critical thinking in islam

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Thinking in Islam

Publication : 20-09-2019

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Praise be to Allah.

The Muslim should strive to preserve his belief and his faith, and focus on maintaining his sound fitrah and thinking; he should flee for the sake of his religious commitment and spiritual well-being from doubts and confusion, for hearts are weak and specious arguments may be attractive, because of the way they are presented as something beautiful by proponents of innovation and misguidance, when in fact they are based on flimsy and weak foundations.

Reading books that promote innovation and misguidance, or books that promote shirk and myths, or the books of other religions that have been distorted, or the books written by atheists and hypocrites, or looking at websites that promote these deviant ideas and propagate specious arguments, is not permissible except for one who is well-versed in Islamic knowledge, whose aim in reading such material is to refute it and highlight its corrupt nature, and has the ability to do that or is qualified to take on this task.

As for one who does not have Islamic knowledge looking at or reading such material, doing so is more likely to lead to some sort of confusion, undermining the belief in his heart and shaking his faith, because of the specious arguments that he reads.

This has happened to many ordinary Muslims, and even to some seekers of knowledge who are not qualified to deal with such material, to the extent that in some cases they have ended up misguided and astray – we seek refuge with Allah.

Very often, the one who looks at these books may be deceived by his thinking that his faith is stronger than all the specious arguments presented, but then suddenly he finds – if he reads a great deal – that the specious arguments have begun to take root in his mind in a manner that never occurred to him.

Hence the advice of the scholars of the righteous early generations was to forbid looking at or reading such books.

We have quoted the words of the scholars in the answer to question no. 92781 .

It is essential to learn Islam from its sources, the greatest of which, and the foundation thereof, are the Qur’an and Sunnah.

Islam has emphasized the importance of reason and thinking, which is reflected in many verses. There are phrases that are repeated dozens of times in the Qur’an, such as “Thus does Allah make clear to you His verses that you might use reason” [al-Baqarah 2:242], “for a people who give thought” [Yoonus 10:24] and “for a people who understand” [al-An‘aam 6:98].

Allah calls upon us to think in the Qur’an, as He, may He be glorified, says (interpretation of the meaning):

“[This is] a blessed Book which We have revealed to you, [O Muhammad], that they might reflect upon its verses and that those of understanding would be reminded”

[Saad 38:29].

Allah, may He be glorified, says, calling us to reflect upon His creation (interpretation of the meaning):

“Do they not contemplate within themselves? Allah has not created the heavens and the earth and what is between them except in truth and for a specified term. And indeed, many of the people, in [the matter of] the meeting with their Lord, are disbelievers”

[ar-Room 30:8].

Indeed, Allah, may He be exalted, has criticized the people of Hell by stating that they did not benefit from their reason, and He tells us (interpretation of the meaning):

“And they will say, ‘If only we had been listening or reasoning, we would not be among the companions of the Blaze’”

[al-Mulk 67:10]

“So have they not traveled through the earth and have hearts by which to reason and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts which are within the breasts”

[al-Hajj 22:46].

Thinking is an act of worship, which Allah points out in the verses (interpretation of the meaning):

“Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding

Who remember Allah while standing or sitting or [lying] on their sides and give thought to the creation of the heavens and the earth, [saying], "Our Lord, You did not create this aimlessly; exalted are You [above such a thing]; then protect us from the punishment of the Fire”

[Aal ‘Imraan 3:190-191].

Shaykh as-Sa‘di said:

Here Allah tells us that “Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding”. This encourages people to think deeply, examine these signs and contemplate the creation. He left the word “signs” ambiguous, and did not state explicitly what it points to, as an indication of the great number and ubiquitous nature of those signs. That is because in creation there are amazing signs that dazzle those who look upon them, convince those who ponder them, attract the hearts of those who are sincere and strengthen the faith of those of understanding. But the details of what these signs contain are impossible for any person to list or even comprehend some of them.

In conclusion, what we see in them of greatness, the vastness and order in the movement of heavenly bodies, point to the greatness of their Creator and His power, which encompasses all things.

Their perfection, precision and beauty point to the wisdom of Allah, His control over all things and the vastness of His knowledge.

The benefits they bring to people are indicative of the vastness of Allah’s mercy, the all-encompassing nature of His grace and kindness, and the necessity of being grateful to Him. All of that indicates that the heart should only be attached to its Creator and originator, and should do its utmost to seek His pleasure, and not associate with Him any of those who have not even an atom’s weight of power over themselves or others on earth or in heaven.

Allah has intended these signs only for those of understanding, namely people of reason, because they are the ones who benefit from that and who contemplate the signs with reason, and do not merely look at them with their eyes.

Then Allah describes those of understanding as being those “who remember Allah” in all circumstances, “standing or sitting or [lying] on their sides”. This includes all types of remembrance of Allah, both verbal and in the heart. That includes praying standing; if that is not possible, then sitting; and if that is not possible then lying on one’s side. “and give thought to the creation of the heavens and the earth” that is, so that they may reach the conclusion intended (that there is a great Creator).

This indicates that thinking is an act of worship, and is one of the characteristics of the close friends of Allah. When they think and reflect upon these things, they realise that Allah did not create them in vain, and they say: “Our Lord, You did not create this aimlessly; exalted are You [above such a thing]” and exalted are You above all that is not befitting to Your Majesty; rather You created it in truth, for truth, and including truth.

“then protect us from the punishment of the Fire” by protecting us from doing bad deeds, and helping us to do righteous deeds, so that we might attain thereby salvation from the fire. End quote.

In the hadith narrated from ‘Ata’, he said: ‘Ubayd ibn ‘Umayr and I went to visit ‘Aa’ishah. She said to ‘Ubayd ibn ‘Umayr: It is about time you visited us. He said: O my mother, I say as the first one said: Make your visits at long intervals, and people will love you more. She said: Spare us from this gibberish of yours! Ibn ‘Umayr said: Tell us of the most amazing thing you saw from the Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him). She remained silent for a while, then she said: One night he said: “O ‘Aa’ishah, let me focus on worshipping my Lord this night.” I said: By Allah, I love to be near you, and I love what makes you happy. He got up and did wudoo’, then he began to pray. She said: And he kept weeping until his lap became wet. Then he wept and kept weeping until his beard became wet. Then he wept and kept weeping until the ground became wet. Then Bilaal came to call him for prayer, and when he saw him weeping, he said: O Messenger of Allah, why are you weeping when Allah has forgiven you your past and future sins? He said: “Should I not be a thankful slave? Last night a verse was revealed to me; woe to the one who recites it and does not reflect:

‘Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding

Who remember Allah while standing or sitting or [lying] on their sides and give thought to the creation of the heavens and the earth, [saying], "Our Lord, You did not create this aimlessly; exalted are You [above such a thing]; then protect us from the punishment of the Fire’

[Aal ‘Imraan 3:190].”

Narrated by Ibn Hibbaan in his Saheeh (2/286). See also as-Silsilah as-Saheehah (1/147).

The man of literature and great thinker, Ustadh ‘Abbaas Mahmoud al-‘Aqqaad, wrote a book on this issue, entitled at-Tafkeer Fareedah Islamiyyah (Thinking is an Islamic Duty).

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Critical thinking and non-formal Islamic education: Perspectives from young Muslims in the Netherlands

• Open access
• Published: 13 July 2021
• Volume 15 , pages 267–285, ( 2021 )

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• Hülya Kosar Altinyelken   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2178-0862 1  

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Critical thinking is a highly valued skill in the twenty-first century, and its incorporation into formal school curricula as a core skill is nearly ubiquitous globally. It is considered imperative for educational quality, employability, competitiveness, and for promoting democratisation and social integration. While schools are tasked to promote critical thinking, non-formal Islamic education (NFIE) provided by mosques or by private organisations or tutors is often criticized for its emphasis on rote learning and memorisation, and for fostering an uncritical acceptance of authority. Based on interviews with 27 young adult alumni from four different Muslim communities in the Netherlands, this study seeks to explore the pedagogy of NFIE, with a focus on critical thinking. The accounts of young adults revealed that an emphasis on stimulating critical thinking was largely absent, and there were limited opportunities for interactions, questions, debating or challenging the authority of religious educators or Islamic texts. The traditional pedagogical approach, discouraging attitudes of educators and peers, lack of language proficiency, the young age of learners, and a perceived lack of need for critical deliberations were identified as key challenges. Young adults called for reforming the pedagogy of NFIE to allow for more reflexive, inquisitive and dialogical learning. Some argued that lack of critical deliberation would lead to weakness in the belief structures and faith of new generation Muslims in Europe, resulting in a sense of confusion and disorientation, and limited embodiment of Islamic principles.

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Introduction

Critical thinking is viewed as one of the most essential life skills that should be promoted in all learning environments, formal and non-formal (LMTF 2013 ). An analysis of curricular reforms over the past decades reveals that critical thinking has been incorporated as a core skill in formal school curricula in many countries (Altinyelken,  2015 ). A range of reasons underpin such an emphasis on critical thinking. First, critical thinking is considered beneficial for teaching and learning processes, improving overall educational quality, and stimulating learners to become independent and self-directed learners. One of the underlying premises of child-centred pedagogy or active learning is that improved classroom interactions, student activity, dialogue, and an inquisitive and open classroom atmosphere will positively influence student motivation, interest, and academic achievement (Schweisfurth, 2013 ). The second reason relates to outcomes extending beyond educational systems, such as increasing economic growth and competitiveness, meeting labour market demands, and actively participating in plural and democratic societies (Hanushek & Wößmann, 2008 ; Ten Dam & Volman, 2004 ). Moreover, the significance of critical thinking for greater awareness, consciousness raising, emancipation and promoting social justice has been emphasized for several decades by critical pedagogy (Freire, 2009 ; Giroux, 1988 ).

Europe’s increasing ethnic diversity and the challenges of integrating immigrant communities have sparked a renewed interest in citizenship education, and in critical thinking in particular. In the Netherlands, citizenship education was introduced in 2006, obliging primary and secondary schools to promote democratic values, active citizenship, and social integration (Veugelers, 2007 ). Within this context, the willingness and ability to critically appraise different viewpoints and to reflect upon justice, equality and democratic engagement are emphasized (Grundel & Maliepaard, 2012 ; Westheimer, 2008 ). However, with its emphasis on rote learning and memorisation, non-formal Islamic education (NFIE; primarily focusing on mosque education) has often been criticised for having poor pedagogical quality and for failing to support children’s understanding of the meaning behind the verses, or the underlying rationale of Islamic teachings in general (Che Noh et al., 2014 ; Cherti & Bradley, 2011 ). Furthermore, previous research has implied that some of the values and norms promoted by mosques might be incompatible in some respects with the citizenship competences promoted by mainstream schools (Cherti & Bradley, 2011 ). While citizenship education aims to develop competences such as independence, critical thinking, self-reflection, and openness to opposing views (Schuitema et al., 2008 ; ten Dam & Volman, 2004 ), mosques are critiqued for promoting an uncritical acceptance of authority, indoctrinating learners with a one-sided approach, and inhibiting learners’ autonomy (Hand, 2002 ; Perry, 2004 ).

This study aims to explore to what extent critical thinking is emphasized and stimulated in NFIE in the Netherlands, and what the challenges are to incorporating critical thinking skills in the teaching and learning processes in NFIE, based on the perspectives of young Muslims. It is important to note that NFIE, or ‘Islamic supplementary education’, incorporates a range of pedagogical settings, including weekday classes at institutions established by Muslim communities, Qur’an schools organised by mosques on the weekends, and private home tutoring (Akhtar, 2018 ; Berglund & Gent, 2019 ; Selim, 2018 ; Sözeri, 2021 ). Despite the public debate and academic discussions regarding its content, theory and philosophy, there has been little empirical research on the pedagogy of NFIE, particularly in the Netherlands (Alkouatli & Vadeboncoeur, 2018 ; Hardaker & Sabki, 2015 ; Sieckelinck et al., 2012 ). Moreover, although some studies have referred to critical thinking (Altinyelken & Sözeri, 2019 ; Pels, 2014 ), they did not offer a comprehensive analysis of the challenges to promoting critical thinking skills in NFIE. Furthermore, the majority of studies on the subject focused on a single ethnic or national group (mostly on Turkish or Moroccan communities) (see for example Pels, 2014 ; Sözeri, 2021 ), while this study incorporates perspectives from four different Muslim communities in the Netherlands, namely Turkish, Moroccan, Egyptian and Pakistani communities.

