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Victorian Poetry

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on February 16, 2021 • ( 0 )

“Victorian poetry” is a term that does not quite coincide with the reign of Queen Victoria—a reign that began with the death of her uncle, William IV, in 1837 and lasted until her own death some 63 years later on January 22, 1901. The great poets who wrote most or all of their work while she was queen (and later, starting in 1876, empress of India) include Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Christina Rossetti, Matthew Arnold, Gerard Manley Hopkins, and A. E. Housman. Some of the poets we think of as major 20th-century figures began writing in the Victorian Age, most significantly, perhaps, William Butler Yeats, but also Thomas Hardy and Rudyard Kipling. The measure and historical importance of the Victorian period in literary history can be marked by the fact that William Wordsworth, who had seen the French Revolution, was still writing a decade after Victoria became queen, while Yeats (who would live until the eve of the Second World War) had already published some of his most important books before she died.

Mention of Yeats and Kipling in the same sentence suggests a different way of defining the Victorian era: Kipling feels Victorian in a way that Yeats does not, and this is because Kipling’s great poetry accepted as a fact of history Britain’s Victorian-style preeminence in the world, whereas Yeats joined with the moderns to see how all that was solid melted into the air—in particular the air of World War I (1914–18), which changed everything. As a cultural phenomenon, the Victorian era might be said to have come to an end in August 1914. Indeed, at the end of the era thus defined, some of the most significant late Victorian writers, such as Alice Meynell, began leading pacifist movements against the resurgent militarism and international violence that so characterized Europe in the first half of the 20th century.

Violence on the mechanized and global scale of the 20th century was one of the results of the seismic scientific and technological shifts that gave rise to the Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century and spread throughout Europe and North America. If we put the end of the Victorian era at the beginning of World War I, we can say that it begins a little before Victoria’s accession, with the sudden and earthshaking discoveries of Victorian science. Tennyson and Browning, the two greatest Victorian poets, both took an intense interest in the revolutionary scientific discoveries of the day. The central and most revolutionary achievement of Victorian science was Charles Darwin’s (1809–82) discovery of the mechanism of evolution, the “Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life,” as the title page of the first edition of his book puts it. That book, generally known as On the Origin of the Species, appeared in 1859, the same year as Edward FitzGerald’s despairing celebration of the nothingness of human life in The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám, written partly in answer to Tennyson’s In Memoriam A.H.H. The first edition of In Memoriam had been completed 10 years earlier, so Darwin was not a shadow in Tennyson’s early world. But his gigantic shadow was, in fact, first cast by the discoveries and systematic exposition of Charles Lyell (1797–1875) in his Principles of Geology , published in three volumes between 1830 and 1833—the year that Arthur Henry Hallam (A.H.H.), Tennyson’s closest and most beloved friend, died at 22 of a cerebral hemorrhage. Lyell was one of the first to have an inkling of what has come to be called “deep time,” the shocking, almost infinite antiquity of the world—an antiquity that suggested an equally shocking future stretching uniformly ahead forever. Since it was really only in the 18th century that astronomers began to be aware of the vastness of space (no one knew that other stars were also suns until then), the scientific revolution that began with the Enlightenment and accelerated throughout the Victorian era was one that severely undercut human belief in transcendentalist idealism. The universe suddenly appeared too big to transcend, and as Tennyson put it, the muse of astronomy, Urania, rebuked the muse of elegy and tragedy, Melpomene, who replied, “A touch of shame upon her cheek; / ‘I am not worthy ev’n to speak / Of thy prevailing mysteries’” ( f , section 37, ll. 10–12).

For Tennyson, the death of Hallam was a catastrophic experience of the overwhelming of the human soul by an indifferent universe. Romantic poetry (see romanticism) had found a way to idealize human subjectivity as against the trash of mere empirical externality, but the cascading discoveries of science represented a kind of revenge on the part of the material world. In theory—romantic theory—the mind could transcend any world, no matter how great, because the world’s greatness was only relative, and the mind traffics with absolutes (see, for example, Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Mont Blanc ). But for the Victorians, the discovery of unimagined abysses showed that the world far outvied the mind when it came to imagination—nature’s indifferent, inhuman imagination (personified in In Memoriam ) made little of anything the human mind could offer from its own petty resources. In Memoriam and many other great Victorian poems struggled against this apprehension, but the struggle shows few of the transcendent and absolute victories to be found in the greatest romantic poets. (Browning’s essay on Shelley explicitly contrasts the objectivity of contemporary poetry—an objectivity he also ascribes to William Shakespeare—to romantic subjectivity.)

Accordingly, it might be more correct to say that the Victorian era is the era of perhaps the greatest minor poetry ever written in English. “Minor poetry” is not meant as a belittling term: The Victorians wrote in an age when for the first time, perhaps, poets were realizing that with respect to the world around it, poetry could only be minor. Tennyson, again, imagining a critic of the intense grief he displays in In Memoriam , asks: “Is this an hour / For private sorrow’s barren song, / When more and more the people throng / The chairs and thrones of civil power? / A time to quicken and to swoon, / When Science reaches forth her arms / To feel from world to world and charms / Her secret from the latest moon?” (section 21, ll. 13–20). Indeed, many still complain that Victorian literature marked the beginning of a general phenomenon of escapism which in the 20th century would become transmogrified into incessant television watching. (Victorian critics lambasted the widespread reading of novels in ways that the stern moralists of the second half of the 20th century lambasted the widespread failure to read novels instead of watching TV. These are really the same complaint.)

All of this means that Victorian literature in general and poetry in particular aimed at giving its readers pleasure. The Victorians could no longer quite believe—as Wordsworth had in the preface to Lyrical Ballads (1800)—that such pleasure could save the soul. The Victorians were the heirs of the romantics in many ways, not least in their sense that the pleasures of literature, difficult as they sometimes were, went as deep as the depth of the human soul. But for the Victorians, the human soul did not seem quite as deep as it did for their predecessors.

All of this is generalization, of course, but it is generalization that accounts for a range of Victorian reaction, from the insistence on the absolute accuracy to which human perception can attain, to be found in Arnold, to the counter-insistence on the primacy of subjective experience over any empirical accuracy, with which the essayist and critic Walter Horatio Pater countered Arnold, and which culminated in Wildean aestheticism. It also accounts for Yeats’s folkloric anachronizing on the one hand and the striking number of conversions to Catholicism, such as Hopkins’s, on the other, offering an account of the soul fiercely capable of the same minute severity as any faithchallenging science. Further, it accounts for the triumphal shrewdness of such a champion of English industrial and economic achievement as Kipling.

What these poets almost all share is a sense of poetry as giving pleasure. Once the burden is taken off literary pleasure as the royal road to transcendence, pleasure can be regarded as an end in itself, and the Victorians could write the kind of poetry that gave a purer pleasure than the strongly individualized poetic self-assertions to be found in the romantics. (John Keats is a partial exception and a high influence on the Victorians, especially on Tennyson.) If one thinks of the kind of poetry that we remember without remembering or caring who wrote it, then this is the kind of poetry that the Victorians wrote. This can be seen as much in the vogue for highly sophisticated dramatic monologues— as with Browning and Tennyson, who were inventing characters, not speaking for themselves—as in the nonsense verse of Lewis Carroll and Edward Lear. It is no accident that Francis Turner Palgrave’s great and wildly successful anthology Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics was a product of the Victorian age and ended with a few contemporary poems (Palgrave thanked Tennyson in his introduction), and that almost all its selections, from whatever age, sound Victorian.

The character of Palgrave’s collection culled from various poets can be found in the kinds of collections that individual Victorian poets put together, such as Robert Louis Stevenson’s A Child’s Garden of Verses. Similarly, among Tennyson’s most popular works were songs from the longer narrative works, such as the songs from The Princess: A Medley, which themselves are contextless, songs sung by characters, not spoken by them. FitzGerald pointed out that the Rubáiyát was an anthology (published alphabetically in Persian), which he gave the form of an eclogue (pastoral poem)—so that even when placed into a consecutive form, it is the stanzas that had priority, not the story they told. Even Tennyson described In Memoriam as a collection of lyrics, not as a consecutive work (though it is that, too, of course). Swinburne was another impresario of the evocative (partly through his study of William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience ), and Yeats consistently described his poems as songs.

Idiosyncratic and unpredictable as so many of the Victorians were, they nevertheless wrote poems that people remember as poems rather than as the expressions of poets. They wrote poems that gave people pleasure as poems, and such pleasure is the most archaic and deeply rooted experience of poetry that any of us ever has. Thus, Melpomene, the muse of tragedy shamed by Urania’s rebuke in In Memoriam states that as an earthly muse, she owns “but a little art / To lull with song an aching heart, / And render human love his dues,” so that in the end her role is to intensify human experience, minor as it is compared to the transcendence where science and religion come together in the grandeur and immensity of the universe. She, on the other hand, ministering to purely human and earthly experience, has “darken’d sanctities with song” (section 37, l. 24).

None of this should suggest that Victorian poetry is cloying. Its intensity of grief and its apprehensions of despair rival those of any other poetic tradition or period. In fact, some of that intensity derives from a paradoxical acknowledgement of its uselessness. The idea that the human soul is minor, just as the poetry that soul expresses is minor, is a grim one—consonant with the Victorian insights of that greatest of analytic pessimists, Sigmund Freud. The Pre-Raphaelite poetry can have the last word here: The absolutely minor pleasures of decorative beauty—scorned as unworthy of poetry by too many grander aspirants—became for them the devastatingly precise detail which undercuts any notion of transcendence. (They are the forebears of such modern great poets as Elizabeth Bishop.) All there is, in the end, is the world of detail, without the saving importance that might turn loss into gain, as it did for the romantics, that might make pleasure any more than decorative. It is the success of Victorian poetry that it preserves the importance of the decorative, gives us something to hang onto on earth when there is nothing that poetry can communicate that will bring us into heaven.

Bibliography Browning, Robert. Essay on Percy Bysshe Shelley. London: Reeves and Turner. 1888. Hough, Graham Goulden. The Last Romantics. London: Duckworth, 1949. Houghton, Walter Edwards. Victorian Frame of Mind, 1830– 1870. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957. Trilling, Lionel, and Harold Bloom. Victorian Prose and Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Ricks, Christopher, ed. The New Oxford Book of Victorian Verse. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

The Oxford Handbook of Victorian Poetry

Matthew Bevis is a University Lecturer and Fellow in English at Keble College, Oxford. His publications include Tennyson: Lives of Victorian Literary Figures (2003), The Art of Eloquence: Byron, Dickens, Tennyson, Joyce (2007), Some Versions of Empson, ed. (2007), Comedy: A Very Short Introduction (2012), and Lessons in Byron (2013). He is currently co-editing a collection of essays on Edward Lear and The Play of Poetry and writing a book entitled Wordsworth’s Laughter.

