effective teaching strategies research paper

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Effective Teaching Methods in Higher Education: Requirements and Barriers

Nahid shirani bidabadi.

1 Psychology and Educational Sciences School, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran;

AHMMADREZA NASR ISFAHANI

Amir rouhollahi.

2 Department of English, Management and Information School, Isfahan University of Medical Science, Isfahan, Iran;

ROYA KHALILI

3 Quality Improvement in Clinical Education Research Center, Education Development Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Introduction:

Teaching is one of the main components in educational planning which is a key factor in conducting educational plans. Despite the importance of good teaching, the outcomes are far from ideal. The present qualitative study aimed to investigate effective teaching in higher education in Iran based on the experiences of best professors in the country and the best local professors of Isfahan University of Technology.

This qualitative content analysis study was conducted through purposeful sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten faculty members (3 of them from the best professors in the country and 7 from the best local professors). Content analysis was performed by MAXQDA software. The codes, categories and themes were explored through an inductive process that began from semantic units or direct quotations to general themes.

According to the results of this study, the best teaching approach is the mixed method (student-centered together with teacher-centered) plus educational planning and previous readiness. But whenever the teachers can teach using this method confront with some barriers and requirements; some of these requirements are prerequisite in professors' behavior and some of these are prerequisite in professors’ outlook. Also, there are some major barriers, some of which are associated with the professors’ operation and others are related to laws and regulations. Implications of these findings for teachers’ preparation in education are discussed.

Conclusion:

In the present study, it was illustrated that a good teaching method helps the students to question their preconceptions, and motivates them to learn, by putting them in a situation in which they come to see themselves as the authors of answers, as the agents of responsibility for change. But training through this method has some barriers and requirements. To have an effective teaching; the faculty members of the universities should be awarded of these barriers and requirements as a way to improve teaching quality. The nationally and locally recognized professors are good leaders in providing ideas, insight, and the best strategies to educators who are passionate for effective teaching in the higher education. Finally, it is supposed that there is an important role for nationally and locally recognized professors in higher education to become more involved in the regulation of teaching rules.

Introduction

Rapid changes of modern world have caused the Higher Education System to face a great variety of challenges. Therefore, training more eager, thoughtful individuals in interdisciplinary fields is required ( 1 ). Thus, research and exploration to figure out useful and effective teaching and learning methods are one of the most important necessities of educational systems ( 2 ); Professors have a determining role in training such people in the mentioned field ( 3 ). A university is a place where new ideas germinate; roots strike and grow tall and sturdy. It is a unique space, which covers the entire universe of knowledge. It is a place where creative minds converge, interact with each other and construct visions of new realities. Established notions of truth are challenged in the pursuit of knowledge. To be able to do all this, getting help from experienced teachers can be very useful and effective.

Given the education quality, attention to students’ education as a main product that is expected from education quality system is of much greater demand in comparison to the past. There has always been emphasis on equal attention to research and teaching quality and establishing a bond between these two before making any decision; however, studies show that the already given attention to research in universities does not meet the educational quality requirements.

Attention to this task in higher education is considered as a major one, so in their instruction, educators must pay attention to learners and learning approach; along with these two factors, the educators should move forward to attain new teaching approaches. In the traditional system, instruction was teacher-centered and the students’ needs and interests were not considered. This is when students’ instruction must change into a method in which their needs are considered and as a result of the mentioned method active behavior change occurs in them ( 4 ). Moreover, a large number of graduated students especially bachelor holders do not feel ready enough to work in their related fields ( 5 ). Being dissatisfied with the status quo at any academic institution and then making decision to improve it require much research and assistance from the experts and pioneers of that institute. Giving the aforementioned are necessary, especially in present community of Iran; it seems that no qualitative study has ever been carried out in this area drawing on in-depth reports of recognized university faculties; therefore, in the present study the new global student-centered methods are firstly studied and to explore the ideas of experienced university faculties, some class observations and interviews were done. Then, efficient teaching method and its barriers and requirements were investigated because the faculty ideas about teaching method could be itemized just through a qualitative study.

The study was conducted with a qualitative method using content analysis approach. The design is appropriate for this study because it allows the participants to describe their experiences focusing on factors that may improve the quality of teaching in their own words. Key participants in purposeful sampling consist of three nationally recognized professors introduced based on the criteria of Ministry of Science, Research and Technology (based on education, research, executive and cultural qualifications) and seven other locally recognized professors according to Isfahan University of Technology standards and students votes. The purposive sampling continued until the saturation was reached, i.e. no further information was obtained for the given concept. All the participants had a teaching experience of above 10 years ( Table 1 ). They were first identified and after making appointments, they were briefed about the purpose of the study and they expressed their consent for the interview to be performed. The lack of female nationally recognized professors among respondents (due to lack of them) are restrictions of this research.

The participants’ characteristics

The data were collected using semi-structured in-depth interviews. Interviews began with general topics, such as “Talk about your experiences in effective teaching” and then the participants were asked to describe their perceptions of their expertise. Probing questions were also used to deeply explore conditions, processes, and other factors that the participants recognized as significant. The interview process was largely dependent on the questions that arose in the interaction between the interviewer and interviewees.

In the process of the study, informed consent was obtained from all the participants and they were ensured of the anonymity of their responses and that the audio files will be removed after use; then, after obtaining permission from the participants, the interview was recorded and transcribed verbatim immediately. The interviews were conducted in a private and quiet place and in convenient time. Then, verification of documents and coordination for subsequent interviews were done. The interviews lasted for one hour on average and each interview was conducted in one session with the interviewer’s notes or memos and field notes. Another method of data collection in this study was an unstructured observation in the educational setting. The investigator observed the method of interactions among faculty members and students. The interviews were conducted from November 2014 to April 2015. Each participant was interviewed for one or two sessions. The mean duration of the interviews was 60 minutes. To analyze the data, we used MAXQDA software (version 10, package series) for indexing and charting. Also, we used qualitative content analysis with a conventional approach to analyze the data. The data of the study were directly collected from the experiences of the study participants. The codes, categories and themes were explored through an inductive process, in which the researchers moved from specific to general. The consequently formulated concepts or categories were representative of the participants’ experiences. In content analysis at first, semantic units should be specified, and then the related codes should be extracted and categorized based on their similarities. Finally, in the case of having a high degree of abstraction, the themes can be determined. In the conventional approach, the use of predetermined classes is avoided and classes and their names are allowed to directly come out of the data. To do so, we read the manuscripts and listened to the recorded data for several times until an overall sense was attained. Then, the manuscript was read word by word and the codes were extracted. At the same time, the interviews were continued with other participants and coding of the texts was continued and sub-codes were categorized within the general topics. Then, the codes were classified in categories based on their similarities ( 6 ). Finally, by providing a comprehensive description about the topics, participants, data collection and analysis procedures and limitations of the study, we intend to create transferability so that other researchers clearly follow the research process taken by the researchers.

To improve the accuracy and the rigor of the findings, Lincoln and Cuba’s criteria, including credibility, dependability, conformability, and transferability, were used ( 7 ). To ensure the accuracy of the data, peer review, the researchers’ acceptability, and the long and continuing evaluation through in-depth, prolonged, and repeated interviews and the colleague’s comments must be used ( 8 ). In addition, the findings were repeatedly assessed and checked by supervisors (expert checking) ( 9 ). In this research, the researcher tried to increase the credibility of the data by keeping prolonged engagement in the process of data collection. Then, the accuracy of data analysis was confirmed by one specialist in the field of qualitative research and original codes were checked by some participants to compare the findings with the participants’ experiences. To increase the dependability and conformability of data, maximum variation was observed in the sampling. In addition, to increase the power of data transferability, adequate description of the data was provided in the study for critical review of the findings by other researchers.

Ethical considerations

The aim of the research and interview method was explained to the participants and in the process of the study, informed consent was obtained from all the participants and they were ensured of the anonymity of their responses and that audio files were removed after use. Informed consent for interview and its recording was obtained.

The mean age of faculty members in this study was 54.8 years and all of them were married. According to the results of the study, the best teaching approach was the mixed method one (student-centered with teacher-centered) plus educational planning and previous readiness. Meaning units expressed by professors were divided into 19 codes, 4 categories and 2 themes. In the present study, regarding the Effective Teaching Method in Higher Education, Requirements and Barriers, the experiences and perceptions of general practitioners were explored. As presented in Table 2 , according to data analysis, two themes containing several major categories and codes were extracted. Each code and category is described in more details below.

Examples of extracting codes, categories and themes from raw data

New teaching methods and barriers to the use of these methods

Teachers participating in this study believed that teaching and learning in higher education is a shared process, with responsibilities on both student and teacher to contribute to their success. Within this shared process, higher education must engage the students in questioning their preconceived ideas and their models of how the world works, so that they can reach a higher level of understanding. But students are not always equipped with this challenge, nor are all of them driven by a desire to understand and apply knowledge, but all too often aspire merely to survive the course, or to learn only procedurally in order to get the highest possible marks before rapidly moving on to the next subject. The best teaching helps the students to question their preconceptions, and motivates them to learn, by putting them in a situation in which their existing model does not work and in which they come to see themselves as authors of answers, as agents of responsibility for change. That means, the students need to be faced with problems which they think are important. Also, they believed that most of the developed countries are attempting to use new teaching methods, such as student-centered active methods, problem-based and project-based approaches in education. For example, the faculty number 3 said:

“In a project called EPS (European Project Semester), students come together and work on interdisciplinary issues in international teams. It is a very interesting technique to arouse interest, motivate students, and enhance their skills (Faculty member No. 3).”

The faculty number 8 noted another project-based teaching method that is used nowadays especially to promote education in software engineering and informatics is FLOSS (Free/Liber Open Source Software). In recent years, this project was used to empower the students. They will be allowed to accept the roles in a project and, therefore, deeply engage in the process of software development.

In Iran, many studies have been conducted about new teaching methods. For example, studies by Momeni Danaie ( 10 ), Noroozi ( 11 ), and Zarshenas ( 12 ), have shown various required methods of teaching. They have also concluded that pure lecture, regardless of any feedback ensuring the students learning, have lost their effectiveness. The problem-oriented approach in addition to improving communication skills among students not only increased development of critical thinking but also promoted study skills and an interest in their learning ( 12 ).

In this study, the professors noted that there are some barriers to effective teaching that are mentioned below:

As to the use of new methods of training such as problem-based methods or project-based approach, faculty members No. 4 and 9 remarked that "The need for student-centered teaching is obvious but for some reasons, such as the requirement in the teaching curriculum and the large volume of materials and resources, using these methods is not feasible completely" (Faculty member No. 9).

"If at least in the form of teacher evaluation, some questions were allocated to the use of project-based and problem-based approaches, teachers would try to use them further" (Faculty member No. 2).

The faculty members No. 6 and 7 believed that the lack of motivation in students and the lack of access to educational assistants are considered the reasons for neglecting these methods.

"I think one of the ways that can make student-centered education possible is employing educational assistants (Faculty member No. 6).”

"If each professor could attend crowded classes with two or three assistants, they could divide the class into some groups and assign more practical teamwork while they were carefully supervised (Faculty member No. 7).”

Requirements related to faculty outlook in an effective teaching

Having a successful and effective teaching that creates long-term learning on the part of the students will require certain feelings and attitudes of the teachers. These attitudes and emotions strongly influence their behavior and teaching. In this section, the attitudes of successful teachers are discussed.

Coordination with the overall organizational strategies will allow the educational system to move toward special opportunities for innovation based on the guidelines ( 13 ). The participants, 4, 3, 5 and 8 know that teaching effectively makes sense if the efforts of the professors are aligned with the goals of university.

"If faculty members know themselves as an inseparable part of the university, and proud of their employment in the university and try to promote the aim of training educated people with a high level of scientific expertise of university, it will become their goal, too. Thus, they will try as much as possible to attain this goal" (Faculty member No.9).

When a person begins to learn, according to the value of hope theory, he must feel this is an important learning and believe that he will succeed. Since the feeling of being successful will encourage individuals to learn, you should know that teachers have an important role in this sense ( 14 ). The interviewees’ number 1, 2, 3 and 10 considered factors like interest in youth, trust in ability and respect, as motivating factors for students.

