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Home > Developing Self-Reliant Problem Solving Capability

Developing Self-Reliant Problem Solving Capability

22nd February 2024 - David Brunt

In every organization, problems are an inevitable part of daily operations. Whether it’s a hiccup in the production line, a customer complaint, or an unexpected setback, problems arise constantly, demanding attention and resolution. However, how organizations approach and solve these problems can often make the difference between stagnation and growth. In this blog post, we’ll delve into the art and science of problem solving within organizations, exploring common issues and effective strategies for tackling challenges head-on by developing problem solving capability.

The Problem with Problem Solving

Before delving into solutions, let’s address some common issues that plague the problem-solving process in many organizations:

1. Focusing on Certification over Capability

Many organizations prioritize certifications and formal qualifications over actual problem-solving skills. This emphasis on credentials can lead to a workforce ill-equipped to tackle real-world challenges effectively.

2. Overreliance on Tools

Using the same problem-solving tool for every issue is akin to treating every problem as a nail because you only have a hammer. Organizations often fall into the trap of relying solely on one approach, such as A3, without considering whether it’s the most suitable for the problem at hand.

3. Failure to Address Root Causes

Merely containing problems without digging deeper to identify and address root causes is a recipe for recurring issues. Without addressing underlying issues, organizations find themselves grappling with the same problems repeatedly.

4. Neglecting PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act)

Jumping straight to solutions without following a structured problem-solving process like PDCA can lead to ineffective or short-term fixes. Without a systematic approach, organizations risk implementing solutions that fail to address the core issue.

5. Leadership Overload

When leaders attempt to solve every problem themselves, they become overwhelmed and unable to focus on coaching and developing their teams. This reactive approach results in leaders firefighting rather than empowering their teams to tackle challenges autonomously.

6. Lack of Skill and Time

Inadequate problem-solving skills coupled with time constraints can prolong the resolution process, leading to frustration and inefficiency. Understanding problem-solving theory is not enough; individuals must also be able to apply it effectively in real-world situations.

7. Failure to Capture and Visualize Problems

Without a mechanism for capturing and visualizing problems, organizations struggle to prioritize and address issues systematically. This lack of visibility can lead to problems slipping through the cracks and going unresolved.

Four Types of Problems

Not all problems are created equal, and organizations must tailor their approach to the specific type of problem at hand. Art Smalley’s framework categorizes problems into four types:

• Type 1 – Troubleshooting: Addressing unexpected or reactive problems.
• Type 2 – Gap from Standard: Dealing with deviations from established norms or standards.
• Type 3 – Target Condition: Pursuing proactive improvements toward predefined objectives.
• Type 4 – Open-Ended: Tackling complex or novel challenges that defy easy categorization.

Each problem type requires a different approach and level of analysis, from rapid problem solving for straightforward issues to practical problem solving for more complex and strategic challenges. Being aware of the differences enhances problem solving capability.

Problem Solving: Purpose, Process and People

At the heart of effective problem solving lies a clear understanding of its purpose and significance within the organization. Rather than viewing problems as obstacles to be avoided, organizations should recognize them as opportunities for growth and development. Taiichi Ohno’s famous quote, “Having no problems is the biggest problem of all,” underscores the importance of embracing challenges as catalysts for improvement.

By addressing problems systematically, organizations not only enhance their operational efficiency but also foster a culture of continuous learning and development. Moreover, problem solving serves as a vehicle for both organizational and individual growth, enabling employees to acquire new skills and competencies while driving business success.

Process: Key Elements of Problem Solving

Effective problem solving entails several key elements, including:

• Go and See: Proactively seeking out problems and gathering firsthand information to inform decision-making.
• Scientific Approach: Applying a structured and data-driven methodology, such as PDCA, to systematically address problems.
• PDCA Thinking: Embracing a mindset of continuous improvement and iteration to drive organizational learning.
• Ultimate Goal: Maintaining a clear focus on the desired outcomes and objectives of problem-solving efforts.

People: Roles and Responsibilities in Problem Solving

Effective lean problem solving is not solely the responsibility of a select few (that’s a key difference between lean and six sigma) but rather a collective effort that engages individuals at all levels of the organization. By fostering a culture of problem solving and empowerment, organizations can unlock the full potential of their workforce and drive sustainable improvement.

Leaders play a critical role in nurturing problem-solving capabilities throughout the organization, from frontline teams to top executives. By allocating time and resources to coaching and development, leaders can cultivate a cadre of skilled problem solvers capable of driving continuous improvement and innovation.

Rapid Problem Solving Method: A Closer Look

The rapid problem-solving method offers a structured approach to addressing challenges quickly and effectively. With its focus on concern, containment, cause, countermeasure, and check, this method provides a simple yet powerful framework for problem solving at all levels of the organization.

Each step of the rapid problem-solving method serves a specific purpose, from clarifying the problem to identifying root causes, developing countermeasures, and evaluating results. By following this systematic approach, organizations can streamline their problem-solving efforts and achieve sustainable improvements in performance and efficiency.

A Learning Journey: Mastering Problem Solving Skills

Mastering problem-solving skills requires a systematic and iterative approach to learning and development. Organizations can facilitate this process through structured training programs, hands-on exercises, and real-world problem-solving projects.

The RPS Capability Learning Journey developed with Hologic provides an illustration of an integrated approach to developing capability and self-reliance. The “Skill Level 1 – Knowledge” part of the learning process is conducted online using LEA’s Lean Learning Journey platform. “Skill Level 2 – Understanding” is a 4 hour session using a case. This can be carried out onsite or broken into 1 hour sessions online as the case is part of our online learning platform. “Skill Level 3 – Capable” uses remote group coaching sessions, working on real business problems. The process used is shown in the table below:

We shared the process during the Lean Global Connection event in November 2023. Here is a level 3 report out showing a real problem that was solved while teaching the RPS process.

Finally a co-hort of the people that progressed through levels 1 to 3 go on to develop the ability to teach and coach their colleagues. This results in the organisation developing self-reliance to use the process internally themselves.

By providing employees with the tools, resources, and support they need to excel in problem solving, organizations can foster a culture of continuous improvement and innovation. From online courses to live coaching sessions and interactive workshops, there are myriad opportunities for individuals to enhance their problem-solving capabilities and drive organizational success.

Effective problem solving is not just a technical skill but a mindset and a culture that permeates every level of an organization. By adopting a structured approach to problem solving capability, nurturing problem-solving capabilities, and providing ongoing support and development, organizations can unlock new opportunities for growth, innovation, and success.

In today’s fast-paced and dynamic business environment, the ability to solve problems quickly and effectively is more critical than ever. By mastering the art and science of problem solving, organizations can navigate challenges with confidence and emerge stronger and more resilient than ever before.