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This Handbook is the largest and most comprehensive collection of essays on Victorian poetry and poetics yet published. It provides a closely-read appreciation of the vibrancy and variety of Victorian poetic forms, and attends to poems as both shaped and shaping forces. The volume is divided into four main sections. The first section on 'Form' looks at a few central innovations and engagements ('Rhythm', 'Beat', 'Address', 'Rhyme', 'Diction', 'Syntax', and 'Story'). The second section, 'Literary Landscapes', examines the traditions and writers (from classical times to the present day) that influence and take their bearings from Victorian poets. The third section provides 'Readings' of twenty-three poets by concentrating on particular poems or collections of poems, and the final section, 'The Place of Poetry', conceives and explores 'place' in a range of ways in order to situate Victorian poetry within broader contexts and discussions.

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Victorian Poetry in English Literature: Characteristics & Themes

Back to: History of English Literature All Ages – Summary & Notes

Table of Contents

Introduction

Victorian poetry refers to the verses composed during the reign of Queen Victoria in English (1837-1901). This period was marked by tremendous cultural upheaval.

There were a drastic change and development in the form of literature, art and music. Although Victorian Poetry was quite different from that of the preceding era , yet there were some similarities that existed between the two periods.

Questioning the Established Rule of Church
Interest in myths and mysteries.
Scepticism and Doubtfulness.

Characteristics

The Victorian Poetry was quite realistic in nature and quite less idealised as compared to the Romanic Poets who were idealists and believed in Art for the Art Sake . Nature, that was everything for the Romantics lost that idealised position in the Victorian era and became just a source of leisure and inspiration for the poets.

Focus on Masses

Romantic Poetry mainly focused on rural and rustic life. It is no way related to city life. On the other hand, Victorian poets used language as well as themes common to city life and thus wrote about the masses and for the masses.

As already discussed, Victorians were quite realistic and thus were more concerned about the reality rather than the ideal world. Due to the industrial revolution and advancement in science and technology, there was a drastic increase in the city population that gave rise to slums, poverty, unemployment, corruption diseases, deaths etc.

Thus, Victorian Poetry which focused on the pains and sufferings of commoners had a note of pessimism.

Science and Technology

The advancement in science and inventions was welcomed by the Victorian poets. It made them believe that a man can find all solutions to his problems and sufferings. They made their readers believe that they should use science for their betterment.

Questioning to God

It was an important feature of Victorian poetry. The development of empirical science, rationalism and radicalism led the people to give up religious thoughts and be more sceptic. Moreover, corruption in the Church, defining the morality of Priests, etc also led the people to question the religious institutions.

Sense of Responsibility

The Romantics believed in “return in nature”. A number of the Romantics did not like the city life and instead of giving voice to the victims of industrialisation, they left the city life. On the other hand, Victoria poets took the responsibility of social reform and gave voice to the commoners by living with them.

Though morality saw a steep decline in the Victorian Era , a number of poets tried to retain it by encouraging the people to be honest and noble.

Interest in Medieval Myths & Folklore

The Victorians showed great favour towards Medieval Literature. They loved mythical and chivalrous anecdotes of Medieval Knights, Courtly Love etc. This interest is on contrary to the of Romantics as the latter loved classical myths and legends.

Use of Sensory Devices & Imagery

The poets of the preceding era used imagery vividly. However, the Victorians also used sensory devices to describe the abstract scenes of chaos between Religion and Science.

Sentimentality

The Victorians wrote about artistic creations thus giving way to deeper imaginations.

A number of poets wrote humorous and whimsical verses. e.g. Bad Ballads.

Dramatic Monologue

Presentation.

Victorian Poetry

Devin M. Garofalo , University of North Texas

Journal Details

Devin M. Garofalo

Founding Editor, 1962–1990

John F. Stasny

The Hopkins Press Journals Ethics and Malpractice Statement can be found at the ethics-and-malpractice page.

See Victorian Poetry's submissions portal to submit a manuscript and for author guidelines .

Victorian Poetry has undergone a few significant transitions over the last year. The journal has a new editor, Devin M. Garofalo (University of North Texas), and a new publisher, Johns Hopkins University Press. Scholars wishing to submit their work for potential publication should do so via the new Scholastica submissions portal , which includes revised guidelines for article manuscripts, as well as information about special issues and the year’s work in review. Victorian Poetry is also pleased to announce our new early career essay prize and keyword series (more details below). Please direct any queries to the editor using the new journal email address: [email protected] .

Call for Submissions: Early Career Essay Prize

Victorian Poetry is pleased to announce a new prize recognizing exemplary essays by untenured scholars of all ranks and affiliations (including contingently employed and graduate student colleagues). Conferred on an annual basis by a committee comprised of members of the journal’s editorial board, the prize carries an award of $500 and publication in Victorian Poetry . Strong essays that do not win the award may also be considered for publication as recommended by the prize committee. Applications are due 30 June 2024. Scholars wishing to be considered should submit anonymized MS Word essays and brief CVs to [email protected] with “Early Career Essay Prize” in the subject line. Prior to submission, consult our guidelines for authors .

Winning articles will be selected according to three criteria: (1) significance of contribution to the field of Victorian poetry (including its involvement with Victorian studies and other areas of inquiry in or beyond literary studies); (2) excellence of research, interpretation, and method; and (3) efficacy of presentation. The journal continues to expand its purview to a wider compass of archives and approaches. We welcome work that capaciously (re)interprets the field's originary contexts and reconsiders Victorian poetry (broadly construed) in new, innovative, cross-disciplinary, theoretical, and / or experimental ways.

Call for Proposals: “Poetry’s Parts” Keyword Series

We invite proposals for short keyword essays (ca. 1,100 - 1,300 words) exploring Victorian poetry’s parts, whether formal (“sonnet”) or figural (“apostrophe”), cultural (“cosmopolitan”) or critical (“lyricization”). Considered and published on an ongoing basis (as opposed to appearing in a designated special issue), essays should apprehend pressing conceptual, aesthetic, historical, cultural, political, archival, and / or methodological questions and problems that shape the field (or, alternatively, that have been neglected to the field’s detriment). As warranted, authors might also consider the ways the field (as revealed by the keyword under discussion) is animated by or animates other (sub)disciplines or genealogies of thought in ways recognized or unrecognized.

Keywords need not be limited to those that fall strictly within the specialist purview of Victorian poetry. For instance, essays exploring the resonances of broad concepts such as “atmosphere” or “race” as refracted distinctively by and through Victorian poetry (broadly construed) are most welcome. Because these essays should make arguments as opposed to offering handbook-style overviews, proposals revisiting keywords explored in prior issues will eventually be welcome as the series unfolds. Pedagogical discussion may be appropriate if it serves an illustrative purpose that keeps in view the series’ focus.

Proposals are subject to editorial review (with an eye toward giving deliberate shape to the series, especially in its early stages) and keyword essays to peer review. If contemporaneous appearance in print is necessary for offering substantive insight, the editor will consider joint proposals (ideally, featuring scholars of different ranks and affiliations, on and off the tenure track), whether on the same keyword from quite distinct vantages or on different but productively entangled keywords. Joint proposals should be limited to two or three scholars, as larger groups are difficult to accommodate in print outside the confines of a special issue. Direct queries and proposals to the editor at [email protected] .

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2.1: Introduction to The Victorian Era

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Learning Objectives

Recognize and evaluate the influence that Queen Victoria and Prince Albert exerted on the last half of the 19th century.
Identify and explain the conflicts that defined the Victorian Era.
Assess the ways in which these conflicts influenced Victorian literature.
List, define, and give examples of typical forms of Victorian literature.

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times…” Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

The Victorian Age—the era when the sun never set on the British Empire, a time when the upper classes of Britain felt their society was the epitome of prosperity, progress, and virtue—Dickens’s words, however, could apply to his own Victorian age as well as they apply to the French Revolution setting of his novel. The Victorian Era was a time of contrasts—poverty as well as prosperity, degrading manual labor as well as technological progress, and depravity as well as virtue.

Snow Hill, Holburn, London (Anonymous).

Queen Victoria

The last seventy years of the 19th century were named for the long-reigning Queen Victoria . The beginning of the Victorian Era may be rounded off to 1830 although many scholars mark the beginning from the passage of the first Reform Bill in 1832 or Victoria’s accession to the throne in 1837.

Victoria was only eighteen when her uncle William IV died and, having no surviving legitimate children, left the crown to his niece.

Victoria receives the news that she is Queen. Engraved by Emery Walker (1851–1933), from the picture by Henry Tanworth Wells (1828–1903) at Buckingham Palace.

Although by the 19th century Britain was a constitutional monarchy and the queen held little governing power, Victoria set the moral and political tone of her century. She became a symbol of decency, decorum, and duty.

Three years into her reign, Victoria married Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a region in what is now Germany. Prince Albert (given the title “Prince” by Victoria), although he had no actual power in the government, became one of Victoria’s chief advisors and a proponent of technological development in Britain. Together the couple had nine children who married into many of Europe’s royal and noble families. Victoria and Albert were considered the model of morality and respectable family life.

Balmoral Castle, the royal residence in Scotland.

Osborne House, the royal residence on the Isle of Wight.

When Prince Albert died in 1861, Victoria retired from public view, spending time in her Balmoral Castle in Scotland or Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Public opinion of the queen waned as years passed without her resuming her official duties. Even when she conceded to her advisors’ urging to return to London and to honor her public obligations, she continued to wear mourning until her own death. She also commissioned many public memorials to Prince Albert, including the Albert Memorial in Hyde Park (near the original location of the Crystal Palace), Royal Albert Hall, and the Victoria & Albert Museum.

The Albert Memorial, Hyde Park, London.

Royal Albert Hall, London.

The ornamental dome on the Victoria & Albert Museum was modeled after Queen Victoria’s favorite crown, visible in the portrait below, now on display with the Crown Jewels at the Tower of London.

Photograph by Alexander Bassano 1829–1913.

Queen Victoria reigned as Queen of the United Kingdom and Empress of India until her death in 1901.

Victorian Conflicts

The Victorian Era was, in many ways, paradoxically “the best times” and “the worst of times.”

Conflicts of Morality

Queen Victoria embodied ideals of virtue, modesty, and honor. In fact, the term Victorian has in the past been almost a synonym for prim, prudish behavior. At the same time, London and other British cities had countless gaming halls which provided venues not just for gambling but also opium dens and prostitution . With the influx of population into the cities, desperate working class women turned to prostitution in attempts to support themselves and their children. Historian Judity Walkowitz reports that 19th century cities had 1 prostitute for every 12 adult males ( quoted in “The Great Social Evil”: Victorian Prostitution by Prof. Christine Roth). Because of rampant sexually transmitted diseases among the British military, Parliament passed a series of Contagious Diseases Acts in the 1860s. These acts allowed police to detain any woman suspected of having a sexually transmitted disease and to force her to submit to exams that were considered humiliating for women at that time. Police needed little basis for such suspicions, often simply that a woman was poor.

