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NIOS 2023 Subjects for Class 10

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How to Upload Nios Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) File Online 2023

Buy Nios Solved Assignment 2022-23 For All Subjects. NIOS SOLVED TMA (Tutor Mark Assignment) 2022 Solved Assignment for 2022-23 academic season. all Subjects for Nios Stream 1 (Block 1 & 2) Secondary (10th)/Senior Secondary (12th) class student in pdf E-Copy.

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NIOS Class 12th Library and Information Science (339) English Medium Solved Assignment (TMA) 2022-23 | Nios 12th Information library Solved Tma

Library & Information Science (339)

 tutor marked assignment, 20% marks of theory.

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Note:-  If you want Solved Assignment PDF and Handwritten Scanned Assignment Click On WhatsApp Button

1. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words.

(a) Visit online Dr. Zakir Husain Library (Jamia Milla Islamia University), and  Pharmacy Library Hamdard University (a special library). Compare and present the  services of the university library with the special library?

(b) “By using Integrated Library Management Software (1LMS), cataloguing activities  produce an electronic catalogue.” Examine the statement in the context of Online  Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)?

2. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words.

(a) Visit the website of National Digital Library of India ( ndl.iitkgp.ac.in ). Search for  information related to NDLI Club, and write in brief

(b) INFLIBNET, an example of institutional repository, is a web-based database of  scholarly material. Visit the website of INFLIBNET Shodhganga  (shodhganga inflibnet.ac.in ), and write about its chief responsibilities.

3. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words.

(a) India 2021: A Reference Annual is a comprehensive digest of the country’s progress  in different fields. Look up the e-book version from  t he http://www.publicationsdivision.nic.in , and write the various areas covered by this  book. 

(b) ‘In this digital age, library professionals can no longer be simply information  providers or keepers of knowledge’. In this context, how would you show that  technology is changing the role of library professionals?

4. Answer anyone of the following questions in 100-150 words.

(a) Establish the need, and advantages of full-text databases. Visit  at http://www.cabi.org , or www.ncbi.nlm.gov/pubmed , and demonstrate the services  provided by any one of the organizations.

(b) Visit any library, and select any 10 books. Examine the books, and 

(i)  Note their Call numbers and identify main classes from these Call numbers.

(ii) Prepare their Catalogue cards (main entry and added entries) and identity and  write down Author, Title, Editor, Subject, Publisher, Place and Year of  publication from these cards. 

5. Answer any one of the following questions in 100-150 words.

(a) Visit the website of National Library of India ( nationallibrary.gov.in ). Write about the  information with regard to category of resources, catalogue, and digital collection?

(b) Visit the Library, and Documentation Centre of the Indian Council of Historical

Research ( ichr.ac.in ). Search for details related to Web OPAC of ICHR, and explain?

6. Prepare any one project as given below in about 500 words.

(a) Make a list of 20 different reference sources like Dictionaries, Encyclopedias  Yearbooks, Manuals, Directories etc. available in NIOS Library or any other library  with a brief description. The description should include information given in the main  entry of catalogue, introduction of the source, form (whether printed or digital), and  arrangement of information within the source. Each category should not include more  than 5 resources.

(b) Visit the website of Central Library, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi  ( library.iitd.ac.in ). Search and write about the collection, rules, Web OPAC, and v arious services including outreach programmes.

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NIOS SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2022-23 - DOWNLOAD PDF AND GET HANDWRITTEN

NIOS SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2022-23 - DOWNLOAD PDF , Nios Solved Assignments 2022-23 FOR ALL SUBJECTS  Get the Latest - NIOS Solved Assignments 2022-23 for 10th and 12th class. Download NIOS Class 12 Solved assignments for session 2022-23. All senior secondary solved assignments are available for download in pdf format. Subjects for NIOS class 12 solved assignments are Hindi English Urdu Sanskrit Mathematics Physics Chemistry Biology History Geography Political Science Economics Business Studies Accountancy Home Science Psychology  Computer Science Sociology Painting Environmental Science Mass Communication Data Entry Operations Tourism Introduction to Law Information and Library Science Arabic Parsian. The procedure and link for downloading the assignments are given below.

