research paper topics in bangladesh

Development Research Center

OUR RESEARCH

“Identifying a sector with a scope of large employment is appealing from poverty reduction point of view. But, if wrongly targeted, it might have worse consequences.”

Mohammad A. Razzaque, Economic Advisor, Commonwealth Secretariat  In: Dynamic Products in South-South Trade: Issues for Policy Makers (16 October 2007)

Bangladesh's Development Strategy

Evaluates the advantages and disadvantages of some alternative development strategies.

Makes suggestions on the optimal mix of alternative development strategies.

Our Working Paper Series

The BDRWPS is a peer-reviewed working paper series of the Bangladesh Development Research Center (BDRC)

Aid & Debt

Analyzes the implications of alternative sources and levels of development finance and their implications on debt sustainability and sustainable development in Bangladesh.

Climate Change

Includes four areas/topics:

climate change adaptation policies,

climate change vulnerability,

the impact of development on CO2 emissions, and

an annotated bibliography on climate change.

BDRC Research: Aid and Debt

Outputs (in reverse chronological order):  

Concessional Financing for Development in Bangladesh, Journal of Bangladesh Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1 (published in October 2019), pp. 51–65 (with M. Faizul Islam and Farah Tasneem).

"Aid, Debt, and Development in Bangladesh: Synergies or Contradictions", published in: Munir Quddus and Farida Khan (eds.) Bangladesh Economy in the 21st Century: Selected Papers from the 2008-09 Conferences at Harvard University (Dhaka: University Press Ltd., 2011), Chapter 10 (by Bernhard G. Gunter, A. F. M. Ataur Rahman, and Jesmin Rahman).

“Aid, Debt, and Development in Bangladesh: Synergies or Contradictions" published in Journal of Bangladesh Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1 (2010), pp. 23-43 (by Bernhard G. Gunter; A. F. M. Ataur Rahman; and Jesmin Rahman).

Arti c le in The Daily Star (one of Bangladesh's leading English newspapers)  on August 26, 2008

Presentation (pdf)  and  Summary (pdf)  of UNDP's Policy Dialogue Nr. 38, made on August 19, 2008 at UNDP Bangladesh in Dhaka .

Research paper authored jointly by Bernhard G. Gunter; A. F. M. Ataur Rahman; and Jesmin Rahman on "Aid, Debt, and Development in Bangladesh: Synergies or Contradictions",  P resentation  made by Dr. Bernhard Gunter at the Conference on  "Bangladesh in the 21st Century"  at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (June 13-14, 2008) on aid, debt and development.

Research paper authored jointly by Bernhard G. Gunter and A. F. M. Ataur Rahman on "Analyzing Bangladesh’s Debt Sustainability Using SimSIP Debt", published as  Bangladesh Development Research Working Paper Series (BDRWPS) , No. 2 (June).

BDRC Feature: Bangladesh deserves more aid (June 2008)

See also:  

Gunter, Bernhard G.; Jesmin Rahman; and Haiyan Shi (2009) "Linking Social Development with the Capacity to Carry Debt: Towards an MDG-Consistent Debt-Sustainability Concept", Development Policy Review, Vol. 27, No. 3 (May), pp. 26-286.

Gunter, Bernhard G.; Jesmin Rahman; and Quentin Wodon (2008) "Robbing Peter to Pay Paul? Understanding Who Pays for Debt Relief", World Development, Vol. 36, No. 1 (January 2008), pp. 1-16.

Gunter, Bernhard G. (2007) “MDG-Consistent Debt Sustainability: How to Ease the Tension between Achieving the MDGs and Maintaining Debt Sustainability”, Discussion Paper commissioned for a joint UNDESA/UNDP roundtable in New York (October 31, 2006; revised version of January 2007); available at:  http: //www.undp.org/poverty/docs/debtflow/Debt-3-Gunter.pdf .

Jeffrey Sachs, Jeffrey; John McArthur; Guido Schmidt-Traub; Chandrika Bahadur; Michael Faye; and Margaret Kruk (2004) Millennium Development Goals Needs Assessments: Country Case Studies of Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Tanzania and Uganda; UN Millennium Project Working Paper (Draft of 17 January 2004) availalbe at:  http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/documents/mp_ccspaper_jan1704.pdf .

Source: Figure 1 of Gunter, Bernhard G.; A. F. M. Ataur Rahman; and Jesmin Rahman (2008) "Aid, Debt, and Development in Bangladesh: Synergies or Contradictions", Paper presented at the Conference on "Bangladesh in the 21st Century" at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (June 13-14);  p lease click here to load the whole presentation (pdf) .

I. International Planning Workshop on:

Conceptualizing Effective and Efficient Adaptation Policies to Climate Change in Bangladesh Building on current climate change research and recognizing the excellent work that has been undertaken in this regards, four research organizations [the  BCAS , the  BDRC , the  IIED , and the  Millennium Institute  (MI)  ] had agreed to jointly organize an International Planning Workshop to draw up a research program for conceptualizing effective and efficient adaptation policies to climate change in Bangladesh. Thanks to the generous support by the  Rockefeller Foundation , this three-day workshop was held at the  Rockefeller  Foundation's Bellagio Study and Conference  Center  from May 20-22, 2008.

For further details about the workshop, please see:

Workshop Proceedings  (as of June 18, 2008)    

Workshop Summary  (as of May 10, 2008)

Workshop Details  (as of May 10, 2008)

Workshop Agenda  ( final )

Presentations made on Day 1:

Climate Change in the Context of Global and Local Policies and Governance

     Shireen Kamal Sayeed, Assistant Country Director, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Bangladesh  

Current Climate Change Adaptation Research in Bangladesh

     Mozaharul Alam, Research Fellow, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS)  

The Bangladesh Climate Change Literature: Lessons & Gaps

     Bernhard G. Gunter, President, Bangladesh Development Research Center (BDRC)  

Bangladesh, Climate Change, and T21

     John D. Shilling, Chairman, Board of Trustees, MI

II. How Vulnerable are Bangladesh’s Indigenous People to Climate Change?  

Abstract:  This paper compares the vulnerabilities to climate change and climate variability of the indigenous people with the Bengali population of Bangladesh. It distinguishes between (a) individual vulnerabilities that are related to an individual’s capability to adapt to climate change and; (b) spatial vulnerabilities, that is, vulnerabilities that are related to the location of a person (like the exposure to climate change-induced disasters). While an individual’s capability to adapt to climate change is determined by many factors, some relatively simple approximation is to look at poverty, landlessness, and illiteracy. Spatial vulnerabilities are reviewed by looking at drought hazard maps, flood hazard maps, landslide hazard maps, and cyclone hazard maps. Hence, the paper compares levels of poverty, landlessness, illiteracy, and the more direct though also more subjective exposures to increased droughts, floods, landslides, and cyclones across the two population groups. The paper concludes with suggestions for adaptation strategies of indigenous people as well as suggestions for policy interventions to reduce climate change-induced vulnerabilities for indigenous people. Revised Paper available at: i)         Bangladesh Development Research Working Paper Series ii)        Social Science Research Network (SSRN) iii)       RePEc (Research Papers in Economics)     

III. The Impact of Development and Growth on CO2 Emissions:

A Case Study for Bangladesh until 2050 A new study by Bernhard G. Gunter and A. Atiq Rahman uses the example of Bangladesh to illustrate the impact of low-income countries’ economic growth on global CO2 emissions in 2050 by using a set of alternative assumptions for GDP growth and improvements in energy efficiency. The study was presented at the 5th bi-annual conference of the United States Society for Ecological Economics (USSEE) in Washington, DC, on June 1, 2009. Please click  here to see the presentation (pdf) .   Please click here for the paper (pdf).

