared in your initial search. This process, known as “pearl-growing,” allows you to expand your literature review beyond the confines of your initial search strategy.

In addition, many academic databases provide citation metrics, such as the number of times an article has been cited by other researchers. Use this information to identify highly influential articles and authors within the field. By exploring the citation networks of these influential works, you can uncover additional relevant literature and gain a deeper understanding of the research landscape.

4. Connect with experts and peer networks

Engaging with experts and peer networks is a valuable strategy for thoroughly exploring the literature. By reaching out to researchers, attending conferences, and participating in academic communities, you can gain insight into the latest developments and emerging research in your area of study.

Begin by identifying experts in your area of research. This can be done by reviewing the authorship of influential articles, examining the editorial boards of relevant journals, or using professional networking platforms such as LinkedIn or ResearchGate. Once you have identified experts, consider reaching out to them for guidance and recommendations on key literature in the field.

Attending conferences and academic events related to geoscience and your specific research area can also provide valuable opportunities to interact with experts and peers. Conference presentations, workshops, and poster sessions often showcase cutting-edge research and provide a platform for networking and knowledge sharing. Take advantage of these events to discuss your research and gain insights from your peers.

Bottom line A thorough literature review is a critical step in conducting high-quality research in the geosciences. By defining the scope, using academic databases, exploring citation networks, and engaging with experts and peer networks, researchers can ensure that their literature review is comprehensive and up-to-date. This systematic approach to literature review not only improves the quality of research, but also contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

Soft Question: How Best to Thoroughly Exhaust the Literature?

Exhausting the literature refers to the process of thoroughly exploring and reviewing the available academic and research materials on a particular topic. Below are some questions and answers regarding the best approach to exhaust the literature:

Question 1: What does it mean to thoroughly exhaust the literature?

Thoroughly exhausting the literature means conducting a comprehensive and extensive review of all relevant academic publications, research papers, books, and other scholarly sources related to a specific topic. It involves leaving no stone unturned in the pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the existing literature on the subject.

Question 2: What are some strategies for effectively exploring the literature?

To effectively explore the literature, you can follow these strategies:

– Conduct a systematic search using academic databases and search engines.

– Use appropriate keywords and search terms to narrow down your results.

– Review the reference lists of relevant articles for additional sources.

– Seek guidance from subject-matter experts or librarians for recommended resources.

Question 3: How can one manage the vast amount of literature available?

Managing the vast amount of literature can be overwhelming, but here are some tips:

– Create a well-organized system for storing and categorizing your sources, such as using reference management software.

– Prioritize key journals and seminal works in your field.

– Develop a clear research question or focus to guide your reading.

– Use annotation tools or take thorough notes to keep track of important findings.

Question 4: How can one critically evaluate the literature?

Critical evaluation of the literature is crucial to ensure the reliability and validity of the information you find. Consider the following:

– Assess the credibility and reputation of the authors and the publishing sources.

– Examine the methodology and research design employed in the studies.

– Evaluate the objectivity and potential biases present in the literature.

– Compare and contrast different studies to identify inconsistencies or gaps in the research.

Question 5: How do you know when you have thoroughly exhausted the literature?

Thoroughly exhausting the literature is an ongoing process, and it can be challenging to determine when you have covered everything. However, there are some signs:

– You consistently encounter the same key studies or authors in your search.

– You find that new sources are repeating information already covered.

– You have reviewed a broad range of perspectives and viewpoints on the topic.

– You feel confident in your understanding of the major theories, findings, and debates surrounding the subject.

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What is a literature review / annotated bibliography?

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• A summary of the main arguments or idea of each source
• A critique or evaluation of the source’s usefulness, reliability, objectivity or bias 
• A reflection on how the source fits into your research

Both provide a critical review of the literature

Review articles are publications synthesizing research already conducted on a topic. Use them to find the gaps and advances in your area.

• Scopus A multidisciplinary abstract and citation database of peer reviewed literature, book reviews and conference proceedings.
• Web of Science A collection of citation databases and citation analysis tools covering the sciences, social sciences, arts and humanities.
• Annual reviews online This database provides review journals from across the sciences, with articles that review significant primary research literature to help you keep up to date in the area of your research. Titles include Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science.
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Literature reviews

Planning your search strategy and how to find, store, organise, evaluate and critique information for your literature review.

Systematic reviews

A brief overview of systematic reviews and resources to support producing one.

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What is a Literature Review?

A Literature Review Is Not:

• just a summary of sources
• a grouping of broad, unrelated sources
• a compilation of everything that has been written on a particular topic
• literature criticism (think English) or a book review

So, what is it then?

A literature review is an integrated analysis-- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings that are related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents the literature that provides background information on your topic and shows a correspondence between those writings and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

Literature Review Tutorial

1. choose a topic. define your research question..

Your literature review should be guided by a central research question.  Remember, it is not a collection of loosely related studies in a field but instead represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor.

2. Decide on the scope of your review.

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

Tip: This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search.  Remember to include comprehensive databases such as WorldCat and Dissertations & Theses, if you need to.

Where to find databases:

• Find Databases by Subject UWF Databases categorized by discipline
• Find Databases via Research Guides Librarians create research guides for all of the disciplines on campus! Take advantage of their expertise and see what discipline-specific search strategies they recommend!

4. Conduct your searches and find the literature. Keep track of your searches!

• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Write down the searches you conduct in each database so that you may duplicate them if you need to later (or avoid dead-end searches   that you'd forgotten you'd already tried).
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Ask your professor or a scholar in the field if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Use RefWorks to keep track of your research citations. See the RefWorks Tutorial if you need help.

5. Review the literature.

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions. Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited?; if so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Again, review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.

Theme Based Organization

The most common way that literature reviews are organized it by theme. Think of "themes" are the different subheadings you will use. Within each subheadhing, you should clarify how that section relates to other articles within the other sections of your paper.

Your lit review is theme based, not author based. This template shows examples of the different ways that articles can contribute to a discussion of each theme. It is your job to draw conclusions from the relationships between the articles

Imagine that each theme is a bucket and each source fits into one bucket. The same source may fit into multiple themes and buckets.

Images from: Cisco, J. (2014). Teaching the literature review: A practical approach for college instruction. Teaching & Learning Inquiry, 2 (2), 41-57.

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ENVS 111: Introduction to Earth Science: Literature Review

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What is a Literature Review?