NIOS SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2022-23

Solved PDF & Handwritten Hardcopy

WhatsApp- 8130208920

NIOS SOLVED Secondary Assignments - 2022-23

Hindi (201) 

English (202) 

Mathematics (211) 

Science and Technology (212)

Social science (213) 

Economics (214) 

Business Studies (215) 

Home Science (216) 

Psychology (222) 

Indian Culture and Heritage (223) 

Accountancy (224)  

Painting (225)  

Data Entry Operations (229) 

Sanskrit (209) 

Urdu (206) 

Arabic (235)  

Persian (236)  

Hindustani Music (242) 

Carnatic Music (243) 

Veda Adhyayan (245) 

Sanskrit Vyakarana (246) 

Bharatiya Darshan (247)

Sanskrit Sahitya (248) 

Sindhi 238 

ENTREPRENEURSHIP (249) 

Bengali (203) 

Assamese 228 

Kannada 208 

Nepali 231 

Odia 233 

Tamil 237 

Malayalam 232 

Telugu 205 

Gujrati 207 

Marthi 214  

Punjabi 210

NIOS SOLVED Senior Secondary Assignments - 2022-23

• TMA Initial Pages 
• Hindi-301 
• Geography-316
• Political_Science 317
• Economics-318
• Business Studies-319
• Accountancy - 320
• History - 315
• Psychlogy - 328
• Computer_Science - 330
• Sociology - 331
• Painting - 332
• English - 302
• Environmental Science - 333
• Mass_Communication - 335
• Data_Entry_Operations - 336
• Tourism - 337
• Introduction_to_Law - 338
• Library and Science Information - 339 
• Arabic - 341
• Persian -342
• Veda adhyan - 345
• Sanskrit Vyakaran - 346
• Bhartiya Darshan - 347
• Sanskrit Sahitya - 348
• Physical_Education_Yoga - 379
• Military_Studies - 374
• Military_Histroy - 375
• Sanskrit - 309
• Mathematics - 311
• Physics -312
• Chemistry - 313
• Biology - 314
• Home Science - 321
• Bengali 303
• Malayalam 343 
• Odia 305 
• Gujrati 307 
• Tamil 304 
• Punjabi 310   
• Sindhi 344 

1) Standard Answer format is provided.

2) Assignments are prepared by qualified learners/teachers.

4) Solutions are for your reference, Please try to make your own answers taking help from these.

Key Points:

1) Answers are accurate and to the point.

2) Answers are in English(Students who have chosen Hindi medium can also submit assignments in English).

3) Answer files are in PDF format.

Q. What is the last date of TMA submission NIOS 2022?

Notification -03/2022 dt.31.01.2022 regarding the last date for submission of TMA by the learners through online or offline has been extended up to 15th Feb,2022 without late fee. Notification 27/2021 dt.

Q. What is TMA marks in NIOS?

Internal Assessment (IA) including Tutor Marked Assessment (TMA) in Secondary and Senior Secondary Examinations will carry 20% weightage in the External Examination and the marks will be shown separately and added to the marks obtained in the External Theory Examination and Practicals (wherever applicable).

Q. What is the last date of NIOS assignment submission?

It is informed to the students of NIOS that the last date for submission of NIOS TMA for April 2023 exam is 31-01-2023 and October exam is 31-07-2023 (2022-23), so students have to submit NIOS TMA before the due date.

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J.P Institute of Education Provide Best NIOS TMA Solution for 10th & 12th class. Nios solved TMA Assignment available in Hindi & English medium of all subjects. There are 6 question in tma solution available Interested Learner’s can purchase Nios solved tma for october 2024 exam session. Nios Learner’s have to submit their tutor marks assignment (TMA) in Before 31st July 2024. and Learner’s will tma assignment marks by aug-sep month. J.P Institute of Education helps to Nios Learner’s for making TMA assignment and Practical files provide best solution and proper Guidance.

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NIOS SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2023-24

by Team Guffo · Published 2022 · Updated 2024

DOWNLOAD HERE NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) ASSIGNMENT 2023 AND ALSO check out NIOS SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2023-24 GUIDELINES.  यहाँ NIOS ASSIGNMENT 2024 डाउनलोड करें और इसके अलावा NIOS SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2024 की GUIDELINES भी देखें । यह स्कूल ऑफ ओपन लर्निंग, दिल्ली विश्वविद्यालय के छात्रों के लिए है, जिन्होंने वर्ष 2023 में प्रवेश लिया है और माननीय उच्च न्यायालय के निर्देशानुसार उनकी परीक्षा II सेमेस्टर परीक्षाओं के साथ आयोजित की जा रही है।

Note : (i) All questions are compulsory. The Marks allotted for the respective questions are mentioned against each question (ii) Write your name, enrollment numbers, name, and subject on the first page of the answer sheet.

IMPORTANT GUIDELINES FOR HOW TO MAKE NIOS SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2023-24- 

Before attempting the questions please read the following instructions carefully. As in day-to-day life, planning is important in attempting the assignment as well. Read the assignment carefully; go through the units on which the questions are based; jot down some points regarding each question and then re-arrange them in a logical order. In the essay-type answer, pay attention to your introduction and conclusion. The introduction must tell you how to interpret the given topic and how you propose to develop it. The conclusion must summarize your views on the topic. Once you are satisfied with your answers, you can write down the final version for submission, writing each answer neatly and underlining the points you wish to emphasize. You should submit the assignment in your own handwriting.