IV. Bangladesh and the Copenhagen Accord:

How Much Carbon Dioxide Might Bangladesh Emit in 2050? This study, published in Environmental Economics. Vol. 3, No. 1 (2012) builds on previous research by Bernhard G. Gunter (American University and BDRC) and A. Atiq Rahman (BCAS). Using a projection period until 2050, it shows that Bangladesh’s emission would surpass a simple equity-based per capita emission limit consistent with the Copenhagen Accord if there are no changes in Bangladesh’s carbon intensity and no gains in its energy efficiency, but that Bangladesh would stay below such a limit with some feasible improvements in energy efficiency. This paper is freely available at:  the website of  Environmental Economics  (pdf) .

 V. Climate Change and Bangladesh - Annotated Bibliography  

Last time updated on January 5, 2010.

Previous versions published on:

May 19, 2009

January 15, 2009

November 27, 2008

October 27, 2008

Jointly with Bangladesh’s Climate Change Cell, the BDRC provides a comprehensive

Climate Change and Bangladesh -  Annotated Bibliography (pdf)  

which contains information on 406 publications addressing climate change in Bangladesh.

This publication also contains the names of and links to some 70 website resources, structured into four sections:   (a) main international organizations working on climate change; (b) research centers/institutes that focus on climate change; (c) websites of networks and/or websites with specific tools, projects, etc.; and (d) climate change related newsletters specifically on Bangladesh. Please note that this publication is provided only electronically as: (i) it contains more than 300 hyperlinks/website addresses which provide readers further information, (ii) the electronic version allows readers to search the contents, and (iii) it is planned to be updated frequently.

VI. Other Information on Climate Change  

1. Key Action-Related Documents:

National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) (of November 2005) (pdf)

Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008 (of September 2008) (pdf)

Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009 (of September 2009) (pdf)

2. Other climate change conference websites (in reverse chronological order):   

COP15 - United Nations Climate Change Conference Copenhagen, Denmark (November 30 - December 11, 2009) World Climate Conference-3 Geneva, Switzerland (August 31 - September 4, 2009) 3rd International Conference on Community Based Adaptation to Climate Change (pdf) Dhaka, Bangladesh (February 22-26, 2009) A presentation on “The Case of the Ganges Brahmaputra Delta” was held on February 11, 2009 at the Second World Forum on Delta & Coastal Development (Aquaterra 2009) in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. For further information, please see:  http://www.aquaterraforum.com/aquaterra2009/e/exp_overig152 Climate Change and Urban Poverty - Infrastructures of Development Dhaka: BRAC Centre Auditorium (28. January 2009) United Nations Climate Change Conference Poznań, Poland (December 1-12, 2008) International Symposium on Climate Change and Food Security in South Asia Dhaka, Bangladesh (August 25-29, 2008) OneWorld South Asia’s Seventh Annual Regional Meeting on the theme “Climate Justice for Realisation of the MDGs: Southern Perspectives and Voices” New Delhi, India (February 8-9, 2008) 3. Other interesting website resources: OneWorld  Climate Change in Bangladesh Briefing This briefing paper summarizes the key issues related to effects, adaptation, finance, and electricity access. It also includes various videos. Last updated by OneWorld in March 2011.   Kazipur, Sirajganj,  Bangladesh [by Doreen Marie Indra and Norman Buchignani; undated] An anthropological and photographic exploration of riverbank erosion and flood in rural Bangladesh Bangladesh—Eco Symbol? [by Sebastian Strangio; May 28, 2010] Often derided as a basket case, Bangladesh might just have a thing or two to show the world about tackling climate change. Bangladesh’s Solar Powered Floating Schools [BDRC Task; June 20,  2011] Some resources related to Bangladesh’s innovative way to adapt to climate change with solar powered floating schools.

BDRC Research: Bangladesh's Development Strategies

Abstract:  While poverty reduction and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) need to remain to be the center of Bangladesh’s development strategy, there are suggestions to broaden the agenda towards a more forward-looking development and employment strategy. For example, it has been suggested that information technology could be Bangladesh’s superhighway to prosperity. Others consider agribusiness (for the domestic and foreign sectors) of being able to provide the amount of employment needed for Bangladesh’s growing population. Still others concentrate on intensifying export promotion polices. This research project will evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of some alternative development strategies as well as make suggestions on the optimal mix of alternative development strategies.

Related background:  In 1983, the jute mills of the Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation (BJMC) exported 71,841 tons of jute carpets and earned Taka 1.89 billion, providing the life line for millions of Bangladeshis. Today, most of Bangladesh's jute carpet factories are closed down, partly due to the emergence of synthetic fiber (polypropylene). Yet, in view of the cotton price rise over the last few years, a few textile producers have been using jute yarn to produce denim. Bangladesh may emerge as a major denim producer in the world as -- being a front ranking jute producing country -- it has an edge over others. Indeed, according to the Export Promotion Bureau (EPB), export of jute yarn grew 42 per cent to Taka 10.28 billion in 2004-05 fiscal and 12.5 per cent to Taka 11.57 billion in 2005-06.

Please see also the BDRC's task on: Jute-Bangladesh's Golden Fiber of the Past, also of the Future?

The first output related to this research project is a paper by Dr. Jahan, Dr. Gunter, and Dr. Rahman, who show how substituting wood with nonwood fibers in papermaking in Bangladesh implies a win-win solution for Bangladesh as it reduces the large import of pulp and paper as well as creates employment in the agricultural and industrial sectors of Bangladesh. For further details, please see the fourth paper in the BDRC's  Bangladesh Development Research Working Paper  Series (BDRWPS) .

The second output related to this research project is a follow-up paper by Dr. Gunter, Dr. Jahan, and Dr. Rahman. The follow-up paper looks beyond the availability and suitability of jute for papermaking. It analyzes the economic viability of jute pulp, the main implications for Bangladesh’s economy as well as some developmental and environmental implications. The second paper was presented by Dr. Gunter at the Conference on “Ideas and Innovations for the Development of Bangladesh: The Next Decade”, held on October 9-10, 2009 at the JFK School of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Please click  here for the summary presentation  of the paper. The full paper is published in Munir Quddus and Farida Khan (eds.) Bangladesh Economy in the 21st Century: Selected Papers from the 2008-09 Conferences at Harvard University (Dhaka: University Press Ltd., 2011), Chapter 4.