Theoretical underpinnings

Despite the seemingly common assertion that educational and training programs must promote critical thinking (Jawoniyi, 2015 ), there is no agreement on the definition of critical thinking. As a concept, its use stretches across several fields of study, in particular, philosophy, psychology and the educational sciences. One of the most popular definitions of critical thinking refers to ‘reasonable reflexive thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do’ (Ennis, 1991 :1). Critical thinking encompasses ‘the component skills of analysing arguments, making inferences using inductive or deductive reasoning, judging, or evaluating, and making decisions or solving problems’ (Lai, 2011 :2). It requires both dispositions , which can be simply viewed as attitudes or habits of mind, and cognitive skills . Desirable dispositions of an ideal critical thinker involve open- and fair-mindedness, inquisitiveness, reflective scepticism, flexibility, a propensity to seek reason, a desire to be well-informed, understanding of diverse viewpoints, and a respect for and willingness to suspend judgement and entertain diverse viewpoints (Lai, 2011 ). Cognitive skills, on the other hand, involve questioning and reasoning skills, reflexive thinking, analysis and interpretation of information, seeing both sides of an issue, being open to new evidence that disconfirms one’s ideas, reasoning dispassionately, demanding that claims be backed by evidence, asking and answering questions for clarification, interpreting and explaining, and inferring conclusions from available facts (Lai, 2011 ; Willingham, 2008 ). It should be also noted that critical thinking does not mean being negative or judgemental in the typical sense of the word, but refers to thinking accurately, clearly, sufficiently, and reasonably (Nosich, 2009 ).

Some have argued that there is an increasing need for critical thinking skills within religious education, because ‘More than ever before, we live in a socially, culturally, religiously, politically, and ideologically complex and pluralistic world that is further characterized by scientific and technological advancements’ (Jawoniyi, 2015 :47). TV, internet, and other information outlets constantly offer information (both factual and fallacious) and images that are connected to religions and spiritual beliefs, and these affect young people’s views about religion and the world (Bouma, 2017 ). Today, access to information from multiple sources is also easier than ever before (Lipiäinen et al., 2020 ). Through social media, young people are directly exposed to religious information in different forms and with rather diverse and even contradictory messages. Young people can be confronted with multiple religious or non-religious claims and counterclaims concerning certain existential questions and contemporary moral dilemmas. These developments have as a consequence that distinguishing the credibility of various sources of information, and critically evaluating and analysing this massive amount of information are ever more imperative (Jones & Haydon, 2012 ). Moreover, young people live in increasingly multi-cultural and multi-religious societies, and in the European context, in an increasingly secular and non-religious context. Supporting young people in dealing with these complexities successfully requires that critical thinking, evaluation and reflection skills be provided in religious education (Jackson, 2014 ; Jawoniyi, 2015 ), in both its formal or non-formal modes. In this regard, Hella and Wright ( 2009 :59) also underscored the importance that students engage critically ‘with key religious issues and thereby develop appropriate levels of religious literacy and so learn to discern and evaluate different religious traditions and accounts of religion’.

Critical thinking is viewed by some as an inherent part of the Islamic tradition (Ahmed, 2019 ), such as in classical and ongoing study of hadith (reports of what the Prophet Muhammad said and did; Berglund & Gent, 2019 ). However, with regard to current Islamic religious education, there are some concerns that it has failed to catch up with or address the ever-changing religious and pedagogical needs of young Muslims living in diverse Western societies. According to Ucan and Wright ( 2019 :202), current Islamic religious education is ‘not comprehensive enough in engaging with diversity within and outside the Muslim community, and in challenging or addressing young Muslims’ deep seated conceptions and presuppositions about… religion, society and gender’. NFIE education often adopts a confessional rote learning approach, with a heightened emphasis on the ontological truth claims of Qur'an and Surahs. Such approaches diminish the role of the learner in understanding, interpreting, and making sense of religious phenomena. Moreover, an overemphasis on delivering facts and information about Islam and not introducing learners to diverse perspectives does not appear to stimulate critical thinking, leading to the accumulation of transmitted knowledge that is devoid of learners’ own perspectives (Cherribi, 2010 ; Ucan & Wright, 2019 ).

Furthermore, memorisation appears to be a key element of Islamic education. Based on their quantitative analysis involving 179 madrassas in the United Kingdom, Cherti and Bradley ( 2011 ) reported that 97% of madrassas taught Qur’an mostly through memorisation techniques and emphasized reciting things by heart. Likewise, mosques in the Netherlands have adopted what is known as a teacher-centred pedagogical approach, based on teachers’ transmission of knowledge and learners’ passive absorption of the material. Such an approach tends to leave very little space for interactions and undermines the quality and effectiveness of learning processes (Pels, 2014 ; Soyer, 2020 ). Furthermore, imams have been criticized for their authoritarian teaching style, harsh discipline, lack of pedagogical knowledge, lack of understanding of Dutch culture, and inability to communicate in Dutch (Cherribi, 2010 ; Witteman, 2009 ). However, Pels et al. ( 2006 ) argued that the new generation of Muslim children, as well as their parents, are increasingly disputing the authoritarian and rigid teaching styles that characterize the religious education in many mosques.

A more recent study (Altinyelken & Sözeri, 2019 :59) at a Turkish mosque revealed similar concerns. One of the mosque teachers commented that even if the majority of second-generation Turks attended mosque education, their learning outcomes were limited due to poor quality mosque pedagogy, and their experiences were mostly alienating. When children asked questions, they got the response: ‘Shut up! Allah would turn you into a stone. You cannot possibly ask such a question! Have you become a Kafir [infidel]?’. However, a few teachers in this mosque also indicated that their teaching had become increasingly inquisitive, participatory and open, that they welcomed questions and encouraged children to ask questions: ‘There is no shame, no sin in asking questions’ (Altinyelken & Sözeri,  2019 :13). Furthermore, in another recent study (Sözeri, Altinyelken & Volman,  2021 ) based on classroom observations and interviews with imams and religious educators at Turkish mosques revealed that critical reflexivity was not emphasized ‘as there were only a few cases in which the imam and hocas made space for critical questioning by the students’(p. 228), one religious educator even referred to it as a ‘problem’ that no longer took place in his classes. Therefore, even though student autonomy was promoted through self-study time and individual tasks, challenging the key tenets of Islam or the authority of religious educators tended to be perceived as disrespectful and undesirable.

This study adopted a qualitative approach, as it sought to explore and obtain depth of understanding about diverse factors that influenced the space for critical thinking in NFIE settings, rather than focusing on and measuring some pre-determined aspects. A qualitative design is also suitable because the focus was on the perspectives and understandings of the participants, on their subjective experiences and interpretations (Neubauer et al., 2019 ). Purposeful sampling was used to identify and select information-rich cases for the most effective use of limited resources and time (Patton, 2002 ). The inclusion criteria were threefold: i. belonging to Turkish, Moroccan, Pakistani or Egyptian Muslim communities, ii. having received some form of NFIE while attending mainstream Dutch schools, and iii. attending higher education at the time of data collection or having graduated from a higher education institution.

In total 27 young adults (18 women and 9 men, aged 18–33 years old) took part in this study (six each from Turkish, Moroccan, and Egyptian communities, and nine from the Pakistani community). Except for four, all participants were born in the Netherlands, and the majority of them lived or studied in Amsterdam. Therefore, the sample consists of a very selective group of highly educated young Muslims as they were regarded especially knowledgeable about and experienced with the topic. These individuals had long years of education and training experience, and they were considered to be skilled to communicate their experiences and viewpoints in an open, articulate, expressive, and reflective manner. Indeed, the participants in this study seemed rather open to sharing their opinions and impressions with depth, and insight. This probably also had to do with the fact that all three researchers involved in data collection came from Muslim-majority countries (Turkey, Egypt, and Pakistan), and had experiences with NFIE in their home countries. Hence, they were perceived as both insiders and outsiders (e.g., none of them was born and raised in the Netherlands and they did not have personal experiences of NFIE in this country). These aspects helped to establish good rapport and trust.

The semi-structured, one-to-one interviews were conducted between February 2017 and May 2018 by three different researchers, in English, Dutch, Turkish, Arabic or Urdu, depending on the preference of the participant. Interviews were long, lasting between 1 to 3 h, with a focus on general information about the participants’ experience with NFIE, the content of their religious education, pedagogical practices, attitudes of imams or (volunteer) tutors, and openness to asking questions or debating key issues from different perspectives. The interviews were conducted at various settings, mostly on university premises. All interviews were tape-recorded with the permission of the participants and fully transcribed later for analysis. During transcribing, all interviews in Arabic and Urdu were translated into English to allow for analysis and interpretation by the author. The analysis was conducted using Atlas.ti (version 8.043), on the basis of a code list developed from existing literature on the topic. The codes were revised during the process of analysis to incorporate new emerging aspects. To ensure the anonymity of the participants, pseudonyms are used throughout the article, and background information revealing participant identities has been omitted. Any direct reference to mosque names or their locations was also left out.

Organisation of NFIE in the Netherlands

According to the latest estimates, 6% of the adult population in the Netherlands is Muslim. The majority of these Muslims have a non-Western background, and approximately two-thirds of them have Turkish or Moroccan origins (Huijnk, 2018 ). In 2019, the total numbers of persons with a migration background from the four groups included in this study were as follows: Turkey = 409,877; Morocco = 402,492; Egypt = 26,152; and Pakistan = 23,855 (Statistics Nederland, 2019 ). However, not all of these immigrants are Muslim; one third of the Egyptian-Dutch community is believed to be Coptic (Van Meeteren et al., 2013 ), while 10% of the Turkish-Dutch community and 5% of the Moroccan-Dutch community define themselves as non-believers (Huijnk, 2018 ). The overwhelming majority of first-generation migrants came as guest-workers prior to the 1980s.

NFIE plays an important role across Europe in the intergenerational transmission of Islamic values and norms among new generations (Altinyelken & Sözeri, 2019 ). Official statistics do not exist, yet some studies have noted that mosque education is an essential part of Muslim childhood in the Netherlands, reaching up to 75% enrolment rates among the Turkish-Dutch (Phalet et al., 2012 ; Sözeri, 2021 ). The few earlier studies on the subject revealed that mosque education is ‘a transnational endeavour which brings powerful influences from the countries of origin and supports immigrant communities in Europe with the continuity of their religious, cultural and national identities’ (Altinyelken & Sözeri, 2019 :61). It is important to note that mosque education is independently organized by mosques and is not subject to the regulatory and supervisory authority of the state institutions in the Netherlands (Pels, 2014 ). It often occurs on the weekends or after school and is attended by children of primary school age (up to age 12), though some continue until they finish secondary education. The children are mostly taught in same-sex groups, although sometimes the grouping is arranged according to children’s age or level of Islamic knowledge. The total number of teaching hours differs per mosque: some mosques only offer 2–3 h on Saturdays, while others schedule 3-h long classes on both Saturdays and Sundays. Although imams assume educational responsibilities and teach some groups, particularly in larger mosques, classes are mostly taught by volunteer ‘teachers’. Despite being called teachers, they are not actually trained in pedagogy, and are selected based on their knowledge of Qur'an, language skills in Arabic, and motivation (Akhtar, 2018 ; Sözeri, Altinyelken & Volman, 2019 ; Selim, 2018 ).

Mosques in the Netherlands are predominantly Sunni, and they tend to be segregated along ethnic/national lines. Since the Egyptian and Pakistani communities are relatively small, in the absence of nearby mosques affiliated with their national groups, their children may attend Moroccan or Surinamese mosques (Akhtar, 2018 ; Selim, 2018 ). There is no unified curriculum or teaching program adhered to by all Sunni mosques. Even mosques from the same ethnic/national groups use different educational materials, mostly imported from Turkey, Morocco, or Egypt. The teachings mainly focus on the five pillars of Islam; the life and teachings of the prophet Mohammad; Islamic history, values, and norms; Qur’anic memorisation; and the performance of rituals. In addition to Islamic knowledge, instilling a Turkish and Muslim identity in children appears to be a key objective in Turkish mosques (Altinyelken & Sözeri, 2019 ).