Make sure that your answer: a) is logical b) is written in simple and correct English c) does not exceed the number of words indicated in your questions d) is written neatly and clearly

Nios Secondary Syllabus, important question and answer

Hindi (201) important question and answer.

• पाठ 1 – ‘बहादुर’
• पाठ 2 – दोहे
• पाठ 3 - कहानी का शीर्षक: गिल्लू
• पाठ 4 -आह्वान कविता से संबंधित महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न व उत्तर - CLICK HERE
• पाठ 5 – राबर्ट नर्सिंग होम मैं (रेपोतार्ज)
• पाठ 6 भारत की ये बहादुर बेटियाँ
• पाठ 7 – आजादी
• पाठ 8 - चंद्र गहना से लौटती बेर कविता का सारांश व महत्वपूर्ण प्रश्न Click Here
• पाठ 12 – इसे जगाओ
• पाठ 13 - सुखी राजकुमार महत्वपूर्ण  प्रश्न CLICK HERE
• पाठ -17 ‘बीती विभावरी जाग री’ कविता Part1 | Part 2
• पाठ-20 -‘उनको प्रणाम’ कविता

English (202) important question and answer

• Lesson 2 HOW THE SQUIRREL GOT HIS STRIPES
• Lesson 4 TALL TREES
• Lesson – 7 THE SHOESHINE
• Lesson 11 MY ELDER BROTHER
• Lesson 15 MY VISION FOR INDIA
• Lesson 17 CARING FOR OTHERS
• Lesson 18 THE LITTLE GIRL
• lesson 21 THE VILLAGE PHARMACY
• CHAPTER 22 : THE TRUTH
• CHAPTER 24 – Co-operate and Prosper
• Lesson 25 ONCE UPON A TIME

Mathematics (211) important question and answer

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NIOS Psychology 328 Free Solved Assignment [TMA] 2022 – 23 (English Medium)

Nios free solved assignment  [tma] 2022 – 2023, psychology 328 free solved assignment [tma] 2022 – 23, tutor marked assignment, max. marks: 20.

(i) All questions are compulsory. The marks allotted for each question are given beside the questions.

(ii) Write your name, enrollment numbers, Al name, and subject on the first page of the answer sheet

1. Answer any one of the following questions about 40-60 words.       2

(a) There are a major psychological perspectives given in your SLM. After reading these perspectives, select one perspective that you find most applicable. Support your choice with appropriate reasons.      (See Lesson-1)

Ans: Answer any one question

(b) Psychologists use a variety of tools to collect relevant data, such as-questionnaires, and Interview Schedules, psychometric tests, and projective tests. Explain how psychometric tests differ from projective tests.      (See Lesson-2)

Ans: Psychometric Tests: As a learner of psychology it is essential to be familiar with intelligence tests, personality tests, aptitude tests, interest inventories and many other similar psychological tools. They provide measurement of individual differences.

Projective Tests/Techniques: This includes a variety of tasks which are unstructured or ambiguous. The performance of a person on these tasks cannot be used in any direct manner. The performance is viewed as projection of the psychological attribute under consideration.

2. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words.        2

(a) Humans possess different sense organs which help us collect information from the external world. Similarly, when you are eating any kind of food, which senses are working in the foreground? Explain.      (See Lesson-4)

(b) One of your friend, Manyam, feels she has a good memory. She wants to test her memory. Suggest different tests of retention that you can use to measure memory.      (See Lesson-7)

Ans: The measurement of memory is undertaken with the help of two types of measures i.e. explicit and implicit. The explicit measures require that a person must remember some given information that is stored in memory. The person makes deliberate efforts to recall the details of the previously experienced events or material. Thusa direct measure of memory is used. The implicit measure of memory is one in which a person has to perform some task in which no deliberate or intentional effort is made to retrieve from memory.

Explicit measures include recall and recognition.

Implicit measures include word completion and priming task.

3. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words:        2

(a) In your opinion, can our language affect our thought process? Justify your answers with suitable examples.      (See Lesson-8)

(b) Explain Spearman’s G factor theory using the following diagram:     (See Lesson-15)

Ans: The g factor, where g stands for general intelligence, is a statistic used in psychometrics in an attempt to quantify the mental ability underlying results of various tests of cognitive ability. The existence of such an underlying g factor was postulated in 1904 by Charles Spearman.

Spearman proposed that we possess one general intelligence factor (g) and many specific factors (s) which are specific to particular abilities. The g factor runs across all types of abilities. It is expressed in the ability to understand abstract relations.