Masters 7 and 8 signified that a master had a holistic and systematic view, determined the position of the teaching subject in a field or in the entire course, know general application of issues and determines them for students, and try to teach interdisciplinary topics. Interviewee No. 5 believed that: "Masters should be aware of the fact that these students are the future of the country and in addition to knowledge, they should provide them with the right attitude and vision" (Faculty member No.5).

Participants No. 2, 4 and 8 considered the faculty members’ passion to teach a lesson as responsible and believed that: "If the a teacher is interested in his field, he/she devotes more time to study the scriptures of his field and regularly updates his information; this awareness in his teaching and its influence on students is also very effective" (Faculty member No. 8).

Requirements related to the behavior and performance of faculty members in effective teaching

Teachers have to focus on mental differences, interest, and sense of belonging, emotional stability, practical experience and scientific level of students in training. Class curriculum planning includes preparation, effective transition of content, and the use of learning and evaluating teaching ( 15 ).

Given the current study subjects’ ideas, the following functional requirements for successful teaching in higher education can be proposed.

According to Choi and Pucker, the most important role of teachers is planning and controlling the educational process for students to be able to achieve a comprehensive learning ( 16 ).

"The fact that many teachers don’t have a predetermined plan on how to teach, and just collect what they should teach in a meeting is one reason for the lack of creativity in teaching" Faculty member No.4).

Klug and colleagues in an article entitled “teaching and learning in education” raise some questions and want the faculty members to ask themselves these questions regularly.

1- How to increase the students' motivation.

2- How to help students feel confident in solving problems.

3- How to teach students to plan their learning activities.

4- How to help them to carry out self-assessment at the end of each lesson.

5- How to encourage the students to motivate them for future work.

6- How I can give feedback to the students and inform them about their individual learning ( 14 ).

Every five faculty members who were interviewed cited the need to explain the lessons in plain language, give feedback to students, and explain the causes and reasons of issues.

"I always pay attention to my role as a model with regular self-assessment; I'm trying to teach this main issue to my students" (Faculty member No. 9).

Improving the quality of learning through the promotion of education, using pre-organizers and conceptual map, emphasizing the student-centered learning and developing the skills needed for employment are the strategies outlined in lifelong learning, particularly in higher education ( 17 ).

"I always give a five to ten-minute summary of the last topic to students at first; if possible, I build up the new lesson upon the previous one" (Faculty member No. 4).

The belief that creative talent is universal and it will be strengthened with appropriate programs is a piece of evidence to prove that innovative features of the programs should be attended to continually ( 18 ). Certainly, in addition to the enumerated powers, appropriate fields should be provided to design new ideas with confidence and purposeful orientation. Otherwise, in the absence of favorable conditions and lack of proper motivations, it will be difficult to apply new ideas ( 19 ). Teacher’s No. 3, 5 and 7 emphasized encouraging the students for creativity: "I always encourage the students to be creative when I teach a topic; for example, after teaching, I express some vague hints and undiscovered issues and ask them what the second move is to improve that process" (Faculty member No.3).

Senior instructors try to engage in self-management and consultation, tracking their usage of classroom management skills and developing action plans to modify their practices based on data. Through consultation, instructors work with their colleagues to collect and implement data to gauge the students’ strengths and weaknesses, and then use protocols to turn the weaknesses into strengths. The most effective teachers monitor progress and assess how their changed practices have impacted the students’ outcomes ( 20 ).

"It is important that what is taught be relevant to the students' career; however, in the future with the same information they have learned in university, they want to work in the industry of their country" (Faculty member No.1).

Skills in documenting the results of the process of teaching-learning cannot only facilitate management in terms of studying the records, but also provides easier access to up to date information ( 21 ). Faculty members No. 7 and 3 stressed the need for documenting learning experiences by faculty.

"I have a notebook in my office that I usually refer to after each class. Then, I write down every successful strategy that was highly regarded by students that day" (Faculty member No.3).

Developing a satisfactory interaction with students

To connect with students and impact their lives personally and professionally, teachers must be student-centered and demonstrate respect for their background, ideologies, beliefs, and learning styles. The best instructors use differentiated instruction, display cultural sensitivity, accentuate open communication, offer positive feedback on the students’ academic performance ( 20 ), and foster student growth by allowing them to resubmit assignments prior to assigning a grade ( 22 ).

"I pay attention to every single student in my class and every time when I see a student in class is not focused on a few consecutive sessions, I ask about his lack of focus and I help him solve his problem" (Faculty member No. 5).

The limitation in this research was little access to other nationally recognized university faculty members; also their tight schedule was among other limitations in this study that kept us several times from interviewing such faculties. To overcome such a problem, they were briefed about the importance of this study and then some appointments were set with them.

This study revealed the effective teaching methods, requirements and barriers in Iranian Higher Education. Teachers participating in this study believed that teaching and learning in higher education is a shared process, with responsibilities on both student and teacher to contribute to their success. Within this shared process, higher education must engage the students in questioning their preconceived ideas and their models of how the world works, so that they can reach a higher level of understanding. They believed that to grow successful people to deal with the challenges in evolving the society, most developed countries are attempting to use new teaching methods in higher education. All these methods are student-centered and are the result of pivotal projects. Research conducted by Momeni Danaei and colleagues also showed that using a combination of various teaching methods together will lead to more effective learning while implementing just one teaching model cannot effectively promote learning ( 10 ). However, based on the faculty member’s experiences, effective teaching methods in higher education have some requirements and barriers.

In this study, barriers according to codes were divided two major categories: professor-related barriers and regulation-related ones; for these reasons, the complete use of these methods is not possible. However, teachers who are aware of the necessity of engaging the student for a better understanding of their content try to use this method as a combination that is class speech presentation and involving students in teaching and learning. This result is consistent with the research findings of Momeni Danaei and colleagues ( 10 ), Zarshenas et al. ( 12 ) and Noroozi ( 11 ).

Using student-centered methods in higher education needs some requirements that according to faculty members who were interviewed, and according to the codes, such requirements for effective teaching can be divided into two categories: First, things to exist in the outlook of faculties about the students and faculties' responsibility towards them, to guide them towards effective teaching methods, the most important of which are adaptation to the organizational strategies, interest in the students and trust in their abilities, systemic approach in higher education, and interest in their discipline.

Second, the necessary requirements should exist in the faculties’ behavior to make their teaching methods more effective. This category emerged from some codes, including having lesson plan; using appropriate educational strategies and metacognition training and self-assessment of students during teaching; using concept and pre-organizer maps in training, knowledge; and explaining how to resolve problems in professional career through teaching discussion, documenting of experience and having satisfactory interaction with the students. This result is consistent with the findings of Klug et al., Byun et al., and Khanyfr et al. ( 14 , 17 , 18 ).

In addition and according to the results, we can conclude that a major challenge for universities, especially at a time of resource constraints, is to organize teaching so as to maximize learning effectiveness. As mentioned earlier, a major barrier to change is the fact that most faculty members are not trained for their teaching role and are largely ignorant of the research literature on effective pedagogy. These findings are in agreement with the research of Knapper, indicating that the best ideas for effective teaching include: Teaching methods that focus on the students’ activity and task performance rather than just acquisition of facts; Opportunities for meaningful personal interaction between the students and teachers; Opportunities for collaborative team learning; More authentic methods of assessment that stress task performance in naturalistic situations, preferably including elements of peer and self-assessment; Making learning processes more explicit, and encouraging the students to reflect on the way they learn; Learning tasks that encourage integration of information and skills from different fields ( 23 ).

In the present study, it was illustrated that a good teaching method helps the students to question their preconceptions, and motivates them to learn, by putting them in a situation in which they come to see themselves as the authors of answers and the agents of responsibility for change. But whenever the teachers can teach by this method, they are faced with some barriers and requirements. Some of these requirements are prerequisite of the professors' behavior and some of these are prerequisite of the professors’ outlook. Also, there are some major barriers some of which are associated with the professors’ behavior and others are related to laws and regulations. Therefore, to have an effective teaching, the faculty members of universities should be aware of these barriers and requirements as a way to improve the teaching quality.

Effective teaching also requires structural changes that can only be brought about by academic leaders. These changes include hiring practices reward structures that recognize the importance of teaching expertise, quality assurance approaches that measure learning processes, outcomes in a much more sophisticated way than routine methods, and changing the way of attaining university accreditation.

The nationally and locally recognized professors are good leaders in providing ideas, insight, and the best strategies to educators who are passionate for effective teaching in the higher education. Finally, it is supposed that there is an important role for nationally and locally recognized professors in higher education to become more involved in the regulation of teaching rules. This will help other university teachers to be familiar with effective teaching and learning procedures. Therefore, curriculum planners and faculty members can improve their teaching methods.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank all research participants of Isfahan University of Technology (faculties) who contributed to this study and spent their time to share their experiences through interviews.

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

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Effective instructional strategies and technology use in blended learning: A case study

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• Volume 26 , pages 6143–6161, ( 2021 )

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This case study explored effective instructional strategies and technology use in blended learning (BL) in a graduate course in the USA. Varied forms of data were collected, including (1) semi-structured interviews with students, (2) mid-term and final course evaluations, (3) two rounds of online debates, (4) four weeks of online reflection journals, and (5) the instructor’s reflections. Thematical analysis and descriptive statistics were conducted to analyze qualitative and quantitative data respectively. Multiple methods were employed to establish trustworthiness of the study. Effective and ineffective instructional strategies and technology uses were identified in BL. The findings indicated that students valued real-time interactions with peers and the instructor. However, inappropriate asynchronous discussions were considered less effective in BL. In addition, immediate feedback from peers and the instructor motivated learners and improved the quality of their work. Learning technologies played a critical role in BL, but the use of learning technologies should be simplified and streamlined. Technical support was essential to reduce learners’ cognitive load.

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1 Introduction

An increasing number of universities are adopting blended learning (BL) (Porter et al., 2014 ), which combines face-to-face (F2F) instruction with online instruction (Bonk & Graham, 2006 ; Voos, 2003 ). As a paradigm shift from teaching to learning (Nunan et al., 2000 ), researchers predicted that BL has the potential to be widely adopted in higher education (Norberg et al.,  2011 ) and to transform F2F learning (Donnelly, 2010 ). Currently, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, BL is likely to increase in various forms around the world (Kim, 2020 ).

Research has found a range of positive effects of BL (Means et al., 2013 ; Vella et al., 2016 ), such as engaging learners (Henrie et al., 2015 ; Owston et al.,  2013 ), reducing dropout rates (López-Pérez et al.,  2011 ), enhancing knowledge construction and problem-solving abilities (Bridges et al.,  2015 ), improving performance (Deschacht & Goeman, 2015 ; Shea & Bidjerano, 2014 ), increasing attendance and satisfaction (Stockwell et al.,  2015 ), and providing a strong sense of community in the learning experiences (Rovai & Jordan, 2004 ). Researchers have also found that effective blended course design and instruction could make students feel connected with others (e.g., Cocquyt et al., 2017 ). In addition to the benefits of BL, some research focused on the affordance of the emerging technologies for collaborative learning (Gan et al.,  2015 ). However, studies also show that technologies could hinder teaching and learning if not used properly (Bower et al., 2015 ; Park & Bonk, 2007 ). Understanding the specific strategies and technology use will be critical to the design of effective BL.

Despite its proven and potential advantages, more research on effective instructional strategies in BL is imperative. This study investigated both instructional strategies and technology uses in BL in a graduate course in the USA. It intended to inform researchers and practitioners of effective instructional strategies in BL and to help leverage learning technologies in blended courses.

2 Literature review

2.1 blended learning.

BL is a type of delivery mode that integrates both F2F and online instructions (Bonk & Graham, 2006 ; Graham, 2004 ). Online instruction through synchronous or asynchronous communications is supported with emerging learning technologies (Norberg et al., 2011 ), so, to succeed in such an environment, students must be comfortable using the technologies (Holley & Oliver, 2010 ; Song et al.,  2004 ). However, not all students are familiar with all learning technologies, thus technical support is essential in BL (Graham, 2004 ; Johnson, 2017 ). In addition, scholars (e.g., Lee et al., 2011 ) believe that effective technical support can positively influence students’ learning satisfaction. Students who are more familiar with learning technologies are also found more active in learning activities (Min, 2010 ).