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Literature Review Links

• Demystifying the Literature Review University Library, University of Illinois
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What is a literature review?

Analysis and critical evaluation of research previously done on your topic.

Literature review helps you:

• find a gap in the research so you can contribute something original
• justify your project and set the context for your topic

You will cite articles, standards, books, etc. on your topic that helped you develop your project (ideas, processes, models, useful quotations).

Some examples of literature review in the PDF below. Go through each example and pick one that is the best out of the four.

Writing your literature review

Take notes as you read!

Use a Synthesis Matrix, local version below adapted from the Synthesis Matrix technique developed by North Carolina State University).

• Synthesis Matrix - Local Version

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Planning your Literature Review

While planning your review, in addition to finding and analyzing the reviews in dissertations, you might ask yourself questions such as the following:

What is my central question or issue that the literature can help define?

What is already known about the topic?

Is the scope of the literature being reviewed wide or narrow enough?

Is there a conflict or debate in the literature?

What connections can be made between the texts being reviewed?

What sort of literature should be reviewed? Historical? Theoretical? Methodological? Quantitative? Qualitative?

What criteria should be used to evaluate the literature being reviewed?

How will reviewing the literature justify the topic I plan to investigate?

From: Writing the successful thesis and dissertation: entering the conversation , by Irene L. Clark

source: Kent State University's Literature Reviews Libguide

Organizing the Review

Categorizing the Literature

When categorizing the writings in the review, the researcher might consider

• the methodology employed;
• the quality of the findings or conclusions;
• the document’s major strengths and weaknesses;
• any other pivotal information.

He/She might consider such questions as:

• what beliefs are expressed?
• Is there an ideological stance?
• What is being described? Is it comprehensive or narrow?
• Are the results generalizable?

Remember that you are relating other studies to your study. How do the studies in your lit. review relate to your thesis? How are the other studies related to each other?

From http://libguides.redlands.edu/content.php?pid=32380&sid=239161

Literature Review -Created by North Carolina State University Libraries

Watch this video for more information about writing a literature review.

• Writing a Literature Review

What is a Literature Review?

A literature review is a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the principal research about the topic being studied.

The aim of a literature review is to show "that the writer has studied existing work in the field with insight" (Haywood and Wragg, 1982). It is not enough merely to show what others in your field have discovered. You need to view the work of others with insight to review critically. An effective review analyses and synthesizes material, and it should meet the following requirements: (Caulley, 1992)

• Compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue
• Group authors who draw similar conclusions,
• Criticise aspects of methodology,
• Note areas in which authors are in disagreement,
• Highlight exemplary studies,
• Identify patterns or trends in the literature
• Highlight gaps in and omissions in previous research or questions left unanswered
• Show how your study relates to previous studies,
• Show how your study relates to the literature in general,
• Conclude by summarising what the literature says.

A literature review has a number of purposes. It enables you to:

• Set the background on what has been researched on a topic.
• Show why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discover relationships between ideas.
• Identify major themes & concepts.
• Identify critical gaps & points of disagreement.
• Help the researcher turn a network of articles into a coherent view of the literature.

Source: University of Melbourne's Literature Review Libguide

Literature Review Samples

• Otterbein's Institutional Repository You can browse by collection and then department and student scholarship. Look up samples of literature reviews in theses and dissertations.
• OhioLink's ETD Browse by institution and look up samples of literature review in the students' theses and dissertations
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The effects of grounding (earthing) on inflammation, the immune response, wound healing, and prevention and treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases

James l oschman.

1 Nature’s Own Research Association, Dover, NH, USA

Gaétan Chevalier

2 Developmental and Cell Biology Department, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

Richard Brown

3 Human Physiology Department, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Multi-disciplinary research has revealed that electrically conductive contact of the human body with the surface of the Earth (grounding or earthing) produces intriguing effects on physiology and health. Such effects relate to inflammation, immune responses, wound healing, and prevention and treatment of chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. The purpose of this report is two-fold: to 1) inform researchers about what appears to be a new perspective to the study of inflammation, and 2) alert researchers that the length of time and degree (resistance to ground) of grounding of experimental animals is an important but usually overlooked factor that can influence outcomes of studies of inflammation, wound healing, and tumorigenesis. Specifically, grounding an organism produces measurable differences in the concentrations of white blood cells, cytokines, and other molecules involved in the inflammatory response. We present several hypotheses to explain observed effects, based on current research results and our understanding of the electronic aspects of cell and tissue physiology, cell biology, biophysics, and biochemistry. An experimental injury to muscles, known as delayed onset muscle soreness, has been used to monitor the immune response under grounded versus ungrounded conditions. Grounding reduces pain and alters the numbers of circulating neutrophils and lymphocytes, and also affects various circulating chemical factors related to inflammation.

Introduction

Grounding or earthing refers to direct skin contact with the surface of the Earth, such as with bare feet or hands, or with various grounding systems. Subjective reports that walking barefoot on the Earth enhances health and provides feelings of well-being can be found in the literature and practices of diverse cultures from around the world. 1 For a variety of reasons, many individuals are reluctant to walk outside barefoot, unless they are on holiday at the beach. Experience and measurements show that sustained contact with the Earth yields sustained benefits. Various grounding systems are available that enable frequent contact with the Earth, such as while sleeping, sitting at a computer, or walking outdoors. These are simple conductive systems in the form of sheets, mats, wrist or ankle bands, adhesive patches that can be used inside the home or office, and footwear. These applications are connected to the Earth via a cord inserted into a grounded wall outlet or attached to a ground rod placed in the soil outside below a window. For the footwear applications, a conductive plug is positioned in the shoe sole at the ball of the foot, under the metatarsals, at the acupuncture point known as Kidney 1. From a practical standpoint, these methods offer a convenient and routine, user-friendly approach to grounding or earthing. They can also be used in clinical situations, as will be described in the section entitled Summary of findings to date. 1

Recently, a group of about a dozen researchers (including the authors of this paper) has been studying the physiological effects of grounding from a variety of perspectives. This research has led to more than a dozen studies published in peer-reviewed journals. While most of these pilot studies involved relatively few subjects, taken together, the research has opened a new and promising frontier in inflammation research, with broad implications for prevention and public health. The findings merit consideration by the inflammation research community, which has the means to verify, refute, or clarify the interpretations we have made thus far.