Thomas Hardy’s poem “ The Ruined Maid ” reveals one reason many women turned to prostitution ( ruined is a Victorian euphemism for an unmarried woman who has lost her virginity): in the poem, two young women converse. One woman, Melia, has left the farm to become a prostitute. When she meets a former friend, the contrast between the two women is pronounced: Melia is wearing fine clothes and is well fed and well cared for. The virtuous young woman, doing honest work on the farm, is wearing rags, digging potatoes by hand for subsistence, and suffering poor health. Hardy forces his readers to question what kind of society would reward prostitution while leaving the virtuous woman in abject poverty.

Conflicts of Technology and Industry

As an advocate of Victorian progress in science and industry, Prince Albert commissioned the Great Exhibition of 1851 , a type of world’s fair where all the countries in the British Empire had displays and Britain could show off its prosperity to the rest of the world. Albert had the Crystal Palace , a huge, modern building of glass and iron, built in Hyde Park to house the exhibition. After the Great Exhibition ended, the building was dismantled and moved and in its new location was destroyed by fire in 1936.

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The Albert Memorial Symbol of the Victorian Age

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The Albert Memorial commemorated all the same things the Great Exhibition vaunted. The four arms extending from the main statue represent four continents on which the British Empire had holdings: Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas—the sun literally never set on the British Empire. The figures on the frieze are great painters, poets, sculptors, musicians, and architects, representatives of the world’s accomplishments which culminated in the British Victorian culture. The mosaics on the canopy represent manufacturing, commerce, agriculture, and engineering—the foundations of British prosperity. And, of course, in the center, is the gilded figure of Albert himself.

Arm representing Africa.

The Great Exhibition of 1851 held in the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London. Source: Exterior: from Dickinson's Comprehensive Pictures of the Great Exhibition of 1851, 1854 interior: William Simpson (lithographer), Ackermann & Co. (publisher), 1851, V&A.

Prince Albert’s Great Exhibition of 1851 focused attention on the technological advances made during the Industrial Revolution. Although achievements such as the building of the railroad system and the implementation of mechanized factories produced great prosperity for some, others suffered . Even before the Victorian Era, writers drew attention to these problems. Wordsworth’s “Michael,” for example, portrays a man whose family had made their living from their land for many generations. With the advent of machines to weave woolen cloth, their livelihood, their way of life, was lost. Blake’s “Chimney Sweeper” poems illustrate how children suffered in the industrial age.

A girl pulling a coal tub in a mine. Source: Parliamentary Papers 1842.

In addition, working conditions in factories were deplorable. With no safety regulations and no laws limiting either the number of hours people could be required to work or the age of factory workers, some factory owners were willing to sacrifice the well-being of their employees for greater profit. Children as young as five worked in factories and mines. Shelley’s “Men of England” and Barrett Browning’s “The Cry of the Children” are two examples of poems written specifically to address these problems.

The 1833 Factory Act outlawed the employment of people under age eighteen at night, from 8:30 p.m. to 5:30 a.m. and limited the number of hours those under eighteen could work to twelve hours a day. For the first time, textile factory owners were forbidden to employ children under the age of nine. Children under age eleven could not work more than nine hours a day. The 1833 Factory Act also stipulated that children working in factories attend some type of school.

The Mines Act of 1842 prohibited females and boys under ten from working below ground in mines.

While these provisions hardly seem protective according to modern standards, the resulting conditions greatly improved life for many children . Throughout Victoria’s reign, other parliamentary acts continued to alleviate working conditions in the ever-expanding Victorian industrial age.

Conflicts of Faith and Doubt

The scientific and technological advances celebrated at the Great Exhibition of 1851 led to another crisis in Victorian England: a crisis of faith and doubt. During the earlier part of the 19th century, the work of Charles Lyell and other geologists with their discoveries of fossilized remains of animals never seen before led to debates among scientists about the origins of these creatures. Debates about the age of the earth for some called into question the Genesis account of creation. In 1859, Charles Darwin published his On the Origin of Species . Lyell and Darwin were among many who contributed to scientific theories that some saw as contradictory to established religious beliefs.

These scientific issues together with apparent lack of concern for appalling human conditions among the lower classes led some to doubt the presence of a divine being in the world and others to question the value of Christianity. Literature by writers such as Thomas Hardy and Matthew Arnold questions the presence of religious faith in the world.

At the same time, a conviction that Britain had a duty to spread Christianity around the world became one reason, or to some an excuse, for British imperialism.

Conflicts over Imperialism

A desire to expand industrial wealth and to have access to inexpensive raw materials led to the British occupation of countries around the globe. Although the United States and other European countries participated in this type of imperialism , the British Empire was the largest and wealthiest of its time.

Along with their desire for material gain, many British saw the expansion of the British Empire as what Rudyard Kipling referred to as “the white man’s burden,” the responsibility of the British to bring their civilization and their way of life to what many considered inferior cultures. The result of this type of reasoning was often the destruction of local cultures and the oppression of local populations. In addition, a religious zeal to bring British religion to “heathen” peoples resulted in an influx of missionaries with the colonialists.

A backlash of protest against the concept of imperialism further divided a British nation already divided by class, religion, education, and wealth. While many British citizens sincerely desired to share their knowledge and beliefs with less developed nations, others found the movement a convenient excuse to expand their country’s, and their own, power and wealth.

Conflicts over Women’s Rights

“The Queen is most anxious to enlist everyone who can speak or write to join in checking this mad, wicked folly of ‘Woman’s Rights,’ with all its attendant horrors, on which her poor feeble sex is bent, forgetting every sense of womanly feeling and propriety.” Queen Victoria, 1870

quoted in Lytton Strachey’s Queen Victoria)

Ironically, as seen in this passage from a letter written in the royal third person by Queen Victoria, even the Queen opposed women’s rights. Nonetheless, the Victorian Era did see advancement in women’s political rights. The Married Woman’s Property Act of 1870 gave married women the right to own property they earned or acquired by inheritance. The upper classes were, of course, primarily concerned with inheritances. Before the passage of this act, money or property left to a married woman immediately belonged to her husband. By the late 19th century, women had some rights to their children and the right to leave their husbands because of physical abuse.

Education for women also improved. The idea Mary Wollstonecraft expressed in her “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman” in 1792 very gradually, over more than 100 years, became a reality.

The first schools for the lower classes, girls or boys, were Sunday schools organized by churches to teach children basic literacy as well as religious lessons on the only day they were not working full time. Not until the Education Act of 1870 were public schools in all areas of the country provided by law. Even then, attendance was not made compulsory for another ten years and then only for children aged five to ten.

Girls from the lower classes were included in the first public schools; however, girls from the upper classes continued to receive their basic education primarily in the home and in finishing schools for young ladies. Cambridge University and Oxford University established the first colleges for women in the latter half of the 19th century. Women were not allowed to attend the existing colleges for men and were not considered full members of the universities until the 20th century.

Although there was an active woman’s suffrage movement during the Victorian Era, women did not receive the right to vote until the 20th century.

Take the Women’s Rights Quiz on the BBC website to see how much you know about the rights of Victorian women.

The major change in the English language during the 19th century was the introduction of vocabulary to communicate new innovations, inventions, and concepts that resulted from the Industrial Age. Language mirrored class distinctions in both vocabulary and accents. The well educated upper classes were distinguished by their speech. Slang and an entirely differently accented English were the marks of the lower classes.

Forms of Literature

As noted in the Romantic Period introduction, a novel , as defined in the Holman/Harmon Handbook to Literature , is an “extended fictional prose narrative.” The novel was a dominant form in the Victorian Era. Many Victorian novelists—Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, Wilke Collins, George Eliot, Robert Louis Stevenson—wrote serial novels , novels published in installments over a period of time. Serial novels appeared in newspapers or magazines or could be published in independently printed booklets. As larger portions of the population became literate, demand for reading material grew. The inexpensive booklets , each containing a chapter or other small portion of a novel, were affordable entertainment for the middle classes.

As in the Romantic Period, lyric poetry was popular in the Victorian Era. In addition to the lyric, the verse novel , a long narrative poem , such as Barrett Browning’s Aurora Leigh , Tennyson’s Idylls of the King , and Browning’s The Ring and the Book , also was a prevalent form. Browning popularized the dramatic monologue , a form of poetry which presents a speaker in a dramatic situation.

Non-Fiction Prose

The many conflicts of the Victorian Era provided fertile subject matter for non-fiction prose writers such as Matthew Arnold , Thomas Carlyle , John Stuart Mill , John Henry Newman , Walter Pater , and John Ruskin .

Popular forms of entertainment such as the music hall and melodramas flourished during the Victorian Era as entertainment became divided along class lines. Popular music and musical plays, separated from legitimate theater in their own venues, provided leisure-time amusement for the middle classes. Robert Browning wrote closet dramas , plays not actually intended for the stage. Oscar Wilde revived the comedy of manners with plays such as Lady Windermere’s Fan and The Importance of Being Earnest .

Key Takeaways

Although Queen Victoria symbolized decency, decorum, and duty, Victorian society spanned a wide spectrum of prosperity and poverty, education and ignorance, progress and regression
Victorian society wrestled with conflicts of morality, technology and industry, faith and doubt, imperialism, and rights of women and ethnic minorities.
Many Victorian writers addressed both sides of these conflicts in many forms of literature.
Typical forms of Victorian literature include novels, serialized novels, lyric poetry, verse novels, dramatic monologues, non-fiction prose, and drama.

Victorianism

“ All Change in the Victorian Age .” Bruce Robinson. Britain’s Industrial Revolution. Victorians. BBC History.
“ Monuments and Dust: The Culture of Victorian London .” Michael Levenson, University of Virginia; David Trotter, University College London; Anthony Wohl, Vassar College. Institute for Advance Technology in the Humanities, University of Virginia; Department of English University College London; Cambridge University Press.
“ Movements and Currents in Nineteenth-Century British Thought .” The Victorian Web . George P. Landow, Brown University.
“ Overview of the Victorian Era .” History in Focus . Anne Shepherd. University of London.
“ Victorian and Victorianism .” The Victorian Web . George P. Landow, Brown University.
“ Victorian Britain .” History Trails. BBC.
“ Victorian England: An Introduction .” Christine Roth, University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh.
“ The Victorian Period .” Dr. Robert M. Kirschen, University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
“ Victorians 1837–1901 .” Liza Picard. The British Library.
“ Victorians 1850–1901 .” The National Archives .
“ Queen Victoria .” The Victorian Web . David Cody, Hartwick College.
“ Addiction in the Nineteenth Century .” Dr. Susan Zieger, Stanford University.
“ The Contagious Diseases Act .” The Victorian Web .
“ The Great Social Evil”: Victorian Prostitution . Prof. Christine Roth, University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh.
“ Opium Dens and Opium Usage in Victorian England .” Victorian History . Bruce Rosen, University of Tasmania.
“ 1832 Reform Act .” Taking Liberties: The Struggle for Britain’s Freedoms and Rights. The British Library.
“ The 1833 Factory Act [from Statutes of the Realm, 3 & 4 William IV, c. 103] .” The Victorian Web . Dr. Marjie Bloy, National University of Singapore.
“ 19th Century Poor Law Union and Workhouse Records .” The National Archives . brief explanation of 1834 Poor Law and images.
“ Child Labor .” The Victorian Web . David Cody, Hartwick College.
“ Corn Laws .” The Victorian Web . David Cody, Hartwick College.
“ The Crystal Palace Animation .” The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities. University of Virginia.
“ The Crystal Palace, or The Great Exhibition of 1851: An Overview .” The Victorian Web .
“ Great Exhibition .” Treasures. The National Archives .
“ The Great Exhibition .” History, Periods & Styles Features. The Victoria & Albert Museum.
“ The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace .” Victoria Station .
“ The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England .” The Victorian Web . Laura Del Col, West Virginia University.
“ The Reform Acts .” The Victorian Web . Glenn Everett, University of Tennessee at Martin.
“ Testimony Gathered by Ashley’s Mines Commission .” The Victorian Web . Laura Del Col, West Virginia University.
“ Victorian Science & Religion .” The Victorian Web . Aileen Fyfe, National University of Ireland Galway and John van Wyhe, Cambridge University.