You can learn how several organisations are developing problem solving capability at our UK Lean Summit in April.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, a problem-solving process for developing capabilities: the case of an established firm.

European Journal of Innovation Management

ISSN : 1460-1060

Article publication date: 20 September 2019

Issue publication date: 15 June 2020

Current research has theorized that developing dynamic capability can be viewed as a problem-finding and problem-solving process in terms of a firm’s resource reconfiguration. However, there continues to be a scarcity of empirical research on how firms and managers solve innovation problems to develop capabilities. Building on the theoretical lens of problem-solving perspective (PSP) and dynamic capability literature, the purpose of this paper is to address this gap by examining how a large automobile company developed different types of capabilities (combining capability, replacing capability and evolving capability) and their underlying problem-solving processes.

Design/methodology/approach

An inductive multi-case design was used to investigate the problem-solving process in different types of capability development in the context of NPD. This methodology has a number of benefits, including accommodation of the rich data used to compare the inferences among cases, thus enabling researchers to extend the emergent theory.

The findings of a multi-case study show that managers tend to direct their attentions to searching for solutions among external resources when the problem is framed as a combination of existing capabilities. Conversely, managers direct their attention to facilitating organizational learning when the problem is framed as an extension of an existing capability. However, managers need to direct more attention to gaining legitimacy when the problem is framed as a replacement of existing capabilities. The findings thus respond to increasing calls for more investigations into the microfoundations underlying firms’ capabilities, by revealing different instances of PSP, and their connections with different actions that take to capability development.

Originality/value

By comparatively examining the unique problem-solving process underlying an established firm’s innovative challenges in developing capabilities, the findings identify different instances of PSP, and their connections with different actions that take to capability development. Thus, the findings respond to increasing calls for more investigation into the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities for organizational outcomes. The findings also add to the new product development literature by examining how a product innovation can be framed differently depending on the attributes of an innovation problem. As PSP is particularly useful in offering guidance to firms’ innovative search, it is important for managers to pay attention to the attribute of each product and its domain of solution in considering the effectiveness of value creation.

• Dynamic capability
• New product development
• Problem solving

Shu, E.(E). (2020), "A problem-solving process for developing capabilities: the case of an established firm", European Journal of Innovation Management , Vol. 23 No. 4, pp. 713-727. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJIM-12-2018-0262

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

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Developing problem solving and other general capabilities: What will it take and how can we be sure of success?

Research output : Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Chapter › peer-review

Again, we see a renewed effort to implement generic skills, this time called “General Capabilities”, and specified as a component of the Australian Curriculum. Although not explicitly so-named, key elements of problem solving are present, especially within the “Critical and Creative Thinking (CCT)” capability. Previous efforts to implement generic skills in Australia have been unsuccessful. This chapter reviews reasons for the failure of previous generic skills schemes; describes and analyses CCT as a capability, with the expectation of finding a sound conceptual basis for it; and aims to demonstrate the continuing relevance of problem solving as a general capability, considering evidence of the deployment of General Capabilities in occupations, with a focus on elements of problem solving while acknowledging that such skills are not solely deployed in work contexts. It proposes a set of characteristics of effective implementation that would ensure General Capabilities are understood consistently, developed (taught and learned), assessed, and their achievement reported and recognised beyond schools. It concludes with a proposal to implement the General Capabilities in schools, based on the problem-solving and assessment literature, and to evaluate that implementation.

• General Capabilities
• Australian Curriculum
• Critical and Creative Thinking (CCT)

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• 10.4324/9780429400902-6 Licence: In Copyright

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• Problem Social Sciences 100%
• Creative Thinking Psychology 100%
• Critical Thinking Psychology 100%
• Australians Agricultural and Biological Sciences 100%
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T1 - Developing problem solving and other general capabilities

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N2 - Again, we see a renewed effort to implement generic skills, this time called “General Capabilities”, and specified as a component of the Australian Curriculum. Although not explicitly so-named, key elements of problem solving are present, especially within the “Critical and Creative Thinking (CCT)” capability. Previous efforts to implement generic skills in Australia have been unsuccessful. This chapter reviews reasons for the failure of previous generic skills schemes; describes and analyses CCT as a capability, with the expectation of finding a sound conceptual basis for it; and aims to demonstrate the continuing relevance of problem solving as a general capability, considering evidence of the deployment of General Capabilities in occupations, with a focus on elements of problem solving while acknowledging that such skills are not solely deployed in work contexts. It proposes a set of characteristics of effective implementation that would ensure General Capabilities are understood consistently, developed (taught and learned), assessed, and their achievement reported and recognised beyond schools. It concludes with a proposal to implement the General Capabilities in schools, based on the problem-solving and assessment literature, and to evaluate that implementation.

AB - Again, we see a renewed effort to implement generic skills, this time called “General Capabilities”, and specified as a component of the Australian Curriculum. Although not explicitly so-named, key elements of problem solving are present, especially within the “Critical and Creative Thinking (CCT)” capability. Previous efforts to implement generic skills in Australia have been unsuccessful. This chapter reviews reasons for the failure of previous generic skills schemes; describes and analyses CCT as a capability, with the expectation of finding a sound conceptual basis for it; and aims to demonstrate the continuing relevance of problem solving as a general capability, considering evidence of the deployment of General Capabilities in occupations, with a focus on elements of problem solving while acknowledging that such skills are not solely deployed in work contexts. It proposes a set of characteristics of effective implementation that would ensure General Capabilities are understood consistently, developed (taught and learned), assessed, and their achievement reported and recognised beyond schools. It concludes with a proposal to implement the General Capabilities in schools, based on the problem-solving and assessment literature, and to evaluate that implementation.

KW - General Capabilities

KW - Australian Curriculum

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U2 - 10.4324/9780429400902-6

DO - 10.4324/9780429400902-6

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A2 - Askell-Williams, Helen

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A New Layered Model on Emotional Intelligence

Athanasios s. drigas.

1 Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Greece

Chara Papoutsi

2 Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, NCSR Demokritos, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Greece; [email protected]

Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been an important and controversial topic during the last few decades. Its significance and its correlation with many domains of life has made it the subject of expert study. EI is the rudder for feeling, thinking, learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. In this article, we present an emotional–cognitive based approach to the process of gaining emotional intelligence and thus, we suggest a nine-layer pyramid of emotional intelligence and the gradual development to reach the top of EI.

1. Introduction

Many people misinterpret their own emotional reactions, fail to control emotional outbursts, or act strangely under various pressures, resulting in harmful consequences to themselves, others, and society. Other people have a greater ability to perform sophisticated information processing about emotions and emotion-relevant stimuli and to use this information as a guide for their own thoughts and behaviors and for others, in general [ 1 ].