4. Answer any one of the following questions in about 100-150 words:         4

(a) There are multiple factors of intelligence. Identify and give example for each factor from your daily life.      (See Lesson-15)

(b) A psychologist says that they follow a humanistic perspective of psychology. What are the assumptions that can be formulated by the given information? Support your answer with reasons.  (See Lesson-18)

Ans: These theories propose that within each individual is an active creative force, often called “self”. This force seeks expression. It develops and grows. This perspective, also known as the third force, emphasizes on human potential and characteristics like self-awareness and free will. It views human beings as innately good. The conscious and subjective perception of self is considered very important. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the main proponents of the humanistic perspective. Abraham Maslow proposed the idea of self-actualized people.

Maslow Abraham proposed his theory in the 1940s. This theory, popularly known as the Hierarchy of Needs assumes that people are motivated to satisfy five levels of needs: physiological, security, belongingness, esteem and self-actualization needs. The figure 9.1 shows Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Maslow suggested that the five levels of needs are arranged in accordance with their importance, starting from the bottom of the hierarchy. An individual is motivated first and foremost to satisfy physiological needs. When these needs are satisfied, he is motivated and ‘moves up’ the hierarchy to satisfy security needs. This ‘moving up process continues until the individual reaches the self-actualization level.

a) Physiological needs: Physiological needs represent the basic issues of survival such as food, water and air. In organisational settings, most physiological needs are satisfied by adequate wages and by the work environment itself, which provides employees with rest rooms, adequate lighting, comfortable temperatures and ventilation.

b) Security or safety needs: Security or safety needs refer to the requirements for a secure physical and emotional environment. Examples include the desire for adequate housing and clothing, the need to be free from worry about money and job security and the desire for safe working conditions.

c) Social needs: Belonging or social needs are related to the, social aspect of human life. They include the need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by one’s peers.

d) Esteem needs: Esteem needs actually comprise of two different sets of needs:

i. The need for a positive self-image and self-respect.

ii. The need for recognition and respect from others.

e) Self-actualization needs: At the top of the hierarchy are those needs, which Maslow defines the self-actualization needs. These needs involve realizing one’s potential for continued: growth and individual development.

5. Answer any one of the following questions in about 100-150 words            4

(a) Discuss the four stages of group development. Try to identify at least two of these stages in your daily life groups.      (See Lesson-21)

Ans: Bruce Tuckman identified four distinct phases of team development: forming, storming, norming, and performing.

1. Forming: At this point, the creation of a new group begins, with members meeting and getting to know one another through interactions. Individuals are interested and eager to learn more about the task’s scope and possible approaches. Individuals generally arrive with a desire to be accepted by others and to avoid controversy or conflict.

2. Storming: After the shaping stage, the individuals will begin to interact with one another in the context of the work at hand. At this point, there will be the most friction and competitiveness among the group members.

3. Norming: Once the roles of each team member, as well as their authority and responsibilities, have been clarified, the team members begin to settle into a group. Everyone here works together to achieve the goal and respects each other’s expertise and abilities.

4. Performing: At this level, the team members develop a synergy in which everyone works together to achieve a common goal. Flexibility and interdependence define this level. The team members are so familiar with one another that they can manage any difficult challenge that comes their way.

(b) Individual development is unique, but there are certain principles of development which can observed in human beings. Describe principles of development using examples. Explain the importance of these principles, and their application in our world.      (See Lesson-11)

6. Prepare any one project out of the given below:         6

a) A mental awareness programme is being organized in your village town/city. You have to give speech on “Health Promoting behaviors” in this programme. Prepare detailed speech on the given topic that people find it easy, understand it or understandable, and apply in their daily life.    (See Lesson-25)

Ans: Simple Steps To Get All the Assignments

1. Simply Pay Rs. 80 Inclusive of taxes through the following Link

2. Download DTS Mobile Application

3. Go to NIOS Solved Assignment (TMA) to Access all the assignments

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b) Self-esteem is evaluative component of self-concept. Collect information on the understanding of word “self-esteem” by conducting interviews with at least six friends or family members. Write report by comparing the collected information to the definition provided in text.      (See Lesson-16)

So, Finally you reached the end of the post. Hope you like Psychology 328 Free Solved Assignment [TMA] 2022-23 . You will solved assignment of other subjects in our page nios solved assignment 202-23 . Visit Official website of NIOS for details about assignment.

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Hollywood movies, nios economics 318 free solved assignment [tma] 2022 – 23 (english medium).

NIOS FREE SOLVED ASSIGNMENT  [TMA] 2022 – 2023

Economics 318 free solved assignment [tma] 2022 – 23, tutor marked assignment, max. marks: 20.

(i) All questions are compulsory. The marks allotted for each question are given beside the questions.

(ii) Write your name, enrollment numbers, AI name, and subject on the top of the first page of the answer sheet.

1. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words.        2

a) “Indian economy is known as developing economy on the map of world economy”. Suggest some effective measures to make our economy as a developed economy.        (See Lesson-1)

Ans: Indian economy is known as developing economy on the map of world economy. But to make our country we have to take several steps:

1. Reducing poverty and increasing GDP by modernizing our agricultural system.

2. Encourage Foreign investment in various sectors of the economy especially banking and financial sector.

3. Encourage innovation and entrepreneurship through various EDP programmes. It can create many jobs in our country and reduces the problem of unemployment.

4. Reducing social and economical inequalities.

b) After independence the strategy of industrialization was implemented in order to address the problem related to poverty, unemployment, economic growth, self –reliance, etc. In the light of the statement list four strategies to solve these problems during planning period.         (See Lesson-2)

Ans: Answer any one

2. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words.             2

a) Primary data is the one, which is collected by the investigator himself for a specific inquiry or study. As you know there are many ways to collect primary data. Based the above statement, list out methods of collecting data and explain any of them.      (See Lesson-6)

Ans:  Methods of Collecting Primary Data: Following are the important methods of collecting primary data:

(a) Observation Method.

(i) Structured and Unstructured Observation.

(ii) Participant and Non-Participant Observations.

(iii) Controlled and Uncontrolled Observations.

(b) Interview Method.

(i) Personal Interview.

(ii) Telephone Interview.

(c) Questionnaire Method.

(d) Schedule Method.

Questionnaire Method:  In this method a list of questions pertaining to the survey is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for answers.    A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and send it back within a specified time.    This method is adapted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by govt.

b) The following are the marks (out of 100) of 60 students in mathematics: (See Lesson-6)

55, 26, 95, 31, 07, 78, 92, 62, 52, 56, 15, 63, 25, 36, 54, 44, 47, 27, 72, 16,

13, 5, 80, 86, 07, 51, 48, 24, 56, 70, 19, 61, 17, 16, 36, 34, 42, 34, 35, 72,

55, 75, 31, 52, 28, 72, 97, 74, 45, 62, 68, 86, 35, 85, 36, 81, 75, 04, 24, 30.

Construct a grouped frequency distribution table with a width 10 of each class.

3. Answer any one of the following questions in about 40-60 words.                   2

a) Make a brief description of some effective programmers, and policies introduced by the government to reduce the extent of poverty, and unemployment from our country at the beginning of 21st century.     (See Lesson-4)

Ans: Poverty refers to a state in which an individual is unable to fulfill even the basic necessities of life.

Unemployment: It means when a person is ready and willing to work at the prevailing rate of wage but does not get work.

Some of the policies introduced by the government to reduce the extent of poverty, and unemployment from our country at the beginning of 21st century:

1.  Prime minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY).

2.  Swarna Jayanthi Shahri Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY).

3.  Swarna Jayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY).

4.  Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY).

5.  National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005.

6.  Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY).

7.  Atal Pension Yojana.

8.  Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana.

9.  Ayushman Bharat Yojana.

10.  Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY).

b) “Excessive use of resources has given birth to the concept of sustainable development”. Justify the statement with a suitable illustration.        (See Lesson-3)

4. Answer any one of the following questions in about 100-150 words. Word limit is not applicable for numerical questions.

(a) Construct a frequency polygon and histogram from the data given below; (See Lesson-6)

b) Suppose you are a student of class XII of a co-educational senior secondary school. You will get the board exam from the Faculty of Science, Arts, and Commerce, for the display board of the school. The duty is assigned to prepare a tabular presentation of the passing students. List the factors that you will keep in mind while preparing a tabular presentation, and also prepare a sample table.      (See Lesson-7)

Ans: I am a student of class 12. This year I am going to appear in final exam. All the streams are studied in our school. I have been assigned a duty to present the percentage of passing students in tabular form. But while preparing table, there are many factors which is required to be kept in mind.

Key points to be taken into consideration while preparing table:

Tabulation refers to the systematic arrangement of the information in rows and columns. Rows are the horizontal arrangement. In simple words, tabulation is a layout of figures in rectangular form with appropriate headings to explain different rows and columns. The main purpose of the table is to simplify the presentation and to facilitate comparisons.

The following points to be taken into consideration while preparing table:

(i) To make complex data simple: When data are arranged systematically in a table, such data become more meaningful and can be easily understood.

(ii) To facilitate comparison: When different data sets are presented in tables it becomes possible to compare them.

(iii) To economize space: A statistical table furnishes maximum information relating to the study in minimum space.

(iv) To make data fit for analysis and interpretation.

(v) To provide reference: A statistical table can be used as a source of reference for other studies of similar nature.