Bangladesh Development Research Working Paper Series (BDRWPS)

The BDRWPS is a peer-reviewed working paper series of the Bangladesh Development Research Center (BDRC) Editor: Bernhard G. Gunter (American University and BDRC)

General  Information about this Working Paper Series

For Prospective Authors: Please read  Information for Contributors  (pdf)   before submitting any paper for this Working Paper Series.

List of Bangladesh Development Research Working Papers (in reverse chronological order; provided as pdf files)

BDRWPS No. 34 (February 2018) Stealing Shahbag: A Re-legitimization of Islamism in the Aftermath of a Secularist Social Movement by Anupam D. Roy Also available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3116349 http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/34.html BDRWPS No. 33 (September 2017) Free Falling Terms of Trade Despite Industrialization: The Case of Bangladesh by Bernhard G. Gunter and Valeria Vargas Sejas Also available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=3053657 http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/33.html BDRWPS No. 32 (November 2016) The Macroeconomic Impact of Foreign Aid in Bangladesh Before and After the Paris Declaration by Nuzat Tasnim Dristy Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2869139   

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/32.html

BDRWPS No. 31 (September 2016) Unhappily Ever After: An Analysis of Child Marriages in Bangladesh and Niger by Samantha Morrow Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2843053

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/31.html

BDRWPS No. 30 (March 2016) Impact of Shifting Cultivation in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh on the Growth of Microbial Organisms by Shafat Hosen, Ohidul Alam and S. M. Sirajul Haque Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2746105

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/30.html

BDRWPS No. 29 (December 2015) Status of Industrial Noise Levels and Impact on Workers’ Health:  A Case Study of Kalurghat Heavy Industrial Area in Bangladesh by Kamrul Islam and Sahadeb Chandra Majumder Also available at:

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/29.html

BDRWPS No. 28 (November 2015) A Rights-based Assessment (RBA) of Bangladesh’s National Budget 2014-15 by Emraan Azad, Mahmudul Hasan, and Muhammad Mahdy Hassan Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2692835

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/28.html

BDRWPS No. 27 (September 2015) Rural Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene in Bangladesh: An Investigation of Lohagara Upazila by Tawhidul Islam, Ohidul Alam, and Khaled Misbahuzzaman Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2656086

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/27.html

BDRWPS No. 26 (April 2015) Impact of ICT on Health Services in Bangladesh: A Study on Hobiganj Adhunik Zila Sadar Hospital by Fatema Khatun and Mst. Rokshana Khanam Sima Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2591201

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/26.html

BDRWPS No. 25 (January 2015) Ensuring Accountability and Transparency at Local Level Finance:   A Study from Sylhet Sadar Upazila by Md. Anwar Hossain Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2545151

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/25.html

BDRWPS No. 24 (November 2014) Kinship and Marriage System among the Khasis of Bangladesh: A Study of Khasi Culture and Identity by Rajmoni Singha Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2519078

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/24.html

BDRWPS No. 23 (September 2014) Women’s Empowerment in Bangladesh: A Case Study of Two NGOs by Mohammad Samiul Islam Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2502890

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/23.html

BDRWPS No. 22 (June 2014) The Bangladeshi Agarwood Industry: Development Barriers and a Potential Way Forward by Md. Joynal Abdin Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2460345

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/22.html

BDRWPS No. 21 (January 2014) Priority Areas for Bangladesh’s Further Development: Inequality, Employment, and Poverty by Rubena Sukaj Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2381633

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/21.html

BDRWPS No. 20 (January 2014) Economic Structure and Macroeconomic Uncertainty: Policy Implications for Bangladesh by Bernhard G. Gunter, Faisal Ahmed, A. F. M. Ataur Rahman and Jesmin Rahman Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2377006

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/20.html

BDRWPS No. 19 (January 2014) Relationship between Remittances and Economic Growth in Bangladesh: An Econometric Study by Kanchan Datta and Bimal Sarkar Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2375991

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/19.html

BDRWPS No. 18 (September 2013) Women’s Empowerment as a Result of Microcredit Loans in Bangladesh? by Lex Loro Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2322785

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/18.html

BDRWPS No. 17 (May 2013) Reasonable Wages for Workers to Eliminate Unrest in Bangladesh's Ready-made Garments (RMG) Sector by Mohammad Ismail Bhuiyan Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2271118

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/17.html

BDRWPS No. 16 (January 2013) Consequences of Climate Change and Gender Vulnerability: Bangladesh Perspective by Zayeda Sharmin and Mohammad Samiul Islam Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2200116

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/16.html

BDRWPS No. 15 (July 2012) Why Highly Educated Women Face Potential Poverty: A Case Study in Dhaka, Bangladesh by Syeda Umme Jakera Malik Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2114700

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/15.html

BDRWPS No. 14 (January 2012) Urban Local Government and Environmental Management in Bangladesh: A Study on Chunarughat Paurashava by Mohammad Shahjahan Chowdhury and Purnendu Deb Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=1989936

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/14.html

BDRWPS No. 13 (December 2011): Expectations, Realities and Coping Strategies of Elderly Women in a Village of Bangladesh by Tamima Sultana Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=1967283

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/13.html

BDRWPS No. 12 (July 2011): Socio-Economic Impact of Women Entrepreneurship in Sylhet City, Bangladesh by Chowdhury Abdullah Al-Hossienie Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=1890681

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/12.html

BDRWPS No. 11 (December 2010): Needs Hierarchy, Motivational Factors and Entrepreneurship in Bangladesh by Mostofa Haque Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=1721232

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/11.html

BDRWPS No. 10 (November 2010): The Impact of Development on CO2 Emissions: A Case Study for Bangladesh until 2050 by Bernhard G. Gunter Also available at:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=1721229

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/10.html

BDRWPS No. 9 (October 2009): Bt Brinjal: Introducing Genetically Modified Brinjal (Eggplant/Aubergine) in Bangladesh by Mst. Meherunnahar and D. N. R. Paul Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1482803

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/9.html

BDRWPS No. 8 (July 2009): Physical and Psychological Implications of Risky Child Labor: A Study in Sylhet City, Bangladesh by Mohammad Nashir Uddin, Mohammad Hamiduzzaman, and Bernhard G. Gunter Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1428206

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/8.html

BDRWPS No. 7 (June 2009): People’s Participation in Health Services: A Study of Bangladesh’s Rural Health Complex by Mohammad Shafiqul Islam and Mohammad Woli Ullah Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1412874

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/7.html      

BDRWPS No. 6 (May 2009): An Analysis of SAFTA in the Context of Bangladesh by Md. Joynal Abdin Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1404609

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/6.html   

BDRWPS No. 5 (May 2009): Critical Factors of Women Entrepreneurship Development in Rural Bangladesh by Faraha Nawaz Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1403411

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/ 5 .html

BDRWPS No. 4 (January 2009): Substituting Wood with Nonwood Fibers in Papermaking: A Win-Win Solution for Bangladesh by M. Sarwar Jahan, Bernhard G. Gunter, and A. F. M. Ataur Rahman Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1322292

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/4.html

BDRWPS No. 3 (December 2008): Mineral Extraction in Bangladesh: Some Fundamental Reform Suggestions by Bernhard G. Gunter Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1313187

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/3.html

BDRWPS No. 2 (June 2008): Analyzing Bangladesh’s Debt Sustainability Using SimSIP Debt by Bernhard G. Gunter and A. F. M. Ataur Rahman Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1159216

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/2.html

BDRWPS No. 1 (April 2008): How Vulnerable are Bangladesh's Indigenous People to Climate Change? by Bernhard G. Gunter, Atiq Rahman, and A. F. M. Ataur Rahman Also available at:

http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1126441

http://ideas.repec.org/p/bnr/wpaper/1.html

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Immediate challenges for Bangladesh are to boost investments in power and roads; manage the transition in readymade garments; and stem the decline in remittances.