Critical thinking in NFIE in the Netherlands

Young adults who took part in this study received NFIE in three different forms: while the majority were enrolled in educational programs provided by mosques, others received religious education from private organisations established by the members of the Muslim community or from private tutors who gave regular classes to children individually or in groups in home settings. The majority of Turkish- and Moroccan-Dutch young adults attended mosques’ religious education programs, while enrolment at independent private organisations was more common among Egyptian-Dutch youth. The majority of Pakistani-Dutch youth, on the other hand, had a private tutor at home, called a Qari, which appears to be a popular practice in Pakistan as well. Parental preferences for a Qari were due to previous unfavourable experiences at mosques or concerns about the content of religious education:

My parents did not want us to go to mosque. My father has been here for 45 years and he has seen a lot of things. He was just afraid that we would learn things about Islam that are not really Islam. (Arisha, female, Pakistani-Dutch)

Based on their own subjective experiences, the participants were first asked if and to what extent critical thinking was promoted through NFIE. The overwhelming majority of the participants maintained that an emphasis on critical thinking was mostly absent in their religious education experiences. The participants pointed to a lack of attention to critical thinking as a skill in their religious education, but also indicated that the learning environment was often not open for asking critical questions or contemplating the subjects learnt. When some of them attempted to challenge what was being communicated, they felt discouraged by the reactions of peers and teachers. However, a few participants noted that they simply did not feel the need to ask questions or discuss subjects. The main learning objective was memorising Qur'an, which did not elicit the need for questions or dialogue. Moreover, some had parents, sisters, and brothers with whom they could converse about these subjects. Only three participants stated that there was space for questions and discussions, while acknowledging at the same time that there were some unspoken limits to what was debateable:

The beautiful thing about Islam is that it actually encourages you to question the religion. In the Qur'an, it is emphasized so many times that you have to reflect, you have to think, you have to ask questions, so I would say, that even though there are some mosques out there that indoctrinate the youth… most of the mosques and teachers, they have this mix of critical thinking and reflecting, but also that you shouldn’t question it too much. (Wali, male, Pakistani-Dutch)

Two participants experienced such space for reflection when they attended Sohbets (Talks in Turkish) organized for youth in upper secondary education at Turkish mosques. Another participant (Belal, male, Moroccan-Dutch) conveyed that his religious educators underscored the importance of not accepting everything they heard at school or in other spaces, that they must first read further, look at the subject critically and then make a decision for themselves. However, in his experience, the emphasis on critical thinking was particularly directed towards knowledge and messages young Muslims encountered in spaces outside of NFIE settings. Karam, a Moroccan-Dutch young man, confirmed that his religious educators were also keen to emphasize the significance of being critical of what they learnt or heard at secular, mainstream schools. He suggested that the underlying reason for this emphasis was rooted in the perceived clash between Moroccan-Dutch and native Dutch people (e.g., arguments that the broader society viewed Moroccan-Dutch youth as ‘criminals’), and that there was ‘a lot of false information out there about Islam’.

Some of the participants also discussed the implications of the absence of critical thinking in their religious education. Some suggested that lack of openness or critical reflection would lead to weakness in one’s belief and result in vulnerability of one’s belief structure. For instance, Firuze (a Turkish-Dutch young woman) shared that her mosque teacher emphasized the importance of knowledge and of being conscious of the reasons behind Islamic rules and moral values. Her teacher likened one’s belief to a candle: If you do not sustain the candle’s light with knowledge, then it can be blown out by the slightest wind. Such dangers were particularly pertinent in a country where the Muslims are a minority and surrounded by an increasingly non-religious society. Shazia and Suraya shared similar sentiments on this issue. They both had a positive image of Western culture and upbringing in terms of its openness to questions and inquisitive attitudes. They underlined that lack of openness to (critical) questions in mosques can lead to unfavourable outcomes, such as teachings failing to convince children and youth about the necessity of following certain Islamic rules and practices, resulting in their limited eventual embodiment by new generation of Muslims:

I feel like the positive things of the Western upbringing is that you are allowed to ask questions and that makes you understand the religion better. Because if you are, like, indoctrinated and it is said to you, this is how it is, don't ask questions, then I don't think that will lead to favourable outcomes. (Shazia, female, Pakistani-Dutch) You know in Western culture you can ask anything, anything… I think that is the best thing. Because if you are going to tell me, don’t go near the water and I will say why, and you will say, because I have said so, that’s not good. Why? Because I will do it. You haven’t told me the reason, so how will I know that it’s wrong?... I think you should give children the opportunity to ask. (Suraya, female, Pakistani-Dutch)

Qurrat, another Pakistani-Dutch woman, confirmed these concerns, adding that such circumstances lead to a sense of confusion and disorientation among Muslim youth: ‘Muslim youth is under threat… They have questions and they are told that they cannot ask these questions.’ The majority of the participants denounced blindly following Islam and said that they were in favour of more questioning and critical reflection in NFIE, and more generally within the Muslim community. Shrine (an Egyptian-Dutch young woman) believed that a lot of Muslim youth in the Netherlands wanted to be self-reflective and engage in critical discussions of Islam, but they feared two things: Islamophobic backlash from non-Muslims and the ‘judgmental or condemning voice’ of the conservative people within the Islamic community. Those who express critical viewpoints were quickly labelled as kafir by conservative groups. According to Shrine, these two dynamics made it very difficult for the Muslim youth to speak out at mosques or beyond: ‘A lot of Muslim youth feel reluctant to speak out because they don’t want to be seen as a traitor. I think that is really important’. This phenomenon has been also noted in some other studies as impeding intra-community critique, masking gender inequalities and power imbalances (Kalin, 2011 ) and justifying a sense of self-preservation (Niyozov, 2016 ).

Challenges to promoting critical thinking in NFIE

A key objective of the study was to explore the underlying factors and dynamics that limited critical thinking in mosques and in other non-formal learning spaces. From the perspectives of young Muslims, the following challenges were identified in this study: the traditional pedagogical approach, the discouraging attitudes of teachers and peers, lack of comprehension of the language of instruction, the young age of most learners, and a perceived lack of need for debate in NFIE.

Traditional pedagogical approach

The pedagogical approach used by religious educators was highlighted as an important impediment to critical thinking, and this was brought up by the participants more frequently compared to the other aspects. Several young adults noted that their religious education was primarily focused on memorising and reciting Qur'an, and writing and reading in Arabic. There was limited space for interactions between learners or between learners and teachers, or for contemplation, reflection, and discussions. Learning was a matter of teachers explaining certain topics and learners receiving these explanations through listening quietly. For instance, Hager (female Moroccan-Dutch) explained that she used to go to mosque for two or three hours. She and other learners in her class would simply spend this time sitting and listening without making any comments or having interactions. Reda (male, Egyptian-Dutch) also recalled similar experiences: ‘It was always explanation, and that we do the reading, that someone reads out loud, and memorising Qur'an, and that is it… it was not necessary that anyone asks anything’.

Deniz was very positive about the subjects he learnt at mosque, and even at a young age he greatly enjoyed the topics he studied. Yet, he was also discouraged by the pedagogical approach he observed among mosque educators:

What you see is… there is no asking of children what do you think, how is this for you? It’s like a one-way street where you learn about certain subjects and this is how it is… there’s no connection with the youth, you know. You have the teacher and you have to do what the teacher says. He’s teaching a class. If you talk during it, it’s not ok. It’s like with old schools where there is no real interaction or creating an atmosphere, bringing the whole group together. (Deniz, male, Turkish-Dutch)

Deniz added that the pedagogical practices at mosque reflected imams’ or volunteer teachers’ own educational and pedagogical experiences during their schooling, suggesting that this was how mosque educators themselves were trained, so ‘they did not know any better.’

Attitudes of Teachers and Peers

A few young adults remarked that they had ‘nice teachers’: they responded to the questions clearly and encouraged children to pose inquisitive questions for further clarification of the subject matter. Yet, various participants concurred that the attitudes of teachers discouraged them from asking questions. Some did not feel connected to teachers or did not experience a bond with them. Hence, they did not share many of their questions, doubts, or inner dilemmas. Deniz referred to his teachers as ‘patriarchal, authoritative kind of people’ and noted: ‘There was no openness and it [the classroom environment] was quite rigid. So, I didn’t like the way the teachers were behaving, to be honest’. In some other contexts, a questioning attitude was seen as interference in the teaching process, or ‘rude’ and ‘disrespectful’ to the authority of imams or volunteer teachers. Shazia for instance talked about how she was afraid to ask questions. Her fear was informed by her socialisation into Pakistani culture which did not allow or appreciate any challenging attitudes to adults in authority positions.

Some other young adults talked about how they feared their religious education teachers and felt intimidated by them. For instance, Qurrat (female, Pakistani- Dutch) remarked that she had ‘a very scary teacher’, so she and other learners were ‘very scared of him’. Hence, these young adults did not feel comfortable asking questions. In few cases, this involved a fear of corporal punishment as well. Among the participants, two Dutch-Egyptian and one Dutch-Moroccan young adult explicitly mentioned witnessing corporal punishment:

I was hit there [laughing]. I used to be hit when I didn't know something. In the normal school [the mainstream schools], I didn't get hit. So, this made me afraid. Aside from this, I had no problem with studying. But just this hitting thing made me afraid. (Mohammed, male, Egyptian-Dutch)

Despite a seemingly discouraging environment, some of the participants nevertheless attempted to ask questions or challenge what was told. However, they received disheartening reactions from their teachers (or even peers) because they were told they were not allowed to ask questions, or their questions were simply dismissed or not addressed adequately. Qurrat (female Pakistani-Dutch) recalled the occasions she or other learners raised questions: ‘They [educators] would say “Well, if it is like this, then it is like this”. So, there was not really an answer… they say to children ‘You cannot ask this question,’ but why can’t you ask questions? (Qurrat, female, Pakistani-Dutch). In some other cases, the young adults experienced criticisms (sometimes with a hostile tone) for raising a (critical) question and challenging the authority of the educators or the authenticity of Islamic teachings.

I remember that sometimes I spoke out against [things]. For example, when the teacher said that women should not travel alone, and I remember I spoke out. Then… but not only the teacher became mad at me, even my peers were like ‘What are you saying?’ It was really discouraging to disagree with whoever was in front of the class… It [asking questions] was wrong because you are doubting an authority, doubting in that sense also the authority or the word of God, I think. I just felt strongly discouraged in general from asking critical questions. (Shrine, female, Egyptian-Dutch)

Asli (female, Turkish-Dutch) was another young adult who was critical of some of the things she was told during her mosque education. However, she felt lonely in the group with her questioning attitude, and felt that it was unsafe for her to raise questions or challenge openly what was being said: ‘If you are the only one that does not conform to the dominant view, you do not dare to challenge’.

Language comprehension

The primary language educators use to convey Islamic knowledge or religious practices in NFIE tends to be the official language of the country of origin of the migrant community (Akhtar, 2018 ; Selim, 2018 ; Sözeri, 2021 ). All Turkish mosques express a conscious preference for Turkish as the main language of instruction, since teaching Turkish to new generations is a key goal for the mosque communities, and is perceived as critical to the cultural and religious nurturance of the new generations of Turks in the Netherlands (Altinyelken & Sözeri, 2019 ). In this study, similar trends were observed in other Muslim communities as well: Moroccan and Egyptian communities using primarily Arabic, and the Pakistani mosques or private tutors using Urdu as the medium of instruction. Teaching and learning in Arabic was important for Moroccan and Egyptian communities not only because it is the official language of their country of origin, but also because Arabic is the language of the Qur'an:

I think it is important for you as a Muslim student to know how to read the Qur'an, to interpret it, at least be able to study it on your own. It was very important [learning Arabic], otherwise, they [parents] would not have sent all my little brothers and sisters as well. (Sabreen, female, Dutch-Moroccan).