Research has identified diverse advantages of BL. For example, Graham and colleagues identified three primary benefits of BL: (1) enhancing pedagogy, (2) increasing access and flexibility, and (3) improving cost-efficiency (Graham et al.,  2005 ). Research indicates that BL increases learning effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004 ; Graham, 2013 ; Martínez-Caro & Campuzano-Bolarin, 2011 ), performance (Boyle et al.,  2003 ; Lim & Morris, 2009 ), engagement (Owston et al., 2013 ), attendance (Stockwell et al., 2015 ), and fosters collaboration (So & Brush, 2008 ). For instance, research conducted at the University of Central Florida has found that the success rates for BL were higher than either fully traditional face-to-face or completely online courses (Graham, 2013 ). Some studies also suggest that BL improved students’ knowledge construction and problem-solving skills (Bridges et al., 2015 ). Second, BL has great potentials to increase access and flexibility (Graham, 2006 ; Moskal et al.,  2013 ). With flexibility in time and location for learning (King & Arnold, 2012 ), BL potentially increases access to education (Shea, 2007 ). Last, BL may improve the cost-effectiveness of education (Graham, 2013 ), as it reduces operational costs compared to traditional on-campus learning (Vaughan, 2007 ; Woltering et al.,  2009 ).

2.2 Interactions and discussions in BL

Learning interactions are essential for knowledge acquisition and skill development (Barker, 1994 ). Moore ( 1989 ) categorized three types of interactions, those amongst learners, between learner and instructor, and learner-content interactions. Learner-learner interactions may stimulate two-way collaborative learning (Kuo & Belland, 2016 ; Moore, 1989 ), and they are particularly important in online courses (Anderson, 2008 ). Learner-instructor interactions streamline communications between learner and instructor and also facilitates the delivery of instructions, guidance, and support to learners (Kuo & Belland, 2016 ; Moore, 1989 ). Learner-content interaction is typically one-way communication, in which learners interact with the content (Kuo & Belland, 2016 ; Moore, 1989 ), although emerging technologies have made it possible to dynamically generate highly customized content or learning experiences. Students can interact with peers, instructors, and learning content in BL (Moore, 1989 ), especially through interactive technologies (Anderson, 2008 ) and appropriate pedagogies.

One of the strengths of BL is that both online and face-to-face (F2F) sessions may facilitate ample opportunities for interactions (Fryer & Bovee, 2018 ; Johnson, 2017 ). Evidently, interactions are positively related to learning outcomes and learners’ satisfaction in BL (Kang & Im, 2013 ; Kuo & Belland, 2016 ; Kurucay & Inan, 2017 ; Wei et al.,  2015 ). Particularly, learner-learner interaction is important for their achievement and sense of belongings (Bernard et al., 2009 ; Diep et al., 2017 ), which strengthens a sense of community (Lidstone & Shield, 2010 ).

Successful discussions serve as a powerful instructional strategy in higher education (Ellis & Goodyear, 2010 ; Rovai, 2007 ), as peer discussions encourage students to construct knowledge through active communications (Hamann et al.,  2012 ; Huerta, 2007 ; Vonderwell, 2003 ). While learners demanding emotional or cognitive support would require timely and considerate facilitations from the instructor in BL (Butz et al., 2014 ; Szeto & Cheng, 2016 ). Discussions in BL could happen in either F2F or online sessions or continue in both settings. In F2F discussions, learners could share ideas and receive an immediate response; whereas, online discussions added advantages that could not be achieved in F2F settings (Joubert & Wishart, 2012 ; Richardson & Ice, 2010 ). For example, in online asynchronous discussions, students have more time to read, digest, and reflect upon learning materials, which promotes critical thinking (Putman et al.,  2012 ; Williams & Lahman, 2011 ). However, online discussions, if without sufficient support or stimulus, can be superficial or wordy yet without depth (Angeli et al.,  2003 ; Wallace, 2003 ). Therefore, researchers have proposed different strategies to organize discussions in F2F or online instructions (Guiller et al.,  2008 ). Darabi and Jin ( 2013 ), for example, suggested sharing example posts with students for discussions. However, how to increase interaction and promote effective discussion is still an open question.

2.3 Online debate

Structured debates may increase motivation, enhance critical thinking, and trigger affective communication skills in learners (Alen et al., 2015 ; Howell & Brembeck, 1952 ; Jagger, 2013 ; Liberman et al., 2000 ; Zare & Othman, 2015 ). Participating in debates can enhance learners’ confidence, and promote substantive knowledge and practice skills (Alen et al., 2015 ; Blackmer et al., 2014 ; Doody & Condon, 2012 ; Keller et al.,  2001 ). With time flexibility, online debates also allow extended reflections and autonomy (Mutiaraningrum & Cahyono, 2015 ; Park et al., 2011 ; Weeks, 2013 ). Despite the rich literature on F2F debates, few research is available on online debates for learning (Mitchel, 2019 ). Thus, exploring how to leverage debate in online environment is imperative.

2.4 Feedback in BL

Through learner-learner interactions, learners support each other on academic and non-academic issues (Lee et al., 2011 ). Research indicates that peer interactions and support correlate positively with learning outcomes (Ashwin, 2003 ; Chu & Chu, 2010 ; Lee et al., 2011 ). Peer feedback, a type of learner-learner interaction, invites learners to review their peers’ drafts or work in progress and provides feedback for improvement (Topping et al.,  2000 ). It further encourages learners to make revisions or modifications according to peer feedback (Li et al.,  2010 ; Zhang & Toker, 2011 ). Formative peer-feedback encourages learners to focus on learning rather than grades (Fluckiger et al.,  2010 ). Thus, it enhances the quality of students’ work (Aghaee & Keller, 2016 ) and helps to build a learning community together (Rovai, 2002 ). It is also effective in enhancing knowledge acquisition as found in computer science courses (Venables & Summit, 2003 ). Reportedly, learners value the experience of reviewing others’ work and learning from fellow students (Li et al., 2010 ). Immediate feedback is critical in motivating learners (Denton et al., 2008 ) and increasing learners’ satisfaction (Lee et al., 2011 ). Otherwise, when feedback is delayed or not available, learners may lose motivation (Higgins et al., 2002 ) and miss opportunities to seek alternative strategies for solutions (Earley et al.,  1990 ; Stein & Wanstreet, 2008 ). Therefore, it is vital to explore feedback strategies from both instructor and peers in BL.

The purpose of this study is to investigate effective, as well as ineffective instructional strategies and technology usage in a blended course. The following three research questions guided this study:

In BL, what instructional strategies are more effective or ineffective, and why?

From graduate students’ perspective, what are the advantages and disadvantages of BL?

How can BL leverage learning technologies?

3 Research design

A case study can provide an in-depth and detailed examination of the situation and its contextual conditions (Thomas, 2011 ; Yin, 1994 ). Thus, a mixed-method single case study was designed to explore learners’ experiences in BL within the authentic context.

3.1 Context and participants

The study was conducted in a graduate-level blended course at a public university in the Midwest of the USA in the Fall semester of 2019. This course introduced the foundations of instructional technology. Participants were volunteers recruited from the class, including both male (n = 2) and female (n = 4). Five participants were advanced Ph.D. students, and one was in a certificate program, and they were all majoring in learning design and technology. Participants were non-traditional students with a full-/part- time job while enrolled in the course. All participants had professional experiences as teachers, trainers, or instructional designers. Five of the six participants were native English speakers.

The learning activities in this BL course included paper analyses, online reading reflection journals or discussions, online debates, annotated bibliographies, presentations, and a final exam. The blended course included seven bi-weekly F2F sessions and eight weeks of online sessions. All F2F class meetings were arranged in the evening to accommodate students’ working schedules. In four out of eight online sessions, students were required to read weekly articles related to the topics and to post reading reflection journals in Canvas, a course learning management system (LMS). They were also encouraged to comment on peers’ reading reflection journals.

In addition, between Week 2 and 6, students participated in two rounds of online debates via Nuclino, a free online team collaborative tool with graduate students in a similar course at another university. Five groups of four were formed from the two classes, with two students from each university per group. Students conducted online debates within each group. The two students with the Authors’ role summarized the chapter from the authors’ perspective as well as presented their personal thoughts. Then, the two students from the other university followed the same procedure from the Responders’ perspective. Last, the two students with the Author’s role rejoined the conversation. Only discourses of the consenting participants were analyzed for this study. On Zoom, students also had the opportunity to meet with five guest speakers, who were either the authors of the textbooks or the authors of the readings assigned in the course. In general, each talk lasted 40–50 min, including 10–15 min for questions and answers.

To provide detailed feedback on students’ online discussions and assignments, the instructor used One Drive, an online collaboration tool adopted by the university. In One Drive, the instructor created a folder for each student and uploaded the feedback on the assignments into each folder. In F2F sessions, the instructor summarized students’ achievements and progress from the previous week and then presented new content. To create a personalized learning environment, the instructor used individual student’s names and provided examples that are highly related to students’ education and job backgrounds. After that, students presented their paper analysis, and the rest of the class provided feedback according to the same rubric. To ensure openness and effectiveness of peer feedback, the instructor highlighted that the peer evaluation scores would not be counted toward the final grade and constructive peer feedback was more important than just polite compliments.

3.2 Data sources

Data sources in this study included: (1) semi-structured interviews with six students, (2) mid-term and final course evaluations from seven students, (3) two rounds of online debates, (4) four weeks of online reading reflection journals, and (5) the instructor’s reflections. Six semi-structured interviews were conducted at the end of the semester via Zoom. The interview protocol included eight questions, such as background information of interviewees, the activities that students thought effective or ineffective, the role of technologies, and suggestions on technology use in BL. Each interview lasted approximately 30 min and was audio-recorded (Table 1 ).

The two rounds of online debates of five groups generated 30 discussion posts in total. Each group generated six discussion posts with three posts per round. The first-round of online debate generated 9,397 words, and the second round generated 7,283 words in total.

The online reading reflection journals and comments were posted on Canvas. In each week, students addressed three questions: (1) What are the important ideas in the readings? (2) Why are they important to you? And (3) what are the implications for your research or practice? Students were asked to post their original post, a reading reflection journal, to earn points. They were also encouraged to comment on peers’ posts, while such comments were not graded.

All students anonymously completed a mid-term course evaluation and a final course evaluation during F2F sessions without the instructor’s presence. Qualitative data were collected from the course evaluations and analyzed for this study.

3.3 Data analyses

All qualitative data were analyzed by two researchers to ensure trustworthiness. The researchers used thematical analysis (Braun et al.,  2014 ) to analyze the interviews, online debate and discussion, and the qualitative data from the course evaluations. The interviews were transcribed by the researchers, and first-level member checking was conducted with the interviewees. Once the researchers transcribed the data verbatim (Paulus et al.,  2013 ) and confirmed the transcripts, thematic analysis was conducted. One of the researchers read the interview transcripts and suggested initial codes, categories, and themes, and two of the researchers then discussed them, resolved any disagreements, and finalized coding. The same protocol was followed to analyze online debate discourse and reflection journals.

4.1 Research question 1 (RQ1)

4.1.1 effective strategies.

Students had positive perceptions of the effectiveness of learning in the blended course. In the mid-term evaluation, regarding item “overall, this course has provided an effective learning experience,” students rated 4.3/5. The specific activities favored by students were in-class presentations, discussions, peer-feedback, and paper analyses. Figure  1 shows the activities valued by students from the mid-term evaluation. Regarding the reasons why they thought F2F discussions and presentations effective, they expressed that these activities helped construct knowledge and build a learning community. For instance, in the interview, Lana said, “I would say that the presentations were really helpful for me both planning a presentation and watching my colleagues’ presentations.” Shawn shared a similar opinion in the interview “I would say that to be quite honest, the most effective thing that we did was just talking in class… I really enjoyed the conversation. I felt like because we were a smaller group… But I really acquired knowledge and really tried to listen to what people had to say.” In addition, in the course evaluation, one student mentioned: “I enjoy an interactive class atmosphere that allows us to test ideas and explain our understanding from our different perspectives.” The final course evaluation also supported that students had a positive attitude towards group interaction (M = 4.9). As the instructor of the course, the first author also noticed that students actively participated in the classroom discussion and shared their teaching or instructional design experiences and opinions with each other.