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Climate change research in Bangladesh: research gaps and implications for adaptation-related decision-making

• Published: 12 February 2018
• Volume 18 , pages 1535–1553, ( 2018 )

Cite this article

• H.M. Tuihedur Rahman 1 ,
• Gordon M. Hickey 1 ,
• James D. Ford 2 &
• Malcolm A. Egan 2  

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In this paper, we present the results of a systematic literature review of climate change vulnerability-related research conducted in Bangladesh between 1994 and 2017 in order to identify trends and knowledge gaps. Our results identify interesting evolutions in the temporal and spatial scales of study and the nature of spatial and thematic associations, suggesting important knowledge gaps in the existing literature that likely limit understandings of scale-sensitive climate change impacts. We also observed a temporal mismatch between the published studies and policy-making processes focused on adaptation and mitigation and a bias towards the economic aspects of climate change, with less focus on social and environmental issues. Thematically, the climate change-related scholarship in Bangladesh would benefit from more integrative, cross-theme, and transdisciplinary studies, potentially drawing on the different theoretical constructs of vulnerability and adaptation. Such studies will be needed to better support evidence-based public policy and also to more accurately reflect the diversity of knowledge gaps and challenges concerning climatic stresses in Bangladesh at different scales and in different contexts.

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We would like to acknowledge the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation and IPCC for their financial support to conduct the research. Additional funding support was provided by the William Dawson Scholar Award, McGill University.

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Tuihedur Rahman, H., Hickey, G.M., Ford, J.D. et al. Climate change research in Bangladesh: research gaps and implications for adaptation-related decision-making. Reg Environ Change 18 , 1535–1553 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1271-9

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Tackling the COVID-19 pandemic: The Bangladesh perspective

Md. taimur islam.

1 Department of Pathobiology

Anup Kumar Talukder

2 Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Reproductive Health

Md. Nurealam Siddiqui

3 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

Tofazzal Islam

4 Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh

An outbreak of a COVID-19 pandemic disease, caused by a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, has posed a serious threat to global human health. Bangladesh has also come under the attack of this viral disease. Here, we aimed to describe the responses of Bangladesh to tackle the COVID-19, particularly on how Bangladesh is dealing with this novel viral disease with its limited resources. The first case of a COVID-19 patient was detected in Bangladesh on March 8, 2020. Since then, a total of 263,503 peoples are officially reported as COVID-19 infected with 3,471 deaths until August 11, 2020. To combat the COVID-19, the government has taken various steps viz. diagnosis of the suspected cases, quarantine of doubted people and isolation of infected patients, local or regional lockdown, closure of all government and private offices, increase public awareness and enforce social distancing, etc . Moreover, to address the socio-economic situations, the government announced several financial stimulus packages of about USD 11.90 billion. However, the government got 3 months since the disease was first reported in China, but the country failed in making proper strategies including contact tracing, introducing antibody/antigen-based rapid detection kit, and also failed to make multi-disciplinary team to combat this disease. Further, limited testing facilities and inadequate treatment service along with public unawareness are the major challenges for Bangladesh to tackle this situation effectively. Along with the government, personal awareness and assistance of non-government organizations, private organizations, researchers, doctors, industrialists, and international organizations are firmly required to mitigate this highly contagious disease.

Significance for public health

A novel coronavirus, named SARS-CoV-2, causes COVID-19 disease. This has emerged as a serious threat to human health and economy of the whole world. Bangladesh is one of the densely populated countries in the world, which also has come under attack of COVID-19. The first case of COVID-19 patient was detected in Bangladesh on March 8, 2020. Since then, a total of 30,205 peoples are officially reported as COVID-19 infected with 432 deaths. This lethal COVID- 19 drastically hit the economy of Bangladesh, with 170 million of inhabitants. The local and regional lockdown has already suspended almost all economic activities. However, limited health care service facilities of the country along with public unawareness are the major problems for Bangladesh to tackle this situation effectively. Of note, a large number of low-income workers, day-laborers need to go outside to earn daily income for their livelihood that causes mass transmission. Moreover, many hospitals, some doctors, nurses and other health officials are reluctant to provide treatment to COVID-19 patients and also non- COVID-19 patients. This report described the responses of Bangladesh to tackle the dreadful COVID-19 and discussed prevailing challenges, and how to mitigate this highly contagious disease with limited resources.

Introduction

A cluster of patients of pneumonia with unknown etiology was first reported in the Wuhan city of Hubei Province in China in December 2019. 1-3 The initial symptoms were fever, cough, dyspnea, myalgia or fatigue, headache, hemoptysis, diarrhea and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). 4 , 5 After a few days, Chinese health authorities confirmed that those cases were associated with infection by a novel coronavirus. 3 Eventually, the Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CCDC) has identified the causative agent from throat swab samples on January 7, 2020, and named the pathogen as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). 6 SARSCoV- 2 is classified under the genus Betacoronavirus of the family Coronaviridae under the order Nidovirales . It is a non-segmented, enveloped, positive sense RNA virus. 7 On the other side, the World Health Organization (WHO) named this disease as a coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). 6