At Pakistani mosques, speaking Urdu was viewed as important to foster a connection with learners’ roots and strengthen cultural associations. Most of the Qari’ s had basic language skills in Dutch but they also conducted their classes in Urdu. Language choices were also partly dictated by the fact that the majority of imams are appointed or recruited from the Muslim communities’ country of origin (mainly from Turkey and Morocco), and lack proficiency in Dutch. Despite this heightened emphasis on Turkish, Arabic or Urdu, for young adults who were born and raised in the Netherlands, teaching and learning in these three languages were challenging. Arisha, for example, recalled that her Qari would get angry if children spoke in Dutch, and he would remind them that Urdu was the language of instruction. However, as Arisha (female, Pakistani-Dutch) reported, insistence on Urdu limited interactions, ‘You really had to think before speaking in Urdu because nobody’s [Urdu] was perfect.’ Qurrat, another Pakistani-Dutch youth, resonated with these concerns, confirming that Pakistani imams’ or other religious educators’ lack of mastery of Dutch created a communication barrier between the educators and the learners. Similarly, at mosques from other communities, learners mostly encountered teachers who did not speak Dutch at all, or who spoke only a few words. Hence, there was not a common language in which both teachers and learners could converse fluently. In some mosques, it was more appropriate to speak only in Arabic:

If I talked to him in Egyptian, he would act as if he does not understand, and I did not speak good Arabic to the extent that I could ask him something, and if I would ask something, there was no one who spoke good Dutch. (Reda, male, Egyptian-Dutch)

Consequently, not being fluent in Arabic, Urdu or Turkish limited learners’ comprehension, their interactions, and their capacity and willingness to raise questions and engage in a dialogue with the educators or other learners.

Learners’ developmental stage

Some participants also highlighted that critical thinking develops with age, and usually at the ages when they received Islamic education (mostly between 6 to 12 years old), they were simply too young for reflexive thinking, for having a questioning attitude or for daring to raise a critical question. For instance, Belal (male, Moroccan-Dutch) remarked, ‘We were young… what kind of [critical] questions can you have when you were at such a young age?’. Some participants noted that at such a young age, they were more inclined to accept things at face value and accept what they were told without questioning much:

You are very young, you know, it is easier to just take things as they have been taught to you than like, right now. It is different, I am 23 years old. Yeah, you just see things differently, you think differently about the world, and you do not necessarily need someone to motivate you to think critically. (Fatma, female, Moroccan-Dutch)

Critical thinking was viewed as a skill that developed at later stages of life, as children mature and acquire more knowledge throughout their educational trajectories, mostly at the higher education level, due its emphasis on research, empirical knowledge, and discussions.

A perceived lack of need for critical deliberation

The accounts of these young adults also pointed to a general understanding that religious education does not require much critical deliberation, since the rules were laid down a long time ago. The purpose of religious education is then to communicate to young Muslims what is right and wrong, what they must and must not do, and things they must accept or reject. Additionally, critical deliberation may not be required because there are simply no answers to some of the questions:

I have been taught from a young age that there are not answers for things if you go through religion… When I was very young, it was said that there is no answer for this. You just have to do it. (Qurrat, female, Pakistani-Dutch)

Wali, on the other hand, argued that Islam encourages Muslims to question their religion, that the Qur’an repeatedly emphasizes the importance of reflection, thinking and asking questions. At the same time, he suggested that there should be limits to what can be questioned:

There are certain things, like you should draw a line somewhere. For instance,… Allah has decided, only a man can lead the prayer if men and women pray together. These are things that are just there… There is no proper logic behind it. Allah has put these rulings this way and you have to accept it. (Wali, male, Pakistani-Dutch)

The perceived perfection of Islam as a religion and the Qur'an as a holy book were brought up as another reason why critical reflection was redundant and even undesirable. A consistent message they received was that Qur’an embodies the ultimate knowledge and no one cannot doubt what is conveyed through this sacred book. As Shrine (female, Egyptian-Dutch) explained, Islam was often taught as the most perfect version of Judaism and Christianity, and as superior to other religions because ‘it is the final message and the most perfect message of the god that is delivered to humankind’. Moreover, there was a strong sense that further debates and interpretations of the text was not needed, ‘because everything is already debated and interpreted’. Shrine further added that since Islam is taught as a perfect religious doctrine, questioning it, doubting some elements, engaging in self-reflection, or attempting to reinterpret Islam were perceived as inappropriate. Such actions were believed to make a Muslim less of a firm believer, assuming that applying critical thinking to one’s religious beliefs would weaken one’s faith and religious convictions.

This qualitative study incorporates the perspectives of 27 young Muslims from four communities in the Netherlands in order to explore whether and to what extent critical thinking is promoted in NFIE and what the challenges are. The narratives of young adult alumni suggest that they experienced limited space for critical thinking in their NFIE experiences or encountered little attention to developing critical thinking skills. As such, the findings of the study corroborate observations made in earlier studies in the Netherlands or elsewhere in Europe (Che Noh et al., 2014 ; Cherribi, 2010 ; Cherti & Bradley, 2011 ; Pels, 2014 ). This study expands our understanding about the underlying reasons for the absence of critical thinking in NFIE through discussing factors such as an emphasis on rote learning and memorisation, discouraging attitudes of religious education teachers and peers, lack of proficiency in the language of instruction, the young age of learners, and a perceived lack of need for debate.

It is important to highlight that the majority of imams in the Netherlands, but also in other European countries, originate from two Muslim majority countries: Turkey and Morocco. These imams are oftentimes critiqued for having inadequate professional training, for lacking familiarity with the language and culture of the Netherlands, and for failing to connect with the life-worlds of new generations of Muslims born in Europe (Sözeri, Altinyelken & Volman, 2019 ; Cherribi, 2010 ). Moreover, most of the training is carried out by volunteers who have not been trained pedagogically for this role (see also Sözeri & Altinyelken, 2019 ). Consequently, even if they wanted to adopt a more critical pedagogy, they probably lacked the knowledge and the skills to stimulate discussions and address critical inquiries on sensitive issues. As Sieckelinck, Essousi and El Madkouri ( 2012 :150) also confirmed, ‘There is a big need for educational reform in European mosques. Many volunteers or leaders do not possess any professional quality that allows them addressing children’s sores and uncertainties’. The same can be said for educators at independent private institutions, as well as private tutors, as the majority of them were not professionally trained in pedagogy either.

While the pedagogy of NFIE has been to a large extent critiqued for inhibiting critical thinking, it should be noted that similar debates have been taking place in mainstream schools around the world as well. The so-called traditional teaching, which is characterised by its expository form and narrative character, has been perceived as obsolete and inadequate for the twenty-first century (Altinyelken, 2011 ; Chisholm & Leyendecker, 2008 ). This is mainly because it tends to relegate education to being an act of depositing, where teachers make deposits and learners receive, memorise, and reproduce them in periodic exams (Freire, 2009 ). Similar to some other major religions, Islamic education also emphasizes verbatim mastery of sacred texts. Some scholars view memorisation as a distinct form of learning in religious education, arguing that it is crucial to develop ‘a child’s intellect, moral character, and religious community membership’ (Moore, 2012 :298), and it ‘deepens students’ spirituality and offers comfort and security through increasing their awareness of the presence of God’ (Boyle, 2006 :494). Although memorisation of sacred texts might be important for a range of reasons, and it might remain a central element of religious education for legitimate reasons, as Che Noh et al. ( 2014 ) suggested, such emphasis should not be at the expense of ignoring learners’ comprehension of the meaning of the verses and other important Islamic knowledge.

In this study, most young Muslims had developed a critical position concerning a pedagogical practice that tended to silence them. Their sense of urgency for incorporating openness, interactions and critical reflection contradicts some religious educators’ conviction that there is no need for critical deliberation in Islamic religious education, since Islam is already ‘perfect’ and there are dangers associated with a critical stance, such as becoming a less firm believer. Some young Muslims in this study argued for an opposite position: that is, lack of critical deliberation would lead to weakness in the belief structures and faith of new generation Muslims in Europe, resulting in a sense of confusion and disorientation. Waghid ( 2014 ) confirmed that a minimalist approach to tarbiyyah (nurturing) is oftentimes associated with the uncritical acceptance of facts about Islam. Through such approaches, a learner might become ‘an uncritical believer who does not bother to question the merits and demerits of his or her beliefs’ (Waghid, 2014 :336).

In a recent case study of a Turkish mosque in the Netherlands (Altinyelken & Sözeri, 2019 ), parents confirmed the need for more interactive lessons, questions, and discussions. They believed that only through such interactions can new generations be conscious Muslims, and their improved awareness can equip them with the knowledge and skills to respond adequately to inquisitive questions from their non-Muslim peers and teachers. In the same study, some mosque teachers emphasized the urgency to ‘transition from a fear-based pedagogy towards a love-based pedagogy which highlights and incorporates God’s qualities, such as compassion, graciousness and forgiveness’ (p. 13). They believed such a transition was urgently needed in order ‘not to lose’ the new generation of Muslim children in Europe. The narratives of young Muslims in this study also underscored the importance of creating an atmosphere of respect and trust, and a safe space to learn in NFIE programs. This is important to consider as Islamic educational communities in Europe are currently and increasingly recognising the significance of critical thinking and an engaged pedagogy encompassing dialogue and inquiry (Ahmed, 2019 ; Waghid, 2014 ). For instance, Ahmed ( 2019 :21) called for a dialogical halaqah (Islamic oral pedagogy) to ‘generate more inclusive practice by providing a space that facilitates children and young peoples’ collective self-reflection and exploration of their faith.’ She believes such a dialogical pedagogy draws on foundational Islamic educational ideas based on a tradition of dialogue and reflexivity, and it can ‘complement existing rote-learning and transmission-based pedagogies’.

There are some limitations to this study as well. Due to its small purposeful sampling focusing on highly educated young Muslims, the findings cannot be generalised to all Muslim youth nor to all NFIE in the Netherlands. Future research involving quantitative measures with a focus on aspects identified in this study would be useful to determine the extent to which these findings can be generalised. Furthermore, this study focused on the perspectives of young adults who participated in NFIE in the past. Hence, the analysis is based on their recollections of time spent in NFIE settings. Future studies can explore this subject among primary or secondary school-age children who are receiving NFIE at the time of data collection, and incorporate other qualitative research methods, such as extensive observations. Such an approach can help to avoid overreliance on participants’ self-reports and contribute to identification of any possible reform of NFIE over the past decade to allow for more open, exploratory, and inquisitive learning.

Data availability

The interview data for this research is not publicly available due to the sensitivity of the research. Besides, at the time of data collection, the participants did not grant specific permission to deposit the data in a public repository. On the contrary, the participants particularly emphasized the use of the data exclusively by the researcher(s) who conducted the interviews.

Code availability

Not available due to confidentiality and sensitivity of the subject.

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Acknowledgements

I am most grateful to all young Muslims who took part in this research and shared their critical reflections, and to Nazek Magdy Selim and Yusra Akhtar for their research assistance.

This study was funded by the Talent Programme Veni of the Dutch Research Council [Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek], grant number 451–16-002. The funder had no role in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.

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Altinyelken, H.K. Critical thinking and non-formal Islamic education: Perspectives from young Muslims in the Netherlands. Cont Islam 15 , 267–285 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-021-00470-6

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Islamic Critical Thinking: An Analysis of Its Significance Based on The Al-Quran and Scholarly Views

• Noraini Junoh Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Kelantan Malaysia
• Abdul Manam Mohamad Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin Terengganu Malaysia
• Zanirah Mustafa@Busu Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Kelantan Malaysia
• Nor Asmira Mat Jusoh Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Kelantan Malaysia

Critical thinking is a very important intellectual tool that could help a person form arguments, determine the credibility of sources, analyse presumptions or make decisions in various contexts. Hence, this study intended to examine the Western and Islamic critical thinking concepts as well as its significance according to the al-Quran and the views of scholars. The library research method was used extensively for collecting and analysing data, which was sourced from literature by philosophers, psychologists and Islamic scientists, especially those involved in the cognitive field. The conceptual framework was built using the content analysis method. According on the analysis, the importance of Islamic critical thinking based on the al-Quran and views of scholars in the cognitive field were extensively elaborated to assist in the practice of Islamic critical thinking.  The study found similarities and differences between Islamic and Western critical thinking. The similarities are from the rational utilization aspect and the difference is from the value of truth aspect, whereby Islamic critical thinking accepts divine deliverance ( wahyu ) as the main source of reference when thinking so that the product of thinking eventually becomes the absolute truth. Hence, the major significance of Islamic critical thinking is to enhance the faith ( iman ) and piousness ( takwa ) towards Allah SWT by contemplating and examining nature. At the same time, critical thinking helps a person to face contemporary challenges and solve problems related to every aspect of life. Moreover, critical thinking activities are greatly demanded in Islam so that the mind bestowed by Allah SWT is not neglected and is used properly without transgressing HIS divine deliverance ( wahyu ).

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Is there room for critical thinking in Islam?

To be Muslim is not to be politically asleep, but rather to be in a permanent state of critique.