Emotional intelligence (EI) is of great interest to scientists and researchers. Studies, from the past till today, continue to be made about the nature of emotional intelligence, its measurement, its structure, its positive and negative effects, and its relationship to many research fields [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Its influence on daily life in the short and long-term is important as well.

Intellectual ability is significant to succeed in everyday life within many different sectors [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Intelligence is an important aspect of the mind that includes a lot of cognitive abilities such as one’s abilities in logic, planning, problem-solving, adaptation, abstract thinking, understanding of ideas, language use, and learning [ 13 , 14 ]. However, there are some other important components that contribute to the aforementioned success including social capabilities, emotional adaptation, emotional sensitivity, empathy, practical intelligence, and incentives [ 15 , 16 ]. EI also focuses on the character and aspects of self-control, such as the ability to delay pleasures, the tolerance to frustrations, and the regulation of impulses (ego strength) [ 17 ]. Emotional intelligence also speaks to many areas of the psychological sciences—for example, the neuroscience of emotion, the theory of self-regulation, and metacognition—as well as the search for human cognitive abilities beyond what is traditionally known as academic intelligence [ 18 , 19 ].

In this paper, we are going to present the most discussed theories of intelligence, of emotions, and of emotional intelligence. We then present the construction of a 9-layer model (pyramid) of emotional intelligence which aims to show the levels a human must pass in order to reach the upper level of EI—emotional unity. The stratification of the pyramid of emotional intelligence is in tune with the pyramid of the functions of general intelligence [ 20 ].

2. Research Findings

2.1. theories of intelligence.

The structure, nature, and characteristics of human intelligence have been discussed and have been the subject of debate since the time of Plato and Aristotle, at least a thousand years ago. Plato defined intelligence as a “learning tune” [ 21 , 22 ]. Under this concept, Plato and Aristotle put forth the three components of mind and soul: intellect, sentiment, and will [ 23 ]. The word “intelligence” comes from two Latin words: intellegentia and ingenium. The first word, considered in the way Cicero used the term, means “understanding” and “knowledge”. The second word means “natural predisposition” or “ability” [ 24 ].

At various points in recent history, researchers have proposed different definitions to explain the nature of intelligence [ 22 ]. The following are some of the most important theories of intelligence that have emerged over the last 100 years.

Charles Spearman [ 25 ] developed the theory of the two factors of intelligence using data factor analysis (a statistical method) to show that the positive correlations between mental examinations resulted from a common underlying agent. Spearman suggested that the two-factor theory had two components. The first was general intelligence, g , which affected one’s performance in all mental tasks and supported all intellectual tasks and intellectual abilities [ 25 , 26 ]. Spearman believed that the results in all trials correlated positively, underlying the importance of general intelligence [ 25 , 27 ]. The second agent Spearman found was the specific factor, s . The specific factor was associated with any unique capabilities that a particular test required, so it differed from test to test [ 25 , 26 ]. Regarding g , Spearman saw that individuals had more or less general intelligence, while s varied from person to person in a job [ 28 ]. Spearman and his followers gave much more importance to general intelligence than to the specific agent [ 25 , 29 ].

In 1938, American psychologist Louis L. Thurstone suggested that intelligence was not a general factor, but a small set of independent factors that were of equal importance. Thurstone formulated a model of intelligence that centered on “Primary Mental Abilities” (PMAs), which were independent groups of intelligence that different individuals possessed in varying degrees. To detect these abilities, Thurstone and his wife, Thelma, thought up of a total of 56 exams. They passed the test bundle to 240 students and analyzed the scores obtained from the tests with new methods of Thurstone’s method of analysis. Thurstone recognized seven primary cognitive abilities: (1) verbal understanding, the ability to understand the notions of words; (2) verbal flexibility, the speed with which verbal material is handled, such as in the production of rhymes; (3) number, the arithmetic capacity; (4) memory, the ability to remember words, letters, numbers, and images; (5) perceptual speed, the ability to quickly discern and distinguish visual details, and the ability to perceive the similarities and the differences between displayed objects; (6) inductive reasoning, the extraction of general ideas and rules from specific information; and (7) spatial visualization, the ability to visualize with the mind and handle objects in three dimensions [ 30 , 31 ].

Joy Paul Guilford extended Thurstone’s work and devoted his life to create the model for the structure of intelligence. SI (Structure of Intellect theory, 1955) contains three dimensions: thought functions, thought content, and thought products. Guilford described 120 different kinds of intelligence and 150 possible combinations. He also discovered the important distinction between convergent and divergent thought. The convergent ability results in how well one follows the instructions, adheres to rules, and tries. The divergent ability decreases depending on whether or not one follows the instructions or if one has a lot of questions, and it usually means that one is doing the standard tests badly [ 32 , 33 ].

The Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc and the Carroll Three-Stratum models are consensual psychometric models that help us understand the construction of human intelligence. They apply new methods of analysis and according to these analyses, there are two basic types of general intelligence: fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). Fluid intelligence represents the biological basis of intelligence. How fast someone thinks and how well they remember are elements of fluid intelligence. These figures increase in adulthood but as we grow older they decrease. Fluid intelligence enables a person to think and act quickly, to solve new problems, and to encode short-term memories. Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, is the knowledge and skills acquired through the learning process and through experience. Crystallized abilities come from learning and reading and are reflected in knowledge trials, general information, language use (vocabulary), and a wide variety of skills. As long as learning opportunities are available, crystallized intelligence may increase indefinitely during a person’s life [ 14 , 34 ].

In the 1980s, the American psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed an intelligence theory with which he tried to extend the traditional notion of intelligence. Sternberg observed that the mental tests that people are subjected to for various intelligence measurements are often inaccurate and sometimes inadequate to predict the actual performance or success. There are people who do well on the tests but not so well in real situations. Likewise, the opposite occurred as well. According to Sternberg’s triarchic (three-part) theory of intelligence, intelligence consists of three main parts: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. Analytical intelligence refers to problem-solving skills, creative intelligence includes the ability to handle new situations using past experiences and current skills, and practical intelligence refers to the ability to adapt to new situations and environments [ 35 , 36 ].

In 1983, psychologist Howard Gardner introduced his theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI), which, at that time, was a fundamental issue in education and a controversial topic among psychologists. According to Gardner, the notion of intelligence as defined through the various mental tests was limited and did not depict the real dimensions of intelligence nor all the areas in which a person can excel and succeed. Gardner argued that there is not only one kind of general intelligence, but rather that there are multiple intelligences and each one is part of an independent system in the brain. The theory outlines eight types of “smart”: Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”), Logical–mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”), Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”), Bodily–Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”), Musical intelligence (“music smart”), Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”), Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”), and Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”) [ 37 , 38 ].