The WHO has declared this ongoing outbreak of COVID-19 as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on January 30, 2020. 6 According to WHO, the countries with vulnerable health systems are at higher risk. As of August 11, 2020, the disease has infected at least 20417,377 people and has resulted in at least 742,311 deaths globally. 8 The emergency committee of WHO has announced that the spread of COVID-19 could be discontinued by trace, early detection, isolation, and prompt treatment. 6 To date, more than 213 countries or territories have confirmed the occurrence of COVID-19 including Bangladesh. 8 Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries due to high population density (ca. 170 million people in 147,570 km 2 ), poor health care systems, poverty, and the weak economy. In recent years, Bangladesh’s economy has been growing well with a GDP growth rate of more than 7.5%, however, about 20% of the population is poor. Nevertheless, because of the rapid spread of the COVID-19, Bangladesh’s economy has already started taking a big hit. The nationwide shutdown has already suspended almost all economic activities except agriculture which forced thousands of employments at risk. International trade orders, especially in ready-made garments industries, are being greatly canceled. While the richest, developed and the most powerful countries of the world have been struggling to fight against the COVID-19, failing to provide the necessary support and medical treatment to their patients. Although increase in agricultural sectors in last four decades is phenomenal and the country is nearly food secured, the ongoing COVID-19 poses a serious threat to the supply chain, marketing and production in agriculture. On the other hand, Bangladesh has only 5.3 doctors per 10,000 people, 0.3 nurses per 1,000 people, 0.87 hospital beds per 1,000 people, 0.72 ICU beds and 1.1 ventilators per 100,000 people. The country has relatively very limited health service facilities in comparison to other COVID-19 affected countries that might be one of the possible reasons for comparatively lower recovery rate (57.67%) of COVID- 19 patients in Bangladesh. 9 Bangladesh has never faced a situation like this before. In fact, health care systems of Bangladesh were not prepared to face this pandemic outbreak. COVID-19 is not only a public health concern or medical issue but also it requires a multidisciplinary planning and approach. Molecular diagnostic procedure against any infectious disease is very limited in Bangladesh. Therefore, tackling this newly introduced disease requires comprehensive planning and approaches including the medical, virological and epidemiological interventions. It is now a worrying question how is Bangladesh responding and tackling the pandemic COVID-19 with its relatively poor health management systems. Several opinion papers have been published on different countries regarding the outbreak of COVID-19. 10 , 11 The present perspective report aimed to focus how is a resource-poor country Bangladesh tackling this fearsome disease by adopting steps and stimulus packages.

Situation of COVID-19 in Bangladesh

On March 8, 2020, three cases of pandemic COVID-19 were confirmed by the Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR) for the first time in Bangladesh. 12 Till August 11, 2020, a total of 263,503 COVID-19 patients were officially reported with 3,471 deaths in Bangladesh. 8 , 13 COVID-19 patients were found in all 64 districts of the country; however, Dhaka, Narayanganj, Gazipur and Chattogram have been mostly affected ( Figure 1 ). 13 Dhaka is the capital city of Bangladesh, and one of the fastest growing cities of the world. It supports more than 15 million people in less than 325 square kilometres of area that makes it one of the most densely populated megacities. 14 Moreover, most of the industries of the country such as textiles, tanneries, fertilizer plants, pharmaceuticals companies, cement factories, pulp and paper industries, and most of the government and non-government offices are located in these major cities, which might be one of the possible reasons for higher prevalence of this disease in these areas.

The number of tests per day by real-time RT-PCR is still very low compared to the demand. Possibility for detection of positive cases will be increased when more people will be tested for COVID-19. The lower number of positive cases and deaths might be attributed to the lower test of samples in comparison to other developed countries ( Figure 2A ). These results indicate that a large number of infected patients are remained undetected, which accelerate transmission of the disease in the society. Notably, about 20.46% people have been found positive for COVID-19 from total number of people tested (detection rate) in Bangladesh, which is the second highest in comparison to that in both drastically affected countries and neighbour countries ( Figure 2B ). USA, Brazil, Russia, Italy, Spain, India, and Pakistan recorded 7.91%, 23.19%, 2.90%, 3.43%, 5%, 9.21% and 13.17% COVID-19 positive people, respectively in comparison to the total number of tests conducted ( Figure 2B ). 8

Bangladesh experienced a sharp rising of positive cases these days, as the country started conducting doing more tests since the fourth week of first detection. But Bangladesh recorded lower recovery rate in comparison to the neighbour country. As of August 11, 2020, the percentage of recovered patients (recovery rate) in Bangladesh is 57.67% whereas death rate is 1.32% ( Figure 3A ). However, situation is better in terms of recovery of COVID-19 patients in other countries, for example, Brazil, Russia, Italy, India and Pakistan have been witnessing 70.53%, 78.34%, 80.59%, 70.35%, and 91.60% recovery rate, respectively. 8 The lower recovery rate might be attributed partly to the limited health service facilities in Bangladesh which has already been reported in the previous study. 9 Again, a large number of population of Bangladesh faces double burden of diseases: non-communicable diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, stroke, malnutrition, chronic respiratory diseases and cancer, and communicable diseases like tuberculosis, tetanus, malaria, measles, rubella, leprosy and so on. 15

In Bangladesh, young professionals, and working people have so far been mostly infected with COVID-19. Specifically, IEDCR reported that 68% of COVID-19 positive cases were observed in people aged between 21 to 50 years ( Figure 3B ). On the other side, infected patients aged >50 years constituted 21% of the total infected people. The children and youths aged <20 years comprised 11% of total infected cases ( Figure 3B ). 13 There is a similarity of the age distribution of COVID-19 positive patients between Bangladesh and India, but differs with that of the USA and Italy where it has been broken out more drastically. In India, 75.09% of the confirmed patients were less than 50 years old. The workingage population was infected mostly so far in India. On the other hand, only 27.2% people aged between 19 to 50 years have been infected with COVID-19 in Italy. In the USA, COVID-19 infected people, aged over 50 years old, accounted for 50.63%. 16

COVID-19 infected patient’s location map of Bangladesh. People from 64 districts have already been infected with COVID-19.

The reason(s) why young and working people have been mostly affected by COVID-19 in Bangladesh is not known. However, young people may be little bit careless regarding COVID-19 and working-age people need to go outside to work for maintaining their daily life, which might contribute for getting infection in those people.

Responses of Bangladesh to tackle COVID-19

Almost every country is following aggressive non-therapeutic measures to control the spread of pandemic COVID-19. Bangladesh also has followed the same way. To combat COVID- 19, the government of Bangladesh has taken some major steps such as i) the formation of a national COVID-19 response committee headed by the Minister for Health; ii) cancellation of the grand inauguration ceremony of the father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s birth centenary celebration programs; iii) closure of all government and private offices; iv) closure of all educational institutions of the country v) ban of all public gathering and transportation services; vi) suspension of all domestic and international flights; vii) deployment of the law enforcement agencies including army and police to ensure that people maintain social distancing and to motivate the people; viii) cancellation of celebration of Bangla New Year on April 14; ix) cancellation of celebration program of the of the 50 th Independence Day; x) operating the ‘Rice for TK. 10 per KG (approx. 12 cents/kg rice)’ program for the needy people throughout the country; and xi) extension of social safety net to the poor and distressed people of the society. An addition, civil society, philanthropists and richer people of the society are generously supporting the poor community of the society by offering foods and money. 17-21 The government has also declared several stimulus packages of the total amount of approximately USD 11.90 billion for the business industries including small and medium enterprises, cottage industries; for doctors, nurses, homeless people and social safety, and for the agricultural sector to ensure food and nutritional security of the country ( Table 1 ). 20 , 22-24 The diagnostic approach of COVID-19 patients in Bangladesh is of total instability and lack of coordination, and therefore proper solution was not found in last five months since outbreak of this disease. The health care management system of Bangladesh is not perfect, which has lots of weaknesses and problems. When a health emergency of an immense proportion like that of COVID-19 pandemic gripped the country, it seems that the health system management has lost its way. Most of the time, the health sector policymakers were talking about all kind of preparations being already taken to tackle the pandemic COVID-19. However, the lack of coordination among various departments of the government and the absence of proper direction are very evident on the ground. 25 Consequently, the Government has failed to restrict the travelers to enter into the country from the COVID-19 affected countries on time. 10 While the government of Bangladesh needed to establish proper measures to identify people infected with COVID-19, various departments, including those at various airports, were completely disorganized. Only three thermal scanners were mounted in Dhaka international airports, and one in Sylhet and another one in Chittagong international airports to screen a large number of inbound passengers. 26 No disinfection activities were performed and no samples were collected from passenger’s body for performing confirmatory diagnostic tests.