Learning activities that students perceived as effective

Students also perceived peer feedback in F2F sessions as effective. In the course evaluation, a student commented: “I enjoy hearing from my colleagues in the class. I feel like everyone in the class practices this in their daily lives, therefore, I value their feedback. I get more out of the discussion than anything else.” In addition, instructor feedback was also valued by students. Students expressed that “your feedback has been thoughtful and helpful.” The value of instructor feedback was supported by the end-of-course evaluation items: “The instructor provided feedback on my performance within the time frame noted in the syllabus.” (M = 4.9) and “The instructor's feedback on my work was helpful” (M = 4.6).

As to the paper analysis activity, students appreciated it as an opportunity to apply academic skills and to develop deeper understandings. For the paper analysis assignments, students read assigned research papers each week and critically analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of the papers regarding the research purpose, research design, data collection, data analysis, findings, conclusions, and implications. As a student noted in the course evaluation, “the thoughtfulness of the paper analysis is helpful to understanding topics at a deeper level.” Shawn also highlighted it in the interview:

I got the most benefit out of the paper analysis. Man, I did not like doing those. But I will say for the first time ever in all of my classes I actually felt like I was doing academic work, where I actually kind of felt like a researcher. I thought I actually used some skills that I never really used before .

4.1.2 Ineffective strategies

Some students identified the online debates, online discussions, and paper analyses as ineffective strategies (see Fig.  2 ). Students thought that the online debate was ineffective mostly because the rules of the activity limited them in expressing their own thoughts and ideas. In the interview, Lana voiced, “I felt like the online debates with the other school could have been really cool. But they just fell flat because we weren't really debating. We were repeating what had been given to us and basically just summarizing.” Moreover, Cindy said: “I would have preferred a more, you know, an in-person debate, I thought the debate maybe was a misnomer because it wasn't a back-and-forth where we were trying to arrive at a consensus.” In the course evaluation, a student commented, “it was more like a reflection on an article than a debate. It was a great experience collaborating with students from a different university.”

Learning activities that students perceived as ineffective

The analysis of students’ posts in the online debate supported the above claims. Students’ debate was very organized within the group. Students in each group posted six posts in total. However, this organization limited the flexibility of expressing students’ personal thoughts. The instructor reflected on the online debate assignment and noticed that the online debate activities were not well-designed. The online debate should be generated from students’ personal perspectives after the reading, rather than a simple summary of the assigned reading materials. In addition, coordinating among students from two institutions in the asynchronous debate was challenging. If the students from the other university could not finish their part on time, they disrupted the work of the students who were debating with them.

Students’ perceptions of the ineffective online reflection journals/discussions were manifested in their weekly discussions and interviews. Student’s participation in the online reflective journals/discussions decreased as time went by (see Table 2 ). In the first week of the reflective journals/discussions, besides posting their original journals in the discussion forum, students commented on each other’s posts and interacted with peers. However, students were not required to comment on each other’s posts. As the course proceeded, the number of posts and words of posts decreased through four weeks, as indicated in Table 2 . In the interview, Sam explained why he thought it was ineffective:

I didn't feel like I got a lot out of online discussions. I felt that they were better than nothing in terms of learning the material. But they didn't give me the structure that I needed to reflect thoroughly on the reading that we had done .

The paper analysis was considered the most difficult assignment in this course. Two students disliked it and complained that it was difficult and time-consuming. As a student mentioned in the course evaluation, “I actually value the activity; it just takes way too long! I've taken many courses in my life, and this activity has taken the most toll on my emotions.” The instructor noted that this course was the first research-focused course for the graduate students, and thus it would have been better to introduce such a demanding activity with more scaffolding efforts.

Students didn’t like the use of OneDrive for feedback due to the additional cognitive load the technology imposed. They would prefer to minimizing the number of technologies required to succeed in a single course. One student mentioned that “This adds a layer of complexity that is not necessary. It is possible to provide the feedback you give within Canvas.”

4.2 RQ2 From graduate students’ perspective, what are the advantages and disadvantages of BL?

4.2.1 advantages of blended learning.

Participants identified a few advantages of BL, such as learning community, interactions, and immediate feedback. Students valued the learning community they were building tighter in this blended course. Zoe stated that “blended classes create a sense of belonging and give an opportunity to bounce ideas off one another.” Similarly, Lana elaborated that:

Online courses make me feel disconnected from my classmates, whereas with a blended learning situation, you meet occasionally. You get to see people… I felt like in the blended learning environment, I had a chance to get to know my classmates and their strengths. (interviewee transcript A, p2, line 91-94)

In addition, interactions and immediate feedback were other advantages valued by students. In the interview, Sam said, “I think that timeliness of lessons is an advantage in a blended solution, especially if you're going to use synchronous webinars as a part of that blended solution.” Shawn expressed similar thoughts below:

Well, the advantages are the human interaction. The fact that you know when you have an idea or a thought, and you can bounce it off somebody, and they give you feedback within five seconds. It means so much more than if you type up some big paper, you submit it, and then you hear back four or five days later (interviewee transcript B, p3, line166-174)

4.2.2 Disadvantages of blended learning

Participants consistently pointed out a few disadvantages of BL, including both making efforts to attend face-to-face sessions and the various challenges in online learning. Lana expressed the challenges of physically showing up on campus below:

I'd say I'm really fortunate that I have the GRA position as my primary gig. But that's not the norm for most people. For me showing up on campus isn't a big deal. I know for other students, it can be hard to attend classes. (interviewee transcript A, p3, line138-143)

On the contrary, other disadvantages were related to individual learning in online sessions. Sam said: “learners are not physically together [in online sessions]. And by that, I mean adult learners oftentimes learn best from others.” Shawn expressed the motivation perspective of learning on their own “if you're not very motivated intrinsically to just do some of the work on your own, that can be difficult.”

4.3 RQ3 How can BL leverage learning technologies?

The variety of data generated a plethora of suggestions, but of which focused on simplicity and minimalism and offering support. The instructor of the course adopted Canvas, OneDrive, email, and Nuclino for content delivery and communications. Participants stressed that using the least amount of technologies possible is a key to a successful learning experience. Having more than one learning management system only adds complications instead of support. In the interview, Shawn said, “It is important to keep just one mode of communication, for example, Canvas, where all the instructions are provided.” To support students’ learning with technology, instructions are necessary on how to use the technologies deployed in the course at the beginning of the semester. As Zoe said, “You can't have the assumption that everyone knows how to use the technology. There needs to be a little bit more of instruction or simplification [of technology].” Similarly, Cindy stated, “I think it's best if the instructor gives some kind of instructions at the beginning of the semester like how to navigate those technologies and how to use them. I think that would be helpful.” In addition, students suggested that technology use should depend on what is available to students. Linda said:

A lot of our students are rural. They don't have high-speed Internet. They can't do Zoom or WebEx because they just don't have a good width. Yeah, a lot of them still don't have computers at home… It's like you may not be able to use technology. It's gonna really depend on the resources your students have . (interviewee transcript C, p5, line275-283)

5 Discussion

A few instructional strategies were found effective in this study, including class discussions, presentations, peer-feedback, and paper analyses. Some of the asynchronous learning activities were less effective, such as online debates and discussions. Students appreciated BL as it fostered community building, increased interactions and interactivities, and empowered them with immediate feedback. However, F2F and online sessions may be challenging in various ways. For example, it was sometimes uneasy to commute to campus for F2F sessions, while students also needed more guidance on how to succeed in online learning. Students would also like to have simplified and streamlined technology applications in BL, and perhaps more importantly, with sufficient training and timely technical support.

5.1 Effective strategies in BL

Interactions are critical in both F2F and online sessions in blended courses. This study found that F2F interactions in class, such as discussions and presentations, were effective in BL. Students reported that discussions in class helped them construct knowledge through active communications and dialogues from diverse perspectives, which was consistent with previous research (i.e., Hamann et al.,  2012 ; Huerta, 2007 ; Vonderwell, 2003 ). In addition, interactions with peers also strengthened the sense of belonging and community, as supported by previous research as well (e.g., Bernard et al., 2009 ; Diep et al., 2017 ; Lidstone & Shield, 2010 ). Despite the various potential benefits of online discussions (Putman et al.,  2012 ; Williams & Lahman, 2011 ), students considered asynchronous online discussions ineffective in BL. Specifically, the online debate was not successful in this study, partially due to flaws in the design of the activity. Therefore, appropriate design and facilitations of such interactive learning activities are critical in BL (Butz et al., 2014 ; Szeto & Cheng, 2016 ).

Immediate feedback was praised as effective in this study, confirming similar findings from prior studies (Aghaee & Keller, 2016 ; Fluckiger et al., 2010 ). As students provided formative feedback to peers in F2F classes, they were overall satisfied with instant feedback and the enriched learning experiences. Prior resources also acknowledged that immediate feedback could motivate learners (Denton et al., 2008 ) and increase learners’ satisfaction (Lee et al.,  2011 ).

5.2 Technology use in BL

Technology use is critical in BL. Participants in this study were not comfortable with the different technologies utilized in BL, even though they were all advanced graduate students in a learning design and technology program. They suggested simplifying and streamlining the use of technology and would request more technical support in BL. Learning technology can support BL in both F2F and online environments (Norberg et al., 2011 ). However, technology applications in BL should carefully address issues like learner’s preferences, access to technology, and students’ technical competencies. Despite the wide range of available learning technologies, BL should carefully limit students’ cognitive load by simplifying and supporting technology usage (Holley & Oliver, 2010 ; Johnson, 2017 ; Song et al., 2004 ).

5.3 Implications for instructors and students in BL

Instructors should use strategies to increase the interaction among learners and build a learning community in blended courses. In the face-to-face class session, instructors could build a learning community by encouraging students to present their class projects, provide feedback to peers and discuss open-ended issues related to the course topics. In addition, instructors could leverage asynchronous discussions for students’ knowledge construction. However, instructors should provide scaffold and guidance to engage learners in asynchronous discussions.

Regarding technology use in BL, given that technical support can improve students’ satisfaction with the course (Lee et al., 2011 ), instructors should provide appropriate technical support. For example, instructors could create tutorial videos and instructions on using the technology in blended courses. Moreover, instructors should consider students’ learning experience regarding the technology in BL by constantly getting feedback from students.

Students in BL should familiarize themselves with the course learning objectives and the purposes and descriptions of each learning activity. Understanding the rationales behind the course design can help them navigate through the course. In addition, students could consider themselves as active knowledge constructors rather than passive information receivers. Being active learners and taking responsibility for their own learning can help them leverage the resources provided in both face-to-face and online sessions in BL.

6 Limitations and suggestions for future research

A few limitations are noteworthy in this study. First, the study context was limited to a small-sized graduate class in learning design and technology, and thus the findings may not be applicable in other disciplines or at other educational levels. Future research could expand the study in diverse educational settings. Second, the number of interviewees was limited. Thus, instructors and instructional designers should be cautious when applying the findings of this study to larger classes. Third, the interviewer and interviewees were peers with a strong rapport, which must have influenced the research in various ways. To establish trustworthiness, the researchers worked collaboratively to address possible biases and conducted interviews two months after the course had concluded. Fourth, even though the research involved multiple data sources, it did not examine students’ learning outcomes. Future studies could investigate more closely the effect of strategies and technologies on students learning outcomes in BL.

Due to the pandemic, BL will most likely continue and increase in varied forms. This study is therefore particularly meaningful for instructors and instructional designers. Instructors and instructional designers should encourage interactions among learners, provide immediate feedback, leverage peer feedback, and simplify technology usage, and facilitate technology use in blended courses.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to their personal and private nature but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Zhu, M., Berri, S. & Zhang, K. Effective instructional strategies and technology use in blended learning: A case study. Educ Inf Technol 26 , 6143–6161 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10544-w

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Instructional strategies and course design for teaching statistics online: perspectives from online students

• Dazhi Yang 1  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  4 , Article number:  34 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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Teaching online is a different experience from that of teaching in a face-to-face setting. Knowledge and skills developed for teaching face-to-face classes are not adequate preparation for teaching online. It is even more challenging to teach science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) courses completely online because these courses usually require more hands-on activities and live demonstrations. Although the demand for online STEM courses has never been higher, little has been done to develop effective instructional and online course design strategies for teaching STEM courses online. This paper reports the effectiveness of the instructional strategies adopted and the online course design features in a fully online statistics course from the students’ perspectives. The online statistics course was an introductory, quantitative research course that covered common statistical concepts and focused on the application of educational research concepts for graduate students in educational technology. In terms of the statistics concepts covered, the course was similar to an introductory statistics class for students majoring in science, technology, math and engineering (STEM). The participants were mostly K-20 (meaning from kindergarten to college) instructors who had knowledge of instructional strategies.