2.2. Emotions

According to Darwin, all people, irrespective of their race or culture, express emotions using their face and body with a similar way as part of our evolutionary heritage [ 39 , 40 ]. Emotion is often defined as a complex feeling which results in physical and psychological changes affecting thought and behavior. Emotions include feeling, thought, nervous system activation, physiological changes, and behavioral changes such as facial expressions. Emotions seem to dominate many aspects of our lives as we have to recognize and to respond to important events related to survival and/or the maintenance of prosperity and, therefore, emotions serve various functions [ 41 ]. Emotions are also recognized as one of the three or four fundamental categories of mental operations. These categories include motivation, emotion, cognition, and consciousness [ 42 ]. Most major theories of emotion agree that cognitive processes are a very important source of emotions and that feelings comprise a powerful motivational system that significantly influences perception, cognition, confrontation, and creativity [ 43 ]. Researchers have been studying how and why people feel emotion for a long time so various theories have been proposed. These include evolutionary theories [ 44 , 45 ], the James-Lange Theory [ 46 , 47 ], the Cannon-Bard Theory [ 48 ], Schacter and Singer’s two-factor theory [ 49 , 50 ], and cognitive appraisal [ 51 ].

2.3. Emotional Intelligence

Anyone can become angry-that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the right way-this is not easy. —Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics

Thorough research has indicated the important role that emotions play in our lives in many fields [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 ]. Researchers have found that Emotional Intelligence is equal to or sometimes much more important than I.Q [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. Emotion and intelligence are heavily linked [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. If you are aware of your own and others’ feelings, this will help you manage behaviors and relationships and predict success in many sectors [ 64 , 65 , 66 ].

Emotional Intelligence is the ability to identify, understand, and use emotions positively to manage anxiety, communicate well, empathize, overcome issues, solve problems, and manage conflicts. According to the Ability EI model, it is the perception, evaluation, and management of emotions in yourself and others [ 67 ]. Emotional Intelligence (EI), or the ability to perceive, use, understand, and regulate emotions, is a relatively new concept that attempts to connect both emotion and cognition [ 68 ].

Emotional Intelligence first appeared in the concept of Thorndike’s “social intelligence” in 1920 and later from the psychologist Howard Gardner who, in 1983, recommended the theory of multiple intelligence, arguing that intelligence includes eight forms. American psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer, who together introduced the concept in 1990 [ 69 ], define emotional intelligence “as the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions”. People who have developed their emotional intelligence have the ability to use their emotions to direct thoughts and behavior and to understand their own feelings and others’ feelings accurately. Daniel Goleman, an American writer, psychologist, and science journalist, disclosed the EI concept in his book named “Emotional Intelligence” [ 58 , 59 , 60 ]. He extended the concept to include general social competence. Goleman suggested that EI is indispensable for the success of one’s life.

Mayer and Salovey suggested that EI is a cognitive ability, which is separate but also associated with general intelligence. Specifically, Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios [ 70 ] suggested that emotional intelligence consists of four skill dimensions: (1) perceiving emotion (i.e., the ability to detect emotions in faces, pictures, music, etc.); (2) facilitating thought with emotion (i.e., the ability to harness emotional information in one’s thinking); (3) understanding emotions (i.e., the ability to understand emotional information); and (4) managing emotions (i.e., the ability to manage emotions for personal and interpersonal development). These skills are arranged hierarchically so that the perceptual emotion has a key role facilitating thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions. These branches are arising from higher order basic skills, which are evolved as a person matures [ 67 , 71 ].

According to Bar-On emotional-social intelligence is composed of emotional and social abilities, skills and facilitators. All these elements are interrelated and work together. They play a key role in how effectively we understand ourselves and others, how easily we express ourselves, but also in how we deal with daily demands [ 72 ].

Daniel Goleman (1998) defines Emotional Intelligence/Quotient as the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to handle our emotions well to have the best for ourselves and for our relationships. Emotional Intelligence describes capacities different from, but supplementary to, academic intelligence. The same author introduced the concept of emotional intelligence and pointed out that it is composed of twenty-five elements which were subsequently compiled into five clusters: Self Awareness, Self-Regulation, Motivation, Empathy, and Social Skills [ 61 , 73 ].

Petrides and Furnham (2001) developed the Trait Emotional Intelligence model which is a combination of emotionally-related self-perceived abilities and moods that are found at the lowest levels of personality hierarchy and are evaluated through questionnaires and rating scales [ 74 ]. The trait EI essentially concerns our perceptions of our inner emotional world. An alternative tag for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy. People with high EI rankings believe that they are “in touch” with their feelings and can regulate them in a way that promotes prosperity. These people may enjoy higher levels of happiness. The trait EI feature sampling domain aims to provide complete coverage of emotional aspects of personality. Trait EI rejects the idea that emotions can be artificially objectified in order to be graded accurately along the IQ lines [ 75 ]. The adult sampling domain of trait EI contains 15 facets: Adaptability, Assertiveness, Emotion perception (self and others), Emotion expression, Emotion management (others’), Emotion regulation, Impulsiveness (low), Relationships, Self-esteem, Self-motivation, Social awareness, Stress management, Trait empathy, Trait happiness, and Trait optimism [ 76 ].

Research on emotional intelligence has been divided into two distinct areas of perspectives in terms of conceptualizing emotional competencies and their measurements. There is the ability EI model [ 77 ] and the trait EI [ 74 ]. Research evidence has consistently supported this distinction by revealing low correlations between the two [ 64 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 ].

EI refers to a set of emotional abilities that are supposed to foretell success in the real world above and beyond general intelligence [ 82 , 83 ]. Some findings have shown that high EI leads to better social relationships for children [ 84 ], better social relations for adults [ 85 ], and more positive perception of individuals from others [ 85 ]. High EI appears to influence familial relationships, intimate relationships [ 86 ], and academic achievement positively [ 87 , 88 ]. Furthermore, EI consistently seems to predict better social relations during work performance and in negotiations [ 89 , 90 ] and a better psychological well-being [ 91 ].

3. The Pyramid of Emotional Intelligence: The Nine-Layer Model

Τaking into consideration all the theories of the past concerning pyramids and layer models dealing with EI, we analyze the levels of our pyramid step by step ( Figure 1 ), their characteristics, and the course of their development so as to conquer the upper levels, transcendence and emotional unity, as well as pointing out the significance of EI. Our model includes features from both constructions (the Ability EI and the Trait EI model) in a more hierarchical structure. The ability level refers to awareness (self and social) and to management. The level of trait refers to the mood associated with emotions and the tendency to behave in a certain way in emotional states considering other important elements that this construction includes as well. The EI pyramid is also based on the concepts of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences of Gardner [ 92 , 93 ].

The emotional intelligence pyramid (9-layer model).