The financial packages announced by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh to tackle the socio-economic losses caused by the lethal COVID-19.

Initially, the government of Bangladesh has declared the enforcement of lockdown for 10 days. After completing the initial lockdown, thousands of service holders, garments workers and other factory workers started heading back from home residences (mostly villages) to major cities, e.g ., Dhaka, Narayanganj, Gajipur, and Chattogram, ignoring the risk of spreading of COVID-19. Later, the government declared extensions of the nationwide lockdown and these people coming from different areas of the country started to head back to their home residences. 10 Notably, when most of the people, including the owners of shops and shopping malls were not in favor of reopening their business, the government permitted ‘limited’ restart of business. 25 Government also allowed migration of thousands of people during Eid festival from COVID-19 hotspots like Dhaka to all over the countries, without maintaining social distance. Collectively, the government has failed to maintain proper lockdown due to the lack of coordination between different authorities and groups. 10 Some corrupt officials of the health ministry embezzled money in the name of buying personal protection equipment (PPE) and standard masks. 27 Of note, more than a dozen of Bangladeshi health service providers were arrested on charges of selling thousands of fake COVID-19 negative certificates. 28

Major challenges of COVID-19 in Bangladesh

Though the government has taken some essential steps, many challenges are still remained to be addressed to effectively tackle this fearsome disease. The major challenges for addressing the COVID-19 in Bangladesh are briefly described as follows.

A limited number of tests

As there is no effective treatment against COVID-19, this is very important to follow test, trace and treatment policies to tackle this highly contagious disease. It is crucial to diagnose the disease at the earliest stage so that immediate contact tracing, isolation of the patient and quarantine of the person(s), who have the possibility to come in contact with the patient, could be ensured. Less than ten thousand daily test capacity is very low in a country of 170 million of population. Until August 11, 2020, Bangladesh has tested only 7,812 samples per million people whereas Russia has tested 212,414 samples ( Figure 2A ). 8 Thus, it is believed that most of the people having COVID-19 were left undetected due to the lower number of tests. But after increasing the number of tests, the number of positive cases is growing high very rapidly in Bangladesh. An extremely limited number of tests is increasing the chances of leaving a higher number of COVID-19 cases undetected in Bangladesh. It is highly recommended to increase the number of tests for suspected and asymptomatic people as soon as possible. Besides this, all identified and suspected cases must be quarantined and treatment should be provided if needed. The government must need to include all research institutes, universities, and other organizations that have the laboratory facility to increase the number of tests for diagnosing COVID-19. Rapid test protocol is yet to be used in Bangladesh for diagnostic purpose of COVID-19. Thus, Bangladesh urgently needs to introduce effective rapid tests such as antigen/antibody-based test protocols to satisfy the skyrocketing demand not only for diagnosis of COVID-19 but also for seroprevalence study to tackle this socially spread fatal disease in a sustainable manner. To tackle this situation, convenient, effective, and specific rapid test methods should be urgently introduced.

Lack of safety equipment

There is inadequate supply of personal protection equipment (PPE), standard masks, and hand gloves to the health service providers, which is one of the major constraints in providing treatment facilities. A significant lack of safety equipment is fueling the concern for frontline health service providers like doctors and nurses. Some corrupt officials of health ministry were involved in importing low quality protective equipments. 27 Some factories were also involved in producing cheap and poor quality antiseptic liquids, face masks, hand gloves and PPE all over Bangladesh. These low quality healthcare products are now posing great risk to public health amid the ongoing pandemic COVID-19. 29 A large number of doctors, nurses, and persons of law enforcing agencies have already diagnosed as COVID-19 patients in the country. Of note, until August 11, 2020, approximately 92 doctors have been died of this disease in Bangladesh. 30 Collectively, the limitation of PPE and inadequate test facilities of real-time RT-PCR are the big challenges for Bangladesh. The government has to make available more test facilities and import high quality of these protective gears immediately.

Lack of skilled human resources

The use of real-time RT-PCR-based-assay to diagnose COVID-19 requires skilled human resources and sophisticated laboratory facilities. To avoid contamination, false-negative results and risks of biological hazards, the government is not allowing all hospitals, and organizations to perform the test. A large number of graduates have been producing annually in the field of biochemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, biotechnology etc. from different universities in Bangladesh. Those graduates can be specially trained to carry out the diagnosis of COVID-19. However, government has failed in making strategy to use these skilled graduates. A national panel of virologists, biotechnologists and molecular biologists should be formed, trained and employed for the diagnosis of COVID-19.

Limited treatment facilities

The diagnosis and treatment facilities of COVID-19 in Bangladesh are very limited. Bangladesh has eight hospital beds per 10,000 people, whereas the USA has 29 beds per 10,000 people and China has 42. Moreover, the government health department of Bangladesh has only 432 ICU beds in total, only 110 of which are placed outside the capital city, Dhaka. The private healthcare sector has additional 737 ICU beds and this is for a population of 170 million. 9 , 31 The government has to prepare special hospitals as soon as possible with a sufficient number of ICU beds. Currently, almost all private hospitals and healthcare systems are not accepting any COVID-19 patients. The government should take necessary steps to engage these private organizations to the national mission of combating the COVID-19.

A) Trends in diagnosis of COVID-19 positive cases with number of people tested. Until August 11, 2020, Bangladesh has completed 7,812 tests per million people with 1,598 positive cases per million people. On the other hand, USA, Russia, Italy, Spain and Pakistan has completed large number of test and got increased number of positive cases. The data show that possibility for detection of positive cases is increased when more people are tested for COVID-19. B) The proportion of COVID-19 positive patients detected from total number of people tested in different countries including Bangladesh. The results show that the detection rate of COVID-19 positive cases is the second highest in Bangladesh.

A) The recovery and death rate of COVID-19 patients in some selected countries including Bangladesh. The result reveals that the recovery rate in Bangladesh is lower than that compared to other countries, even though death rate is very low. B) Age-wise distribution of COVID- 19 patients in Bangladesh. The result shows that people aged between 21-50 years are likely to have COVID-19 infection under Bangladesh situation.