Grounding reduces or even prevents the cardinal signs of inflammation following injury: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function ( Figures 1 and ​ and2). 2 ). Rapid resolution of painful chronic inflammation was confirmed in 20 case studies using medical infrared imaging ( Figure 3 ). 2 , 3

Photographic images documenting accelerated improvement of an 8-month-old, non-healing open wound suffered by an 84-year-old diabetic woman.

Notes: ( A ) Shows the open wound and a pale-gray hue to the skin. ( B ) Taken after one week of grounding or earthing treatments, shows a marked level of healing and improvement in circulation, as indicated by the skin color. ( C ) Taken after 2 weeks of earthing treatment, shows the wound healed over and the skin color looking dramatically healthier. Treatment consisted of a daily 30-minute grounding session with an electrode patch while patient was seated comfortably. The cause of the wound adjacent to the left ankle was a poorly fitted boot. A few hours after wearing the boot, a blister formed, and then developed into a resistant open wound. The patient had undergone various treatments at a specialized wound center with no improvement. Vascular imaging of her lower extremities revealed poor circulation. When first seen, she had a mild limp and was in pain. After an initial 30 minutes of exposure to grounding, the patient reported a noticeable decrease in pain. After 1 week of daily grounding, she said her pain level was about 80% less. At that time, she showed no evidence of a limp. At the end of 2 weeks, she said she was completely pain-free.

Rapid recovery from a serious wound with minimal swelling and redness expected for such a serious injury.

Notes: Cyclist was injured in Tour de France competition – chain wheel gouged his leg. ( A ) Grounding patches were placed above and below wound as soon as possible after injury. Photo courtesy of Dr Jeff Spencer. ( B ) Day 1 after injury. ( C ) Day 2 after injury. There was minimal redness, pain, and swelling, and cyclist was able to continue the race on the day following the injury. ( B and C ) Copyright © 2014. Reprinted with permission from Basic Health Publications, Inc. Ober CA, Sinatra ST, Zucker M. Earthing: The Most Important Health Discovery Ever? 2nd ed. Laguna Beach: Basic Health Publications; 2014. 1

Reduction in inflammation with grounding or earthing documented with medical infrared imaging.

Notes: Thermal imaging cameras record tiny changes in skin temperature to create a color-coded map of hot areas indicative of inflammation. Panel A shows reduction in inflammation from sleeping grounded. Medical infrared imaging shows warm and painful areas (arrows in upper part of panel A ). Sleeping grounded for 4 nights resolved the pain, and the hot areas cooled. Note the significant reduction in inflammation and a return toward normal thermal symmetry. Panel B shows infrared images of a 33-year-old woman who had a gymnastics injury at age 15. The patient had a long history of chronic right knee pain, swelling, and instability, and was unable to stand for long periods. Simple actions, such as driving, increased the symptoms. She had to sleep with a pillow between her knees to decrease the pain. On-and-off medical treatment and physical therapy over the years provided minimal relief. She presented on November 17, 2004 with considerable right medial knee tenderness and a mild limp. Top images in Panel B were taken in walking position to show the inside of both knees. Arrow points to exact location of patient’s pain and shows significant inflammation. Lower images in Panel B taken 30 minutes after being grounded with an electrode patch. The patient reported a mild reduction in pain. Note significant reduction of inflammation in knee area. After 6 days of grounding, she reported a 50% reduction pain and said that she could now stand for longer periods without pain, and no longer needed to sleep with pillow between her legs. After 4 weeks of treatment, she felt good enough to play soccer, and for the first time in 15 years felt no instability and little pain. By 12 weeks, she said her pain had diminished by nearly 90% and she had no swelling. For the first time in many years, she was able waterski. The patient contacted the office after 6 months of treatment to report that she had finished a half-marathon, something she never dreamt she would ever be able to do prior to treatment.

Our main hypothesis is that connecting the body to the Earth enables free electrons from the Earth’s surface to spread over and into the body, where they can have antioxidant effects. Specifically, we suggest that mobile electrons create an antioxidant microenvironment around the injury repair field, slowing or preventing reactive oxygen species (ROS) delivered by the oxidative burst from causing “collateral damage” to healthy tissue, and preventing or reducing the formation of the so-called “inflammatory barricade”. We also hypothesize that electrons from the Earth can prevent or resolve so-called “silent” or “smoldering” inflammation. If verified, these concepts may help us better understand and research the inflammatory response and wound healing, and develop new information on how the immune system functions in health and disease.

Summary of findings to date

Grounding appears to improve sleep, normalize the day–night cortisol rhythm, reduce pain, reduce stress, shift the autonomic nervous system from sympathetic toward parasympathetic activation, increase heart rate variability, speed wound healing, and reduce blood viscosity. A summary has been published in the Journal of Environmental and Public Health . 4

Effects on sleep

One of the first published grounding studies examined the effects of grounding on sleep and circadian cortisol profiles. 5 The study involved 12 subjects who were in pain and had problems sleeping. They slept grounded for 8 weeks using the system shown in Figure 4 . During this period, their diurnal cortisol profiles normalized, and most of the subjects reported that their sleep improved and their pain and stress levels declined.

Grounded sleep system.

Notes: Grounded sleep system consists of a cotton sheet with conductive carbon or silver threads woven into it. The threads connect to a wire that leads out the bedroom window or through the wall to a metal rod inserted into the Earth near a healthy plant. Alternatively, it can be connected to the ground terminal of an electrical outlet. Sleeping on this system connects the body to the Earth. A frequent report from people using this system is that sleeping grounded improves the quality of sleep and reduces aches and pains from a variety of causes.

The results of the experiment led to these conclusions: 1) grounding the body during sleep yields quantifiable changes in diurnal or circadian cortisol secretion levels that, in turn, 2) produce changes in sleep, pain, and stress (anxiety, depression, and irritability), as measured by subjective reporting. The cortisol effects described by Ghaly and Teplitz 5 are particularly significant in the light of recent research showing that prolonged chronic stress results in glucocorticoid receptor resistance. 6 Such resistance results in failure to downregulate inflammatory responses, which can thereby increase risks of a variety of chronic diseases. This effect complements the findings described in the “Effects on pain and the immune response” section.