Conflict over Imperialism

“ The British Empire .” The Victorian Web . David Cody, Hartwick College.
“ British Empire .” The National Archives .
“ Kipling’s Imperialism .” The Victorian Web . David Cody, Hartwick College.
“ The 1870 Education Act .” Living Heritage: Going to School. www.parliament.uk .
“ Gender Ideology & Separate Spheres .” Gender, Health, Medicine & Sexuality in Victorian England. Victoria & Albert Museum.
“ Gender Matters .” The Victorian Web .
“ The National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies .” The Victorian Web . Helena Wojtczak.
“‘ The Personal is Political’: Gender in Private & Public Life .” Gender, Health, Medicine & Sexuality in Victorian England. Victoria & Albert Museum.
“ The Suffragettes in Parliament .” History of Parliament Podcasts. www.parliament.uk .
“ Suffragists .” Learning: Dreamers and Dissenters. The British Library.
“ Victorian Britain: A Divided Nation ?” Education. The National Archives .
“ Women’s Status in Mid 19th-Century England: A Brief Overview .” Helena Wojtczak. Hastings Press.
“ Women’s Rights Quiz .” Major Events of Victoria’s Reign. Victorians. BBC History.
“ Women’s Work .” Prof. Pat Hudson, Cardiff University. Daily Life in Victorian Britain. Victorians. BBC History.

Victorian Language

“ The Development of the English Language Following the Industrial Revolution .” The Victorian Web . Jessica Courtney, University of Brighton (UK).
“ The 19th Century Novel .” Novels . Dr. Agatha Taormina, Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College.
“ Gerard Manley Hopkins and the Difficulties of Victorian Poetry .” The Victorian Web . George P. Landow, Brown University.
“ Justifying God’s Ways to Man (and Woman): The Victorian Long Poem .” The Victorian Web . George P. Landow. Brown University.
“ Literary Genre, Mode, and Style .” The Victorian Web .
“ Nineteenth Century Drama .” Theatre Database .
“ Progress of Journalism in the Victorian Era .” Bartleby.com . The Growth of Journalism. rpt. from The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907–21). Vol. XIV. The Victorian Age, Part Two.
“ Serial Publication .” Prof. Joel J. Brattin, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Dickens. Life and Career. PBS.org .
Some Questions to Use in Analyzing Novels . Prof. Stephen C. Behrendt, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
“ Studies of Victorian Literature .” Dr. John P. Farrell, University of Texas at Austin.
“ Victorian Literature and Culture .” Prof. James Buzard. MIT Open Courseware .
“ Victorian Serial Novels .” Digital Collections. University of Victoria Libraries.
“ Victorian Women Writers Project .” University of Indiana Digital Library Project.
“ Why Read the Serial Versions of Victorian Novels? ” The Victorian Web . Philip V. Allingham, Lakehead University.
“ The Albert Memorial: Symbol of the Victorian Age .” Dr. Carol Lowe, McLennan Community College.
“ The Great Exhibition .” Victorians. The British Library.
“ The Rise of Technology and Industry .” Learning: Victorians. The British Library. images, slide shows, video, podcasts featuring all types of industry and technological advances in daily life, such as cooking and bathrooms.
“ A Visitor’s Guide to the Great Exhibition, from ‘The Illustrated Exhibitor .’” The Great Exhibition. Victorians. The British Library.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section The Epic Tradition

Introduction, general overviews.

Victorian Responses to Homer
Victorian Responses to Virgil
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
William Morris
Science, Religion, and the Epic

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Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

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Missions and the British and Irish Churches: 1701–c.1900
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The Epic Tradition by Isobel Hurst LAST REVIEWED: 24 February 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 24 February 2021 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199799558-0159

Epic occupied a prominent position as the highest test of poetic genius, yet any poet imprudent enough to attempt an epic would be faced with a daunting challenge. For a Victorian poet the attempt to rival Homer or Virgil involved complex considerations of form, theme, and history. The genre was traditionally associated with heroism and masculine strength, mythology, and the shaping of national identity, religion, and war, and with the poet’s own desire to compete with and surpass his predecessors much as epic heroes seek to prove their own supremacy. The reception of ancient epic was an ongoing concern in the period, since Homer in particular was cited as a model in literature, politics, and morality. Matthew Arnold’s prescriptions for translating Homer conveyed a sense of the responsibility involved in disseminating classical texts to a new readership. The Iliad was appropriated in debates on divorce, masculinity, authorship, and the historical criticism of the Bible. The Odyssey offered an alternative, novelistic version of Homeric epic, one which prioritized domesticity and highlighted the poem’s female characters. Some of the most influential creative responses to the epic tradition were not poems in twelve or twenty-four books but verse novels, dramatic monologues, or theatrical burlesques. Others took up the challenge of writing at epic length and addressing national concerns. For aspiring epic poets, there were many choices to be made: should poetry inhabit a mythological world, whether Arthurian (Tennyson’s Idylls of the King or Swinburne’s Tristram of Lyonesse ) or Norse (William Morris’s Sigurd the Volsung ), or a contemporary domain like that of Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s Aurora Leigh? Might the epic be used to intervene in religious controversies or political conflicts such as Chartism? Could a modern poet be the Virgil of the British Empire? Facing strong competition from the novel, ambitious Victorian poets chose to approach such questions and an astonishing range of themes in a form which evoked vast expanses of time and space, extraordinary physical and intellectual achievement, and literary renown. Yet to achieve recognition as an epic poet remains an unusual distinction. Despite recent critical attention to the proliferation of Victorian poems with epic aspirations, a small number of poems by Tennyson, Barrett Browning, and William Morris have continued to dominate accounts of the genre.

Scholarly interest in epic as a genre is a comparatively recent phenomenon in Victorian studies, challenging earlier assumptions that Paradise Lost represents an end point for the English epic. Foerster 1962 surveys the reception of epic in the Victorian period, citing numerous statements by poets and critics. Tucker 2002 is an insightful introduction to the prevalence of epic in the Victorian period, drawing attention to numerous minor epics as well as familiar examples. Roberts 1999 is a useful point of reference for epics and other long poems of the period. Johns-Putra 2006 explores an important issue in accounts of the genre, the relationship between the epic and the novel. Graham 1998 and Dentith 2006 address the idea of epic as a form associated with nationalism and imperialism. Tucker 2008 is unrivaled as a rigorously researched and engaging account of the diverse epic aspirations of Victorian poets. Buckland and Vaninskaya 2009 is a collection of essays responding to a revival of interest in the epic and informed by Tucker 2008 .

Buckland, Adelene, and Anna Vaninskaya, eds. Special Issue: Victorian Epic . Journal of Victorian Culture 14 (2009): 163–320.

A journal issue which examines the use of epic form in the 19th century to represent the past, present, and future. In the “Introduction: Epic’s Historic Form” (pp. 163–172), Buckland and Vaninskaya argue that epic proved to be an apt form for the reworking of history in terms of geology, religion, and archaeology. They connect the interdisciplinary readings of epic in this special issue with the literary-critical turn to a “new formalism.”

Dentith, Simon. Epic and Empire in Nineteenth-Century Britain . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511484773

A wide-ranging study of epic primitivism and the desire for a national epic in 19th-century poetry and fiction. Dentith argues that 19th-century responses to the epic contain ambivalence toward the barbarism and heroism of the past, and that attitudes to the subject peoples of the British Empire were shaped by epic. Authors discussed include Elizabeth Barrett Browning, George Eliot, William Morris, Rudyard Kipling and writers of late-Victorian imperial adventure stories.

Foerster, Donald M. “The Pendulum Begins to Swing: Early Victorian Estimates: 1832–1880.” In The Fortunes of Epic Poetry: A Study in English and American Criticism, 1750–1950 . By Donald M. Foerster, 116–159. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1962.

A comprehensive survey of responses to epic by critics and poets in the Victorian period. Foerster argues that the period after 1832 was in some respects hostile to the epic, but the genre also regained some of the prestige it had lost in the Romantic era. Discusses the reception of Homer’s Iliad , Virgil’s Aeneid , Dante’s Divine Comedy , and Milton’s Paradise Lost .

Graham, Colin. Ideologies of Epic: Nation, Empire, and Victorian Epic Poetry . Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1998.

A Bakhtinian reading of the cultural and national politics of the epic in the context of colonialism. Graham adapts Bakhtin’s theory of the epic as a monologic genre, arguing that epic can never exclude the dialogic. Poems discussed include examples from England, Ireland, and India: Tennyson’s Idylls of the King , Samuel Ferguson’s Congal , and Edwin Arnold’s translations from the Mahabharata .

Johns-Putra, Adeline. “The Nineteenth Century: Epic and the Self.” In The History of the Epic . By Adeline Johns-Putra, 114–154. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

DOI: 10.1057/9780230595729

An insightful chapter on Romantic and Victorian epics within a larger examination of the genre. Discusses the expression and celebration of individualism developing as psychological exploration replaces martial heroism. Juxtaposes Barrett Browning’s Aurora Leigh with Tolstoy’s War and Peace as examples of the convergence of epic and novel, highlighting the relationship between individuals and the community, with actions by ordinary men and women taking the place of traditionally heroic deeds.

Roberts, Adam. Romantic and Victorian Long Poems: A Guide . Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999.

Summarizes a wide-ranging selection of long poems and gives descriptions of genres such as epic, romance, and verse novel. Roberts uses the term “epic” as a descriptor for poems of over 1,000 lines, arguing that length (rather than other conventions of the genre such as the catalogue or the beginning in medias res ) inspired 19th-century poets to attempt epics.

Tucker, Herbert F. “Epic.” In A Companion to Victorian Poetry . Edited by Richard Cronin, Alison Chapman, and Antony H. Harrison, 25–41. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002.

DOI: 10.1111/b.9780631222071.2002.00005.x

A lucid and authoritative survey of the heterogeneous kinds of epic produced in the Victorian period. Excellent starting point for a study of the genre.