In addition to the above-mentioned challenges, the country does not have enough ventilator machines to provide respiratory support to critical COVID-19 patients. Right now, only 1,769 ventilators are available in Bangladesh that means an average of one ventilator available for every 93,273 persons. 9 Also, most of the intensive care beds and ventilators of the country are installed at hospitals in major cities, mostly in Dhaka, which means that people from the remote areas will not be able to get those facilities when they will fall in critical condition. Along with the government, other industrialists and civil societies should to come forward to arrange ICU beds, mechanical ventilators and to import these instruments at the earliest period of time. The government should declare this importation as tax-free.

The private sector of health service department of Bangladesh usually treat a large number of patients everyday both in their indoor and outdoor sections. However, they stopped to deliver their all medical services not only for COVID-19 patients but also for non COVID-19 patients. Of note, some large and leading private hospitals also kept themselves away from the ongoing health emergency. 25 Recently, some private entities have come forward amid the ongoing health emergency. Bashundhara group, country’s leading private organization has allowed to use the Bashundhara Convention Centre to build a 2000-unit hospital which will also have 71 Intensive Care Units (ICU). Likewise, Akij Group has also decided to set up a 301-bed hospital in the Tejgaon area.

Limited number of health service provider

Another big problem in Bangladesh is the fewer number of doctors and nurses in comparison to other countries. Bangladesh has 5 doctors on average per 10,000 people, whereas this number in Italy is 41 doctors. 24 Moreover, many hospitals, some doctors, nurses and other health officials were showing unwillingness to provide treatment for the COVID-19 patients which is unethical and unprofessional from hospital authorities and the doctors as well. They are scared of getting infected as they do not have sufficient protective equipment. In this situation, secondary and tertiary waves of the infection may result in major outbreak which could lead to a huge disaster for the country. To encourage health professionals, the government has declared incentives and health insurance for the doctor, nurses and other frontline workers involved in fighting against the COVID-19. To increase the number of health workers, the government should arrange a quick training for the community health workers who can provide support COVID-19 patients in the remote areas. Recently, the Health Ministry of Bangladesh has appointed 2,000 doctors and 6,000 nurses to fight against the pandemic COVID-19. 32

Community transmission

The COVID-19 is an extremely contagious disease. When the exact source of infection is not clearly identified, it is called community transmission. Many positive cases have been reported already where the infected person neither came from abroad nor any family members have returned from abroad, which suggests that community transmission has taken place. The number of new infected patients and deaths are increasing geometrically. Print, electronic and social media have published a series of the report about suspicious deaths of patients with COVID-19 symptoms. Some of the death cases were recorded at the COVID-19 isolation centers at hospitals at the district level. In due courses, others were denied for providing treatment, even though no tests were performed to confirm the contagion. Test facilities for the COVID-19 diagnosis were mostly centralized to only the IEDCR in the capital city Dhaka for a long time, although patients with suspicious symptoms of COVID-19 were reported throughout the country. However, the government is now arranging the COVID-19 test facilities laboratory at district level, mainly based on the government medical colleges and some research institutes in Bangladesh. Obviously, the number of the test capacities must be increased across the country. In addition, number of test laboratories should be made available in different areas of the country and all the suspected cases of COVID-19 need to be tested immediately. Microbiology, virology, molecular biology, biotechnology and biochemistry laboratories in the universities and medical colleges across the country should be transformed quickly into COVID-19 diagnostic laboratory to confirm the contagion.

Lack of research fund

The universities of Bangladesh have inadequate fund for molecular research, which is reflected on the lower amount of scientific papers published every year in the international open access scientific journals. Due to inadequate facilities including limited modern laboratory equipments, Bangladeshi researchers could not work intensively on this important issue of COVID-19. It is important to note that the developed countries have been investing billions of dollars for research on COVID-19 and other infectious diseases, Bangladeshi researchers depend only on limited resources. Therefore, it is essential to allocate adequate funds from government and non-government sources to perform more research and study about the ongoing COVID-19 and other fatal diseases in Bangladesh.

Large number of vulnerable and disadvantaged people

In Bangladesh, 20% people are poor. Some of them live from hand to mouth. Due to lockdown and staying home, they are now in a vulnerable situation. Special attention has to be paid to protect these vulnerable groups or individuals. They are basically elder people and the disadvantaged, including day-laborers, patients with comorbidities who have a higher risk of getting infected. The elder people are more susceptible because of their low immunity to fight against the disease and therefore, they need more intensive care-based treatment which would require an increased number of ventilators. Some disadvantaged groups, day-laborers are also vulnerable and may cause mass transmission as they need to go outside to earn their daily food items. Again, working-aged people need to go outside to work for maintaining their daily life, which might contribute to getting the infection in those people. Through providing essential support such as daily needs, food, and relief to these groups of disadvantaged people at this crucial time may reduce their sufferings and also reduce their chance of getting infected and infecting others. At this point, the government has to monitor the safety net program very strictly otherwise, there is a chance of misuse of those relief items by immoral local leaders.

Lack of public awareness

As specific drugs and vaccines have not yet been released to prevent or treat COVID-19, strict lockdown of vulnerable places, maintaining social distancing and practicing of cough etiquettes such as by covering coughs and sneezes with disposable tissues or clean clothes by every person are critical to tackle this highly contagious disease. Maintaining social distancing is a very difficult task in a highly populated country like Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, there is no educational program or subjects on public awareness at any level of education including elementary level. However, to combat the dreadful COVID-19, the government has opened a new cell to raise public awareness and to prevent propaganda among people about the fatal effect of COVID-19. 33 Mass media including television media, the Community radios and newspaper are broadcasting several program daily about COVID-19 in different formats like- news, Public Service Announcement (PSA), radio spots, radio talks, magazine, drama, jingles, interview and expert opinions etc. 34 Furthermore, campaigns for increasing public awareness explaining the causes, symptoms, and effects of COVID-19 are being carried out across social media. 35 But many people are not so much conscious about the fatal effect of COVID-19. Young people may be a little bit careless regarding COVID-19. This is why, they are infected at higher rate in Bangladesh. Along with the government’s step, every person should try himself to keep distancing with others, washing hands, not to go outside without any important reason. Special measures should be taken by the print and electronic media by engaging celebrities to promote public awareness to the fatality of the COVID-19 and social distancing.

Large number of Rohingya refugees

A big burden of Bangladesh is to save more than one million Rohingya refugees from the rapidly spreading COVID-19, who are living in the confined conditions in Cox’s Bazar district. 36 The number of ventilators in Cox’s Bazar is very limited where around 3.3 million people are living. 36 If severe community transfer will happen there, many lives will be lost. The number of tests, ventilators and special attention regarding this issue has to be increased at the earliest period of time.