Effects on pain and the immune response

A pilot study on the effects of grounding on pain and the immune response to injury employed delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). 7 DOMS is the muscular pain and stiffness that takes place hours to days after strenuous and unfamiliar exercise. DOMS is widely used as a research model by exercise and sports physiologists. The soreness of DOMS is caused by temporary muscle damage produced by eccentric exercise. The phase of contraction that occurs when a muscle shortens, as in lifting a dumbbell, is referred to as concentric, whereas the phase of contraction as a muscle lengthens, as in lowering a dumbbell, is referred to as eccentric.

Eight healthy subjects performed an unfamiliar, eccentric exercise that led to pain in their gastrocnemius muscles. This was done by having them perform two sets of 20 toe raises with a barbell on their shoulders and the balls of their feet on a 2-inch × 4-inch wooden board. 7

All subjects ate standardized meals at the same time of day, and adhered to the same sleep cycle for 3 days. At 5.40 pm on each day, four of the subjects had conductive grounding patches adhered to their gastrocnemius muscles and the bottoms of their feet. They rested and slept on grounding systems such as that shown in Figure 4 . They remained on the grounded sheets except for visits to the bathroom and meals. As controls, four subjects followed the same protocol except that their patches and sheets were not grounded. The following measurements were taken before the exercise and 1, 2, and 3 days thereafter: pain levels, magnetic resonance imaging, spectroscopy, cortisol in serum and saliva, blood and enzyme chemistry, and blood cell counts. 7

Pain was monitored with two techniques. The subjective method involved morning and afternoon use of a Visual Analog Scale. In the afternoon, a blood pressure cuff was positioned on the right gastrocnemius and inflated to the point of acute discomfort. The pain was documented in terms of the highest pressures that could be tolerated. The grounded subjects experienced less pain, as revealed with both the analog soreness scale ( Figure 5 ) and by their ability to tolerate a higher pressure from the blood pressure cuff ( Figure 6 ). 7

Changes in afternoon (PM) visual analog pain scale reports.

Changes in afternoon (PM) pain levels using a blood pressure cuff.

The DOMS grounding study report 7 contains a summary of the literature on the changes in blood chemistry and content of formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets) expected after an injury. The immune system detects pathogens and tissue damage and responds by initiating the inflammation cascade, sending neutrophils and lymphocytes into the region. 8 – 12 As expected, the white cell counts increased in the ungrounded or control subjects. White cell counts in the grounded subjects steadily decreased following the injury ( Figure 7 ). 7

Comparisons of white blood cell counts, comparing pretest versus post-test for each group.

Previous research has shown increases in neutrophils following injury. 13 – 16 This happened in both grounded and ungrounded subjects ( Figure 8 ), although neutrophil counts were always lower in the grounded subjects. 7

Comparisons of neutrophil counts, pretest versus post-test for each group.

As the number of neutrophils increases, lymphocytes are expected to decrease. 17 – 19 In the DOMS study, the lymphocyte count in the grounded subjects was always below the ungrounded subjects ( Figure 9 ). 7

Comparisons of lymphocyte counts, pretest versus post-test for each group.

Normally, neutrophils rapidly invade an injured region 8 , 20 – 22 in order to break down damaged cells and send signals through the cytokine network to regulate the repair process. Neutrophils’ production of ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) is termed the “oxidative burst”. 21 While ROS clear pathogens and cellular debris so that the tissue can regenerate, ROS can also damage healthy cells adjacent to the repair field, causing so-called collateral damage. The fact that the grounded subjects had fewer circulating neutrophils and lymphocytes could indicate that the original damage resolved more quickly, collateral damage reduced, and the recovery process accelerated. This would explain the reduction in the cardinal signs of inflammation (redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function) following acute injury, as documented, for example, in Figures 1 and ​ and2, 2 , and the rapid reduction of chronic inflammation documented in Figure 3 .

Our working hypothesis features this scenario: mobile electrons from the Earth enter the body and act as natural antioxidants; 3 they are semi-conducted through the connective tissue matrix, including through the inflammatory barricade if one is present; 23 they neutralize ROS and other oxidants in the repair field; and they protect healthy tissue from damage. The fact that there are fewer circulating neutrophils and lymphocytes in the grounded subjects may be advantageous because of the harmful role these cells are thought to play in prolonging inflammation. 24 We also raise the possibility that the inflammatory barricade is actually formed in ungrounded subjects by collateral damage to healthy tissue, as was suggested by Selye in the first and subsequent editions of his book The Stress of Life ( Figure 10 ). 25

Formation of the inflammatory barricade.

Notes: Copyright © 1984, Selye H. Reproduced from Selye H. The Stress of Life . Revised ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.; 1984. 25 ( A ) Normal connective tissue territory. ( B ) Same tissue after injury or exposure to irritant. Vessel dilates, blood cells migrate toward irritant, connective tissue cells and fibers form a thick impenetrable barricade that prevents the spread of the irritant into the blood, but that also inhibits entry of regenerative cells that could repair the tissue and slow the entry of antioxidants into the repair field. The result can be a long-lasting pocket of incompletely resolved inflammation that can eventually leak toxins into the system and disturb functioning of an organ or tissue. This is referred to as “silent” or “smoldering” inflammation. ( C ) The inflammatory, Selye, or granuloma pouch as originally described by Selye, 30 is widely used in studies of inflammation.

While there may be other explanations, we suggest that rapid resolution of inflammation takes place because the Earth’s surface is an abundant source of excited and mobile electrons, as described in our other work. 1 We further propose that skin contact with the surface of the Earth allows Earth’s electrons to spread over the skin surface and into the body. One route to the body interior could be via acupuncture points and meridians. The meridians are known to be low resistance pathways for the flow of electrical currents. 26 – 28 Another pathway is via mucous membranes of the respiratory and digestive tracts, which are continuous with the skin surface. Sokal and Sokal 29 found that the electrical potential on the body, on the mucosal membrane of the tongue, and in the venous blood rapidly drop to approximately −200 mV. When the body is disconnected from the Earth, the potential is quickly restored. These effects reveal changes in the internal electrical environment within the body. 29

Selye 30 studied the histology of the wall of the inflammatory pouch or barricade ( Figure 10 ). It is composed of fibrin and connective tissue. Our hypothesis is that electrons can be semi-conducted across the barrier, and can then neutralize reactive oxygen species (free radicals). 30 A semiconducting collagen pathway or corridor may explain how electrons from the Earth quickly attenuate chronic inflammation not resolved by dietary antioxidants or by standard medical care, including physical therapy ( Figure 3 ). The barricade probably restricts diffusion of circulating antioxidants into the repair.