3.1. Emotional Stimuli

Every day we receive a lot of information-stimuli from our environment. We need to incorporate this information and the various stimuli into categories because they help us to understand the world and the people that surround us better [ 94 ]. The direct stimulus of emotions is the result of the sensorial stimulus processing by the cognitive mechanisms [ 95 , 96 , 97 ]. When an event occurs, sensorial stimuli are received by the agent. The cognitive mechanisms process this stimulus and produce the emotional stimuli for each of the emotions that will be affected [ 98 ]. Emotional stimuli are processed by a cognitive mechanism that determines what emotion to feel and subsequently produce an emotional reaction which may influence the occurrence of the behavior. Emotional stimuli are generally prioritized in perception, are detected more quickly, and gain access to conscious awareness [ 99 , 100 ]. The emotional stimuli constitute the base of the pyramid of emotional intelligence pointing to the upper levels of it.

3.2. Emotion Recognition

The next level of the pyramid after the emotional stimuli is the recognition of emotions simultaneously expressed at times. Accuracy is higher when emotions are both expressed and recognized. Emotion recognition includes the ability to accurately decode the expressions of others’ feelings, usually transmitted through non-verbal channels (i.e., the face, body, and voice). This ability is positively linked to social ability and interaction, as non-verbal behavior is a reliable source of information on the emotional states of others [ 101 ]. Elfenbein and Ambady commented that emotion recognition is the most “reliably validated component of emotional intelligence” linked to a variety of positive organizational outcomes [ 102 ]. The ability to express and recognize emotions in others is an important part of the daily human interaction and interpersonal relationships as it is a representation of a critical component of human socio-cognitive capacities [ 103 ].

3.3. Self-Awareness

Socrates mentions in his guiding principle, “know thyself”. Aristotle also mentioned “knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom”. These two ancient Greek aphorisms encompass the concept of self-awareness, a cognitive capacity, which is the following step in our pyramid after having conquered the previous two. Self-Awareness is having a clear perception of your personality, including your strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motives, and feelings [ 104 ]. As you develop self-awareness, you are able to change your thoughts which, in turn, allow you to change your emotions and eventually change your actions. Crisp and Turner [ 105 ] described self-awareness as a psychological situation in which people know their traits, feelings, and behaviors. Alternatively, it can be defined as the realization of oneself as an individual entity. Developing self-awareness is the first step to develop your EI. The lack of self-awareness in terms of understanding ourselves and having a sense of ourselves that has roots in our own values impedes our ability to self-manage and it is difficult, if not impossible, to know and to respond to the others’ feelings [ 61 ]. Daniel Goleman [ 106 , 107 ] recognized self-awareness as emotional consciousness, accurate self-esteem, and self-confidence. Knowing yourself means having the ability to understand your feelings, having an accurate self-assessment of your own strengths and weaknesses, and showing self-confidence. According to Goleman, self-awareness must be ahead of social awareness, self-management, and relationship management which are important factors of EI.

3.4. Self-Management

Once you have clarified your emotions and the way they can affect the situations and other people, you are ready to move to the EQ area of self-management. Self-management allows you to control your reactions so that you are not driven by impulsive behaviors and feelings. With self-management, you become more flexible, more extroverted, and receptive, and at the same time less critical on situations and less reactionary to people’s attitudes. Moreover, you know more about what to do. When you have recognized your feelings and have accepted them, you are then able to manage them much better. The more you learn on the way to manage your emotions, the greater your ability will be to articulate them in a productive way when need be [ 108 ]. This does not mean that you must crush your negative emotions, but if you realize them, you can amend your behavior and make small or big changes to the way you react and manage your feelings even if the latter is negative. The second emotional intelligence (EQ) quadrant of self-management consists of nine key components: (1) emotional self-control; (2) integrity; (3) innovation and creativity; (4) initiative and prejudice to action; (5) resilience; (6) achievement guide; (7) stress management; (8) realistic optimism and (9) intentionality [ 80 , 106 , 107 , 109 ].

3.5. Social Awareness—Empathy—The Discrimination of Emotions

Since you have cultivated the ability to understand and control your own emotions, you are ready to move on to the next step of recognizing and understanding the emotions of people around you. Self-Management is a prerequisite for Social-Awareness. It is an expansion of your emotional awareness. Social Awareness refers to the way people handle relationships and awareness of others’ feelings, needs, and concerns [ 110 ]. The Social Awareness cluster contains three competencies: Empathy, Organizational Awareness, Service Orientation [ 107 ]. Being socially aware means that you understand how you react to different social situations, and effectively modify your interactions with other people so that you achieve the best results. Empathy is the most important and essential EQ component of social awareness and is directly related to self-awareness. It is the ability to put oneself in another’s place (or “shoes”), to understand him as a person, to feel him and to take into account this perspective related to this person or with any person at a time. With empathy, we can understand the feelings and thoughts of others from their own perspective and have an active role in their concerns [ 111 ]. The net result of social awareness is the ongoing development of social skills and a personal continuous improvement process [ 107 , 112 , 113 ]. Discrimination of emotions belongs to that level of the pyramid because it is a rather intellectual ability that gives people the capacity to discriminate with accuracy between different emotions and label them appropriately. The latter in relation to the other cognitive functions contributes to guide thinking and behavior [ 77 ].

3.6. Social Skills—Expertise

After having developed social awareness, the next level in the pyramid of emotional intelligence that helps raising our EQ is that of social skills. In emotional intelligence, the term social skills refers to the skills needed to handle and influence other people’s emotions effectively to manage interactions successfully. These abilities range from being able to tune into another person’s feelings and understand how they feel and think about things, to be a great collaborator and team player, to expertise at emotions of others and at negotiations. It is all about the ability to get the best out of others, to inspire and to influence them, to communicate and to build bonds with them, and to help them change, grow, develop, and resolve conflict [ 114 , 115 , 116 ]. Social skills under the branch of emotional intelligence can include Influence, Leadership, Developing Others, Communication, Change Catalyst, Conflict Management, Building Bonds, Teamwork, and Collaboration [ 61 ]. Expertise in emotions could be characterized as the ability to increase sensitivity to emotional parameters and the ability not only to accurately determine the relevance of emotional dynamics to negotiation but also the ability to strategically expose the emotions of the individual and respond to emotions stemming from others [ 117 ].