Nothing is more satisfying than the conviction that your enemy lacks the ability to think critically. What could be more gratifying than the idea that the person you are fighting is trapped in an airlock of unreflection? It blesses your struggle, redeems your cruelty, legitimises your violence. If a definition of humanity is the ability to think for oneself, then what could be wrong with fighting the unfree?

The modern pairing of Islam with the incapacity for critical thought is a fairly old gesture – the Enlightenment philosopher Leibniz said Muslims were so fatalistic they wouldn’t even jump out of the way of carts. Over the past fifteen years, however, the internet has enabled and amplified a panoply of voices with this view.

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When is eid al-fitr 2024 and how is it celebrated, photos: bangladesh opens mosque for transgender hijra community, why biden’s white house iftar unravelled amid gaza war, lost in orientalism: arab christians and the war in gaza.

From the digital rooftops, a thousand voices are shouting down Islam as a space inimical to any form of rational reflection: millionaire right-wingers masquerading as free-thinkers such as Bill Maher, Eton-educated “voices of the people” such as Douglas Murray, sophisticated hate-distillers such as Ann Coulter and her not-so-bright British version, Katie Hopkins … even Greek classics professors-turned-Islam experts such as Tom Holland have joined the fray.

Some of the historical acrobatics involved in this gesture are awe-inspiring. Any academic would be laughed out of the room if they suggested St Augustine was somehow complicit in the bombing of abortion clinics, or that the medieval Hohenstaufen culminated in the Third Reich, or that the Renaissance never happened. Almost on a daily basis, however, confident, context-defying lines of continuity are drawn for Islam across centuries and continents, monocausally linking the Ottomans to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS), or seventh century theology to attacks on shopping malls. In these re-writings of history, contrary or problematic episodes (such as the vast contribution of the Islamic world to geometry, astronomy and the vocabulary of science in general) are not just left out – anyone even trying to mention them is mocked as a naive, idiot liberal. It’s a wonderful age to be alive.

I often wonder what can be done against this collective dumbing-down of an entire faith. Patiently repeating points and examples from history – in the manner of explaining something difficult but obvious to an eight-year old child – does not seem to go very far in combatting a million views on Youtube. Raising consciousness is not enough – there almost seems to be a will not to know here, a decision to remain in the foetal warmth of a particular narrative. When a Western, best-selling public intellectual openly laughs at the idea of “Islamic inventions”, and garners online 10,000 likes in doing so, it is difficult to see what benefit the provision of empirical facts can provide. Large sections of our society seem to be locked into certain fantasies about Islam and the West – and how we are going to unlock those fantasies remains as unclear as ever.

Not that scholars have given up. Irfan Ahmad’s latest book, Religion As Critique: Islamic Critical Thinking from Mecca to the Marketplace (2017), offers an interesting opposition to the West-and-the-rest narratives of an European Enlightenment radiating outwards from Greece and Germany into the backward corners of a darker world. Positing the Prophet Mohammed as “a critic of the Meccan social order”, Ahmad constructs an alternative genealogy of the verb to critique (tanqid/naqd), one which is not by any means dismissive of Greek/pre-Islamic/Western traditions, “but which at the same time can’t be subsumed within them”. It is a welcome move that intelligently and articulately condenses the work of previous scholars (Talal Asad, Gayatri Spivak, J G A Pocock) on two important points.

First of all, it demonstrates the extent to which the Enlightenment was an “ethnic project” – an ethnic project, moreover, which was in constant need of an enemy. When Kant spoke about the space of philosophy to be defined, he often alluded to the space of Europe, whose boundaries needed to be patrolled. Secondly, the tired linking of the critical with the secular – and “uncritical” with the religious – is something Ahmad’s book goes on to rigorously deconstruct. Perhaps a touch controversially for some, he declares: “Against the reigning doxa, which views Islam and critique as mutually exclusive domains … I propose we begin to think of Islam as critique; indeed, Islam as permanent critique.” 

To be Muslim, in other words, is not to be politically asleep, or passively receptive to a divine will, but rather to be in a permanent state of critique. Not everyone will be politically comfortable with some of the choices Ahmad has as examples of this critical tradition (Abul Ala Maududi, the founder of Pakistan’s Jamaat-e-Islami, is given a central chapter), but the gesture he makes – developing an alternative genealogy of critical thought in the Urdu Islamicate traditions of South Asia – is a valuable one.

To be fair, there is another aspect to this issue we have not yet touched upon. The critical tradition of Islam might well be compared with a city which is under attack on two fronts – from without, and from within. In addition to a certain relentless Western reduction of Islam to an unreflective cult, there are those within the Muslim world would wholly reject some of its most famous philosophers and critical thinkers as un-Islamic. The late Shahab Ahmed’s monograph What Is Islam?: The Importance of Being Islamic (2015), in this respect, stands interestingly alongside Irfan Ahmad’s book as a parallel attempt to re-define the parameters of the Islamic world – and, implicitly, its relationship to both the Western and the secular. Although Shahab Ahmed’s focus on activities such as wine drinking lends it a different tone from Religion As Critique, both books share a frustration with narrow definitions of the Islamic tradition. In Shahab Ahmed’s case, this is a desire to expand the idea of being Islamic well beyond the “putative centrality” of jurisprudence which most convention seems to define the religion by; in Irfan Ahmad’s book, a similar belief in the value of everyday experience – “the practice … of the nonscholarly and commoners” as Ahmad puts it – is given as much weight as the pronouncements of the ulema in deciding what an Islamic critical tradition might be.

These debates will go on. In closing, it might be worth ending with the words an Arab philosopher wrote in the city of Damascus, just over 800 years ago. Words which demonstrate (if you’ll forgive my anachronism) a remarkable pre-psychological awareness of the extent to which we personally construct the God we worship:

“… you will see no one who worships an unmade God, since man creates in himself that which he worships and judges.  When a person sees something of the [divine] Real, he never sees anything but himself.”

The writer is Ibn Arabi (1165-1240), and the extracts are two lines taken from his Futuhat, written at some point during the 1220s. Of course I am ripping these words out of context, and yet the sentiment they express – the God we pray to always reflects us, even comes out of us, in some way or another – is a suspicion to be found across Jewish and Christian traditions too (Maimonides, Meister Eckhart). Eight hundred years ago, a keen epistemological querying of religious experience was already at work. Admittedly, the goal of this querying was not a secular demolition of God, but a purer experience of the divine; not the exposure of God as a psychological illusion, but a clearer demarcation between what we imagine God to be, and the thing that lies beyond it. Some might call this a deferred critical thinking: critical thought put to the ultimate service of the uncritical. It’s a fair charge – people are entitled to their opinion. But there must be something valuable in trying to remember that lines like these were being written in Damascus, and Cairo, and Cordoba, centuries before Gramsci, Marx and Descartes. And certainly 800 years before Youtube.

The views expressed in this article are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect Al Jazeera’s editorial stance.

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The Qur’ān and the development of rational thinking

Thoraya e. abdel-maguid.

Formerly Department of Anatomy, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom

Rabie E. Abdel-Halim

1 Formerly Department of Uology, Faculty of Medicine, King Saud University and King Khalid University Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

In this study, the means utilized by the Qur’ān in actualizing the possibilities of all intellect to face the problem of blind imitation of ancestors were elaborated. Rationality as meant by the Qur’ān and embodied in its unique style is presented. Furthermore, the Qur’ānic documentation of the role of practical demonstration on the individual's mind as well as the societies’ collective mind is pointed out. In addition, the study shows how the Qur’ān guides people to the proper use of reason within a scientific framework of mind.

INTRODUCTION

In agreement with Kalin,[ 1 ] Crow,[ 2 ] Kazi[ 3 ] and Iqbal,[ 4 ] contrary to the pre-Islamic period of Jāhiliyyah , “ignorance”, Islam represented the era of not only faith, but also knowledge, reason, justice, freedom and humanism in its real attributes of: Tolerance, altruism, and respect to human beings. Hence, by the middle of the seventh century, a new sociopolitical order as well as a new ontology of the reason was established. Therefore, the ontological ground of the Qur’ānic reason and rationality were known long before the Greek philosophical texts, which were translated into Arabic in the middle of the ninth century as stated by Ibn ‘Abi-’Uṣaybiʿah.[ 5 ]

Then, as the birth of Islam was in fact a birth of inductive intellect (Iqbal),[ 4 ] in this study we are trying to explore some of the means by which the Qur’ān shapes the human mind to adopt its new ontological ground of reason and mode of thinking.

We have relied on Yusuf Ali[ 6 ] for the translation of the meanings of the studied Qur’ānic verses.

Actualizing the possibilities of all intellect

According to this study, the following three Qur’ānic means were identified:

Condemnation of senseless imitation

In the religious history, worshipping of false deities and addressing offerings, sacrifices, and invocations to them was found among several past nations of the world. The Qur’ān shows in the following verses that those polytheists always rejected God's guidance as they found satisfaction in following the footsteps of their ancestors:

“Nay! They say: ‘We found our fathers following a certain religion, and we do guide ourselves by their footsteps .”. (Qur’ān 43:22)

“Just in the same way, whenever we sent a Warner before thee to any people, the wealthy ones among them said: ‘We found our fathers following a certain religion, and we will certainly follow in their footsteps ’”. (Qur’ān 43:23)

“They said, ‘We found our fathers worshipping them ,” (Qur’ān 21:53)

Furthermore, they insisted on following their ancestors even though it was pointed to them that their forefathers did not use their common sense and were void of guidance as stated in the following verses:

“When it is said to them: ‘Follow what Allah hath revealed’. they say: ‘Nay we shall follow the ways of our fathers’. What! Even though their fathers were void of wisdom and guidance? ” (Qur’ān 2:170)

“When it is said to them: Come to what Allah hath revealed; come to the messenger, they say: ‘Enough for us are the ways we found our fathers following’. What! Even though their fathers were void of knowledge and guidance? ” (Qur’ān 5:104)

Furthermore, despite their realization that these idols do not hear them when they call on them or do good or harm to them, they still had full faith in their ancestors to the extent that they do what they found them doing as mentioned in these verses:

“He said: ‘Do they listen to you when ye call (on them)?’ (Qur’ān 26:72).

‘Or do you good or harm?’ (Qur’ān 26:73)

They said: ‘Nay, but we found our fathers doing thus (what we do) .’" (Qur’ān 26:74).

Meanwhile, they are content to stand on ancestral ways even though many of them are evil and leading to perdition as shown in this verse:

“When they are told to follow the (revelation) that Allah has sent down, they say: ‘Nay, we shall follow the ways that we found our fathers (following)’. What! Even if it is Satan beckoning them to the chastisement of the (blazing) fire? ” (Qur’ān 31:21)

Hence, as confirmed in the following Qur’ānic verse, their worship is not based on any spiritual attitude of mind, but just mere imitation of their ancestors. Therefore, God will take fully into account all their motives in such mummery as they call worship and they will have their full spiritual consequences in the future.

“Be not then in doubt as to what these men worship. They worship nothing but what their fathers worshipped before (them): but verily we shall pay them back (in full) their portion without (the least) abatement. ” (Qur’ān 11:109)

In fact, from the earliest time and through the ages, the Qur’ān shows that polytheists in different societies had the same aforementioned state of mind. Thus, this senseless imitation of the ancestors denoting that when people put their full faith away from God's guidance, it leads to the incorrect functioning of their intelligence. Accordingly, the following verses show how the Qur’ān strongly condemned their behavior to the extent of describing them as deaf, dumb and blind who are void of knowledge and wisdom:

“The parable of those who reject faith is as if one were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb and blind. They are void of wisdom. ” (Qur’ān 2:171)

“For the worst of beasts in the sight of Allah, are the deaf and the dumb, those who understand not. ” (Qur’ān 8:22)

Actually, in those human persons, the failure of their sensate organs does not stem from biological imperfection, but essentially from the closure of their mind and heart to the truth. As in perceiving things, our sensate faculties and reason work together and the latter makes sense of what our senses perceive. Hence, they deserve the punishment, which the Qur’ān promised as they deadened their faculties of reason and perception by not using them in: Seeing, hearing, listening, encountering, responding, reacting, contemplating, and then drawing the appropriate practical conclusions as stated in the following Qur’ānic verses:

“Many are the Jinn and men we have made for Hell: They have hearts wherewith they understand not, eyes wherewith they see not, and ears wherewith they hear not. They are like cattle, nay more misguided: For they are heedless (of warning). ” (Qur’ān 7:179)

“And We had firmly established them in a (prosperity and) power which We have not given to you (ye Quraish!); And we had endowed them with (faculties of) hearing, seeing, heart and intellect: But of no profit to them were their (faculties of) hearing, sight and heart and intellect, when they went on rejecting the signs of Allah: and they were (completely) encircled by that which they used to mock at! ” (Qur’ān 46:26)

Thus, in Islam the spiritual guidance illuminates the faculties of reason and perception to enable them to function properly and meanwhile urge us in using them in getting a deeper insight into the reality of things because God created them as a source of guidance.