Tucker, Herbert F. Epic: Britain’s Heroic Muse, 1790–1910 . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199232987.001.0001

An indispensable resource for the development of the epic in the long 19th century. Tucker’s commentary on the genre offers a rich contextualization of the more prominent long poems of the period by paying attention to subgenres such as Chartist epic, Spasmodic epic, or scientific epic. The comprehensive bibliography identifies hundreds of epics from the period.

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Aestheticism
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Victorian Literature: Topics in Victorian Literature

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Victorian Age in English Literature

The Victorian Age, which derives its name from the reign of Queen Victoria spanning from 1837 to 1901, marked a profound shift in English literature and culture. The emphasis on emotion and imagination of the Romantic era gave way to a new emphasis on social realism, industrialization, and the intricacies of a quickly changing society during this time. With its innovations in technology and urbanization, the Industrial Revolution significantly influenced the Victorian era.

Victorian authors and thinkers were compelled to address the moral, social, and political issues of the day as the world experienced significant change. Thus, the Victorian Age is remembered as a multifaceted age that examined the conflicts between tradition and progress, religion and doubt, and social fairness and inequity, all of which had a lasting influence on English literature and culture.

Table of Contents

Cultural and Historical Background

The Victorian Age was profoundly shaped by its cultural and historical background, which was characterized by several key factors.

It was important to consider the effects of the Industrial Revolution. The effects of the Industrial Revolution were significant. The rapid mechanization of industry and the transition from rural to industrial economies changed the British landscape. This upheaval had a significant impact on the social structure, the nature of labor, and people’s living arrangements, resulting in both economic prosperity and stark inequality.

Read More: Romantic Age in English Literature

Significant social and economic changes occurred, including urbanization. Cities expanded at a rate never before seen, drawing people from the countryside to cities in search of work. New problems with overcrowding, sanitation, the expansion of slums, and the rise of a growing middle class were brought on by this urbanization.

The development of technology and the spread of literacy were key features of this time period. Transportation and communication were completely transformed by innovations like the steam engine and the expansion of the railroads. A culture of reading and intellectual discourse was also fostered by the abundance of newspapers, periodicals, and books that came about as a result of rising literacy rates.

The morality and values of the Victorian era played a significant role as well. A strong sense of decorum, responsibility, and respectability pervaded this time period, which was characterized by Queen Victoria’s personal reputation for having stringent moral standards. These moral principles influenced Victorian literature and social norms.

Literature of the Victorian Age

In contrast to the Romantic era ‘s predominantly lyrical focus, novels rose to prominence during the Victorian age and became the dominating literary form. This change reflected the time’s focus on social realism and examination of the intricacies of the human condition.

Famous novelists who wrote novels during the Victorian era included Thomas Hardy, Charlotte Bronte, and Charles Dickens . Dickens wrote novels like “Oliver Twist” and “Great Expectations,” which shed light on the harsh realities of urban life and the problems of the working class. Dickens is renowned for his vivid characters and societal satire.

Read More: Charles Dickens as a victorian poet

With her novel “Jane Eyre,” Charlotte Bronte provided a comprehensive exploration of love, class, and female freedom by delving into the emotional and psychological depths of her characters, particularly the female protagonist.

In contrast, Thomas Hardy focused on the rural setting and the misfortune of people entangled in the web of fate and circumstance in works like “Tess of the d’Urbervilles” and “Far from the Madding Crowd.” The conflicts between tradition and modernity were frequently portrayed in his novels.

Poetry and Romantic Revival

While novels became more popular during the Victorian era, poetry remained an important and significant component of the literary landscape. The Romantic Revival, which saw writers return to earlier Romantic themes of nature, spirituality, and social critique, was an important feature of Victorian poetry.

Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning, two well-known poets of the time, are prime examples of the Romantic Revival in their works. Nature served as a frequent source of inspiration for Tennyson’s poetry, and his collection “In Memoriam” examined topics such as loss, faith, and the human condition. His poem “The Lady of Shalott” is a wonderful illustration of how Victorian poetry combines nature with spirituality.

Robert Browning, who is known for his dramatic monologues, explored the complicated moral and psychological motivations of his characters. In order to examine themes of justice and human nature, his poem “The Ring and the Book” mixes together several perspectives.

Along with these poets, the Romantic Revival had a significant impact on the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood , a group of artists and poets that emerged during the Victorian era. With the help of sophisticated visual art, poets like Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Christina Rossetti, and Algernon Charles Swinburne, among others, explored themes of beauty, sensuality, and spirituality.

Social and Political Essays

The Victorian Era saw a flourishing of social and political essays in addition to the predominance of novels and the resurgence of Romantic themes in poetry. These essays served as a platform for the discussion of important problems pertaining to class, gender, and imperialism, which reflects the period’s intense involvement with important societal issues.

Read More: Romanticism in English Literature

During the Victorian era, authors like John Stuart Mill and Thomas Carlyle significantly influenced the field of social and political essays. Philosopher and political economist John Stuart Mill wrote notable works like “On Liberty” and “The Subjection of Women.” He defended individual freedom and promoted gender equality in these essays, pushing society to acknowledge the inherent rights and abilities of all people, regardless of gender.

On the other hand, Thomas Carlyle explored issues related to socioeconomic class and the effects of industrialization. While “Past and Present” offered a critical analysis of the effects of rapid societal change, “Chartism” addressed the frustrations of the working class and their aspirations for political reform.

These individuals were not the only ones who wrote and thought critically about social and political concerns throughout the Victorian era; there were many other authors and philosophers as well. These essays served as a platform for discussions among intellectuals and the development of concepts that would later influence the social and political atmosphere in Britain and beyond.

They contributed significantly to promoting change and bringing attention to pressing societal issues, leaving a lasting legacy in the fields of politics, literature, and social reform.

Key Themes and Characteristics

The Victorian era’s dedication to social realism and critique was a major theme and defining feature of the period. Victorian authors were deeply concerned about the social inequalities and disparities between classes that were prevalent in their rapidly evolving society. The commitment was shown in the meticulous analysis of the lives of everyday people and the portrayal of daily life.

Charles Dickens, a writer best known for his works “Oliver Twist” and “Hard Times,” applied his creative talent to demonstrate the difficult circumstances that the working class had to endure. They revealed the dark side of industrialisation, child labour, and poverty through compelling narratives and characters. Dickens, in particular, rose to prominence as a champion of social change, using his fiction to promote reform and draw attention to the condition of the oppressed.

Along with Dickens, other Victorian novelists like Thomas Hardy and Elizabeth Gaskell also practiced social realism by highlighting the difficulties and ambitions of common people. While Hardy’s writings, such as “Tess of the d’Urbervilles” and “The Mayor of Casterbridge,” explored the difficulties of rural life and the injustices experienced by women, Gaskell’s “North and South” highlighted the conflict between industrial capitalism and workers’ rights.

Exploration of Gender and Feminism

Women’s rights and their position in society were extensively explored throughout the Victorian era, reflecting the changing sentiments of the time. Victorian literature played a pivotal role in both examining women’s responsibilities and promoting more gender equality.

Authors who identified as feminists, such as Charlotte Bronte, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and George Eliot, made significant contributions to this discourse. Poetry by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, notably “Sonnets from the Portuguese” and the epic poem “Aurora Leigh,” dealt with issues of love, identity, and the fight for women’s independence. Her works were distinguished by a progressive attitude on gender equality and women’s freedom of expression.

In general, the emotional lives and problems of female characters were given more attention in Victorian literature. Novels like George Eliot’s “Middlemarch” and Charlotte Bronte’s “Jane Eyre” provided complex depictions of women’s experiences, aspirations, and societal limitations.

Moral and Ethical Inquiry

The Victorian era was characterized by a profound and constant involvement with moral and ethical inquiry in its literature, which reflected the era’s intense reflection on moral conundrums and theological issues. This introspection was influenced by Religious uncertainty and the significant scientific advancements.

Victorian authors grappled with moral dilemmas that were frequently created in the context of rapidly changing social, scientific, and religious atmosphere. For instance, the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin led to serious concerns regarding humanity’s moral obligations and place in the natural world. His book, “On the Origin of Species,” profoundly influenced Victorian thought and disrupted established theological conceptions of creation.

Novels like “Tess of the d’Urbervilles” and “Jude the Obscure,” written by authors like Thomas Hardy, examined themes of fate, destiny, and moral judgment. These works highlighted morally conflicted protagonists within an indifferent or even hostile setting.

Literature from the Victorian era also reflects a rise in religious skepticism and doubt. Writers like Matthew Arnold portrayed a sense of spiritual crisis and the eroding of established religious certainties in his poem “Dover Beach.” Victorian literature was known for its contemplative, frequently depressing exploration of faith and ethics.

Notable Figures of the Victorian Age

The Victorian Age was teeming with notable figures who left an indelible mark on English literature and culture, reflecting the spirit and ethos of the era.

Charles Dickens was a prolific novelist and social critic who is regarded as one of the most well-known individuals of the Victorian era. His works, including “Oliver Twist,” “Great Expectations,” and “A Tale of Two Cities,” not only pleased readers with their endearing characters and compelling stories, but also provided insight into the glaring social inequalities and class divisions that characterized Victorian society. Dickens was an advocate of social change, and his writings significantly contributed to increasing public awareness of these issues.

Read More: A Tale of Two Cities as a historical novel

Another notable figure from the Victorian era is Charlotte Bronte, the author of the well-known novel “Jane Eyre.” Her work, which is known for its examination of love, class, and female freedom, is still regarded as a timeless masterpiece. Bront’s portrayal of the bold heroine and her daring story choices subverted the expectations of her period and had a long-lasting influence on feminist literature.

Alfred Lord Tennyson, referred to as the “Poet Laureate of the Victorian Age,” was celebrated for his excellent poetry. His poems, including “The Lady of Shalott,” “In Memoriam,” and “The Charge of the Light Brigade,” perfectly captured the Victorian preference for romanticism and reflection on the natural world and human emotion. Tennyson’s poems did a wonderful job of capturing the spirit of the age.

The Victorian Age was significantly shaped by Queen Victoria herself. Her nearly seven-decade rule, which was the longest in British history up to that moment, had a significant impact on the culture’s ideals and sensibility. Her dedication to moral principles and family life set the standard for Victorian culture and society. Her status as a patron of the arts and sciences also contributed to the intellectual vitality of the time.

Conclusion:

In the history of English literature and culture, the Victorian era is recognized as a crucial and transformative time. It was distinguished by a diverse range of literary accomplishments, social consciousness, and in-depth moral and ethical inquiry. The Victorian era is still a testament to how writing has the ability to reflect, criticize, and inspire change because of its wide literary output and deep engagement with the opportunities and challenges of the time. It established the foundation for modern literature and culture, making it a period of permanent significance in the history of English literature.

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Victorian Poetry and Its Characteristics Research Paper

Victorian literature referred to the literature written during the reign of Queen Victoria of England (Baugh 1967). This was from 1837-1901. This type of literature mainly focused on strict social, political, and sexual conservatism of the time. During this period, England experienced a series of changes and upheavals unseen before in the earlier eras. Every institution was undergoing an unpredictable change that swept throughout England. There were improvements in steam engine technology, which resulted in greater factory production (Fletcher, 1987). The economies of Europe were growing at an accelerated rate, and, as a result, there was the creation of large amounts of wealth (Fletcher, 1987).