Data collected from participants’ reflections and course evaluations revealed that a range of instructional strategies and course design features were effective and helped students learn statistics in an online environment. Specifically, case studies, video demonstrations, instructor’s notes, mini projects, and an online discussion forum were most effective. For online course design features, consistent structure, various resources and learning activities, and the application focused course content were found to be effective.

Conclusions

The implications of this study include effective instructional strategies and online course design for application-oriented STEM courses such as physics and engineering. The study results can be used to guide online teaching and learning as well as online course design for instructors, course designers, and students in STEM fields.

Online education, including innovative and responsive online course designs, as well as research on student opportunities to interact with online course content continues to grow in higher education. The widespread use of smartphones and mobile applications make online courses appealing to students who conduct coursework remotely, furthering the concept of learning anywhere and anyplace (Smith 2015 ). The Babson Survey Research Group estimates over 6 million college students are currently enrolled in a distance learning program (Allen and Seaman 2017 ). At community colleges, the online education growth rate of 4.7% in 2014 was more than the college population growth rate (Smith 2015 ). A majority of higher education institutions consider online learning as part of their strategic growth (Allen and Seaman 2015 ). In practice, online courses are increasingly being offered to maximize learning opportunities and reach more students.

The demand for online science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) courses has never been higher, and more STEM instructors are teaching or will be teaching such courses online. However, teaching online is a fundamentally different experience from that of teaching in a face-to-face setting (Davis and Snyder 2012 ; Juan et al. 2011 ). Literature suggests that knowledge and skills developed for teaching face-to-face classes are not adequate preparation for teaching online (Deubel 2008 ). Instructors teaching online often find the experience more difficult and time-consuming (York et al. 2007 ). It is even more challenging to teach STEM and other quantitatively oriented courses completely online because these courses usually require more hands-on activities and live demonstrations (Akdemir 2010 ). For example, teaching an online experimental science course is acknowledged to be difficult (Mosse and Wright 2010 ) due to the required live demonstrations, associated safety concerns, and must-have equipment (e.g., lab supplies). It is also difficult to teach technology, engineering, and math courses completely online (Akdemir 2010 ). Despite these concerns, little has been done to develop effective instructional and online course design strategies for teaching STEM courses online (Akdemir 2010 ).

Instructional strategies, which refer to specific methods and approaches that “provide the conditions under which learning goals will most likely be attained” (Driscoll 2000 , p. 344), are critical factors impacting online learning and learning experiences (Fresen 2005 ; Schaller et al. 2002 ). Few teacher education programs in the USA offer any training in learning theories or teaching pedagogies appropriate for online learning environments (Patrick and Dawley 2009 ). Most faculty members in higher education “have little or no formal training as teachers” and tend to teach the way they were taught (Perrin 2004 , p. 4). Additionally, simple, unaltered adoption of traditional instructional methods while teaching online will not produce the desired outcome (York et al. 2007 ). Untrained and unprepared STEM instructors are sometimes caught in difficult circumstances when they are tasked to teach an online class. This untenable situation may have a dramatic effect on students’ perceptions of online STEM courses.

Research showed that students’ perceptions of their overall learning experience with instructional strategies and online course design not only affected their perceived learning but also their overall satisfaction of an online course (Myers and Schiltz 2012 ). Even if there was no significant difference between online and face-to-face statistics courses in terms of learning gains, there was a difference between students’ perceived learning and learning experience (Summers et al. 2005 ). Although educators agree that math and statistics can be taught online despite their application-based nature (Akdemir 2010 ), little has been done in developing effective instructional strategies for teaching such courses online (Bonk 2001 ). In addition, students’ perceptions and attitudes have not been adequately examined when investigating important indicators of successful learning in online statistics courses (Myers and Schiltz 2012 ).

Most previous studies examining the effectiveness of online statistics courses focused on learning gains (Myers and Schiltz 2012 ). Student perceptions of the instructional strategies adopted in their online courses, including reflections of the online course design, have not been adequately examined in such contexts. As such, this study focused on examining student feedback and perspectives of the effectiveness of the instructional strategies and online course design features adopted in a completely online statistics course. The purpose of this study was to identify the kinds of online instructional strategies and course designs that effectively helped the students learn statistical concepts.

Literature review

Online instructional strategies.

Online instructional strategies refer to the methods and approaches that guide the organization of learning activities, course content, and student engagement in online courses (Bonk and Dennen 2003 ). Posting self-introduction videos at the beginning of an online class so that participants may feel that they know their peers better is an example of an instructional strategy. Despite the lack of available research on effective instructional strategies for teaching STEM courses online, more and more STEM instructors agree that STEM courses can be taught online despite their application-based nature (Akdemir 2010 ; Summers et al. 2005 ).

Strategies frequently adopted in online courses include (1) promoting interactivity through asynchronous and synchronous communication or delivery (Ku et al. 2011 ; Lawton et al. 2012 ); (2) facilitating the application of concepts (Steinberg 2010 ; Strang 2012 ); (3) using video demonstrations, such as screencasts for demonstrating tools and programs (Gemmell et al. 2011 ); and (4) conveying a strong social presence or a sense of belonging to a learning community (Thomas et al. 2008 ; Zhang and Walls 2006 ).

Promoting interaction

Students in online quantitative courses such as statistics have limited access to face-to-face support and have a higher attrition rate than that of face-to-face courses (Ariadurai and Manohanthan 2008 ). The lack of appropriate and deep interaction is a common issue in online courses due to the fact that students and instructors are located in different geological locations (Moore 1991 ). This lack of interaction can easily result in a sense of isolation and frustration and a high dropout rate in online courses (Willging and Johnson 2004 ).

Interaction enables students in online classes to be active and collaborative learners. There are three types of interaction in online courses: student-to-instructor, student-to-content, and student-to-student interaction (Moore 1989 ). Student-to-instructor interaction refers to dialog between students and the instructor, as well as the engagement of the students and instructor in the learning and teaching process (York et al. 2007 ). Student-to-content interaction refers to the amount of substantive interaction occurring between the learner(s) and the content (e.g., texts, audios, and videos). Student-to-student interaction refers to the dialog and exchanges between and/or among different participants in an online course. These interactions affect not only how students perceive their own learning and the overall educational experience but also the perceived quality of the instruction and learning in an online course (Bonk and Cunningham 1998 ). Encouraging students to respond to each other and the instructor in ways that demonstrates critical thinking and application of course concepts can also promote higher level cognitive skills (Davis and Snyder 2012 ; Lawton et al. 2012 ). Students who engage in collaborative learning can better relate new knowledge to knowledge they already possess and reflect on their own viewpoint and those of others to arrive at a more comprehensive understanding of an issue (Miller and Redman 2010 ).

Students may interact with one another and their instructor through synchronous or asynchronous communication. Synchronous communication relies on fixed meetings in real-time and allows concerns to be immediately addressed during the learning process (Ku et al. 2011 ). For example, using Elluminate, a web conferencing program, to deliver a statistics class (i.e., using synchronous communication) was found to be more effective than having a text-based asynchronous communication delivery mode (Myers and Schiltz 2012 ). Asynchronous communication offers more flexibility for students who prefer to work independently and provides more time for students to reflect on their learning. In asynchronous communication, students work at their own pace and typically interact with each other through threaded discussion boards (Ku et al. 2011 ). Asynchronous communication also allows students to reflect on readings and what they are learning from others, elaborate on comments, and post thought-provoking questions to encourage others to think further about a topic. This leads students to further develop their own ideas or consider new ways of thinking (Majeski and Stover 2007 ). However, students may not be satisfied with their instructors’ delayed explanations to their questions, and may not feel that the instructor is approachable, and/or feel at ease in collaborating with their peers with asynchronous communication (Summers et al. 2005 ). Strang ( 2012 ) noted that mathematical-oriented topics are more difficult to learn and teach, and it may be ideal to have both synchronous and asynchronous communication to facilitate hands-on applications and interaction to improve learning. However, considering the reality that many online students seek online courses to avoid fixed meeting times and traveling to campus, it is practical to adopt asynchronous communication for online courses (Huan et al. 2011 ).

Facilitating the application of course concepts

Instructional strategies, such as problem-based learning and case studies, can provide students an opportunity to experiment and share knowledge with their peers online while exploring complex topics and concepts (Steinberg 2010 ; Strang 2012 ). The application of concepts to problem solving can increase engagement in comparison to pure theory. This may be especially important in the case of statistical operation-oriented topics for students who are not mathematic majors (Juan et al. 2011 ; Summers et al. 2005 ). During course development, instructors should make use of different instructional strategies including live presentations, laboratory tutorials and simulations, discussions, and peer collaboration to support learning activity, exploration, and creation that may help students construct their own statistical knowledge (Juan et al. 2011 ). Instructors should place emphasis on mathematical applications instead of abstract theory whenever possible and integrate mathematical and statistical software throughout courses to highlight authentic application of concepts, methods and procedures, and collaborative learning to encourage students to play a more proactive role in their learning (Juan et al. 2011 ). Although these strategies can effectively facilitate application of concepts in online STEM courses, such strategies need careful preparation.

Using video demonstrations

Using video demonstrations can greatly enhance teaching statistics online (Ariadurai and Manohanthan 2008 ; Gemmell et al. 2011 ). Videos allow physical demonstrations of new software and difficult concepts for students, who may struggle with not only statistics content but also how to use statistical software packages on their own (Al-Asfour 2012 ). In an online introductory statistics course, videos demonstrations of SPSS for performing certain statistical tests and procedures can be equivalent to hands-on lab sessions where students practice statistical tests or procedures with SPSS. However, videos must be designed to achieve course objectives and contain the right amount of information for students to comprehend (Huan et al. 2011 ). In order to avoid information overload, the recommended length of effective demonstration videos should be from 3 to 5 min (Miller and Redman 2010 ). In addition, video speed must be made appropriate to suit the learning process; otherwise, it may increase learners’ anxieties. Based on the above discussion, it is recommended that online instructors should consider create their own video instead of relying primarily on videos found on the Internet.

Creating a sense of social presence

Creating a strong sense of social presence or belonging in an online environment is also extremely beneficial for students wrestling with mathematical concepts and procedures (Zhang and Walls 2006 ). There are different ways to help create a good sense of social presence in online courses. First, perceived instructor’s support may influence online student’s emotions and motivation (Kim and Hodges 2012 ). Instructor profiles posted on a course website encourage students to realize that they are connecting with real people and have the desired access to instructor support (Huan et al. 2011 ). Second, the use of humor, encouraging discussion or feedback, and addressing students by name are also helpful (Zhang and Walls 2006 ) for creating a good sense of social presence. Majeski and Stover ( 2007 ) suggest online instructors provide friendly, welcoming posts to keep students up-to-date on course activities. The researchers also suggest instructors should point out areas where improvement may be needed from the students in order to promote interaction within a good learning community. In addition, Majeski and Stover suggest online instructors should identify students new to online learning and e-mail them individually to welcome them to class to promote a good sense of belonging.

In summary, there are instructional strategies for organizing learning activities, course content, and student engagement in online courses. However, most strategies cannot simply be transferred into online courses without modifications. Each of the instructional strategies (methods or approaches) has limitations when being adopted for online courses. To make necessary modifications and adjustments, online STEM instructors need to be informed of online pedagogy research as well as trained in online instruction (Huber and Lowry 2003 ). To date, little has been done in developing effective instructional strategies and online course design techniques for STEM instructors (Bonk 2001 ; Yang 2013 ). As universities, schools, and organizations offer more online courses and online programs, there is an urgent need for research on online pedagogy, especially pedagogical, and discipline-based guidelines for STEM courses that are application-oriented.