Questioning rather than answering

Following this in an alternative way, the confrontation with Makkan pagans is turned into another direction, which is questioning them in a simple clear way appealing to the common sense and recognizable by the generality of people as shown in the following Qur’ānic verses:

“Do they indeed ascribe to Him as partners things that can create nothing, but are themselves created? ” (Qur’ān 7:191)

“Say: ‘Of your “partners”, can any originate creation and repeat it’? Say: ‘It is Allah who originates creations and repeats it’: Then how are ye deluded away (from the truth)? ” (Qur’ān 10:34)

“Say: ‘Of your “partners” is there any that can give any guidance towards truth?’ Say: ‘it is Allah who gives guidance toward truth’. Is then he who gives guidance to Truth more worthy to be followed or he who finds not guidance (himself) unless he is guided? What then is the matter with you? How judge ye? ” (Qur’ān 10:35)

Hence, now it should be realized that their false gods can neither create out of nothing nor sustain the creative energy which maintains the world. In addition, they not only cannot offer any guidance, which can be of use for the future destiny of humanity, but also they stand in need of such guidance. Hence, in conclusion, why to follow vain fancies instead of worshipping, serving and obeying one true God (Allah) the source of all knowledge, truth, and guidance? Thus, Qur’ānic questioning seems to stimulate the reason which is the avenue of cognitive functions to a wider context of thinking.

In addition, the Qur’ān questioned the claims to which they attribute their rejection to the new guidance as in the following verses:

“Do they not ponder over the word (of Allah), or has anything (new) come to them that did not come to their fathers of old? ” (Qurān 23:68)

“Or do they not recognize their messenger that they deny him? ” (Qur’ān 23:69)

“Or do they say, ‘he is possessed’? Nay, he has brought them the truth, but most of them hate the truth. ” (Qur’ān 23:70)

The Qur’ānic way of questioning their claims as whether something like that had not come to their fathers or as whether their messenger is not recognizable to them so that to say he is possessed or being crazy rather than being telling the truth, should, in fact, urge them to rethink, deeply and rationally about those claims. Hence, they can realize that the real cause behind their rejection and objection is actually not those claims, but that most of them have an aversion to the truth that Muhammad is God's messenger. Thus, in the following verse comes the question: Do not you reflect on the Qur’ān?:

“Do they not ponder on The Qur’ān? Had it been from other than Allah, they would surely have found therein much discrepancy. ” (Qur’ān 4:82)

For the Qur’ān itself is a strong persuasive testimony to its divine origin. In fact, it is conceivable that any human being could not compose discourses on different subjects under different circumstances and on different occasions, then its collection grows into a coherent homogeneous and integrated work, no component of which is discordant with the others. Therefore, the Muslim's mind (ʿAql) accepts the revelation and consider it the highest source of knowledge, because it is from the Absolute Reality (God) which is beyond the mind and matter, without any contradiction with logical analysis as, according to the Qur’ān, our mind is innately capable of performing the two functions: Logical analysis and intuitive knowing.

Challenge as a concrete test of mind

When the Makkan pagans kept saying that the Qur’ān is not a revelation from God and the messenger himself has composed it, God challenged them to produce their evidence as stated in the following verses:

“Or they may say: ‘He forged it’. Say: ‘Bring ye, then, ten sūras forged, like unto it, and call (to your aid) whomsoever ye can, other than Allah!-If ye speak the truth!’ ” (Qur’ān 11:13)

“Or so they say: ‘He forged it’? Say: ‘Bring then a sūra like unto it, and call (to your aid) anyone you can, besides Allah, if it be ye speak the truth!’ ” (Qur’ān 10:38)

“Let them produce a saying like unto it, if (it be) they speak the truth! ” (Qur’ān 52:34)

Although the Qur’ān was in their mother tongue, they failed to produce the required evidence which support their claim even though the challenge was reduced from ten down to one sūra then to just a mere saying which simulate the Qur’ān. Actually, that is because the Qur’ān is such a miracle not only in its language but also in its style, arguments, themes, topics, teachings and prophecies. It is beyond any human power to produce the like of it as the Qur’ān declared in the following verse:

“Say: ‘If the whole of mankind and Jinns were to gather together to produce the like of this Qur’ān, they could not produce the like thereof, even if they backed up each other with help and support.’ ” (Qur’ān 17:88)

Thus, this is a real challenge not only to them, but also to the whole human beings and Jinn. Meanwhile, it proved that their doubts are not only argumentative and refractory, but also against human conscience. Therefore, as a real challenge represents a concrete test of mind or thought process of reason, it supposedly stimulates rethinking for the sake of offering or producing an evidence.

In conclusion, the confrontation of the problem of blind imitation in fact needs actualization of the possibilities of all intellect. The use of the above mentioned means of condemnation, questioning and the real challenge of mind seems to be effective in achieving this goal.

Rationality in the Qur’aān

In this study, we recognized that for achieving a rational way of thinking, the Qur’ānic guidance stressed on the following points:

The importance of evidence

The Qur’ān commented on polytheists by asking them to offer their evidence or proof, as shown in the following verses:

“Or have they taken for worship (other) gods besides Him? Say: ‘Bring your convincing proof: This is the Message of those with me and the Message of those before me’. But most of them know not The Truth, and so turn away. ” (Qur’ān 21:24)

“These our people have taken for worship gods other than Him: Why do they not bring forward an authority clear (and convincing) for what they do? Who doth more wrong than such as invent a falsehood against Allah? ” (Qur’ān 18:15)

Hence, the Qur’ān describes polytheists by being not knowing the truth or lacking the knowledge that the creator of the universe is one who is perfect and flawless. Furthermore, they could not offer any proof as actually the multiplicity of gods is inconceivable considering the unity of design in this wonderful universe. Thus, they were reproached for basing their religious doctrines on guesswork and conjecture without considering whether or not those doctrines are backed up or supported by: Evidence, any proof or even clear rational argument.

The Qur’ān emphasizes on the importance of clear, sound and logical evidence rather than conjecture, subjective or illogical opinion; not only in our beliefs but also in our daily life decisions as shown from an incident reported in the following verse:

“God give thee grace! Why didst thou grant them exemption until those who told the truth were seen by thee in a clear light, and thou hadst proved the liars? ” (Qur’ān 9:43)

Thus, the Qur’ān disapproved of the exemption given by the prophet to some of his fellow men to stay behind after putting to him some excuses, before knowing who spoke the truth and who is the liar. Hence logic (the proof) is the form of wisdom which is extolled by the Qur’ān because, in agreement with Bakar,[ 7 ] it is the balance by which man weighs ideas and opinions to arrive at the correct judgment.

Cause and effect reasoning

In the following verses, the Qur’ān points to the causal factor for the dispute about the religion of Abraham:

“Ye people of the book! Why dispute ye about Abraham when the Torah and the Gospel were not revealed till after him? Have ye no understanding? ” (Qur’ān 3:65)

“Ah! Ye are those who fell to disputing (even) in matters of which ye had some knowledge! But why dispute ye in matters of which ye have no knowledge? It is Allah who knows, and ye who know not! ” (Qur’ān 3:66)

“Abraham was not a Jew nor yet a Christian; But he was upright, and bowed his will to Allah's (which is Islam) and he joined not gods with Allah .”(Qur’ān 3:67)

Accordingly, Abraham is neither a Jew nor a Christian because the Torah and Gospel were not revealed until after his time. Meanwhile, there should be no dispute about his religion as it is only God who knows and he told us that Abraham was wholly devoted to Him and never associated others with Him in His divinity.

Furthermore, in the following verses, the Qur’ān discusses another dispute about having other deities beside God:

“No son did Allah beget, nor is there any god along with Him: (If there were many gods), behold, each god would have taken away what he had created, and some would have lorded it over others! Glory to Allah! (He is free) from the (sort of) things they attribute to Him! ” (Qur’ān 23:91)

“If there were, in the heavens and the earth, other gods besides Allah, there would have been the ruin in both! But glory to Allah, The Lord of the Throne: (High is He) above what they attribute to Him! ” (Qur’ān 21:22)

Hence, the Qur’ān considered that the presence of a son or other deity as a partner with God is just a refutation because surely there would have been serious differences, conflicts and wars among the different sovereigns and rulers.

Accordingly, the Qur’ānic way in discussing the previous two disputes shows that our concepts and drawn conclusions should correspond to the facts in hand which are investigated through rational inquiry and logical analysis. Thus, we will be exercising fair-mindedness and developing intellectual perseverance and confidence in reason. Otherwise, our attitudes are illogical, irrational, and unscientific.

Analogical reasoning

Analogical reasoning is built into the very fabric of Islam as it is estimating or measuring one thing in terms of another and coming up with new concepts. It is first used by the Qur’ān in the theological dispute mentioned in the following verse:

“The similitude of Jesus before Allah is as that of Adam; he created him from dust then said to him: ‘Be’. And he was. ” (Qur’ān 3:59)

Accordingly, the similitude between Jesus and Adam alluded to in this verse lies in the fact that both of them were created without a human father and in both cases, God's divine creative agency was involved in the form of the divine command “Be” whether had a human mother or not. In fact, in the sight of God, Adam was just a mere handful of dust and after creation is nothing more than a human and prophet. Therefore, by analogy, Jesus, as well as all humanity, is as human as Adam. Thus, in Islam, the high status which Jesus occupies is attributed to him only as a human great prophet and teacher.

Hence, analogical reasoning was regarded as an important method in Islamic jurisprudence as it is used for the assignment of the Ḥukm (ruling) of an existing case, found in the text of Qur’ān or Ḥadith or consensus, to a new case whose Ḥukm is not found in those sources, on the basis of a common attribute.[ 8 ] It was applied by the Prophet and his followers to many fields in life.

In fact, analogical reasoning represents a higher cognitive function of reason as it is based on the brain ability to form patterns of association for coming up with new concepts.

Practical demonstration

The role of practical demonstration and its influence on the individual thinking was first introduced by the Qur’ān as shown in the following verse:

“Behold! Abraham said: ‘My Lord! Show me how Thou givest life to the dead’. He said: ‘Dost thou not then believe?’ He said:’ Yea! but to satisfy my own heart’. He said: ‘Take four birds; tie them (cut them into pieces) then put a portion of them on every hill, and call to them: They will come to thee (flying) with speed. Then know that Allah Is Exalted in Power, Wise.’ ” (Qur’ān 2:260)

This demonstration of Abraham confirmed that life and death are under God's complete control and time is immaterial to God's working. Furthermore, it does not signify that Abraham denied or entertained any doubts as regard life after death because he had complete faith in God's power.[ 9 ] However, the practical demonstration and direct personal observation give reliable knowledge, personal rest, and inner peace.[ 10 ]

Furthermore, the emphasis of the Qur’ān on practical demonstration is shown in the following verse by asking the polytheists to invoke, for help, to their deities and see the response:

“Say: “Call on those besides Him whom ye fancy: They have neither the power to remove your troubles from you nor to change them .”(Qur’ān 17:56)

Thus, to confirm by themselves the inability of those deities and subsequently give them the strongest condemnation of imagining that any other being is as equal or in the same category with one true God who have all power.

On the other hand, in human societies, Qur’ān shows that practical demonstration also play a role and have an influence on its collective mind as shown in the following verse:

“Mischief has appeared on land and sea because of (the meed) that the hands of men have earned, that (Allah) may give them a taste of some of their deeds: In order that they may turn back (from evil) .”(Qur’ān 30:41)

In fact, mischief and corruption appear in societies as consequences of people's ill deeds. Meanwhile, it denotes God's will to give them the taste of some of their evil deeds as partial punishment so that it may be a warning for the future, an invitation to enter the door of repentance and elimination of evil by education and purification of people's own will. Thus, it seems that there is no other way for influencing the collective mind of the society in ordering human conduct on a sound foundation.[ 11 ]

This study shows that the Qur’ān guides people to the proper use of reason within a scientific framework of mind by relying on rational thinking, logical analysis and practical demonstration to get a deeper insight into the reality of things.