However, this newly created wealth could only benefit the “middle class.” The sacred and indisputable truth propagated by the church was seriously challenged by scientific advancement. It was at this period that Charles Darwin came up with his theory of natural selection, where life got reduced to a bloody struggle for one to survive. Furthermore, the new market economy, which favored industrial development discouraged agriculture and, as a result, large numbers of farmers and peasants lost their livelihoods and had to move to the cities in search of employment. This resulted in congestion in towns and cities and saw them coming up of slums and shantytowns, where the majority of the working class lived (Maidment 1987). These rapid changes appeared as a source of hope and optimism by other writers, but many of the literary writers of that period were against this and spoke out in opposition to the unfair treatment of the masses.

One of the most prominent traits of Victorian poetry was that most poems portrayed the themes of isolation, alienation, and the distinction between love and life. The poem ‘Ulysses’ by Tennyson is a monologue which reflects on his isolation and hunger to explore the world. His poem talks about a range of issues from political to historical and even scientific matters.

Another feature of Victorian poetry was that most of the literary writings had a moral purpose. The poems intended to oppose and speak against the unfair social and political systems in England during the Victorian era. Through his poems, Tennyson tackled issues that were of social and political concern to the Victorian society. He gave voice to the poor and reforms on the society in which he lived. His university life exposed him to the policies faced by the masses and he became part of the most important issue in the Victorian society at that time, namely enactment of parliamentary reform.

Another important characteristic of the Victorian poetry was that it was highly idealistic and tackled issues of truth, love and justice. Many of the poems of this era dealt with problems like women repression in the society and corruption by those in authority. The poem “Goblin Market” by Christina Rosetta reflects the role of women in the society and especially their role in building the economy. In the poem “An Artist Studio”, the writer talks about the tendency of Victorian poets to objectify women and experiment on them as, if they were objects of beauty in the poem, the artists views his female subject as an objects without any emotions which he can hardly manage and which he does not know what to do with for her to fit his plans and thoughts as for the matter.

The poem “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti is a poem that talks about the feminist glorification of “sisterhood”. There are many terms in the poem that work as the features of portraying the Victorian era, such as commerce, trade and exchange (Dolin 1999). They allude to the Victorian economy and capitalism together with the role of women within the society.

In literature, the modernist period referred to the period shortly after the beginning of the 20 th century. Most of the writers got inspired by the horrors and atrocities of the First World War. The literature of this era focused more on modern Western ideas, religion, social conventions, and morality. In this period, experimentation and individualism set modernism into motion (Dolin 1999). The difference between the modernist literature and the Victorian literature was that in modernism the focus was on the western ideas and the future while the Victorian literature focused on the culture that existed in England at that time.

The two world wars set the world and especially Europe in a state of cultural shock. In modernism, there was a strong sense of similarity in all genres. The modernist culture was a reaction to the Victorian way of life which had dominated most in the 19th century.

The modernist literature was greatly stimulated by the new radical developments and a new way of looking at life. One of the most distinct features of modernism was that it had a strong and intentional break with tradition. There was a strong reaction against the established norms in the society, that were religious, political and social views. Modernism literature completely departed from the conventionalities of the 19 th century and experimented in a way it has never been seen before. This included literary works like T.S Eliot’s The Waste Land and Joyce’s Ulysses . This kind of literature broke from the literary tradition that they inherited and came up with a completely different form from the Victorian literature

In modernism, there was also the belief that the world was what people perceived it to be. Another feature of modernism was the belief that there is no such thing as absolute truth since all things are relative. In modernism, there is also no link with history or institutions instead most of their experiences exhibit alienation, loss and despair. In James Joyce “The Dead”, the central themes are that of mortality and isolation. The story has the mixture of happiness with sadness. The author joins the themes of mortality and solitude and the separation brought about by dead signifies the isolation faced by those who are still living (McCordick, 1996).

In modernism, life is one of disorganization and disorder and the championship of the personal and celebration of inner strength. Its concern is more with the sub-conscious parts of the mind. In teats poem,”The Lake Isle of Innisfree,” the last line expresses the need for the persona to stay true and follow the desires of his ‘deep heart’s core.’

The poem ‘The lake isle of innisfree’ by Yeats reflects the frustrations brought about by the industrial revolution. He longs to break away from noisy urban life and goes to a place where he will experience peace. Most of modernist literature dealt with the themes of mortality, isolation and old age.

Works Cited

Baugh, Albert Croll. A literary history of England . 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967. Print.

Dolin, Kieran. Fiction and the Law: Legal Discourse in Victorian and Modernist Literature. Cambridge. UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print.

Fletcher, Ian. British Poetry and Prose, 1870-1905. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. Print.

Maidment, Brian. The Poorhouse Fugitives: Self-Taught Poets and Poetry in Victorian Britain. New York: Carconet, 1987. Print.

McCordick, David. Scottish Literature: An Anthology, 2. NY: Lang, 1996. Print.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Victorian Poetry and Its Characteristics." October 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/victorian-poetry-and-its-characteristics/.

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Victorian Era Poetry Characteristics & Salient Features

Table of Contents

Victorian Era Poetry

Literature is always the mirror of the age. This is borne out in no age so faithfully as in The Victorian Age. The literary history of this age bears out the influences of the social forces that were at work during that age. Science, rational thoughts, technological advancement, religious controversies and movements and industrialism are all found to have conspicuous effects on the literary aspiration as well as activities of the age. The Victorian Age and literature are found closely related.

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Victorian literature is the literature produced during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901). England, during this time, was undergoing a tremendous cultural upheaval; the accepted forms of literature, Victorian art and music had undergone a radical change. The Romantic Movement, which preceded the Victorian Renaissance, had often portrayed the human pursuit of knowledge and power as a beautiful thing, for example in works of Wordsworth.

The Victorian era is additionally associated with an era of ideological conflict . It’s associated era within which the conflict between science and religion, rationality and mysticism, and technical progress and non-secular orthodoxy is found keen and clear. The writers of the age seem to have expressed their response to these diverse shades of conflict through their literary ideals and attitudes, thoughts and feelings.

Victorian poetry, just like the different branches of Victorian Literature, is found to be dominated by the social thoughts of the age. The age saw a variety of powerful poets-

1. Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892) 2. Robert Browning (1812-1889) 3. Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-1861) 4. Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) 5. Arthur Hugh Clough (1819-1861) 6. Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828-1882) 7. William Morris (1834-1896) 8. Christina Georgina Rossetti (1830-1894) 9. Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837-1909) 10. Coventry Kersey Dighton Patmore (1823-1896 )

The poets of the age, save the Pre-Raphaelites, entered into the controversy of the age and tried to find out the road to the true ideal of literature in an environment of spiritual and ethical controversies and contentions and materialistic thrills and shocks.

Victorian Poetry mustn’t be taken as fully with the exception of Romantic poetry. It is a continuation, in its spirit as well as pattern, of the latter, with a good number of additions, deviations and transformations. Nature and her serenity, as noted in Wordsworth, as the poetic theme are replaced by man and his society in the Victorian World. But there is seen no new beginning. Shelleyan splendour, Byronic vigour and Keatsian sensuousness in the representation of the world of Nature are well perceived in Tennyson and the Pre-Raphaelites, who are found to bear no less the romantic craving for loveliness. The main interest only is shifted from Nature, as in Wordsworth, to man, as in Tennyson and Browning. This interest in man, however, is well perceived in later Romanticists, in Byron and Shelley.

The defining characteristics of Victorian age poetry are its focus on sensory elements, its recurring themes of the religion/science conflict , and its interest in medieval fables and legends. Also, see features of Georgian poetry.

During the Victorian era, however, there was a lot of radical social change and as such, many poets of this time didn’t like the romanticized version of society. The Victorian poetry is, thus, divided into two main groups of poetry: The High Victorian Poetry and The Pre-Raphaelite Poetry.

Characteristics or Salient Features of Victorian poetry

Use of Sensory Elements The most important and obvious characteristic of Victorian Poetry was the use of sensory elements. Most of the Victorian Poets used imagery and the senses to convey the scenes of struggles between Religion and Science, and ideas about Nature and Romance, which transport the readers into the minds and hearts of the people of the Victorian age, even today. Lord Alfred Tennyson lives up to this expected characteristic in most of his works. One notable example is the poem Mariana, in which Tennyson writes, The doors upon their hinges creaked; / The blue fly sung in the pane; the mouse / Behind the mouldering wainscot shrieked. These images of the creaking door, the blue fly singing in the window, and the mouse with the mouldy wood panelling, all work together to create a very definite image of an active, yet lonely farmhouse.

Sentimentality Another characteristic of Victorian poetry was sentimentality. Victorian Poets wrote about Bohemian ideas and furthered the imaginings of the Romantic Poets. Poets like Emily Bronte, Lord Alfred Tennyson prominently used sentimentality in their poems. The husband and wife poet duo, Elizabeth Barrett-Browning and Robert Browning conducted their love affair through verse and produced many tender and passionate poems. Most prominent of which are Elizabeth Barrett – Browning’s Sonnets from Portuguese, the most notably her If thou must love me and How do I love thee. Tennyson ’s poetry style Lord Alfred Tennyson , arguably the most prominent of the Victorian Poets, held the title of Poet Laureate for over forty years. His poems were marked a wide range of topics from romance, to nature, to criticism of political and religious institutions; a pillar of the establishment not failing to attack the establishment. His Charge of the Light Brigade was a fierce criticism of a famous military blunder; while the Princess dealt with pseudo-chivalry common among the royalty. The poems of In Memoriam dealt with Tennyson ’s exploration of his feelings of love, loss, and desire.

Realism The Victorian poets were more focused on the real socio-political issues and developments taking place in the nation and the world. Very often the poetry of this age reflects the historical issues and themes mentioned above, directly or indirectly.

Moral Purpose The poetry of this age left the Romantic idealism of “Art for Art’s Sake” as its purpose for teaching people to be morally and ethically correct in conduct and thinking. This seems to be an antidote to the rapid and major socio-economic shifts taken place due to industrial reforms and other reforms, for example, changes in traditional life as an aftermath of intra and inter-national migration and of changing patterns of human labour.

Juxtaposition of Idealism and Practicality While the Victorian poets could not afford to completely take an eye off the trials and tribulations taking place in society, politics and culture, they also understood well the basic function of poetry to be providing hope and relief. The use of medieval myths and folklore in the poetry of this age can be related to the poets’ realization of providing essential relief. So, their poems often juxtapose idealism and practicality. They foreground the tension and contradiction arising out of living in a strife-stricken society and also fostering the indomitable spirit for the welfare of the greater humanity.

Science versus God A major theme of the poetry of this age is the tension between the empirically and rationally driven scientific attitude, and the age-old belief system coupled with the formal religious establishments, like the Church. This became more obvious after the publication of On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in the second half of the nineteenth century.