• Online course design

Online course design refers to the features that shape the overall structure of the course, including learning activities, sequence of content and communication, and structure of assignments. In most cases, course design drives the instructional strategy adopted in online courses. While some elements of an online course may be predetermined by an institutional template, the presentation and communication of content, resources, and communication preferences or norms can often be structured by the instructor. Institutions may provide outlines or rubrics for instructors to assess their own courses, but instructors make decisions based on the needs of their course. Regardless of instructor competency, content, or student ability, the design of an online course is often among the most powerful factors impacting successful online learning outcomes (Baldwin 2017 ). The following section discusses the general structure of an online course, which refer to online course design features.

Orientation, objectives, and expectations

To design an effective online course, instructors should begin with an organized course orientation including explicit directions including due dates, communication of institutional policies and ethics, and examples of assessments and projects (Robles and Braathen 2002 ; Song et al. 2004 ). A well-organized course orientation helps students navigate the course. For the organization of content, clear course learning objectives are critical to help students identify their preparedness for a course, as well as to assist the instructor’s facilitation of student learning (Bozarth et al. 2004 ). One important component of an online course structure is the conceptual mapping of objectives to assessments, which provides focus for students (Swan et al. 2012 ).

Students may need time to explore the course components, as well as explicit directions regarding expectations of an online course, such as communication norms (netiquette) and collaborative discussions (Moallem 2003 ). Moallem recommends that appropriate behaviors and techniques for online discussions—which may be difficult to self-regulate in text-based, asynchronous interactions—should be modeled by the instructor. As one of the primary modes of online course participation, online discussions and interactions are crucial. Many students new to the online setting may not comprehend the time commitment that is required of asynchronous courses and will need to maintain effective time management strategies to avoid falling behind (Bozarth et al. 2004 ). Students should be expected to know the importance of time management and to make visits to the online course (website) part of a daily routine (Song et al. 2004 ). Clear expectations from the instructor will assist students in managing their course participation and the assessments.

Assessments and engagement

Gaytan and McEwen ( 2007 ) suggest that while effective assessments in online courses may vary, students and instructors perceive that the most effective assessments include frequent, formative assignments, as well as projects, portfolios, peer evaluations, and self-assessments. Embedding formative assessment into lessons can assist instructors in evaluating student progress and inform the delivery and design of other instructional plans and assessments (Robles and Braathen 2002 ). Whenever possible, formative or weekly assignments should deliver immediate information to students (e. g., timed tests and quizzes)—quick, meaningful feedback should be considered among the most crucial communications that benefit both students and instructors (Gaytan and McEwen 2007 ). Frequent communication between students and their instructors, as well as between students and their peers, promotes student engagement in online courses. In addition, effective communication between and among all participants including the instructor helps to create an environment of variety, spontaneity, and self-directed learning (Ausburn 2004 ). Examples of effective communication are e-mail reminders, course announcements, and notes in the gradebook from the instructor. In their interactions with students, instructors should consider the social learning experience of the students and seek to become familiar with student learning preferences and concerns (Diaz and Cartnal 1999 ).

Instructional materials and the use of technology

Instructors can control many elements of an online course, including the presentation of materials and the communication of content. Another important element that affects learner experience, however, may reside in the technology and media being utilized in an online course. Ausburn ( 2004 ) suggests that a learner’s skills and experience with technology may strongly influence his or her feelings of comfort and security unless an instructor’s reassuring presence is demonstrated. The structure and the technological aspect of an effective online course may be complex. However, course design needs to fit with learner needs and perceptions, encourage technology literacy, contribute to self-efficacy, and provide quality communication, all of which have impact on the experience of students (MacDonald and Thompson 2005 ). Online instructors should communicate through course design features that facilitate student access and mobility in an online course, which includes easy navigation, legible, user-friendly screen design, and informative multimedia (MacGregor and Lou 2004 ). The dialog between students and their peers should be developed in many forms––e-mails, chat discussions, synchronous discussions, and even phone calls for complex or imperative needs using an educational technology (Johnson et al. 2000 ). If students and instructors can acknowledge their shared role as educators and learners in an online course, there are opportunities to not only overcome technical difficulties but also create an effective online learning community (Tisdell et al. 2004 ).

Learner support and accessibility

Supporting the learner through environmental or content difficulties is essential for online course design. Lee et al. ( 2011 ) argue that setting up mechanisms and infrastructure to assist students should receive equal consideration to the preparation of the course content. Minimizing issues from the start of the course does not need to be the responsibility of the instructor alone. Institutional resources, such as technical support and tutorials, may be helpful. Providing links or modules that show available course tools or relevant workshop opportunities may also improve student learning experiences with both content and technology (Song et al. 2004 ).

The design stage of an online course is also the time to prepare for the needs of learners with disabilities (Pearson and Koppi 2002 ). An online course should be accessible to individuals with physical, mental, and/or emotional disabilities. In addition to making use of institutional supports and the available features of an online course hosting system (e.g., blackboard and Moodle), instructors should seek to add various course contents. For example, course content that is rich in accessible multimedia or assistive capabilities, including interactive examples and simulations, multimedia applications (such as video recordings or synchronous video conferencing), audio transcripts, language translators, and reference books (Bozarth et al. 2004 ). Weir ( 2005 ) suggests that instructors imagine perceiving their online course content through the eyes, ears, and touch of students who are blind, deaf, or physically impaired while developing course materials. Finally, soliciting student feedback or becoming responsive to student difficulties early in the course will allow the online instructor to reconsider the presentation or implementation of course materials.

Research purpose

Since students’ perception of online course design and their learning experience (e.g., sense of presence) affect learning outcomes and satisfaction with a course (Richardson and Swan 2003 ), it is important to investigate students’ perception and feedback regarding the instructional strategies and course design features in online courses. This study explored effective instructional strategies and course design features in an online statistics class. The specific research question was “What instructional strategies and course design features are perceived to be effective by the students in an online statistic class?”

Research design

This study intended to examine the effectiveness of the instructional strategies and online course design features from the students’ perspective. The participants selected for the study were mostly K-20 instructors who were teaching full-time, while enrolled in the online course. Their teaching background and knowledge of instructional strategies allowed them to provide unique perspectives and feedback related to effective instructional strategies and course design features that contributed to their learning.

Context of the study

The statistics course was an online course for students who were pursuing a graduate degree in Educational Technology at a US urban university. The course had no face-to-face meetings and was hosted in Moodle (an online course management system).

This course covered common statistical concepts and their applications in educational research and focused on not only learning statistics concepts but also the application of the concepts in educational research. The subject content level of this course was similar to a statistics course for undergraduate students majoring in STEM fields. Topics covered included the following: (1) understand common statistical concepts, such as hypothesis testing, critical values and p values, and confidence interval and their applications in educational research; (2) summarize and describe data according to research questions; (3) input, output, and organize data in SPSS; (4) identify and articulate differences between and among common statistical analysis methods, such as t test, chi-square test, and ANOVA; (5) perform and describe descriptive analysis using SPSS; (6) perform and interpret inferential analysis using SPSS; and (7) critique and evaluate common statistical analysis methods in educational research literature.

Course setup

The course was divided into seven modules surrounding the seven topics listed above. Each module except the first one lasted more than 1 week, allowing sufficient time for students to complete each module. Instructional strategies adopted in the online course included an online discussion forum, video demonstrations of statistical tests and procedures in SPSS, case studies of published research articles, mini projects, learning reflections, and other module assignments. The online discussion forum was specifically set up for discussing course content-related questions using the standard forum feature in Moodle. There are standard features and functions (e.g., chat room and messages) within Moodle, and the course designer can activate or choose the features according to his or her needs. A chat room was also set up for students to interact with each other and share non-course content-related discussions, such as posting information about a conference or asking for suggestions related to the purchase of a statistical analysis program. Additionally, the instructor provided her own reading notes of the textbook chapters for the students, focusing on the differences and similarities between two or more related concepts or procedures (e.g., t tests and ANOVA). The instructor’s notes were word documents and embedded in the online course content in each module.

Students were awarded 10 points (around 6% of total grades) for participation in the online discussions. There were 10 SPSS video demonstrations with a length of 3 to 8 min provided by the instructor. Case studies focused on the students’ articulation and justification of research questions, research methodology, data collection, and data analysis in studies published in educational research. Two research studies (one was a quantitative study and the other a mixed-methods study with a quantitative focus) were provided in modules 4 and 6, respectively, for case studies. There were three mini projects that were decomposed from a typical final project, and each focused on one of the three stages of research: forming a research question, determining appropriate data analysis, and collecting data and conducting the analysis using SPSS. The other module assignments consisted of self-tests (multiple choice questions and brief explanations) and selected questions from the textbook, for example, exercises on calculating confidence intervals. The learning reflection asked students to share their learning experience focusing on the instructional strategies (activities) that helped them learn new concepts in statistics.

Data collection and analysis

This online course has been offered annually since 2011, first as a temporary and elective course for students in the Master’s program, with a total of more than 80 enrolled students over the past 6 years. The researcher designed and developed the online course and has been teaching it since 2011. The study collected data from the same reflection prompts in 2013, 2014, and 2016, after it became a permanent and required course for the newly established doctoral program in the researcher’s department, following two rounds of offerings. The main structure of the course design and the instructional strategies adopted roughly remained the same. However, the course requirements and its assignments, especially the mini project, were revised for doctoral students. For example, the mini projects required a comprehensive literature review and justification for the research topic that the students proposed to study in their projects. Data were not collected from 2015 due to the researcher’s sabbatical leave.

The reflection questions asked were as follows:

What was the most effective instructional strategy (such as videos, case study, and mini-projects) that helped you learn?

How do you perceive the instructional strategies adopted or the course design in this online course?

Were there any other instructional strategies which were not adopted in this course and you used on your own?

Were the learning activities (such as video demonstrations) helpful for you to learn the concepts/materials? What kind of activity (activities) did you find the most helpful?

Do you have any other comments for the course? Please be specific.

Participants’ demographic information was also collected from students’ self-introductions. The self-introductions were analyzed so that the participants’ professional backgrounds (teachers or non-teachers) were identified. The reflection data were only collected from the students who were K-20 teachers or instructors. During 2013, students were required to write reflections for each of the six modules and in 2014 and 2016, students were only required to write one final reflection at the end of the course. Reflection data were collected from 39 K-20 teachers or instructors. Each student reflection ranged from one to two single-spaced pages and related to the perceived effect of instructional strategies and online course design. Anonymous, end of semester course evaluation data were also collected.

A deductive approach to code the reflections was adopted (Fereday and Muir-Cochrane 2006 ). The deductive approach was used because the researcher was able to form a three-code scheme ((1) strategies adopted, (2) strategies not adopted but used by students, (3) course design features) based on her years of teaching the course. During the thematic analysis, the researcher was able to look for patterns and themes regarding learners’ perceived effect of instructional strategies adopted as well as the course design features. The course instructor coded all the reflections. A graduate student also coded five reflections and checked her coding with the course instructor. The two coders achieved more than 95% inter-rater agreement. After the coding, the frequencies were tallied.

The analysis outcomes are organized around three categories: (1) effective instructional strategies adopted according to the students, (2) strategies not adopted but used by students on their own, and (3) effective online course design features. Specific examples of students’ reflections are also presented to provide insight of students’ perspectives regarding the research question, as well as explanations of the students’ perspectives regarding the emerged categories. Examples provided for each category and its sub-categories were from different participants.

Effective instructional strategies

According to the students, almost all instructional strategies adopted in the online course were helpful. However, case studies were the most effective in helping students learn the statistics concepts and the applications of the concepts in the online course (Fig.  1 ).

Effective instructional strategies adopted

Case studies were perceived to be the most effective and particularly helpful because they allowed students to apply what they learned as well as to connect their learning in a meaningful way. For example, one student reflected,

“… the case study was a great way to apply our new skills to something real-life. I’ve read so many research articles in the past, but I’ve never quite understood the technical side of the analysis. I thought that …seeing a real-life application in a research study helped to put the pieces together – mostly.”