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Does Islam Allow Discourse and Critical Thinking?

I would like to begin by stating that my sentiments in the following anecdote are my own, personal opinion. I tell it as an attempt to reveal the beauty of discourse.

I walked by the “Dawah Day” booth of the Muslim student group at my university and read something that I found interesting. Representing the five pillars of Islam were literally five walls that posed as actual pillars with the obligations written on each one.

As I stood and read each pillar, I came across the second wall that read, “Praying five times a day in Arabic, the language prescribed to us in the Holy Quran.”  In Arabic , I thought.  Does it have to be in Arabic?

I suddenly remembered attending a spiritual night at my youth group in Los Angeles, and one of our youth mentors led the group in a prayer that he recited in English.

As I followed along the translation of the Quran in English for the first time in prayer, I actually understood everything he was saying. For the first time, I was not rushing through Arabic words of which I didn’t know the meanings.

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Was that wrong of us to do?  I thought, as I stared at the statement. “Arabic, the language prescribed to us in the Holy Qur’an.” I found myself in complete disagreement with the words that my colleagues wrote.

I looked over at a friend standing by me and described my sentiments to her. She disagreed with me, and a gentleman overheard our conversation and excitedly joined in, as did a few other Muslim students.

My belief was that God hears and understands all of our languages, and as long as we understand what we are saying, then we are getting the most out of our prayers. My colleagues believed that Arabic cannot be perfectly translated, and anyone who does not know Arabic is obligated to learn it. This should be our lifelong commitment.

The gentleman who joined in early in the conversation decided to make his argument using a different angle: “The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him (PBUH), prayed in Arabic and he was the perfect human being that we all strive to become like. Wouldn’t you want to emulate the exact actions of the prophet?”

Although I understood his point, I answered back, “My perfect emulation of the prophet would be having the deep connection with God that he had while praying and feeling the utmost spirituality that he felt. I cannot do that when I recite in Arabic because I don’t understand most of what I’m saying. I do understand when I read in English.”

How Much Should We Rely on Scholars?

During our conversation, a point was mentioned that made me think very deeply about the history of scholarly reference to many religious opinions: “ The majority of Muslim scholars ruled that prayer should be recited in Arabic and in no other language.

Because the majority agreed on this  fatwa , or religious ruling, then we should not pull our own opinions out of our own minds just because we feel or think a certain way, and make that our Islam. We must go along with what the majority of our scholars agreed on. Doing otherwise is not logical.”

Although I agreed with him somewhat about that point, I was still very skeptical.

I did a lot of research later that night and found many different scholarly opinions on this topic. One scholar, Ibn Taymiyyah, who shared my opinion, said:

“Supplication is allowed in Arabic or any other language as God knows the intention and meaning of the supplicator. God knows the sounds of His creation crying out regardless of the language.”

An opposing source, the Kuwaiti Encyclopedia of Islamic Jurisprudence said:

“The majority of the schools of thought (Hanbalites, Shafites, Maliki’s) prohibited reading the Qur’an through a translation. […] The Hanafi’s held it impermissible for the one who is proficient in Arabic to read it in another language while they permitted one to read it through a translation.”

This conversation developed in me a desire to learn and understand these differences in opinion. After spending a long time thinking and discussing this topic with many people, both religiously educated and not, I realized that there is so much that we think we actually know, but the reality is: None of us know anything for sure. And, the history of Islamic thought is based on opinion, not fact.

We strive to reach the truth, without actually knowing what the truth is.

This explains why my conversation with my classmates was so unproductive, mainly because, instead of accepting each other’s approaches to prayer, we were trying to prove each other wrong. And this is a major problem in our  Ummah  today.

Free and Critical Thinking

Why is it that in Islam we are taught to accept our human diversity in terms of race and religion, but not the diversity of discourse within the Muslim community?

This irony is the epitome of why our Ummah is so uncooperative. We refuse to acknowledge each other’s differences as something beautiful. Instead, we blame each other’s opinions on the reasons for troubling global issues.

Slandering each other because we won’t change our beliefs is not a tool to success; rather it is the knife that has sliced us into divided communities.

One of the most beautiful things about the religion of Islam is its concept of free and critical thinking:

“Who remember Allah while standing or sitting or [lying] on their sides and give thought to the creation of the heavens and the earth, [saying], ‘Our Lord, You did not create this aimlessly; exalted are You [above such a thing]; then protect us from the punishment of the Fire’” [Quran 3:191]. 

“Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find with skill the spacious paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colors, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a Sign for those who give thought” Quran 16:69].

We have hundreds of scholars throughout history who have shared with and influenced the Muslim world with their new and profound opinions and explanations on certain aspects of the religion.

But one of the most dangerous things that I have found Muslims across the globe doing is following a certain  fatwa  just because the majority of Muslim scholars agreed upon it. People do so without doing their own research for themselves and finding truth in what makes sense to them.

It is important to acknowledge the level of scholarship that our scholars have, but it is also important not to disregard the fact that we are humans too, and we have the ability to think and study on our own. We have the ability to make our own findings and formulate our own opinions and interpretations based on the knowledge that we gather.

Sharing our interpretations and opinions of Islamic concepts creates an open-minded atmosphere among our communities. We can freely and comfortably allow ourselves to discover new perspectives.

Ijtihad , or the ability of human beings to think critically and independently, is a freedom that we were born with. It is a part of our human dignity and our freedom of choice. We need to use it, but we do not.

“The universe around us is also God’s continuous communication. Independent thinking is thus another way to understand God’s message through reading His other book — nature,” says Dr. Muqtedar Khan in his article titled  What is Independent Thinking?

“Outside the discourse of the traditional jurists, intellectuals, reformers and philosophers, have seen independent thinking as not only inevitable but a mandate, that enables the continuous renewal and revival of the Islamic spirit.”

I urge the Ummah to study and delve deep into our religion and to develop in ourselves a level of scholarship that our human minds have the capability of creating.

This article was first published on Patheos.com

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A critical take on education and schooling

Can an Islamic education produce critical thinking?

Professor of Education, University of Derby

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The closure of the secondary section of the Al-Madinah free school in Derby will be celebrated by those who oppose free schools and what are euphemistically labelled “faith” schools.

Whatever the stated objections to them it is left to bloggers to warn of indoctrination . The bloggers say what many people fear and fear to say – that Islamic schools are closed “indoctrination centres” where creating open and critical thinkers is not an educational aim.

There is some historical evidence that would support this view. Peter Watson in Ideas: A History From Fire to Freud argues:

“One of the most poignant moments in the history of ideas surely came in the middle of the eleventh century. In 1065 or 1067 the Nizamiyah was founded in Baghdad. This was a theological seminary and its establishment brought to an end the openness in Arabic/Islamic Scholarship which had flourished for two or three hundred years.”

But this tragic moment cannot be generalised across centuries. It wasn’t all downhill from 1067. On the other hand, it would be wrong to deny that there is no truth in the closing down of the Islamic openness that characterised this period.

Cultural trends in the West adopted by Islamic, and many other, educationalists, such as well-meaning policies emphasising diversity and multiculturalism, and the adoption of the politics of identity, may reinforce a closing of Islamic thought and of critical thinking. They celebrate what you are, rather than what you can become.

The end of the openness that characterised a great cultural epoch for Islam and its consequences, is the broad historical and philosophical context in which we have to discuss Islamic education today. In the UK, there has been an increase of Muslim free and independent schools along with the rise in small-scale part-time madrassas attached to mosques throughout the UK. So the question has to be asked: will this tradition mean these schools may or must produce uncritical young people?

I offer here two arguments, one from religion and one from certain general facts about life, that mean an Islamic education can and will be critical.

Criticise everything

In her book Moral Clarity , Susan Neiman identifies two moral paradigms that are common to the Abrahamic religions, whether Jewish, Christian or Islamic.

…the first paradigm [is] that of Abraham at Sodom, who refuses to rest in the humility of resignation and demands that his world makes sense. Those who subscribe to this paradigm hold fast to the principle that there must be reasons for everything that happens, and that those reasons are up to us to find. This is the fundamental law to which everyone, including God, must answer and it leads us to seek not only justice, but transparent justice. The second paradigm is that of Abraham at Mount Moriah, who doesn’t ask anything at all. To do so, he thinks, would be an act of superstition, even violence. Does trust mean asking no questions? Does love mean never having to say you’re sorry? The man of faith is certain: The demand to find reason after reason is at odds with a grateful acceptance of creation, and arrogant at that.

Neiman contrasts the usual idea of morality or religious belief as a matter of blind faith – exemplified in the binding of Issac – with Abraham’s stand for reason and truth at Sodom. The former “sustains orthodoxies of every kind”, the latter points to reason and criticism, even of the highest authority. This is why the example of Abraham at Sodom is so important. If criticism of the highest authority is allowed, then “criticise everything” is the injunction.

However, in the suras of the Koran which refer to Sodom, Ibrahim is given short shrift by the angels who come to tell him of the pending destruction of the city.

The shortness and brief dispatch of the objection might lead a reader to think that the Islamic version gives less credence to reason. But this is incorrect: however short the objection, it exists.

Although for many political and even more for cultural reasons, the belief in reason is often mentioned only rhetorically in contemporary debates about Islam, it is inescapably present. The “golden age” of Islamic openness may have passed, but reason and critical thinking need not be an historical artefact.

Hard knocks

At the same time, we are all subject to hard knocks. Even the most restrictive form of Islamic education takes place in a world where there are accidental happenings. People die in tragic ways, individuals fall in love with others that their religion bans relations with, and natural, political and economic events cause social and personal turmoil.

These hard knocks will cause individuals to think, however strictly and uncritically they have been reared, and there is no possible way of shielding young people from accidental experience. In fact when strict families lock young people up or severely restrict them, this is of course another accidental experience, a hard knock that can turn them towards criticism.

An Islamic education has a rational tradition, as well as a wealth of history and culture to pass on. Equally, so has a Jewish or a Catholic education. That is why it is often more valued by parents today when secular state schooling has had its educational content hollowed out.

Part of what it passes on to future generations is necessarily critical, and even if some schools play this down, young people, more than their elders and “betters”, will face the hard knocks that will force them to think and be critical.

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Thinking About Thinking: Can Islamic Nurture Be Critical And Reflective?

Introduction

‘What is the point of having a sophisticated knowledge of law if you can’t dignify the rights of others?’ – Abdullah Sahin

The academic and traditional literature offers a spectrum of philosophies with regard to the Qurʾān’s approach to learning, nurture and character development. Attas (1999) asserts, for instance, that knowledge is ‘instilled’ into students by their teachers and, therefore, implies there is no scope for a learner to critically engage with what they are being taught. Sahin (2013), on the other hand, adopts a contrasting view argues that the character of nurture in Islam is experiential. More specifically, he argues that the Qurʾān not only accommodates for a critical engagement but actively promotes it.

That Islamic nurture is experiential and critical has precedent in the traditional literature. For example, Ghazālī (d. 1111), in his treatise The Just Balance (2016), not only develops a model of critical thinking from the Qurʾān itself, but he also coined the term from a Qurʾanic verse, ‘And weigh with the just balance’ [26:182]. 1 All translations of Arabic texts in this paper, unless otherwise stated, are my own. Verses from the Qurʾān are cited with their chapter and verse numbers. This implies, as a corollary, that Ghazālī subscribed to a critical and reflective philosophy towards nurture and education, and advocated it to his audiences. Zuḥaylī (2008) suggests the mainstream position among legal scholars is that the Qurʾān advocates a critical reflection of life and experiences; they substantiate it with a myriad of evidences, including the Qurʾanic verse, ‘So, take a lesson [from the events you experience], O those who [can] observe’ [59:2].