Taken together, these observations indicate that grounding or earthing the human body significantly alters the inflammatory response to an injury.

Anatomical and biophysical aspects

The concept that the inflammatory barricade forms from collateral damage to healthy tissue surrounding an injury site is supported by Selye’s classic studies published along with his description of the granuloma or Selye pouch ( Figure 10 ). 25 , 30 Moreover, research in cell biology and biophysics reveals the human body is equipped with a system-wide collagenous, liquid–crystalline semiconductor network known as the living matrix, 31 or in other terms, a ground regulation system 32 , 33 or tissue tensegrity matrix system ( Figure 11 ). 34 This body-wide network can deliver mobile electrons to any part of the body and thereby routinely protect all cells, tissues, and organs from oxidative stress or in the event of injury. 23 , 31 The living matrix includes the extracellular and connective tissue matrices as well as the cytoskeletons of all cells. 31 Integrins at cell surfaces are thought to allow for semi-conduction of electrons to the cell interior, and links across the nuclear envelope enable the nuclear matrix and genetic material to be part of the circuitry. 23 Our hypothesis is that this body-wide electronic circuit represents a primary antioxidant defense system. This hypothesis is the central point of this report.

The living matrix, ground regulation system, or tissue tensegrity matrix is a continuous fibrous web-work or network that extends into every part of the body. The extracellular components of this network consist primarily of collagen and ground substance. It is the largest system in the body, as it is the only system that touches all of the other systems.

The extracellular part of the matrix system is composed mainly of collagen and ground substances ( Figures 11 and ​ and12). 12 ). The cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and other fibrous proteins. The nuclear matrix contains another protein fabric composed of histones and related materials.

Collagen and ground substance.

Notes: (A) Collagen, the principal protein of the extracellular connective tissue matrix, is a triple helix with a hydration shell surrounding each polypeptide strand. The protein can transfer electrons by semiconduction, and protons (H + ) and hydroxyls (OH − ) migrate through the hydration shell. These charge movements can be very rapid and are vital to life. ( B ) Copyright © 2005. R Paul Lee Reproduced with permission from Lee RP. Interface. Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press; 2005. 67 The ground substance is a highly charged polyelectrolyte gel, a vast reservoir of electrons. Note the collagen fibril embedded in ground substance units known as matrisomes (a term coined by Heine). 33 Detail of a matrisome to the right ( b ) reveals vast stores of electrons. Electrons from the ground substance can migrate through the collagen network to any point in the body. We suggest that they can maintain an anti-oxidant microenvironment around an injury repair field, slowing or preventing reactive oxygen species delivered by the oxidative burst from causing collateral damage to healthy tissue, and preventing or reducing the formation of the so-called “inflammatory barricade”.

It is not widely appreciated that collagen and other structural proteins are semiconductors. This concept was introduced by Albert Szent-Györgyi in the Korányi memorial lecture in Budapest, Hungary in 1941. His talk was published in both Science (Towards a New Biochemistry?) 35 and Nature (The Study of Energy Levels in Biochemistry). 36 The idea that proteins might be semiconductors was immediately and firmly rejected by biochemists. Many modern scientists continue to reject semi-conduction in proteins, because living systems only have trace amounts of silicone, germanium, and compounds of gallium that are the most widely used materials in electronic semiconductor devices. However, there are many ways of making organic semiconductors without using metals. One of the sources of confusion was the widely held belief that water was a mere filler material. We now know that water plays crucial roles in enzymatic activities and semi-conduction. Hydrated proteins actually are semiconductors, and have become important components in the global microelectronics industry. Organic microcircuits are preferred for some applications, because they can be made very small, self-assemble, are robust, and have low energy consumption. 37 , 38

One of the leaders in the field of molecular electronics, NS Hush, has recognized Albert Szent-Györgyi and Robert S Mulliken for providing two concepts fundamental to the industrial applications: theories of biological semi-conduction, and molecular orbital theory, respectively. 39 In recent studies, given awards by the Materials Research Society in both Europe and the USA, scientists from Israel made flexible biodegradable semiconductor systems using proteins from human blood, milk, and mucus. 40 Silicon, the most widely used semiconducting material, is expensive in the pure form needed for semiconductors, and is inflexible and environmentally problematic. Organic semiconductors are predicted to lead to a new range of flexible and biodegradable computer screens, cell phones, tablets, biosensors, and microprocessor chips. We have come a long way since the early days when semi-conduction in proteins was so thoroughly rejected. 41 , 42 , 43

Ground substance polyelectrolyte molecules associated with the collagenous connective tissue matrix are charge reservoirs ( Figure 12 ). The matrix is therefore a vast whole-body redox system. The glycosaminoglycans have a high density of negative charges due to the sulfate and carboxylate groups on the uronic acid residues. The matrix is therefore a body-wide system capable of absorbing and donating electrons wherever they are needed to support immune functioning. 44 The interiors of cells including the nuclear matrix and DNA are all parts of this biophysical electrical storage and delivery system. The time-course of the effects of grounding on injury repair can be estimated in various ways. First, we know from medical infrared imaging that inflammation begins to subside within 30 minutes of connecting with the earth via a conductive patch placed on the skin. 2 , 3 Secondly, metabolic activity increases during this same period. Specifically, there is an increase in oxygen consumption, pulse rate, and respiratory rate and a decrease in blood oxygenation during 40 minutes of grounding. 45 We suspect that the “filling” of the charge reservoirs is a gradual process, possibly because of the enormous number of charged residues on the polyelectrolytes, and because they are located throughout the body. When charge reservoirs are saturated, the body is in a state we refer to as “inflammatory preparedness”. This means that the ground substance, which pervades every part of the body, is ready to quickly deliver antioxidant electrons to any site of injury via the semiconducting collagenous matrix (see Figure 16B ).

Summary of central hypothesis of this report: comparison of immune response in ungrounded versus grounded person.

Notes: ( A ) After an injury, the ungrounded person (Mr Shoes) will form an inflammatory barricade around the injury site. ( B ) After an injury, the grounded person (Mr Barefoot) will not form an inflammatory barricade, because reactive oxygen species that could damage nearby healthy tissue (collateral damage) are immediately neutralized by electrons semiconducted from the electron-saturated ground substance via the collagen network.