Another student also wrote about how the case studies connected their learning with the applications of what they had learned:

“I enjoyed completing the case study. I think that these [case studies] assignments allow me to apply what I am learning in class in a meaningful way; a way that contributes to my further growth as a researcher and as a reader of research. … It reminds me that teaching using the context in which the knowledge would be used later was very powerful.”

Case studies were also able to help students achieve a deeper understanding of the newly learned concepts. For example, one student reflected:

“They [case studies] force me to work through the details to the point at which I have an in-depth understanding of the concept and can apply it to an actual situation. Answering the cases questions required me to analyze how the research was performed. … The case studies helped me think critically, especially by thinking and responding to the questions…”

The case studies also provided an opportunity for students to compare their learning and understanding with those of their instructor’s and their peers’ through instructor’s feedback and class discussions. In this sense, case studies were an effective instructional strategy for providing opportunity for self-reflective learning that leads to deeper understanding (Penn et al. 2016 ). For example, one student wrote:

“Case studies have been the most important part of the course for me. I like the problem solving, the sense of a whole and the feeling of acquiring a skill. Most importantly they provided the perfect opportunities to compare my understanding with my professor’s and my peers’ understanding of the same set of questions.”

Following the case studies, video demonstrations of statistical tests and procedures using SPSS were most helpful and effective instructional strategy in the online statistics class. The video demonstrations successfully achieved their intended purpose, teaching students how to perform different statistical procedures in SPSS. It seemed that those video demonstrations effectively replaced a face-to-face, hands-on lab session. For example, a student wrote, “The videos were a life saver with using SPSS. Being able to follow along with someone as they performed all the steps made it much easier to understand this very intimidating program.” In addition, most students agreed that watching a video is much more effective than learning from reading the textbook or a manual for SPSS. For example, one student pointed out: “In most cases, watching a 10-minute video gave me a better understanding than reading a whole chapter in the book.” Interestingly, video demonstrations seemed to be more effective than reading step-by-step instructions and also watching a live demonstration because students could watch recorded demonstrations as much as needed. For example, one student reflected how the video demonstrations helped him,

“I found the video tutorials helpful. I re-viewed them several times to strengthen my understanding. It was nice that the narratives did not just explain what to do, but also why we were doing it and how to interpret the results [output].”

Some students also found that the video demonstrations provided a less intimidating way for them to learn the statistical program of SPSS. This may be due to the fact that students could watch the video demonstrations as much as they needed without worrying about the peer pressure of appearing to fall behind, a situation students might encounter in a face-to-face class. For example, one student reflected:

“The most informative and useful instructional strategy was the videos. As I have gone through this course, I am beginning to look forward to using SPSS. It is not so intimidating to me at this time, which is in large part due to the video demonstrations. I could watch the videos as much as needed just by myself without feeling of dragging down my peers.”

The instructor’s notes emphasizing the key concepts in each chapter and outlining the similarities and differences between and among similar concepts were found to be the third most effective strategy adopted in the course. The instructor’s notes helped students understand key concepts better. For example, one student reflected, “The instructor’s notes were the most helpful for enhancing understanding and emphasizing key points from the book.” Similarly, another student wrote, “Again for me the instructional strategies presented that helped me the most, were the instructional [instructor] notes. The highlighting of core concepts, with clear explanations, aided me in the reading of many chapters...” Some students even gave specific example of where the instructor’s notes helped them the most. For example, one student reflected, “I was struggling to thoroughly understand the difference between the paired and two sample t-tests. The instructor’s notes, particularly, in Chapter 7, were very helpful for understanding the two concepts.”

The instructor’s notes also provided a great guide and acted as an advance organizer (Mayer 1979 ) for students when they started to read the textbook to decide what content was the most important. For example, one student reflected:

“The instructor’s notes helped me a lot. The textbook is good but wordy and I could read it and read it again and still not be able to figure out what was important and what wasn’t. With the instructor’s notes, I could figure out what was important and let go of things that were unimportant which I did not understand fully.”

Some students found that it was even more effective to combine the instructor’s notes with other available resources, such as course assignments. For example, one student described how he used instructor’s notes,

“The instructional strategies that I found most effective were the videos and instructor notes/summaries. During each module I would read the instructor notes, print the assignments, and refer to each often while reading the assigned textbook chapters. Having access to each resource at once was the most helpful in understanding a concept.”

Based on the students’ reflections, instructor’s notes that focused on the similarities and differences of similar concepts were not only necessary but also one of the most valuable instructional strategies that helped students learn the content in an online statistics class.

The mini projects were several small projects that built into a final project throughout the semester based on the progression of the course content. The mini projects enabled the re-visiting of the same project over the semester and were the fourth most effective instructional strategy adopted. The mini projects served as a valuable building process of the final project and provided students sufficient time and opportunities to digest concepts before applying them. They also allowed the instructor an opportunity to provide focused comments and feedback on specific aspects of the final project while the relevant concepts were under discussion. For example, one student reflected,

“The mini-projects helped me the most in the course because they helped me complete the final project in a much better way, quality wise. I really appreciated the feedback that I received on my first mini-project, and I believe that my next two were much more refined and [more] complete projects due to the feedback received previously.”

Some students also commented that the mini projects provided them the opportunity to experience how a research study worked from beginning to end in a less intimidating way. For example, one student reflected:

“I also liked that we built upon our mini-projects throughout the semester, which was the most effective way to complete a final project. It felt so much less intimidating to be able to chunk it out and work on it piece by piece as we gained new knowledge and insight [about research].”

It seems that mini projects were very effective to teach educational research and the applications of statistics concepts. They also helped students complete a final project that involved different building processes and acquiring the knowledge for building a final project in a progressive way.

Nearly two-thirds (25/39) of the participants considered the online discussion forum to be an effective instructional strategy adopted in the online statistics class. The online discussion forum provided a means for students to seek clarification and answers to their questions and also a way to validate their understanding and promote self-reflective learning. For example, one student wrote:

“Being that this is a reflection … I feel that the discussion forum was the most useful. I was very engaged and was glad that I could not only help other students to problem solve why they were getting an error message when doing their Tukey test but that I understand the concepts being presented. It also validated for me that I am coming to a greater understanding in the class as a whole.”

By contributing to the class via responding to their peers’ questions, most students felt that the online discussion forum was helpful for encouraging peer-to-peer and instructor-to-student interaction. For example, one student reflected, “As most of us are social people and we feel the need to connect with each other through our courses, it is nice to talk with each other, and discuss concepts and ask questions via the online discussions even in this statistics class.”

In addition, online discussions also provided some extra motivation and promoted a healthy competition among peers. For example, one student shared:

“I read a forum post from someone about getting all the research situations correct from Chapter 13. That was all it took to motivate me to try to meet his high standard. I’m happy to say I met that challenge and tied him in his score.”

For those students who did not actively participate in the online discussion forum, they also benefited from having a place to review relevant discussions on course content and check their own understanding via self-reflection. One student reflected:

“The null hypothesis is a difficult concept. By the time I came up with questions, I noticed many had been posed on the discussion board. It was more helpful to me to read the comments of others than to interject a similar question. Eventually, I came to understand it.”

It appeared that an online discussion forum was very necessary. It helped the students discuss course-related problems and provided a way for students to check their understanding and learning against that of their peers.

Other strategies students used on their own

Using outside online resources.

Other instructional strategies that were helpful for promoting students conceptual understanding of the statistical content were searching the Internet and using outside relevant resources that were not provided by the instructor. The majority of the students (35/39) used outside resources, such as websites, online videos, and even people to help their learning. The most frequently used outside resources included the Google search engine; the Khan Academy; Research Gate’s Q&A section; iTunes U; and textbooks, such as textbooks on Amazon called Activity-based Statistics and The Cartoon Guide to Statistics .

Some students referred to outside relevant websites when they could not easily make full sense of the required textbook. In fact, more than half of the students mentioned using Google search or external websites and resources in their reflections. The extra research for relevant resources of the course content and reading additional information online or even other textbooks seemed to be one of the most helpful instructional strategies for the students in this online course. For example, one student reflected: “I fully expect to find my own information in many courses, so this was not a concern for me. I do think the textbook was difficult to learn from, which may be why I looked for more outside resources.”

Relevant outside websites, including videos and interpretations of SPSS outputs helped clarify difficult topics and also served to alleviate students’ fear and anxiety towards learning statistics. Some students shared extra resources they found with their peers in the online discussion forum. For example, one student wrote:

“I set up a Diigo site for posting good stats sites and shared the site with my classmates. …I spent a great deal [of time] doing research on the Internet to clarify concepts when I was still uncertain about them, especially for the t-tests.”

However, the use of outside resources may be due to the students’ different backgrounds and/or entry knowledge levels. For example, one student used outside resources because the textbook was difficult for her to understand. Another more advanced student used outside resources due to the lack of depth of the mathematical concepts covered. For example, the more knowledgeable student reflected: “The textbook overlooked the mathematical concepts that underlie the different [statistics] concepts. After reading the text, I relied on online resources from other universities to better understand the mathematical concepts.”

As a result of different backgrounds and the access to different resources, students used a variety of resources. However, the students experienced challenges finding and using outside resources. One challenge was to find the right resource on the exact topic. For example, one student wrote, “The challenge for me was finding the right video about the exact topic I was looking for.” Another challenge was not all resources exactly met the students’ needs. For example, one student wrote, “I think some of the videos [found on the Internet] were focused on “do this” and didn’t add to my understanding of why I was doing what I was doing.” The third challenge was that different sources may use different terminologies for the same or similar concepts. For example, one student reported, “I have found myself using Google to better understand some concepts. However, sometimes, different terms or names have been used by different sources than the terms used by our textbook or instructor. This sometime caused more confusion.”

Practicing textbook examples and chapter problems

More than half of the students (21/39) also tried to figure out the statistical or mathematical process underlying a statistics procedure on their own in order to achieve a better understanding by working out the textbook examples and/or chapter exercises. For example, some students calculated the confidence interval example in the textbook using a pencil and a piece of paper. Working out the textbook examples on their own helped some students understand the concepts better. For example, one student reflected, “I find calculating the statistics by hand gives me a deeper understanding of the statistics since I am forced to work through the data and the resulting variables.” Similarly, working out the chapter problems and exercises on their own helped or reinforced students’ understanding of the statistics concepts or procedures. One student wrote:

“For many of the chapters, I worked most, if not all, of the practice problems at the end of each chapter. Working the practice problems at the end of the chapters helped me to execute and reinforce the statistical concepts presented. Although these were not assigned, I felt as if figuring the statistics by hand often helped me to comprehend the important concepts in the chapters.”

Given more time, more students might have been able and/or willing to work out the textbook examples and the end of chapter practice exercises.

Seeking help from peers, colleagues, and friends

Some students (15/39) also sought out people who were knowledgeable about statistics to help their learning in this online course. For example, one student reflected:

“I have also been working with two other students in the class. Alex and Paul [pseudonyms] have helped me tremendously and I don’t think I would have been able to finish this class without their support. Alex especially helped me to gain the confidence I needed to move forward. … I am very grateful that I didn’t give up.”

Students sought help from various people, including their spouses, friends, and colleagues. For example, one student wrote, “I also sought assistance from two colleagues: A statistics teacher … and a principal who recently completed a doctoral program.” This finding made the researcher wonder if students in a face-to-face class would seek out help from knowledgeable people the same way as those in an online course.

One-to-one phone calls

In addition to e-mails asking for clarifications of course content and weekly assignments, some students (9/39) also contacted the instructor for one-to-one phone calls to help clarify some concepts, such as the dependent vs. independent variables.

It seemed that the majority of students in the online class actively engaged in learning, which was revealed in their thoughtful reflections. The students completed the course tasks assigned by the instructor and also actively sought out extra resources and help during their learning process. Although the outside resources provided students with multiple opportunities to interact and learn the course content, it was not without challenge. Online course instructors need to be conscious of this aspect when designing an online course.

Effective online course design features

For this aspect, the researcher first examined the end of semester course evaluations, specifically the four questions related to most important course structure and learning activities as anonymously reported by 40 students (Table  1 ) . The four course evaluation questions presented in Table 1 related to clear objectives and the alignment between course assessment and objectives and organizations of learning activities (peer collaboration/learning community) in online courses . The course design features covered by the four questions were also determined by the course instructor/designer. Table 1 lists the average means of students’ responses to the four course design questions on a one to five Likert scale with five being the highest score.