Poetry of Urbanity The development of the cities gradually as the metropolitan centres inspired the poets of this age to make them as the locales for their poetry. Major poets chiefly living in the big cities like London also made it a factor that they were writing more about cities.

Poetry of Masses The Victorian poets were writing at a time when popular democracy was on the rise. The industrial revolution had already created a nouveau riche class (suddenly and newly emerged rich class as opposed to the traditional rich class represented by landlords, big farmers, farmhouse owners etc.), who started employing people on a mass scale in factories and in domestic spaces as ‘workers’. This new salaried working class gradually gave birth to the middle class and its spectrum of moral codes and conducts. They, along with the development of prose, became more and more the subjects of Victorian poetry.

Pessimism Industrial revolution and advancement in science and technology, coupled with social-economic-political reforms also brought about a spike in the urban population resulting in poverty, unemployment, corruption, diseases and death, marriage, apart from deserted villages with aged people struggling to survive, environmental and existential crises. These factors brought pessimism in the poetry of this period, which was more or less focused on realism.

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The Poetry of Victorian Science

By Gregory Tate

In 1848, the mineralogist, pioneer of photography, and amateur poet Robert Hunt published The Poetry of Science , a hugely ambitious work that aimed to offer a survey of scientific knowledge while also communicating the metaphysical, moral, and aesthetic aspects of science to the general reader. Gregory Tate explores what the book can teach us about Victorian desires to reconcile the languages of poetry and science.

July 26, 2018

Watercolour portrait by William Buckler of Robert Hunt, 1842 — Source (Wellcome Library)

In a review published in The Examiner in December 1848, Charles Dickens heaps praise on the scientific study of natural phenomena.

To show that Science, truly expounding nature, can, like nature herself, restore in some new form whatever she destroys; that, instead of binding us, as some would have it, in stern utilitarian chains, when she has freed us from a harmless superstition, she offers to our contemplation something better and more beautiful, something which, rightly considered, is more elevating to the soul, nobler and more stimulating to the soaring fancy; is a sound, wise, wholesome object. 1

Despite the lavish terms in which it celebrates science, Dickens’ prose also reveals the tensions that permeated attitudes to scientific knowledge in Victorian Britain. Admiration for its clear-sighted objectivity and analytical precision is mixed with a fear, inherited partly from Romanticism and partly from Christianity, that experimental science is destructive, reductive, and degrading; that it diminishes nature to a quantifiable and soulless mechanism. But this view of science as the “stern utilitarian” oppressor of natural beauty and of the imagination is, Dickens assures his readers, groundless, and the “sound, wise, wholesome object” of disproving it has been successfully attained in the book which he is reviewing: Robert Hunt’s The Poetry of Science . 2

Dickens’ endorsement of The Poetry of Science is not unequivocal. In his view, the book is let down by its ornamented and long-winded style: “We might object to an occasional discursiveness, and sometimes we could have desired to be addressed in a plainer forms of words.” 3 And it is true that Hunt, in his efforts to show that science is neither mechanistic nor utilitarian, sometimes overcompensates, indulging in flights of expostulation that are even more grandiloquent and sentimental than those of Dickens’ novels. In the introduction to The Poetry of Science , for instance, Hunt announces that:

To rest content with the bare enunciation of a truth, is to perform but one half of a task. As each atom of matter is involved in an atmosphere of properties and powers, which unites it to every mass of the universe, so each truth, however common it may be, is surrounded by impulses which, being awakened, pass from soul to soul like musical undulations, and which will be repeated through the echoes of space, and prolonged for all eternity. 4

Detail from an 1842 photograph taken by Hunt of his house in Falmouth, one of several sent to John Herschel in September of that year. Although unidentified, it seems likely that the man pictured is Hunt himself — Source (National Media Museum)

Hunt presents an analogy between nature itself and the study of nature. Natural processes, he argues, are simultaneously material and immaterial, directed both by the motions of atoms and by the operation of powers and forces (light, gravity, magnetism, electricity) that cannot be reduced to matter. Similarly, the interpretation of those processes must find room both for science, the empirical and experimental investigation of factual “truth”, and for poetry, the expression of the aesthetic, moral, and spiritual “impulses” which surround that truth. This analogy may seem loose and not especially convincing, but it proved popular among Victorian readers. When the first edition of The Poetry of Science sold out, Hunt wrote that “a Second Edition of this work being demanded within a twelvemonth of the publication of the first, convinces the author” that “he was not mistaken in believing the generalizations from mechanical experiments to be capable of assuming a poetic aspect.” 5

Hunt’s goal in The Poetry of Science is to reconcile the experimental with the poetic, terms which denote not just two different perspectives on natural knowledge but also two competing kinds of cultural authority. Although poetry steadily lost readers over the course of the nineteenth century to the novel and the press, it retained its exalted status, at least in theory, as the highest form of imaginative expression. At the same time, by 1848, the capacity of the sciences to explain natural processes, and to harness those processes through the development of new technologies, was starting to secure them a more prominent place in British culture. It was easy to see poetic imagination and scientific knowledge as mutually antagonistic, but, as Robert Hunt’s career demonstrates, it was also possible bring them together.

Hunt started his working life as a surgeon’s apprentice before making a living, at different times, as a chemist and druggist, a statistician with the geological survey, and a professor at the School of Mines in London. He was a pioneering photographer and published research on photography in the Royal Society’s Philosophical Transactions . He also regularly wrote and published poetry and tried in the 1830s to pursue a career as a playwright. Hunt’s diverse interests were not exceptional: several more famous nineteenth-century figures — the astronomer John Herschel, the physicist John Tyndall, and the mathematician James Clerk Maxwell — also combined specialist research with the writing of poetry and of popular expositions of their scientific theories. Their polymathic careers were made possible by the open borders between disciplines in Victorian Britain; there were no rigid barriers of education or language, as there would be in the twentieth century, between scientific research and science communication, or between science and literature.

Detail from the bookplate of the English bibliographer, paleontologist and geologist Charles Davies Sherborn, engraved by his father in 1890. In the image can be seen a bust of Shakespeare alongside a portrait of Darwin, a copy of the Venus de Milo alongside a microscope. The Latin on the bookcase reads “books are friends, nature is God” — Source (Wellcome Library)

The exchanges between these different disciplines are encapsulated in the style and structure of Hunt’s writing in The Poetry of Science . Together with probably the majority of Victorian science writers, he regularly quotes lines and stanzas of verse in the course of his explanations of scientific experiments and theories. The uses of poetic quotation in Victorian science are numerous, varied, and often difficult to pin down: authors deploy the language of poetry sometimes as supporting evidence for particular scientific theories, and sometimes as a kind of eloquent ornamentation to their prose. Some quotations are used to summarize the inductive reasoning characteristic of science, which moves from the observation of a particular natural phenomenon to a broader conclusion about that phenomenon’s significance or meaning; and some are employed to gesture beyond the inductive method, to hint at the emotional or spiritual effects of a scientific fact. Perhaps surprisingly, Victorian science communication shares its interest in poetry with more recent popular science writing. Even such a pugnacious and controversial proponent of scientific rationalism as Richard Dawkins, for example, is happy to use poetic quotations to convey what he terms the “wonder” of scientific knowledge. But while this practice of quotation suggests that science and poetry are in some ways complementary — both are necessary parts of a full and nuanced understanding of the physical universe — it also imposes a distinction between them, separating the factual and objective knowledge of science from the exclusively emotional or subjective remit of poetry.

This duality is evident in Hunt’s discussions of Shakespeare, which manage to be both laudatory and dismissive. After quoting the song “Full fathom five” from The Tempest (“Those are pearls that were his eyes”), he suggests that Shakespeare “little thought how correctly he painted the chemical changes, by which decomposing animal matter is replaced by a siliceous or calcareous formation.” 6 The lyrical language of Shakespeare’s verse and the technical terminology of Hunt’s prose describe the same phenomenon, but they do so from fundamentally distinct perspectives. Poets, according to Hunt, “have revelations more wonderful than even those of the philosopher, who evokes them by perpetual toil and brain-racking struggle with the ever-changing elements around him.” 7 Natural philosophers or scientists acquire their insights through a painstaking and disciplined investigation of the facts of nature. Shakespeare’s poetry, in contrast, expresses a kind of sublime ignorance, an intuitive knowledge of the truth, but not of the causes or details, of a natural process. Dickens disapproved of this backhanded compliment — “Why Mr Hunt should be of opinion that Shakespeare ‘little thought’ how wise he was, we do not altogether understand” 8 — and Hunt altered it in later editions, commenting, still with some equivocation, that Shakespeare “painted, with considerable correctness, the chemical changes” involved in the formation of pearls. 9

“Full fathom five . . . ” by Edmund Dulac, from Hodder and Stoughton’s 1915 edition of The Tempest — Source .

For Dickens, this quotation risks patronising Shakespeare, reducing his poetry to an eloquent decoration of scientific wisdom. Elsewhere, though, Hunt suggests that poetry can actively support and possibly supplement the knowledge gained through experimental science. He sets out this argument by directly juxtaposing two different kinds of language: on the one hand, his own poetry, which he inserts into his prose at several points throughout The Poetry of Science , as if it were the work of a canonical poet; and, on the other hand, the detailed description of experiments which was a prominent feature of nineteenth-century science writing. In a chapter on gravity Hunt recounts an experiment in which drops of olive oil are suspended in a mix of water and alcohol that has the same specific gravity as the oil: instead of being “flattened” by the “earth’s gravitating influence”, as they would be “under any other conditions”, the drops retain their “orbicular form.” “Simple as this illustration is,” Hunt writes, “it tells much of the wondrous secret of those beautifully balanced forces of cohesion and of gravitation; and from the prosaic fact we rise to a great philosophic truth.” He then documents a means of extending the experiment:

If we pass a steel wire through one of those floating spheres of oil, and make it revolve rapidly, thus imitating the motion of a planet on its axis, the oil spreads out, and we have the spheroidal form of our earth. Increase the rapidity of this rotation, and when a certain rate is obtained the oil widens itself into a disc, a ring separates itself from a central globe, and at a distance from it still revolves around it. Here we have a minute representation of the ring of Saturn. 10

In these experiments, he concludes, “we produce results resembling, in a striking manner, the conditions which prevail in the planetary spaces.” 11 For Hunt, the relation between experiment and nature is fractal: experimental processes represent natural processes in miniature. In this case, from the starting point of the “prosaic fact” of the olive oil’s motion, “we rise” in scale to an apprehension of sublime astronomical phenomena, and we also rise, through inductive reasoning, “to a great philosophic truth,” a theoretical understanding of the forces that shape matter across the universe. 12

In the next paragraph Hunt refers to the force of gravity as “a ruling spirit” in nature, and its importance is emphasized again, but in markedly different terms, in the lines of verse which immediately follow, and which form the peroration to his chapter on gravity:

The smallest dust which floats upon the wind Bears this strong impress of the Eternal Mind. In mystery round it, subtile forces roll; And gravitation binds and guides the whole. In every sand, before the tempest hurl’d, Lie locked the powers which regulate a world, And from each atom human thought may rise With might, to pierce the mystery of the skies,⎯ To try each force which rules the mighty plan, Of moving planets, or of breathing man; And from the secret wonders of each sod, Evoke the truths, and learn the power of God. 13

In contrast to recent writers such as Dawkins, and to Victorian agnostics such as Tyndall, who quote poetry to articulate a sense of secular awe at the natural sublimity revealed by science, Hunt employs verse to promote natural theology, the mode of reasoning which uses observations of nature to demonstrate the existence of the Christian God. He announces that the study of matter, and of the forces that act on matter, launches the mind towards truths which are not just theoretical but theological: “each atom”, through the agency of “human thought”, is capable of illuminating “the mystery of the skies.” The rhymes of his verse set out a series of antitheses (the “dust” on the “wind” and “the eternal mind”, “sod” and “God”) which turn out to be continuities, as the apparent gap between them is closed by an inductive ascent which is comparable to that made possible by experiment.