Sample table is given below

5. Answer any one of the following question in about 100 to 150 words. Word limit is not applicable for numerical question.

a) “All macroeconomic studies can help in better understanding, and analysis of micro economic variables. The study of the two branches differs in one way or the other, which also provides an important basis for understanding the concept of economics”. Explain the following concepts on the basis of the statement:

(i) Interdependence of micro, and macroeconomics with suitable illustration.

(ii) Differences between micro, and macroeconomics.

(iii) Significance of micro, and macroeconomics.        (See Lesson-12)

(i) Interdependence of Microeconomics and Macroeconomics

Both Microeconomics and Macroeconomics are interdependent. Microeconomics is not always restricted to individual units and also Macroeconomics deals with aggregate at smaller level. The interdependence between the two can be studied in the following ways:

1. Microeconomics Depends on Macroeconomics: Micro-variables depend on behaviour of macro-variables i.e., decisions at micro level depend on decision taken at macro level. For example, Increase in overall tax rate would influence an individual decision to buy a T.V. set as its price goes up.

2. Macroeconomics depends on Microeconomics: Macro-variables depend on micro-economic variables i.e., decisions at macro level depend on decision at micro level. For example, Aggregate demand depends on the demand of individual households of the economy.

(ii) Difference between Micro and Macroeconomics:

a) Micro economics studies individual economic units whereas macroeconomics is concerned with economy as a whole.

b) The word micro has been derived from the Greek word micros which means small. On the other hand, macroeconomics is also derived from the Greek word macros which means large.

c) Micro economics was developed by classical and neo-classical economist Adam Smith and Alfred Marshall. Macroeconomics was developed by modern economist J.M. Keynes.

d) Micro economics is known as Price theory because it helps in determination of price on the basis of individual demand and supply. Macroeconomics is known as aggregate theory because it helps in determination of income and employment with help of aggregate demand and supply.

e) Microeconomics is concerned with allocation of resources whereas macroeconomics is concerned with the full utilization of resources.

(iii) Importance of Macroeconomics

Prof. J.K. Mehta feels that so long as men live in society, the economist cannot afford to neglect the study of macro-economy. The theoretical and the practical importance of macroeconomics would be clear from the following arguments:

1. Functioning of an Economy: Macroeconomic analysis is a paramount importance in getting us an idea of the functioning of an economic system. It is very essential for a proper and accurate knowledge of the behaviour pattern of the aggregative variables, as the description of a large and complex economic system is impossible in terms of numerous individual items.

2. Formulation of Economic Policies: Macroeconomics is a great help in the formulation of economic policies. The days of ‘Iaissez faire’ are over and government intervention in economic matters is an accomplished fact. Governments deals not with individuals but with groups and masses of individuals, thereby establishing the importance of macroeconomic studies.

3. Understanding Microeconomics: The study of macroeconomics is essential for the proper understanding of microeconomics. No micro economic law could be framed without a prior study of the aggregates; for example, the theory of individual firm could not have been formulated with reference to the behaviour pattern of one single firm, howsoever representative it might have been; the theory was possible only after the behaviour pattern of several firms had been examined and analysed.

b) Raj Pandey spends some part of his income on the purchase of apples and oranges. He buys different combinations of apples and oranges to achieve the same level of satisfaction. He knows the price of apples and oranges. He decides logically to buy different combinations of fruits according to the total amount, and price. Explain the following based on the above given information

1) Prepare imaginary schedule for indifference curve.

2) Graphical presentation for indifference curve.

3) Concept of Marginal Rate of substitution.

4) Properties of Indifference curve        (See Lesson-14)

6. Prepare any one project out of the given below.

a) Visit any manufacturing unit in your area. Collect information related to the production process of the unit. Prepare project work on “Return to Factor” which is an important law of production, and makes it one of the important components of economic study. Include the following topics in the project as a result of the factor

(i) Factors of production to utilized.

(ii) Variable factors.

(iii) Fixed factors.

(iv) Total/Average/Marginal productivity.

(v) Graphical presentation of law of variable proportion, and stages of production.

(vi) Stage to be preferred by manufacturer to produce goods, and services.

After completion of the project prepare five questions based on the project for better understanding. (See Lesson-17)

b) The prices of goods in the market are made on the basis of various forms of the market, its structures, graphs. The major topics you can cover in the project are the following:

(i) Types of market with its features.

(ii) Perfect competition, and price determination.

(iii) Application in the determination of floor price, and support price of commodities.

After completion of the project, prepare five questions based on the project for better understanding.         (See Lesson-23)

Ans: (i) Types of Market and their features

Perfect competition meaning.

Perfect Competition is a form of market in which there is a large number of buyers and sellers. They sell homogeneous goods. Firm produces only a small portion of the total output produced by the whole industry.