3.7. Self-Actualization—Universality of Emotions

As soon as all six of these levels have been met, the individual has reached the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; Self-Actualization. Every person is capable and must have the will to move up to the level of self-actualization. Self-Actualization, according to Maslow [ 118 , 119 , 120 ], is the realization of personal potential, self-fulfillment, pursuing personal development and peak experiences. It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming, rather than a perfect state one reaches such as a ‘happy ever after” [ 121 ]. Carl Rogers [ 122 , 123 ] also created a theory that included a “growth potential” whose purpose was to incorporate in the same way the “real self” and the “ideal self”, thereby cultivating the appearance of the “fully functioning person”. Self-actualization is one of the most important EI skills. It is a measure of your sense that you have a substantial personal commitment to life and that you are offering the gifts to your world that are most important for you. Reuven Bar-On [ 124 ] illustrates the close relationship between emotional intelligence and self-actualization. His research led him to conclude that “you can actualize your potential capacity for personal growth only after you are socially and emotionally effective in meeting your needs and dealing with life in general”. Self-actualizers feel empathy and kinship towards humanity as a whole and therefore, that cultivates the universality of emotions, so that those they have emotional intelligence in one culture probably have emotional intelligence in another culture too and they have the ability to understand the difference of emotions and their meanings despite the fact that sometimes emotions are culturally dependent [ 125 , 126 ].

3.8. Transcendence

Maslow also proposed that people who have reached self-actualization will sometimes experience a state he referred to as “transcendence”. In the level of Transcendence, one helps others to self-actualize, find self-fulfillment, and realize their potential [ 127 , 128 ]. The emotional quotient is strong and those who have reached that level try to help other people understand and manage their own and others’ emotions too. Transcendence refers to the much higher and more comprehensive or holistic levels of human consciousness, by behaving and associating, as ends rather than as means, to ourselves, to important others, to human in general, to other species, to nature, and to the world [ 129 ]. Transcendence is strongly correlated with self-esteem, emotional well-being and global empathy. Self-transcendence is the experience of seeing yourself and the world in a way that is not impeded by the limits of one’s ego identity. It involves an increased sense of meaning and relevance to others and to the world [ 130 , 131 ]. In his perception of transcendence Plato affirmed the existence of absolute goodness that he characterized as something that cannot be described and it is only known through intuition. His ideas are divine objects that are transcendent of the world. Plato also speaks of gods, of God, of the cosmos, of the human soul, and of that which is real in material things as transcendental [ 132 ]. Self-transcendence can be expressed in various ways, behaviors and perspectives like the exchange of wisdom and emotions with others, the integration of physical/natural changes of aging, the acceptance of death as part of life, the interest in helping others and learning about the world, the ability to leave your losses behind, and the finding of spiritual significance in life [ 133 ].

3.9. Emotional Unity

Emotional unity is the final level in our pyramid of emotional intelligence. It is an intentionally positive oriented dynamic, in a sense that it aims towards reaching and keeping a dominance of emotions, which inform the subject that he or she is controlling the situation or the setting in an accepted shape. This reached level of emotional unity in the subject can be interpreted as an outcome of emotional intelligence [ 134 ]. The emotional unity is an internal harmony. In emotional unity one feels intense joy, peace, prosperity, and a consciousness of ultimate truth and the unity of all things. In a symbiotic world, what you do for yourself, you ultimately do for another. It all starts with our love for ourselves, so that we can then channel this important feeling to everything that exists around us [ 135 ]. Not only in human beings, but also in animals, plants, oceans, rocks, and so forth. All it takes is to see the spark of life and miracle in everything and be more optimistic. The point is that somehow, we are all interconnected, and the more we delve deeper our heart and follow it, the less likely it will be for us to do things that can harm others or the planet in general [ 136 ]. The others are not separate from us. Emotional unity emanates humility and empathy that bears with the imperfections of the other. Plato in Parmenides also talks about unity [ 137 ], Being, and One. As Parmenides writes: “Being is ungenerated and indestructible, whole, of one kind and unwavering, and complete. Nor was it, nor will it be, since now it is, all together, one, continuous…” [ 138 , 139 ].

4. Cognitive and Metacognitive Processes in the Emotional Intelligence Pyramid

Cognition encompasses processes such as attention, memory, evaluation, problem-solving language, and perception [ 140 , 141 ]. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge. Metacognition is defined as the ability to monitor and reflect upon one’s own performance and capabilities [ 142 , 143 ]. It is the ability of individuals to know their own cognitive functions in order to monitor and to control their learning process [ 144 , 145 ]. The idea of meta-cognition relies on the distinction between two types of cognitions: primary and secondary [ 146 ]. Metacognition includes a variety of elements and skills such as Metamemory, Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Self-Monitoring [ 144 , 147 ].

Metacognition in Emotional Intelligence means that an individual perceives his/her emotional skills [ 148 , 149 ]. Its processes involve emotional-cognitive strategies such as awareness, monitoring, and self-regulation [ 150 ]. Apart from the primary emotion, a person can experience direct thoughts that accompany this emotion as people may have additional cognitive functions that monitor a given emotional situation [ 151 ], they may evaluate the relationship between emotion and judgment [ 152 ], and they may try to manage their emotional reaction [ 153 ] for the improvement of their own personality and that will motivate them to help other people for better interpersonal interactions. Applying the meta-knowledge to socio-emotional contexts should lead to the opportunity to learn to correct one’s emotional errors and to promote the future possibility of a proper response to the situation while maintaining and cultivating the relationship [ 154 ].

In the pyramid of Emotional Intelligence, to move from one layer to another, cognitive and metacognitive processes are occurred ( Figure 2 ).

The cognitive and metacognitive processes to move from a layer to another.

5. Discussion & Conclusions

Emotional Intelligence is a very important concept that has come back to the fore in the last decades and has been the subject of serious discussions and studies by many experts. The importance of general intelligence is neither underestimated nor changed, and this has been proven through many surveys and studies.

On the other hand, however, we must also give emotional intelligence the place it deserves. The cultivation of emotional intelligence can contribute to and provide many positive benefits to people’s lives in accordance with studies, surveys, and with what has been already mentioned. When it comes to happiness and success in life, emotional intelligence (EQ) matters just as much as intellectual ability (IQ) [ 60 ]. Furthermore, it should be noted that despite the various discussions about emotional intelligence, studies have shown that emotional abilities that make up emotional intelligence are very important for the personal and social functioning of humans [ 83 ]. A core network of brain regions such as the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex is the key to a range of emotional abilities and plays a crucial role for human lesions [ 155 ]. Specific Emotional Intelligence components (Understanding Emotions and Managing Emotions) are directly related to the structural microarchitecture of major axial pathways [ 156 ].

With emotional intelligence you acknowledge, accept, and control your emotions and emotional reactions as well as those of other people. You learn about yourself and move on to the understanding of other people’s self. You learn to coexist better, which is very important since we are not alone in this world and because when we want to advance ourselves, and society as a whole, there must be cooperation and harmony. With emotional intelligence, you learn to insist, to control your impulses, to survive despite adversities and difficulties, to hope for and to have empathy. Emotional Intelligence provides you with a better inner world to cope with the outside world according to Trait EI [ 157 ]. It involves and engages higher cognitive functions such as attention, memory, regulation, reasoning, awareness, monitoring, and decision-making. The results show that negative mood and anticipated fear are two factors of the relationship between trait EI and risk-taking in decision-making processes among adults [ 158 ]. Research has also shown this positive correlation between emotional intelligence and cognitive processes and this demonstrates the important role that emotional intelligence plays with emotion and cognition, thus, empowering individuals and their personality and benefitting the whole society [ 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 ].