This connection between science and poetry established by Hunt must have been reassuring to Victorian readers troubled by the potentially unsettling truths of science: both, his writing suggests, can use seemingly mundane and insignificant phenomena to make sense of the universe. As a whole, though, The Poetry of Science echoes the conflict present in Victorian society regarding poetry’s relevance to the increasingly influential scientific worldview. Hunt’s use of poetic quotation indicates that poetry is best used as an ornamental illustration of scientific knowledge, which is inevitably more accurate and detailed than the kind of knowledge conveyed in poems. But the sentiment of his own poetic writing reverses this hierarchy, suggesting that verse has the power to reconcile the natural with the divine. Poetry communicates a spiritual and transcendent understanding of the universe, which can be supported, but which cannot be overturned or usurped, by the evidence of experimental science.

Notes Show Notes

Charles Dickens, “The Poetry of Science”, Examiner 2132 (December 9, 1848): 787.
Dickens, 787.
Dickens, 788.
Robert Hunt, The Poetry of Science, Or: Studies of the Physical Phenomena of Nature (London: Reeve, Benham & Reeve, 1848), xxii.
Robert Hunt, The Poetry of Science, Or: Studies of the Physical Phenomena of Nature , 2nd ed. (London: Reeve, Benham & Reeve, 1849), v.
Hunt, Poetry of Science , 288.
Dickens, “Poetry of Science”, 788.
Hunt, Poetry of Science , 24.

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Victorian poetry .

Victorian poetry victorian poetry pdf

Ans. Victorian poetry contributed a lot to the development of English poetry. It started in the second quarter of the 19th century (1832) and ended by 1901. The poets of this period were close to life, surrounding and situations. Victorian poetry

Victorian poetry pdf

Victorian age of poetry

He had a firm belief in the immortality of the soul which formed the basis of his generous optimism Among his important poems, ‘ Dramatic Lyrics ‘, ‘ DramaticRomances and Lyrics ‘, ‘ Man and woman ‘, ‘ Pippa passes ‘, ‘ My Star ‘, ‘ Home Thoughts from Abroad ‘, ” Meeting at Night ‘, ‘ By the Fireside ‘, ‘ Pied pipes ‘, ‘ The Ring and the Book ” are of high orders.

Victorian poetry characteristics

MathewAmold was also a great poet of the period. He was a true observer of mankind and he reached the ornate style. Most of his poems give expression to the conflict of the age between spontaneity and discipline. emotion and reason, faith and skepticism. As a matter of fact. Arnold longed for primitive faith, wholeness, simplicity, and happiness.

Even in his nature poems, he looks upon nature as a comic force. In his most famous poems. ‘ Empedocles on Etna ‘. Arnold deals with the life of a philosopher. Elizabeth Barret Browing was a leading poet of her period and her poetry reflects the social and political problems of the early victorian ora.

Victorian poetry notes

Among her important poems, Sonnets from the Portuguese and Casaguidi windows, ‘ are of a high order. Edward Fitzgerald was leading poet of the period, Among his important poetic creations, ‘ Rubaiyat of Oman Khayyam ‘ was of a high order. Dante Gabriel Rossetti was also a famous poet of this period: Among his important poems, ‘ Ballads and Sonnets ‘ is of high understanding.

William Morris was also a great poet during the Victorian age. Among his important poems. ‘ Badlands and sonnets ‘ is of high importance. Swinburne . was the last poet of the period who expressed the thoughts and ideology of his time.

Victorian poetry is were rich in expressing moral purpose idealism and the great philosophy of its time. Victorian poetry

Write short note on Victorian poetry

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Victorian Era Essay

The Victorian Age (or Victorian Era) is the time period in British history that spanned from 1837 to 1901. It is named after Queen Victoria, who ruled during this time. The Victorian Age was a time of great change and progress, as well as conflict and upheaval.

Some of the most important developments during the Victorian Age include the Industrial Revolution, which saw major advances in technology and manufacturing; the expansion of democratic rights, including voting for women; and a dramatic rise in living standards, thanks to improvements in healthcare and sanitation.

However, not everything about the Victorian Age was positive. There was also a great deal of social inequality and poverty, as well as growing discontent among the working classes. The Victorians were also faced with a number of major crises, including the Crimean War, the Indian Mutiny, and the Boer War.

Despite these challenges, the Victorian Age is often remembered as a time of great achievement and progress. Queen Victoria herself was a popular and influential monarch, and her long reign helped to define British culture and society for decades to come.

The Victorian Period or Victorian Era refers to the time period between Queen Victoria’s reign in England from 1837 to 1901. The people and things of this era would be prudish, straight-laced, and old-fashioned. Another aspect of the Victorian age was that many members of the upper class were snooty and looked down on others, especially the lower class people. Furthermore, this period preceded the Women’s Suffrage Movement in the 1920s.

So, Victorian women didnt have many rights and werent able to vote until much later. In terms of fashion, the Victorians favored very elaborate and detailed designs in their clothing. This was especially true for women who often wore multiple petticoats, hoopskirts, and bustles. Men also dressed quite extravagantly with top hats and tails being among the most popular styles. One thing that both men and women shared was a love for large, heavy jewelry.

Despite all of its quirks, the Victorian Age was a time of great progress and technological advancements. The Industrial Revolution took place during this era, which led to huge improvements in manufacturing and transportation. Many new inventions were created during the Victorian Age as well, including the first passenger railway and the first electric light bulb. All in all, the Victorian Age was a time of great change and development.

From 1884 to 1900, Ruskin focused his attention on mid-Victorianism, defining it as the time from 1851 to 1879 when art and literature flourished in rapid succession. He identified early Victorianism – a socially and politically turbulent span between 1837 and 1850 – with late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), which was followed by new waves of aestheticism and imperialism. From the Victorian era’s heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879.

The Victorian Age, also called the Victorian Era, is the time period in British history that corresponds with the rule of Queen Victoria. It began in 1837 when she became queen and ended in 1901 when she died. The Victorian Age was a time of great change, both socially and politically. There were also many advances made in technology and industry.

One of the most significant events during the Victorian Age was the Industrial Revolution. This was a time when Britain saw an enormous increase in industrial production. Factories were built and new technologies were developed. The population of Britain also grew rapidly during this time.

The Victorian Age was also a time of great expansion for the British Empire. Many new colonies were acquired and Britain became one of the most powerful nations in the world. Queen Victoria was a strong supporter of the British Empire and she did a great deal to expand it.

The Victorian Age was a time of great social change as well. There were many new movements and ideas that emerged during this time. One of the most important was the movement for women’s rights. Women began to demand that they be given the same rights as men. They also campaigned for better education and opportunities for employment.

The Victorian Age was also a time of great artistic and literary achievement. Many famous writers and artists flourished during this time. Some of the most famous include Charles Dickens, Oscar Wilde and William Blake.

The Victorian Era saw the debut of several literary genres, including the novel. Charles Dickens, George Eliot, Elizabeth Gaskell, and Oscar Wilde are some Victorian writers who emerged during this period. Writers in the Victorian era were constantly reacting to their surroundings. Queen Victoria had an enormous impact on her world, as did she on literature that addressed the issues facing Victorians. The comedy play The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde is set in late-Victorian England.

Dickens is known for his novels that take place in the Victorian Era. His novels, such as Oliver Twist and A Tale of Two Cities, show the harsh realities that people had to live in during the time period. These novels often showed the good and bad aspects of society and allowed people to see what life was like during the Victorian Age. Eliot’s work is also often set in this time period. Her novel, Middlemarch, takes place in a fictional town in England and shows the different levels of society present during the Victorian Era. Gaskell’s novels are also often set during this time period and focus on similar issues as Dickens and Eliot.

The Victorian Era was a time of great change. Queen Victoria was a strong ruler who helped to shape the era. The Victorian Era is often seen as a time of progress, where many new things emerged. This was also a time of great inequality, where the rich got richer and the poor got poorer. However, it was also a time of great innovation and saw the emergence of many new ideas and technologies. The Victorian Era was a time of great transformation and left a lasting impact on the world.

The Victorian Age or Victorian Era was a time of great progress, where many new things emerged. This was also a time of great inequality, where the rich got richer and the poor got poorer. However, it was also a time of great innovation and saw the emergence of many new ideas and technologies. The Victorian Era left a lasting impact on society that can still be seen today in different aspects such as politics (women’s rights), technology (Industrial Revolution) and art/literature (Charles Dickens).

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Victorian Poetry in English Literature: Characteristics & Themes

Introduction

Characteristics

Focus on Masses

Science and Technology

Questioning to God

Sense of Responsibility

Interest in Medieval Myths & Folklore

Use of Sensory Devices & Imagery

Sentimentality

Dramatic Monologue

Victorian Poetry

Journal Details

Founding Editor, 1962–1990

Call for Submissions: Early Career Essay Prize

Call for Proposals: “Poetry’s Parts” Keyword Series

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2.1: Introduction to The Victorian Era

Learning Objectives

Queen Victoria

Victorian Conflicts

Conflicts of Morality

Conflicts of Technology and Industry

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Conflicts of Faith and Doubt

Conflicts over Imperialism

Conflicts over Women’s Rights

Forms of Literature

Non-Fiction Prose

Key Takeaways

Victorianism

Conflict over Imperialism

Victorian Language

Victorian Literature

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section The Epic Tradition

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The Epic Tradition by Isobel Hurst LAST REVIEWED: 24 February 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 24 February 2021 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199799558-0159

Victorian Literature: Topics in Victorian Literature

Imperial England

Science and Religion

Other Topics

Victorian Age in English Literature

Cultural and Historical Background

Literature of the Victorian Age

Poetry and Romantic Revival

Social and Political Essays

Key Themes and Characteristics

Exploration of Gender and Feminism

Moral and Ethical Inquiry

Notable Figures of the Victorian Age

Conclusion:

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Victorian Poetry and Its Characteristics Research Paper

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Victorian Era Poetry Characteristics & Salient Features

Victorian Era Poetry