An industry is a group of different firms producing the same product. A single firm cannot affect the price by its individual efforts. Price is fixed by the industry. Firm is only a price taker and not a price-maker. It can sell the desired output only at the price-fixed by the industry. In such a market, price of the commodity is the same at every place.

There is also free entry and exit of the firms. Both the buyers and sellers have perfect information about the prevailing price in the market. Thus perfect competition is the name given to a market in which buyers and sellers compete with one another in the purchase and sale of a commodity.

Features of Perfect Competition:

– There is large number of buyers and sellers.

– Products are homogenous.

– Freedom of entry or exit in perfect competition.

– Demand is perfectly elastic.

– Firms are Price taker in perfectly competitive market.

Monopoly Market Meaning

Monopoly market is one in which there is only one seller of the product having no close substitutes to the commodities sold by the seller. The seller has full control over the supply of that commodity and also he is the price maker. There being only one firm, producing that product, there is no difference between the firm and industry in case of monopoly. Monopoly is a price maker not the price taker as in the case of perfect competition. Its demand curve slopes downward to the right.

Features of Monopoly:

– There exists only one seller.

– In monopoly, there is absence of competition.

– Monopoly may sell homogenous and differentiated products.

– Entry of new firms in the market is restricted.

– Demand is inelastic.

– Monopolist is price maker.

Monopolistic Competition Meaning

Monopolistic competition, as the name itself implies, is a blend of monopoly and perfect competition.  It refers to the market situation in which many producers produce and sell goods which are closely related to each other and close substitutes but they are not identical. In this respect each firm will have some monopoly at the same time the firm has to compete in the market will other firms as they produce close substitutes.  Also they are large number of sellers who follow an independent price policy.

Features of  Monopolistic Competition

– Competition amongst monopolists.

– Products are different but close substitute of one another.

– Freedom of entry or exit of firms into the market.

– Prices are competitive in monopolistic competition.

– Selling costs are important in monopolistic competition.

Oligopoly Meaning

“Oligopoly” is a term derived from two Greek words “Oligos” meaning a few “pollein” meaning to sell. Thus Oligopoly refers to that form of imperfect competition where there will be only few sellers producing either a homogenous product which are close substitutes but not perfect substitutes or similar products.

There are only few sellers of a product under oligopoly due to which actions taken by any individual seller have a significant impact on other sellers. There is a personalized competition under oligopoly. All firms act as rivals of each other. The most important feature of oligopolistic market is interdependence in decision making.

Features of Oligopoly

– There is only few sellers and large number of buyers.

– Competition amongst the few sellers.

– Blocked entry / threat to entry of new firms.

– Decision of one firm may affect the decision of other firm.

– Selling costs are most important in oligopoly.

Though perfect competition is rare, almost a non-existent situation, yet we study price determination under the situation. A perfectly competitive market is one in which the number of buyers and sellers is very large, all engaged in buying and selling a homogeneous product without any artificial restriction and possessing perfect knowledge of a market at a time.

There are two parties which bargain in such a market, the buyers and the sellers. It is only when they agree, a commodity can be bought and sold at a certain price. Thus product pricing is influenced both by buyers and sellers i.e., by demand and supply.

The demand and supply are the two forces, which move in the opposite directions. Price is determined at a point where these two forces are equal, that is known as equilibrium price. In a perfectly competitive market, market demand and market supply determine the equilibrium price.

Equilibrium of a Firm under Perfect Competition

Meaning of Firm’s Equilibrium :

A firm is in equilibrium when it is satisfied with its existing amount of output. A firm in equilibrium has no tendency either to increase or decrease its output. It needs neither expansion nor contraction. It wants to earn maximum profits.

In the words of A.W. Stonier and D.C. Hague, “A firm will be in equilibrium when it is earning maximum money profits.”

Equilibrium of the firm can be analysed in both short-run and long-run periods. A firm can earn the maximum profits in the short run or may incur the minimum loss. But in the long run, it can earn only normal profit.

Equilibrium of the firm can be studied by two approaches:

1)  Total Revenue and Total Cost Approach.

2)  Marginal Cost and Marginal Revenue Approach.

Total Revenue and Total Cost Approach :

According to this approach, profits are the difference between total revenue and total cost.

Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost Approach :

This analysis is based on the following assumptions:

a)  All firms in an industry use homogeneous factors of production.

b)  Their costs are equal. Therefore, all cost curves are uniform.

c)  They use homogeneous plants so that their SAC curves are equal.

d)  All firms are of equal efficiency.

e)  All firms sell their products at the same price determined by demand and supply of the industry so that the price of each firm is equal to AR = MR.

According to this approach, a firm is in equilibrium when two conditions are fulfilled:

a)  Marginal Cost should be equal to Marginal Revenue (MC = MR).

b)  MC curve cuts MR curve from below.