These considerations also imply anti-aging effects of earthing or grounding, since the dominant theory of aging emphasizes cumulative damage caused by ROS produced during normal metabolism or produced in response to pollutants, poisons, or injury. 46 We hypothesize an anti-aging effect of grounding that is based on a living matrix reaching every part of the body and that is capable of delivering antioxidant electrons to sites where tissue integrity might be compromised by reactive oxidants from any source. 47 , 48

Molecules generated during the immune response were also followed in the DOMS study. 7 Parameters that differed consistently by 10% or more between grounded and ungrounded subjects, normalized to baseline, included creatine kinase, phosphocreatine/inorganic phosphate ratios, bilirubin, phosphorylcholine, and glycerolphosphorylcholine. Bilirubin is a natural antioxidant that helps control ROS. 49 – 53 While bilirubin levels decreased in both grounded and ungrounded groups, the margin between the subjects was large ( Figure 13 ). 7

Comparisons of bilirubin levels, pretest versus post-test for each group.

The inflammatory markers changed at the same time that the pain indicators were changing. This was revealed by both the visual analog pain scale and by the pressure measurements on the right gastrocnemius ( Figures 5 and ​ and6). 6 ). The authors of the DOMS study suggested that bilirubin may have been used as a source of electrons in the ungrounded subjects. 7 It is possible that the lower decline in circulating bilirubin in the grounded subjects was due to the availability in the repair field of free electrons from the Earth.

Other markers encourage the hypothesis that the grounded subjects more efficiently resolved tissue damage: the pain measures, inorganic phosphate-phosphocreatine ratios (Pi/PCr), and creatine kinase (CK). Muscle damage has been widely correlated with CK. 54 – 56 As Figure 14 shows, CK values in the ungrounded subjects were consistently above those in the grounded subjects. 7 Differences between Pi/PCr of the two groups were monitored by magnetic resonance spectroscopy. These ratios are indicative of metabolic rate and cellular damage. 57 – 60 Inorganic phosphate levels are indicative of hydrolysis of PCr and adenosine triphosphate. The ungrounded subjects had higher levels of Pi, while the grounded subjects showed higher levels of PCr. These findings indicate that mitochondria in the grounded subjects are not producing as much metabolic energy, probably because there is less demand due to more rapid achievement of homeostasis. The differences between the groups are shown in Figure 15 .

Creatine kinase levels, pretest versus post-test for each group.

Inorganic phosphate/phosphocreatine ratios (Pi/PCr) pretest versus post-test for each group.

The pilot study 7 on the effects of earthing in speeding recovery from the pain of DOMS provides a good basis for a larger study. The concepts presented here are summarized in Figure 16 as a comparison between “Mr Shoes” (an ungrounded individual) and “Mr Barefoot” (a grounded individual).

Voluminous current research correlates inflammation with a wide range of chronic diseases. A search for “inflammation” in the National Library of Medicine database (PubMed) reveals over 400,000 studies, with more than 34,000 published in 2013 alone. The most common cause of death and disability in the United States is chronic disease. Seventy-five percent of the nation’s health care spending, which surpassed US$2.3 trillion in 2008, is for treating chronic disease. Heart disease, cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, osteoporosis, and diabetes are the most common and costly chronic diseases. 61 Others include asthma, Alzheimer’s disease, bowel disorders, cirrhosis of the liver, cystic fibrosis, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, lupus, meningitis, and psoriasis. Ten percent of all health care dollars are spent treating diabetes. Osteoporosis affects about 28 million aging Americans. 61 , 62 However, there are few theories on the mechanisms connecting chronic inflammation with chronic disease. The research on grounding or earthing summarized here provides a logical and testable theory based on a variety of evidence.

The textbook description of the immune response describes how large or small injuries cause neutrophils and other white blood cells to deliver highly ROS and RNS to break down pathogens and damaged cells and tissues. Classical textbook descriptions also refer to an “inflammatory barricade” that isolates injured tissues to hinder the movement of pathogens and debris from the damaged region into adjacent, healthy tissues. Selye described how the debris coagulates to form the inflammatory barricade ( Figure 10 ). This barrier also hinders the movements of antioxidants and regenerative cells into the blocked-off area. Repair can be incomplete, and this incomplete repair can set up a vicious inflammatory cycle that can persist for a long period of time, leading to so-called silent or smoldering inflammation that in turn, over time, can promote the development of chronic disease.

Remarkable as it may seem, our findings suggest that this classical picture of the inflammatory barricade may be a consequence of lack of grounding, and of a resultant “electron deficiency”. Wounds heal very differently when the body is grounded ( Figures 1 and ​ and2). 2 ). Healing is much faster, and the cardinal signs of inflammation are reduced or eliminated. The profiles of various inflammatory markers over time are very different in grounded individuals.

Those who research inflammation and wound healing need to be aware of the ways grounding can alter the time-course of inflammatory responses. They also need to be aware that the experimental animals they use for their studies may have very different immune systems and responses, depending on whether or not they were reared in grounded or ungrounded cages. It is standard research practice for investigators to carefully describe their methods and the strain of the animals they use so that others can repeat the studies if they wish. An assumption is that all Wistar rats, for example, will be genetically and physiologically similar. However, a comparison of neoplasms in Sprague–Dawley rats (originally outbred from the Wistar rat) from different sources revealed highly significant differences in the incidences of endocrine and mammary tumors. The frequency of adrenal medulla tumors also varied in rats from the same suppliers raised in different laboratories. The authors “stressed the need for extreme caution in evaluation of carcinogenicity studies conducted at different laboratories and/or on rats from different sources.” 63

From our perspective, these variations are not at all surprising. Animals will differ widely in the degree to which their charge reservoirs are saturated with electrons. Are their cages made of metal, and if they are, is that metal grounded? How close are their cages to wires or conduits carrying 60/50 Hz electricity? From our research, those factors will have measurable impacts on immune responses. In fact, they represent a “hidden variable” that could have affected the outcomes of countless studies, and also could affect the ability of other investigators to reproduce a particular study.