Αs we rise through the levels of the pyramid of emotional intelligence that we have presented, we step closer to its development to the fullest extent, to the universality of emotions, to emotional unity. The human being is good at trying to reach the last level of the pyramid because at each level he cultivates significant emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive skills that are important resources for the successes in one’s personal life, professional life, interpersonal relationships, and in life in general.

Emotional intelligence is a skill that can be learned and developed [ 165 , 166 ]. The model of emotional intelligence has been created with a better distinct classification. It is a more structured evaluation and intervention model with hierarchical levels to indicate each level of emotional intelligence that everyone is at and with operating procedures to contribute to the strengthening of that level and progressive development of the individual to the next levels of emotional intelligence. It is a methodology for the further development and evolution of the individual. This model can have practical applications as an evaluation, assessment, and training tool in any aspect of life such as interpersonal relationships, work, health, special education, general education, and academic success. Researchers claim that an emotional mind is important for a good life as much as an intelligent mind and, in certain cases, it matters more [ 167 ]. The ultimate goal should be to develop Emotional Intelligence, do further research on the benefits of such an important capacity and the correlations between the layered Emotional Intelligence model and other variables.

In this paper, we presented the pyramid of Emotional Intelligence as an attempt to create a new layer model based on emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive skills. In essence, each higher level of the pyramid is an improvement toward one’s personal growth and a higher state of self-regulation, self-organization, awareness, consciousness, attention, and motivation.

Author Contributions

A.S.D. and C.P. contributed equally in the conception, development, writing, editing, and analysis of this manuscript. The authors approved the final draft of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Mathematics Anxiety and Problem-Solving Proficiency Among High School Students: Unraveling the Complex Interplay in the Knowledge Economy

• Published: 15 April 2024

Cite this article

• Yali Zhu 1 ,
• Xinran Liu 1 ,
• Yana Xiao 1 &
• Stavros Sindakis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3542-364X 2  

In the context of the knowledge-based economy, the intricate relationship between mathematics anxiety and problem-solving abilities among high school students in China is examined. This research uncovers the pervasive nature of mathematics anxiety, influenced primarily by external factors such as parental expectations, shedding light on the sources of anxiety. Additionally, it highlights the multifaceted nature of problem-solving skills among students, emphasizing their confidence in comprehending mathematical problems but challenges in applying effective problem-solving strategies. The study provides empirical evidence of a significant negative correlation between mathematics anxiety and problem-solving ability, underscoring the detrimental impact of anxiety on cognitive processes, including working memory and metacognition, essential for effective problem solving. Theoretical implications encompass a deeper understanding of the dynamics between mathematics anxiety and problem-solving skills, contributing to educational psychology and curriculum development. Policy implications call for immediate attention to address mathematics anxiety within educational reforms, advocating for comprehensive strategies that alleviate anxiety while enhancing problem-solving skills. Furthermore, this research highlights the importance of gender-inclusive approaches to anxiety in mathematics. This study enriches our theoretical understanding and underscores the urgency of holistic approaches to address mathematics anxiety and nurture problem-solving skills among high school students, empowering them to excel in the knowledge-based economy and shape a brighter future.

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This study was financially supported by the Research on the Evaluation Effect of Hybrid Training for Rural Teachers in China, 2019JSJYZD-010, and the 2021 Henan Province Teacher Education Curriculum Reform Project “Research on the Reform of Economics Curriculum for Ideological and Political Majors from the Perspective of Practical Transformation” (2021-JSJYZD-011).

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Zhu, Y., Liu, X., Xiao, Y. et al. Mathematics Anxiety and Problem-Solving Proficiency Among High School Students: Unraveling the Complex Interplay in the Knowledge Economy. J Knowl Econ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-023-01688-w

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-023-01688-w

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Bridging the labor mismatch in US construction

The US construction sector seems set for a jobs boom. The US Bipartisan Infrastructure Law  projects $550 billion of new infrastructure investment over the next decade, which our modeling suggests could create 3.2 million new jobs across the nonresidential construction value chain. That’s approximately a 30 percent increase in the overall US nonresidential construction workforce, which would mean 300,000 to 600,000 new workers entering the sector—every year.

This is a big ask for an industry that is already struggling to find the people it needs. In October 2021, 402,000 construction positions 1 Included both nonresidential and residential construction openings. Further granularity is not available from the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. remained unfilled at the end of the month, the second-highest level recorded since data collection began in December 2000.

In this environment, wages have already increased significantly since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, reflecting intense competition for employees, with employers offering higher pay or other nonwage benefits. Between December 2019 and 2021, construction wages grew by 7.9 percent. 2 Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages, US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Competition from other sectors for the same pool of labor is heating up, too. For example, over the same period, transportation and warehousing wages grew by 12.6 percent. The prospect of higher pay and better working conditions is already tempting experienced workers away from construction and into these and other sectors.

No end in sight

Today’s mismatches are likely to persist because of structural shifts in the labor market. The relationship between job openings and unemployment has departed from historical trends. In January 2022—two years from the start of the pandemic—the US unemployment rate stood at 4.0 percent, close to its prepandemic level of 3.5 percent. Job openings remained exceptionally high, however, with 10.9 million unfilled positions as of the end of December 2021, compared with 5.9 million in December 2019.

This labor supply imbalance has multiple root causes, some shorter term and cyclical while others are more structural in nature. For example, the pandemic brought forward the retirements of many in the baby-boomer generation, with an estimated 3.2 million leaving the workforce in 2020—over a million more than in any year before 2016. According to the American Opportunity Survey , among those who are unemployed, concerns about physical health, mental health, and lack of childcare remain the dominant impediments preventing reentry into the workforce. Research on the “Great Attrition/Great Attraction”  also highlights the importance of nonwage components of the employee value proposition. Record job openings and quit rates highlight employees’ growing emphasis on feeling valued by their organization, supportive management, and flexibility and autonomy at work.

Additionally, the pipeline of new construction workers is not flowing as freely as it once did. Training programs have been slow to restart operations after pandemic-driven safety concerns led to their suspension the spring of 2020. The industry is finding it more difficult to attract the international workforce that has been an important source of talent for engineering, design, and contracting activities. Net migration has been falling since 2016, a trend accelerated by COVID-19 travel restrictions. 3 Population estimates, US Census Bureau. Between 2016 and 2021, net migration declined steadily from 1.06 million to 244,000.

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Impact on projects.