Determination of Equilibrium of the Firm

Short-run Equilibrium of the Firm

The short run is a period of time in which the firm can vary its output by changing the variable factors of production in order to earn maximum profits or to incur minimum losses. The number of firms in the industry is fixed because neither the existing firms can leave nor new firms can enter it. The firm is in equilibrium when it is earning maximum profits as the difference between its total revenue and total cost. A firm is short run equilibrium may face any of the three situations:

1) Super Normal Profits (AR > AC) :

A firm is in equilibrium when its marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue and marginal cost curve cuts marginal revenue from below. A firm is in equilibrium earns super normal profit, when average revenue is more than its average cost. It can also be explained with the help of following diagram:

In this figure, output of the firm is shown on OX-axis and cost/revenue on OY-axis. MC is the marginal cost and AC is average cost curve. PP is the average revenue and marginal revenue curve (MR = AR). Supposing OP is the price determined by the industry. At this price, firm’s equilibrium will be at point E, where marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue and marginal cost curve cuts marginal revenue curve from below.

Equilibrium output is OM. At this output AR (price) = EM and AC = AM. Since AR (EM) > AC (AM), firm is earning EA super normal profit per unit of output.

Per Unit super normal profit = EA

Total Super-Normal Profit = EABP

2) Normal Profits (AR = AC) :

Normal profits cover just the reward for entrepreneurial services and are included in the cost of production. So that, a firm in equilibrium earns normal profits when its average cost is equal to the average revenue i.e. AC = AR.

In this figure, output of the firm is shown on OX-axis and cost/revenue on OY-axis. MC is the marginal cost and AC is average cost curve. PP is the average revenue and marginal revenue curve (MR = AR). Supposing OP is the price determined by the industry. At this price, firm’s equilibrium will be at point E, where marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue and marginal cost curve cuts marginal revenue curve from below. The firm earns normal profits at equilibrium output because its average cost and average revenue are equal.

Normal Profits = MC = MR = AC = AR.

3) Minimum Loss (AR < AC)

A firm in equilibrium may incur minimum loss when the average cost is more than the average revenue and average revenue is equal to average variable cost. Even if, the firm discontinues its production, in the short run, it will have to bear the loss of fixed costs. Loss of fixed costs is the minimum loss of the firm.

At equilibrium point an (AC) is more than EN (AR). In other words, average cost is more than average revenue by AE which represents per unit loss. As such firm’s total loss is AEPB.

Per Unit Loss = AE

Total Loss        = AEPB

From the above discussion, we may conclude from the above discussion that in the short-run each firm may be making either super normal profits, or normal profits or losses depending upon the price of the product.  

Long-run Equilibrium of the Firm:

In the long-run, it is possible to make more adjustments than in the short-run. The firm can adjust its plant capacity and scale of operations to the changed circumstances. Therefore, all costs are vari­able. Firms must earn only normal profits. In case the price is above the long-run AC curve firms will be earning super normal profits.

Attracted by them, new firms will enter the industry and super normal profits will be competed away. If the price is below the LAC curve firms will be incurring losses. As a result, some of the firms will leave the industry so that no firm earns more than normal profits. Thus “in the long-run firms are in equilibrium when they have adjusted their plant so as to produce at the mini­mum point of their long-run AC curve, which is tangent (at this point) to the demand (AR) curve defined by the market price” so that they earn normal profits.

It’s Assumptions: This analysis is based on the following assumptions:

a)  Firms are free to enter into or leave the industry.

b)  All firms are of equal efficiency.

c)  All factors are homogeneous. They can be obtained at constant and uniform prices.

d)  Cost curves of firms are uniform.

e)  The plants of firm: are equal having given technology.

f)  All firms have perfect knowledge about price and output.

Determination:

Given these assumptions, each firm of the industry will be in the equilibrium in the following two conditions.

(1) In equilibrium, its short-run marginal cost (SMC) must equal to its long-run marginal cost (LMC) as well as its short-run average cost (SAC) and its long-run average cost (LAC) and both should be equal to MR=AR=P. Thus the first equilibrium condition is:

SMC = LMC = MR = AR = P = SAC = LAC at its minimum point, and

(2) LMC curve must cut MR curve from below.

Both these conditions of equilibrium are satisfied at point E in Figure 3 where SMC and LMC curves cut from below SAC and LAC curves at their minimum point E and SMC and LMC curves cut AR = MR curve from below. All curves meet at this point E and the firm produces OQ optimum quantity and sell it at OP price.

Since we assume equal costs of all the firms of industry, all firms will be in equilibrium m the long-run. At OP price a firm will have neither a tendency to leave nor enter the industry and all firms will earn normal profit.

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