Dominant lifestyle factors such as insulating footwear, high-rise buildings, and elevated beds separate most humans from direct skin connection with the Earth’s surface. An earth connection was an everyday reality in past cultures that used animal skins for footwear and to sleep on. We suggest that the process of killing pathogens and clearing debris from injury sites with ROS and RNS evolved to take advantage of the body’s constant access to the virtually limitless source of mobile electrons the Earth provides when we are in contact with it. Antioxidants are electron donors, and the best electron donor, we strongly believe, is right under our feet: the surface of the Earth, with its virtually unlimited storehouse of accessible electrons. Electrons from the Earth may in fact be the best antioxidants, with zero negative secondary effects, because our body evolved to use them over eons of physical contact with the ground. Our immune systems work beautifully as long as electrons are available to balance the ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) used when dealing with infection and tissue injury. Our modern lifestyle has taken the body and the immune system by surprise by suddenly depriving it of its primordial electron source. This planetary separation began accelerating in the early 1950s with the advent of shoes made with insulating soles instead of the traditional leather. Lifestyle challenges to our immune systems proceeded faster than evolution could accommodate.

The disconnection from the Earth may be an important, insidious, and overlooked contribution to physiological dysfunction and to the alarming global rise in non-communicable, inflammatory-related chronic diseases. A lack of electrons can also de-saturate the electron transport chains in mitochondria, leading to chronic fatigue and slowing the cellular migrations and other essential activities of the cells of the immune system. 64 At this point, even a minor injury can lead to a long-term health issue. When mobile electrons are not available, the inflammatory process takes an abnormal course. Areas that are electron deficient are vulnerable to further injury – they become positively charged and will have difficulty warding off infections. The result is an immune system constantly activated and eventually exhausted. Cells of the immune system may fail to distinguish between the body’s diverse chemical structures (called “self”) and the molecules of parasites, bacteria, fungi, and cancer cells (called “non-self”). This loss of immunologic memory can lead to attacks by some immune cells on the body’s own tissues and organs. An example is the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the diabetic patient. Another example is the immune system attacking cartilage in joints, producing rheumatoid arthritis. Lupus erythematosus is an extreme example of an auto-immune condition caused by the body’s immune system attacking host tissues and organs. Lupus, for example, can affect many different body systems, including skin, kidneys, blood cells, joints, heart, and lungs. With time, the immune system becomes weaker and the individual more vulnerable to inflammation or infections that may not heal, as often seen with the wounds of diabetic patients. Specifically, which part or parts of the body the weakened immune system will attack first depends on many factors such as genetics, habits (sleep, food, drinks, exercise, etc), and toxins in the body and in the environment. 65 , 66 A repeated observation is that grounding, or earthing, reduces the pain in patients with lupus and other autoimmune disorders. 1

Accumulating experiences and research on earthing, or grounding, point to the emergence of a simple, natural, and accessible health strategy against chronic inflammation, warranting the serious attention of clinicians and researchers. The living matrix (or ground regulation or tissue tensegrity-matrix system), the very fabric of the body, appears to serve as one of our primary antioxidant defense systems. As this report explains, it is a system requiring occasional recharging by conductive contact with the Earth’s surface – the “battery” for all planetary life – to be optimally effective.

Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to Martin Zucker for very valuable comments on the manuscript. A Clinton Ober of EarthFx Inc. has provided continuous support and encouragement for the research that has been done to explore the science of earthing, with particular focus on the immune system.

G Chevalier and JL Oschman are independent contractors for EarthFx Inc., the company sponsoring earthing research, and own a small percentage of shares in the company. Richard Brown is an independent contractor for EarthFx Inc., the company sponsoring earthing research. The authors report no other conflicts of interest.

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• Published: 28 February 2018

ArXives of Earth science

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A Publisher Correction to this article was published on 26 March 2018

Preprint servers afford a platform for sharing research before peer review. We are pleased that two dedicated preprint servers have opened for the Earth sciences and welcome submissions that have been posted there first.

Physicists have been posting their unpublished papers on ArXiv.org since 1991. The subject areas covered have expanded over the years to include fields as diverse as economics, electrical engineering and mathematics. Submission rates have risen steeply, to over 120,000 papers per year in 2017 ( https://arxiv.org/help/stats/2017_by_area/index ): scientists clearly find the service useful. Yet there has been no comparable resource for geoscientists. With the launch of the community-led EarthArXiv ( https://eartharxiv.org ) and the American Geophysical Union’s Earth and Space Science Open Archive (ESSOAr; https://essoar.org/ ), that might be about to change. At Nature Geoscience , we do not count preprints in our assessment of the advance a submitted manuscript constitutes to the body of literature, and we welcome submissions that have previously been posted.

Formal peer review takes time. Manuscripts are carefully vetted by reviewers and they typically undergo several rounds of review and revision before they are ready to be published. Peer review is an important component of the publication process that helps ensure the integrity of the scientific record — but fast it is not. In an academic world structured around short grant cycles and temporary research positions whose procurement depends on a scholarly track record, there is room for a parallel route for disseminating the latest science findings that is more agile, but in turn less rigorously quality controlled.

Preprint servers fit this bill. Manuscripts are freely uploaded, become immediately shareable and are assigned a digital object identifier (doi) that many funding agencies and prospective employers will consider in grant proposals and job applications. The papers are also open to comment from the community, and preprint servers are billed as another avenue for debate, testing and validation of papers. The idea of community-driven, open peer review has potential. Relevant experts can find, read and thoroughly review pertinent papers on preprint servers, with all comments and responses posted openly. In practice, however, the sheer volume of research papers produced each year makes it unlikely that each preprint will glean an appropriate amount of community attention and scrutiny. For example, in 2017 Nature Geoscience received 2,092 new manuscript submissions. We sent out to review 361 articles and each one was assigned to an average of 2.9 referees. This means that more than 1,000 academics reviewed for us last year. We asked closer to 2,000 people to review them (an average of about five reviewers per paper), and the most commonly cited reason for declining review was simply a lack of time, with three-quarters of negative respondents saying they were too busy or travelling.

The submissions to Nature Geoscience represent just a small sample of the research produced by the Earth and planetary science communities every year — EarthArxiv and ESSOAr will eventually host many times this volume. It is not clear that all of these preprints will be read: without an editor that solicits reviews or heuristics such as journal reputation to decide which papers to look at, it will largely be up to the authors to find an audience for their paper, which runs the risk of articles being read mostly by friends and colleagues.

Indeed, a quick browse of the European Geosciences Union’s discussions journals ( https://www.egu.eu/publications/open-access-journals/ ) — which place submissions in the public domain, in parallel to solicited peer review, to allow the community to comment — reveals that comments on papers are largely limited to those from the solicited reviewers. It seems likely that under those circumstances, it is not the quality of the science but the authors’ connections and the reputation of their institutions that will be the most important factor in attracting readers — and ultimately rewards for the authors.