Effects on economy of the country

Bangladesh economy has been improving with GDP growth rate 6-8% in last decade. The present outbreak of COVID-19 poses a serious threat to the growing economy of the country in various ways. Due to sudden disruption in textile and garments manufacturing industries, trades and business of deferent sectors, tourism, supply and marketing channels of the agricultural produces, agricultural production, and unemployment of a huge number of people, the economy of the country is under a serious threat. The government has already declared some stimulus packages for the industrial sector to provide financial support and to boost up the threatened economy. 20 , 22-24

Effects on agricultural sector

Bangladesh is an agrarian country. Although agriculture contributes 14% to the GDP, nearly 70% of the population directly or indirectly depends on agriculture. The COVID-19 interrupted badly the supply chain and marketing of perishable vegetables, fruits, poultry and dairy products. As a result, both producers and consumers are affected. Bangladesh immediate needs to get supports from the deployed army and police forces to reinstate these supply chain and marketing channels. Currently, local boro rice harvesting season in low lying areas ( haor in Bangla) were going on which were under the threat of flash flood. The haor areas are a big basket for rice crops in the country. But due to the outbreak of COVID-19, there was a possible chance of the shortage of laborers in the haor area. The government has made special arrangement to allow labors from other districts to move to the haor areas for rice harvesting. Meanwhile, the government has arranged a good number of the harvester and other facilities to harvest the boro rice before the flash flood inundate the areas. To give good price to the farmers, government should purchase rice, wheat and other food crops and store them in for future food security. After the outbreak of COVID-19 in Bangladesh, some people started to disseminate false propaganda through social networks that coronavirus causing COVID-19 in humans may transmit from the livestock and poultry and their products (meat, milk, and egg). In fact, this meat, milk, and egg are essential to humans for boosting up their immunity which might play pivotal roles in fighting against COVID-19. Due to the disruption of supply chain and change in the mind of consumers, the price of milk, meat, and eggs has drastically been decreased. It should be noted that approximately 20% of the people of Bangladesh directly or indirectly rely on the livestock and poultry sectors for their livelihoods. The government needs to increase public awareness through television, social media, print, and electronic media to eat more meat, fish, and eggs for becoming people healthy which is very important to fight against the COVID-19. Recently, the government has announced a new stimulus package of approximately USD 589 million to provide financial support only to the farmers and some other stimulus packages for boosting crop production. 22 , 23 The distribution of this stimulus funds to the right farmers in the right time is obviously a challenging task. The government has also declared to arrange health checkups, sanitary equipment, vehicles for transportation, resident for the farmers who are willing to go to haor area from harvesting of the boro rice crop. This is definitely a right decision and implementation of this decision would help the country to ensure food security.

The overall current situation of Bangladesh illustrated in above sections clearly reflects that Bangladesh has to overcome huge challenges to tackle the fatal COVID-19 epidemic in the country. Although the effects of environment on dissemination and severity of COVID-19 infection is not clear yet, the current rate of infection and death cases in a tropical delta Bangladesh is low compared to any temperate European and American countries. Further studies on the effect of temperature, humidity, sunlight and other environmental and demographic factors should be investigated to understand the nature of infections.

The COVID-19 poses a serious health and economic problem in a resource-poor highly dense populated country, Bangladesh. The government of Bangladesh has taken many initiatives such as diagnosis of suspected cases, quarantine of doubted people and isolation of infected patients, local or regional lockdown, increasing public awareness and social distancing to combat the COVID- 19. Furthermore, the government has announced many financial stimulus packages for industries, agricultural production, and daily workers. However, lack of facilities for testing required number of suspected samples, scarcity of diagnostic kits, insufficient PPE, ICU, and ventilators in the hospitals, limited number of health workers along with public unawareness are the major challenges for this developing nation for combating the COVID-19. Therefore, the government should take the necessary actions to address these challenges and ensure public health. At the same time, the government also needs to use rapid detection kit for diagnostic purpose and import PPE, ventilators, and ICU beds on an urgent basis to fight against lethal COVID-19. Furthermore, the government should order mandatory lockdown in vulnerable places. The government also needs to allocate sufficient research funds to conduct research on COVID-19. Moreover, it is needed to circulate the news and instruction continuously regarding COVID-19 to increase public awareness. Along with the government, people also must need to maintain social distancing, personal awareness, personal hygiene, self-quarantine condition and to obey the rules of the country and WHO as well.

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Adultery is generally considered as intrusion in the marital right. Besides religious, social and other moral values, it is a punishable offence under the Penal Code, 1860. This write-up is an endeavour to recheck the efficiency of the provision of…

Continue Reading Adultery Law in Bangladesh: A Reassessment for Contemporary Application

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Research Monograph On Topics: Human Rights in Bangladesh Submitted to: Submitted By

Related Papers

Peak Journals

In the contemporary world, human rights have become dominant ideology as it received almost universal recognition by all societies and people of all creeds. Human rights are now considered as sine qua non for the holistic development of human personality. Human dignity and autonomy remain the essence of human rights. Indivisibility and unity of the human person in the physical, intellectual and spiritual sense serves the main philosophical basis upon which human rights are premised. The quest for human rights and human dignity is universal. From a philosophical perspective, the concept of dignity derives from reason and autonomy of human being. Thus, the realisation of human rights eventually safeguards human dignity. In this paper, an attempt will be made to annotate the nature, feature and enforcement of human rights and compare them with the existing situation in Bangladesh. Key words: Human rights, judicial activism, judicial enforcement, ICCPR, ICESCR, UDHR.

Haseeb Ansari

Proceedings of the International Session on Factors of Regional Extensive Development (FRED 2019)

Anna Shutaleva

Journal of Human Rights

Micheline Ishay

QUEST JOURNALS

The belief that everyone, by virtue of her or his humanity, is entitled to certain human rights is fairly new. Its roots, however, lie in earlier tradition and documents of many cultures; it took the catalyst of World War II to propel human rights onto the global stage and into the global conscience. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed in 1948, provided a framework for a series of international human right conventions. Human Rights involve both rights and obligations. State shoulder responsibilities and duties under International law to respect, to protect and to fulfilled human rights. The main aim of the study is to explore the historical development of Human Rights and analyze the various instruments. The data for this study was collected from several articles, books and related documents regarding Human Rights.

muhajeb amina

The International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Invention

Enya Nwocha

This paper is a study of the conceptual dimensions of human rights gleaned from the writings of scholars and jurists, judicial precedent, and domestic and international human rights instruments, particularly under the United Nations System. Human rights have become an international subject and have today attained the status of a jus cogens rule of international law. The need to determine and clarify the history and dynamics of this subject has given impetus and inspiration to this paper. Applying a theoretical and doctrinal methodology, the paper set out to appraise the different dimensions, and for that matter ramifications, to the concept of human rights and how they affect our everyday life. The paper found, among other things, that human rights law and its observance are much more entrenched at the international forum than in domestic jurisdictions. The paper concluded that human rights issues are no longer a matter of domestic affairs of any nation in the light of extant intern...

International Journal of Sciences

sheriff Ghali Ibrahim

IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science

Faheem Iqbal Shayiq

Marek Piechowiak

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