The interconnected nature of the construction value chain means that the labor mismatch generates knock-on effects across the project life cycle and supply chain. By late 2021, project owners were reporting that up to 25 percent of material deliveries to sites were either late or incomplete. In project execution, the combination of higher hourly rates, premiums and incentives, and overtime payments was resulting in overall labor costs as much as double prepandemic levels. Meanwhile, difficulty accessing skilled and experienced people was leading some owners to report project delays related to issues around the quality and productivity of on-site work.

In some US cities and their suburbs, wage growth has surpassed the level seen in core Gulf Coast counties at the height of the shale oil boom. Labor shortages in the shale sector drove wages up by 5 to 10 percent and were correlated with steep drops in productivity. The productivity of some tasks fell by 40 percent or more during shale construction peaks (exhibit), and overall productivity declined by about 40 percent per year when labor was in short supply. This forced owners to extend project timelines by 20 to 25 percent. The impact of a long-term, nationwide labor mismatch might be even more severe than the shale industry’s experience, given that oil companies were able to attract new workers from around the country.

Getting back into balance

The labor mismatch in the construction sector is bad today, and set to get worse. To avoid a decade or more of rising costs, falling productivity, and ever-increasing project delays, companies in the industry should consider thoughtful actions now.

Those actions could address three components of the challenge. First, companies could do everything possible to maximize productivity through measures aimed at improving efficiency across the value chain. Second, they could expand the pool of available labor by doubling down on accessing diverse talent and working harder to retain the employees already in their organization. Finally, they could consider making labor a strategic priority, with senior leadership attention within companies.

Improving construction productivity

Companies could access a range of levers to reduce the labor content required per job and drive to improve productivity in project development and delivery. Those levers involve changes to project designs and fresh thinking about when, where, and how work is done.

Improvements in productivity occur long before work starts on the ground. They include rigorous control of project scope, design simplification, and standardization. Increasing the use of off-site and modular construction , for example, could allow projects to capture multiple benefits, including accelerated design cycles; the greater productivity associated with industrialized, factory floor manufacturing techniques; automation; and less time spent on site.

Smarter execution management, enabled by digital technologies and analytics techniques could drive better, faster decision making during project delivery. Real-time data collection, for example, gives project managers earlier, more detailed insights about progress, allowing them to intervene more effectively to maintain productivity and keep projects on track. Intelligent simulation software allows teams to evaluate hundreds of thousands of possible critical paths, identifying approaches that could be more efficient or less risky than the conventional wisdom.

Lean construction is another proven way to drive significant and sustainable productivity improvements. Establishing a centralized, continuous improvement engine could enhance on-site execution through integrated planning, performance management, and waste elimination. Key stakeholders across the project work with a common, agreed set of key performance indicators. That allows them to address issues in real time and facilitates collaboration to reduce waste and variability work. Capability building across the planning and construction teams could help team members understand and adopt lean construction practices.

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Reimagining talent.

To ensure access to the skills they need, construction sector companies can accelerate the onboarding of recruits, boost retention by revisiting what employees want beyond wages, and invest more in developing their pipelines of future workers.

In the near term, employers could prioritize review of job applications and reduce the number of steps in both the interview and onboarding process. In the medium term, both the public and private sectors could look to reduce hiring timelines and shift to a skills-based approach when hiring.

In the medium term, retaining current staff and attracting new talent will both turn on understanding of what employees value beyond wages. Competitive wages are now table stakes, so employees are thinking about a broader set of benefits and workplace characteristics when making decisions about where to work. Research on attrition in the postpandemic workplace  has shown that they are placing more emphasis on autonomy, flexibility, support, and upward mobility.

In the longer term, the construction industry can consider a new approach to talent attraction, development, and retention. Talent acquisition could begin early, through partnerships with educational institutions including universities, colleges, and high schools. These partnerships could boost awareness of the possibilities of a career in the sector and ensure future employees have appropriate skills prior to onboarding.

Companies could also look more widely for potential recruits, considering individuals who have taken alternative educational paths, such as technical degrees or hands-on experience. The Rework America Alliance , a Markle-led coalition in which McKinsey is a partner, illustrates the importance of skills-based, rather than credential-based, hiring. A skills-based perspective  is key to tapping into the talents of the 106 million workers who have built capabilities through experience but whose talents are often unrecognized because they don’t have a four-year college degree. A skills-based approach could be complemented by reimagining apprenticeships to bring younger students and vocational talent into the industry at an earlier stage in their careers.

Employers could consider working with a range of nontraditional sources of talent, including veteran-transition programs, formerly incarcerated individuals, and others. Homeboy Industries provides an example of the local impact, effectiveness, and potential of working with often overlooked population segments. Moreover, identifying and attracting talent from outside the traditional paths used by the construction industry could also help it to increase the diversity of its workforce. Today, 88 percent of the sector’s workforce is White and 89 percent is male. 4 Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey Database, US Bureau of Labor Statistics, accessed March 10, 2022.

Looking at labor through a strategic lens

Labor and skills shortages have the potential to slow growth and erode profitability across the construction value chain. For C-suites, there’s no other single issue that could protect against significant cost erosion. Companies could consider establishing a systematic talent acquisition and retention program, led by a C-level executive and a core part of the CEO agenda. That program could first be tasked with building a robust fact base on current and emerging labor needs and availability gaps. It could then identify a bold set of initiatives that address labor-related issues across the value chain. This exercise starts in the boardroom, but it doesn’t stop there. Leadership will likely need to be increasingly present in the field and on the job site too, celebrating and recognizing top talent throughout the organization.

The labor challenge extends well beyond corporate boundaries. Since the successful delivery of a project could be jeopardized by labor shortages in a single value-chain participant, project owners and contractors may want to adapt the structure of project relationships and contracts. Moving away from traditional contracting methods to collaborative contracts , for example, allows participants to share market risks and opportunities as a project evolves, rather than baking in worst-case estimates at the outset of negotiations.

The US construction sector is poised to revitalize, replace, and expand the country’s infrastructure. Done right, that will power inclusive growth and set up the economy for success in the 21st century. To do so, the sector will need to address its labor challenges. That calls for the application of a diverse set of tools and approaches to create better jobs, get the most out of its people, and optimize agility and collaboration across the value chain.

Garo Hovnanian is a partner in McKinsey’s Philadelphia office, Ryan Luby is a senior knowledge expert in the New York office, and Shannon Peloquin is a partner in the Bay Area office.

The authors wish to thank Tim Bacon, Luis Campos, Roberto Charron, Justin Dahl, Rebecca de Sa, Bonnie Dowling, Bryan Hancock, Rawad Hasrouni, Adi Kumar, Jonathan Law, Michael Neary, Nikhil Patel, Gaby Pierre, Jose Maria Quiros, Kurt Schoeffler, Shubham Singhal, Stephanie Stefanski, Jennifer Volz, and Jonathan Ward for their contributions to this article.

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