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Textual justification of a critical engagement: A closer look

A holistic reading of the Qurʾān reveals that while there are indeed passages where believers are expected to ‘hear and obey’, the overwhelming narrative is that of encouraging a critical reflection for hearts to soften and open to accept the truth [5:71; 24:51]. The Qurʾān says, for instance, ‘Do they not, then, contemplate the Qurʾān, or do some hearts have their locks on them?’ [47:24]. The type of vocabulary employed expresses not only spirituality but also a high level reflection and intuition (Sahin, 2013). This is further emphasized in the following verse: ‘It is not the eyes that become blind, but, rather, it is the hearts in the bosoms that become blind’ [22:46]. More directly, the Qurʾān challenges skeptics to critically engage with its messages and try to find incoherent content: ‘Do they not, then, contemplate the Qurʾān? Had it been from other than Allāh, they would have found in it much incongruity’ [4:82].

‘And you certainly know of the first [time We] created [you], so why will you not take heed?

Have you seen what you plant [in the ground]?

Is it you who grow it or We who grow [it]?

Had We willed, We could have made it broken straw, leaving you to marvel,

Is it you who send it down from the clouds or is it We who send [it] down?

Had We willed, We could have made it salty [but We did not], so why will you not be grateful [that We did not make it salty]?

Have you seen the fire that you kindle?

Is it you who produced its tree [as fuel] or is it We who produced [it]?

It is We who made it a reminder [for you of Our work] and a benefit for the travelers.

Thus, hymn the name of your Lord, the Almighty’ [56:62-74].

In addition to advocating a critical engagement and adopting it in its own discourse, the Qurʾān also strongly condemns an uncritical attitude towards philosophical worldview in particular and life in general [7:28]. The Qurʾān recalls, for instance, the remorse of those who uncritically accepted the words of their elders and leaders, trusting them to lead them in good but ending up on the wrong path. They will say on the Day of Judgement, ‘Our Lord, we obeyed our leaders and elders, and they thus led us astray from the path. Our Lord, give them double suffering, and curse them a mighty curse’ [33:67-68].

Case studies

Not only is the Qurʾanic narrative of Islamic nurture one of critical engagement, but classical scholars of the Qurʾān and Sunnah also applied this approach in their own works. Exploring a few case studied by Ibn Kathīr (d. 1373), a classical scholar accepted by all mainstream Muslims, will demonstrate the existence of numerous methods of a critical approach in understanding the sacred scripture of Islam.

1.0  Intra-textual cross-referencing:

It is clear from the above analysis that classical Muslim exegetes engaged with scripture critically. They certainly did not see Islamic nurture – academic or otherwise – to have a character that is not reflective in nature.

2.0 Historical congruence:

The Qurʾān calls for an inquisitive approach to history (Sahin, 2013). After narrating the incident of a certain community being exiled, the Qurʾān urges believers to reflect on the event; it says, ‘So, take a lesson [from the events you experience], O those who [can] observe’ [59:2]. This is the same verse the legal scholars relied on in justification of the usage of analogies and critical thinking to extend rulings into new contexts (Zuḥaylī, 2008). Known for his astute acumen, the erudite scholar Ibn Kathīr demonstrated in his magnum opus a critical reading of the Qurʾān in light of historical data – this time, opposing the status quo.

The Qurʾān makes mention of a tale of the ‘people of the settlement,’ to whom two messengers were sent, who were then joined by a third [36:13-29]. Many exegetes assert that the settlement in reference to this passage was the city of Antioch, and the three apostles sent to them were three disciples of Prophet Jesus – some suggesting they were Simon Peter, John and the controversial Paul (Ibn Kathīr, 1999).

Ibn Kathīr pauses and takes a closer look at the issue: Is this interpretation congruent with what is known of history? Ibn Kathīr, who himself was an accomplished historian, rightly notes that Antioch was among the first townships to accept the message of Christ, along with three others: Jerusalem, Alexandria and Rome. He argues that the Qurʾān could not have been alluding to Antioch in this passage, as it is evident from the end of the story that the town was destroyed, while Antioch had never encountered any such disasters (Ibn Kathīr, 1999).

He makes another observation – that is, if the incident is referring to three Disciples of Christ, it necessarily follows, by greater reasoning, that it was after the revelation of the Torah, as the revelation of the Torah preceded Christ by many centuries. Accordingly, the early Muslims noted that God Almighty had not destroyed any nation in totality after having revealed the Torah, as implied in the verse: ‘And We surely gave Moses the Scripture after We had destroyed the previous nations’ [28:43]. The critical exegete thus concludes that the incident in question cannot be in reference to the city of Antioch (Ibn Kathīr, 1999).

This engagement too exemplifies how classical Muslim historians and exegetes sought congruence between their metaphysical beliefs and the world around them in which they live. Rather than having an uncritical approach to accepting the tradition as granted, erudite historians such as the Damascene Ibn Kathīr did not shy away from reflecting on the verses and critically analyzing them in light of his knowledge of history, even if that led him to challenge the status quo.

Potential objections

1) verses demanding submission.

One could argue that the above case studies are not in line with the basic concept of ‘surrendering’ – the literal meaning of Islam. They could present texts from the Qurʾān itself that negate this type of critical engagement with religious matters, demanding an uncritical acceptance of scripture and law. For example, the Qurʾān says, ‘It does not befit a believing man or woman that, when Allāh and His messenger have decided a matter [for them], they should have any [say] in their matter’ [33:36]. Elsewhere, the Qurʾān remarks, ‘And had they merely said, ‘We hear and we obey,’ […] it would have been better for them and sounder’ [4:46].

An obvious answer to the above would be that the two concepts – namely, a critical or reflective nurture and submission to God – are not mutually exclusive. Rather, one adds nuance to the other. In reality, as is understood from the context, the verses that imply a ‘hear and obey’ narrative are related to specific matters related to rituals and worship – that is, accepting the divine law. They concern not the believers’ spiritual and academic growth (or nurture) but, rather, tests their docility and readiness to submit to the rituals and carry out the worships that God demands of them. Due to the fact that many rulings are super-rational, reflecting on them will not only raise more questions than answers but also be contrary to the spirit of obedience. This is supported by another verse in the Qurʾān: ‘By your Lord, they will not [considered as those who truly] believe until they make you arbitrate between the disputes that arise among them, and then find no hesitation in their hearts with regard to your decision, and [until] they submit a [full] submission’ [4:65)] (Ibn Kathīr, 1999). After all, Islam by definition means to submit one’s self to the Creator (Sahin, 2013).

That the concept of uncritical acceptance is restricted to divine laws and rituals alone is evident from the Qurʾān’s own command of critically analyzing news from fallible human beings. It reads, ‘O you who believe, if a sinner brings you news, ascertain [the truth by verifying or falsifying it], lest you unknowingly wrong others, then regretting what you have done’ [49:6]. This verse offers a compelling case that critical thinking and analysis is to be applied in all aspects of life, bar the context of surrendering to the will of God through worshipping Him and carrying out His rituals. Therefore, it would be incorrect to extend the verses of submission to contexts beyond that of submission and entertain the idea that the character of Islamic nurture is uncritical.

2) The practice of the mystics

Another case could be presented that there have been mystical groups and figures who claimed to possess a high level of esoteric knowledge, which led them to maintain a hostile attitude towards the exoteric sciences, which require a reflective and critical engagement to gain academic growth and spiritual nurture. They, therefore, forbade their followers from reading legal texts and engaging with knowledge – to the extent that they called knowledge a ḥ ij ā b (barrier) from spiritual prosperity (Abū Ghuddah, 2010).

In his critical edition of al-Muḥāsibī’s Ris ā lat al-Mustarshid ī n , ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ Abū Ghuddah (2010) makes a compelling case clarifying that the uninformed mystics have adopted a method that is alien to Islam’s foundational sources of guidance, the Qurʾān and Sunnah. Since the mystics prefer to appeal to human authority rather than reason or scripture, Abū Ghuddah (d. 1997) too appeals to personalities whom all mainstream Muslims accept as authority. He quotes the erudite scholar Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910) as saying, ‘This way of ours is bound by the foundations, the [Qurʾān] and Sunnah. So, whoever has not learnt the Qurʾān, written the Sunnah or studied law is not fit to be followed’ (Abū Ghuddah, 2010). This implies that those who seek nurture through mysticism or esoteric sciences ought to not strip themselves of critical thought. Rather, even practitioners of esoteric sciences and mysticism are required to critically analyze their practices in line with the guidelines of the Qurʾān and Sunnah.

More clearly, however, the Egyptian legal scholar and mystic al-Shaʿrānī (d. 1565) is on record as criticizing such practitioners of mysticism, saying: ‘Be with the law, however that may be, not with inspirations, as they could be mistaken. One should likewise continually read the books of law, contrary to what is done by the pseudo-mystics, for whom a ray of the path has beamed, and so they prohibited the reading of legal texts, saying it is a barrier [to knowledge], out of ignorance’ (Abū Ghuddah, 2010).

It is clear from the above that the mystics were opposed by the mainstream Muslim scholarship with respect to their advocating a lack of critical reflection. Thus, not only did they never reflect the mainstream understanding of Islamic nurture; but the earlier founders of mystical orders like Junayd of Baghdad taught that the character of Islamic nurture ought to be critical and reflective, even in the context of mysticism and esoteric sciences.

Despite academics disagreeing on the character of Islamic nurture, a closer look at the foundations of Islam suggests the matter is nuanced. That is, any type of nurture or growth – whether spiritual, academic or otherwise – is to be critical and objective, as well as reflective and with purpose. This is overwhelmingly supported by numerous verses of the Qurʾān itself, as well as the practice of mainstream Muslim scholarship.

As for the verses that demand total submission, they refer to rituals alone and cannot be extended to other contexts, as is understood from the Qurʾān itself. The verses are also not in contrast with the idea of reflective nurture; rather, once a critical and reflective nurture leads one to believe in the existence of one God and His oneness, it necessarily follows that He is to be worshipped. Moreover, it is the nature of rituals and worships that they are accepted uncritically as law, not because they are void of wisdom but because they are many a times super-rational whose deeper wisdoms cannot be comprehended without further details from the Lawgiver. Further still, Islam by definition means ‘to surrender,’ and so this element cannot be removed from the bigger picture. More importantly, it is not mutually exclusive with the critical and reflective character of Islamic nurture.

Al-Attas, S. N., (1979). The Concept of Education in Islam: a Framework for an Islamic Philosophy of Education . Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC).

Al-Bukhārī, M. I., (2011). Al-J ā mi ʿ al- Ṣ a ḥīḥ . Beirut: Al-Risālah al-ʿĀlamiyyah, ed. Shuʿayb al-Arnaʾūṭ et al.

Al-Ghazālī, A. H., (2016).  Al-Qisṭās al-Mustaqīm . Jeddah: Dār al-Minhāj.

Ibn al-Ḥajjāj, M., (2010). Ṣ a ḥīḥ Muslim . Damascus: Dār al-Fayḥāʾ, ed. Muwaffaq Marʿī.

Ibn Kathīr, A. F., (1999). Tafs ī r al-Qur ʾā n al- ʿ A ẓī m . Riyadh: Dār al-Ṭaybah, ed. Sāmī ibn Muḥammad Salāmah.

Al-Muḥāsibī, H., (2010). Ris ā lat al-Mustarshid ī n . Beirut: Dār al-Bashāʾir al-Islāmiyyah, ed. ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ Abū Ghuddah.

Sahin, A., (2013). New Directions in Islamic Education: Pedagogy & Identity Formation. Markfield: Kube Publishing Ltd.

Al-Zuḥaylī, W., (2008). Al-Wajīz fī Uṣūl al-Fiqh . Damascus: Dār al-Fikr.

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Shaykh Shahin-ur Rahman graduated in 2014 from a traditional Islamic seminary in the UK. In 2021, he completed a master’s degree at the University of Warwick in 2021 in Islamic Education: Theory and Practice. A thinker, educator and writer, he is the founder of Al-Rahma, a daʿwah platform based in his hometown of Northampton. Professionally, the shaykh works as a curriculum writer for a publishing house in London.

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Critical Thinking and Islam

2019, Critical Thinking and Islam

This work is aimed at providing an Islamic perspective on few selected informal logical fallacies. It serves an introduction to the theme of critical thinking and opens ways of reflecting on it, which is the main portion of critical thinking as a subject. Informal logical fallacies are numerous in number and for the sake of convenience they are very often categorized under three classifications: relevance, presumption, and ambiguity. This work discusses few fallacies. The methods applied in this research are descriptive, analytical, conceptual, and critical. In short, in the beginning, the background of the subject and the basic concepts such as argument, fallacy, and critical thinking are briefly mentioned. Subsequently, fallacies are defined, conceptually analyzed, and then appraised according to Islamic perspective.

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