Of course, the peer-review system is by no means free of such bias. At Nature Geoscience , we offer double-blind peer review to help remove unconscious bias from reviewer decisions, and as editors, we champion excellent submissions from anyone, regardless of their connections. We hope that this will help place research selected for its scientific impact in front of a broad audience.

Other disciplines have found the fast dissemination of research by publication of preprint valuable. We support the use of these repositories for this purpose. In addition, in line with our green open-access policy ( https://www.nature.com/authors/policies/license ), we encourage authors to make the accepted version of their paper available on preprint servers six months after publication, so that the record is completed.

It will be interesting to see whether Earth scientists will pick up on the benefits of using preprint servers, now that dedicated options are available.

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Big data in Earth science: Emerging practice and promise

Affiliations.

• 1 NOAA/US Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS), Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
• 2 NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA.
• 3 Esri, Redlands, CA 92373, USA.
• PMID: 38484080
• DOI: 10.1126/science.adh9607

Improvements in the number and resolution of Earth- and satellite-based sensors coupled with finer-resolution models have resulted in an explosion in the volume of Earth science data. This data-rich environment is changing the practice of Earth science, extending it beyond discovery and applied science to new realms. This Review highlights recent big data applications in three subdisciplines-hydrology, oceanography, and atmospheric science. We illustrate how big data relate to contemporary challenges in science: replicability and reproducibility and the transition from raw data to information products. Big data provide unprecedented opportunities to enhance our understanding of Earth's complex patterns and interactions. The emergence of digital twins enables us to learn from the past, understand the current state, and improve the accuracy of future predictions.

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Introduction to Earth Science

Laura Neser, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech)

Copyright Year: 2023

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Language: English

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Reviewed by Ryan Sincavage, Associate Professor, Radford University on 11/9/23

Very comprehensive textbook. It gives instructors flexibility in terms of which topics they want to focus on and if there are topics they will choose not to cover in their particular course. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Very comprehensive textbook. It gives instructors flexibility in terms of which topics they want to focus on and if there are topics they will choose not to cover in their particular course.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The information presented is accurate and thorough.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

There are in text links to short videos and other resources that may need to be updated in future editions, but in general the book is very relevant in terms of the current state of the science at it applies to a general student audience.

Clarity rating: 5

Really well written- very clear with short, crisp sentences that students should be able to follow easily. Takes complex concepts and distills them down to digestible components.

Consistency rating: 4

Very consistent use of terminology and figure styles. In some cases figures/photos are repeated, which is not necessarily a bad thing.

Modularity rating: 4

Certain topics receive more treatment than others, but there is definitely enough material within the text to full a standard 15 week semester course.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Excellent, logical organization. It provides the student with a sound base level of knowledge that is needed for topics later in the course.

Interface rating: 5

Easily navigated textbook, with good links to supplemental exercises and quizzes to help students test their knowledge as they progress.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

Some minor typographical and grammatical errors, but overall very well written and edited.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

Excellent highlights of geologists from underrepresented groups who contributed significantly to the field. Also good diversity in field photos of students and scientists working in the field.

This is an excellent, comprehensive introductory textbook that will serve both students and faculty well. I appreciate the author's efforts to expand upon topics that are sometimes given shorter coverage in traditional textbooks (ex. the different rock types, mass wasting, etc). The introductory chapter tends to lose its focus on the broader topic of science as a whole when it starts to discuss specific elements of geology, tectonics, etc, but not to the point that it is detrimental to the overall flow of the book. I look forward to implementing this textbook in future offerings of introductory courses at my institution.

Table of Contents

• Understanding Science
•  Plate Tectonics
• Igneous Processes and Volcanoes
• Weathering, Erosion, and Sedimentary Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks
• Geologic Time
• Earth History
• Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes
• Mass Wasting
• Global Climate Change
• Energy and Mineral Resources
• Origin of the Universe and Our Solar System

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Introduction to Earth Science is a 530+ page open textbook designed to provide a comprehensive introduction to Earth Science that can be freely accessed online, read offline, printed, or purchased as a print-on-demand book. It is intended for a typical 1000-level university introductory course in the Geosciences, although its contents could be applied to many other related courses. 

This text includes various important features designed to enhance the student learning experience in introductory Earth Science courses. These include a multitude of high-quality figures and images within each chapter that help to clarify key concepts and are optimized for viewing online. Self-test assessment questions are embedded in each online chapter that help students focus their learning. QR codes are provided for each assessment to allow students using print or PDF versions to easily access the quiz from an internet-capable device of their choice.

Adapted from openly-licensed works in geoscience, the sequence of the book differs from mainstream commercial texts in that it has been arranged to present elementary or foundational knowledge regarding rocks and minerals prior to discussion of more complex topics in Earth Science. Unlike prominent commercial texts for Earth Science, this book dedicates an individual chapter to each of the three major rock types, the processes of mass wasting, geological time, Earth history, and the origin of the universe and our solar system. Book content has been further customized to match the Pathways General Education Curriculum at Virginia Tech with a focus on Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs) for Pathways Concept 4, Reasoning in the Natural Sciences.

Are you a professor reviewing or adopting this book for a course? Instructors adopting or reviewing this text are encouraged to record their use on this form: https://bit.ly/interest_intro_earth_science . This helps the book's sponsors to understand this open textbook's impact.

About the Contributors

Laura Neser, Ph.D. is an Instructor in the Department of Geosciences at Virginia Tech. Dr. Neser earned her B.S. in Geosciences at Virginia Tech in the spring of 2008 and completed her Ph.D. in Geological Sciences At the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC) in 2014. Her doctoral research focused on the structural geology, sedimentology, and stratigraphy of formations that were deposited along the flanks of the Beartooth Mountains as they rose during late Paleocene-Eocene time. Dr. Neser has worked as an athletic tutor and online instructor at The University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC), in temporary positions as an Adjunct Instructor at Chowan University (Murfreesboro, NC) and Full-Time Lecturer at Indiana State University (Terre Haute, IN), and as a Professor at Seminole State College (Sanford, FL) before starting as an Instructor at Virginia Tech in the fall of 2021.

Although she is currently focused on teaching online sections of Introduction to Earth Science, Earth Resources, Society and the Environment, and Climate History, her teaching background is significantly broader and includes Environmental ‬Science, Astronomy, Environmental ‬Ethics, Earth History, Structural Geology, and Field Geology‬.

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