Based on the course evaluations, the course objectives were clear and the assessments and course materials were well aligned with course objectives because the weighted averages of students’ responses to the first three questions were 4.3 or more on a scale of one to five. Students’ responses to the peer collaboration question were much lower than those to the other three questions, which again demonstrates the challenge of creating an effective and collaborative learning community in an online STEM course (Bacon and MacKinnon 2016 ).

Next, the researcher coded the 39 reflections for effective course design features. Overall, the students considered the course well designed. Students identified the following course features as being helpful in this course:

Consistent structure of the course

The majority of the students (31/39) viewed the consistent structure and layout of each module’s content as helpful and effective. The consistent structure or layout of each module helped students get familiar with the course as well as ease their fears of statistics. For example, one student wrote:

“I enjoyed the consistency of the course structure. The first module seemed quite difficult and there was a lot content, but because the following modules were very similar I eventually got the hang of things and felt much more comfortable and confident as I knew what was to expect.”

This shows that a consistent course layout with friendly navigation within an online course is very important to keep students oriented and reduce the fear of a topic that is perceived as challenging.

Various resources, assignments, and activities

Some students (28/39) also liked the overall course design because it offered a variety of resources, assignments, and activities. All assignments and activities organized in the course worked cohesively to help students obtain the learning objectives. This aspect was also reflected in the students’ course evaluations regarding the good alignment between course objectives, materials, and assessments. For example, one student reflected:

“I think this class was set up very well. I think the pace, resources, and lessons all worked together cohesively and helped assuage my fears. I appreciated the instructor’s notes throughout each module (what to pay close attention to and what to skim) …. Considering the complexity of the content I could have fallen behind, but the class was set up to provide multiple resources/assignments to study the content and allow us to apply what we learned.”

Similarly, one student wrote, “I enjoyed the flow of the course. The balance between the bookwork [selected chapter exercises], the SPSS exercises, and external assignments [such as case studies] was good.” It seemed that providing different resources, assignments, and activities in an online course can create a combination of ways for students to learn as well as to check if they understood the materials correctly.

The application focus

Some students (27/39) enjoyed the application focus of the course in an introductory statistics course on educational research. For example, one student wrote, “I appreciate the way this course was structured. We had opportunities to be introduced to the material, engage one another in conversation, and then apply our knowledge.” Similarly, another student wrote, “I thoroughly enjoyed the applied statistics. The topic has made me think about things outside of school, especially politics and news reporting of polls.” In regard to how this course was set up differently from a similar course for STEM majors, one student’s quote provided a perfect explanation, “The case studies and mini-projects were very effective for shifting the understanding of concepts into practice. These added an unexpected dimension [application] to what I anticipated to be a basic math course. I appreciated this addition to the coursework.”

Discussions and conclusion

According to the students’ reflections, instructional strategies such as case studies, video demonstration, instructor’s notes, mini projects, and discussion forums were among the most effective instructional strategies. Case studies were perceived to be the most effective instructional strategy in the applied statistics class. This is not surprising considering the application focus of the online statistics class and the virtues of case studies as an instructional strategy, such as bridging “the gap between theory and practice” (Barkley et al. 2005 , p. 182) and allowing students to identify the problem and argue different perspectives.

The specific reason why students perceived case studies to be the most helpful strategy in this online class was that case studies use existing studies as a reference to help students connect their learning and build their own knowledge on all aspects of research including data analysis. Case studies also provided context for the use of specific methods that helped create a framework from which to scaffold learning. The use of case studies is also a great way to allow students to see how others apply statistical concepts. It was a valuable exercise to look at the published research of others and identify how the concepts the students were studying were actually applied in an authentic manner. However, as effective as case studies can be, instructors are recommended to use other forms of assignments or activities to allow students to research and explore different aspects of their learning since case studies provide generally similar information or issues that not all students may find interesting.

Due to the need of live demonstrations of SPSS software in the online class, video demonstrations were necessary and effective in helping students learn how to use and interpret the outputs of SPSS. For video demonstrations to be more effective, videos need to focus on both the step-by-step “how to” procedures and also the meaning of the outputs related to the concepts in the specific course. This is why instructors still need to create their own videos from time to time despite the fact that there are many videos readily available online. This sentiment was echoed in the students’ reflections by the challenge of using outside resources, and the difficulty of finding the exact videos needed, on their own.

Interestingly enough, the instructor’s notes were found to be the third most effective strategy in this course. Almost all instructors would provide course materials in some forms, such as in PowerPoint for students in online classes as class notes. However, based on the students’ reflections, effective instructor’s notes should focus on the similarities and differences between and among similar concepts, pointing out what to look for and providing hints of what parts of the textbook can be skimmed.

There are different ways to structure the final project in online courses. Mini projects in this course were found to be one of the most effective strategies to complete the final project. Mini projects allowed students sufficient time to master particular concepts and skills, such as checking initial data and forming a research question while internalizing the learning. Mini projects provided a real-world application for the course and added value and meaning throughout the course work for students.

Some instructional strategies and activities even achieved more than their initial objectives. For example, the online discussion forum was initially set up to provide a means for students to discuss course-related questions, an informal type of peer collaboration. In fact, the online discussion provided a place for students to post their questions and issues and also helped promote a sense of social presence and a sense of contributing to the class by providing responses to peers’ questions and sharing helpful resources. However, from the student course evaluation data, the students did not seem to consider the online discussions as peer collaboration since their responses to peer collaboration clearly lagged behind other aspects of the course design. It is clear, however, that online discussions are important in an online statistics class. This study also confirmed the challenge to design and promote peer collaboration and teamwork in online courses (Bacon and MacKinnon 2016 ). STEM instructors need to keep in mind that “online learning is as much a social activity as an individual one” (Brindley et al. 2009 , p. 1). The researcher would recommend STEM instructors and course designers work with or at least consult with people who have expertise in instructional strategies when choosing and implementing instructional strategies in online courses.

As for those instructional strategies used by students on their own, it was not a surprise to see that most of the students searched and used outside resources. This is to be expected from any students who are proficient computer users. However, as online course instructors, we need to take this aspect into consideration and be aware of possible challenges faced by the students when using outside online resources while designing and organizing our course. It was interesting to find out how often students rely on outside online resources to learn and clarify course materials. It would be helpful to direct the students on how to evaluate online resources, such as checking the credibility and qualifications of the authors and sources of the online resources. After all, not all information on the Internet are correct or valid, which is especially true for technical STEM subjects like statistics. One way to achieve this purpose is to use a social bookmarking website tool such as Diigo for posting relevant websites with quick comments and notes. Online instructors may need to do some searching and place filters or warnings on some search outcomes, if possible.

Future research on how students find and rate outside materials relative to their online courses is recommended. In addition, online instructors should specifically encourage students to work out textbook examples and the end of chapter exercises as much as possible, as well as seek help from their peers, colleagues, and knowledgeable friends. Engaging in one-to-one discussions with the course instructor, a strategy that could be included in the course syllabus, is also recommended. A phone call may help clear up a lot of confusion. Thus, for online courses such as this, offering one or two pre-scheduled virtual meet-ups so the entire class could connect with each other could be helpful. Future research on how students collaboratively extend and build a course using the online resources they discover and what best supports this collaborative course building is also recommended. Last but not the least, research on the use of different types of case studies and their effectiveness in an online course is necessary.

Effective online course design features included clear course objectives, good alignment between course objectives and assessments, consistent module structure, a variety of assignments and learning activities, and a good balance between theory and applications. For this course, it was critical to have a good balance of introducing the concepts and the applications of the concepts. It is always a challenge to achieve both in one class because applying the learning also takes time. However, students seemed to have enjoyed the application aspect of the course as long as they were given a sufficient amount of time to process their learning before they applied the knowledge.

It is apparent that different instructional strategies and course design features had different impact. Thus, online STEM course designers should consider multiple instructional strategies and course design features to promote the learning of course content, including the development of a learning community, and the means for more knowledgeable students to teach and share their expertise and resources with peers. The application aspect of this study focused on educational research. However, these strategies could be appropriate to other kinds of applications, such as experimental design and data analysis in industry.

Limitations of this study mainly consist of the following aspects. First, the students enrolled in this course were competent in technology, in terms of retrieving and locating online resources since they had already taken several online courses prior to enrolling in this course. Students with appropriate knowledge and skills with technology may tend to rely more on the Internet for supplemental resources that can help them learn new concepts. Second, due to the nature of this course, applied statistics for educational research, the students may have used more websites and outside resources as a way to supplement their textbook and course materials. Similar studies with different course topics focusing on effective instructional strategies are needed.

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The effect of the teacher's teaching style on students' motivation.

SUBMITTED BY:  MARIA THERESA BARBEROS,  ARNOLD GOZALO,  EUBERTA PADAYOGDOG  SUBMITTED TO:  LEE TZONGJIN, Ed.D.  CHAPTER I  THE EFFECT OF TEACHERS' TEACHING STYLE ON STUDENTS' MOTIVATION

Introduction

The teachers, being the focal figure in education, must be competent and knowledgeable in order to impart the knowledge they could give to their students. Good teaching is a very personal manner. Effective teaching is concerned with the student as a person and with his general development. The teacher must recognize individual differences among his/her students and adjust instructions that best suit to the learners. It is always a fact that as educators, we play varied and vital roles in the classroom. Teachers are considered the light in the classroom. We are entrusted with so many responsibilities that range from the very simple to most complex and very challenging jobs. Everyday we encounter them as part of the work or mission that we are in. It is very necessary that we need to understand the need to be motivated in doing our work well, so as to have motivated learners in the classroom. When students are motivated, then learning will easily take place. However, motivating students to learn requires a very challenging role on the part of the teacher. It requires a variety of teaching styles or techniques just to capture students' interests. Above all, the teacher must himself come into possession of adequate knowledge of the objectives and standards of the curriculum, skills in teaching, interests, appreciation and ideals. He needs to exert effort to lead children or students into a life that is large, full, stimulating and satisfying. Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need or expect their instructors or teachers to inspire, challenge or stimulate them. "Effective learning in the classroom depends on the teacher's ability to maintain the interest that brought students to the course in the first place (Erickson, 1978). Not all students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires and wants. Some students are motivated by the approval of others or by overcoming challenges.

Teachers must recognize the diversity and complexity in the classroom, be it the ethnicity, gender, culture, language abilities and interests. Getting students to work and learn in class is largely influenced in all these areas. Classroom diversity exists not only among students and their peers but may be also exacerbated by language and cultural differences between teachers and students.

Since 2003, many foreign professional teachers, particularly from the Philippines, came to New York City to teach with little knowledge of American school settings. Filipino teachers have distinct styles and expressions of teaching. They expect that: education is interactive and spontaneous; teachers and students work together in the teaching-learning process; students learn through participation and interaction; homework is only part of the process; teaching is an active process; students are not passive learners; factual information is readily available; problem solving, creativity and critical thinking are more important; teachers should facilitate and model problem solving; students learn by being actively engaged in the process; and teachers need to be questioned and challenged. However, many Filipino teachers encountered many difficulties in teaching in NYC public schools. Some of these problems may be attributed to: students' behavior such as attention deficiency, hyperactivity disorder, and disrespect among others; and language barriers such as accent and poor understanding of languages other than English (e.g. Spanish).

As has been said, what happens in the classroom depends on the teacher's ability to maintain students' interests. Thus, teachers play a vital role in effecting classroom changes.

As stressed in the Educator's Diary published in 1995, "teaching takes place only when learning does." Considering one's teaching style and how it affects students' motivation greatly concerns the researchers. Although we might think of other factors, however, emphasis has been geared towards the effect of teacher's teaching style and student motivation.

Hypothesis:

If teacher's teaching style would fit in a class and is used consistently, then students are motivated to learn.

Purpose of the Study

The main thrust of the study was to find out the effect of the teacher's teaching style on students' motivation.

Action Research Questions

This paper attempted to answer specific questions such as: 1. What is the effect of teacher's teaching style using English As A Second Language Strategies on student's motivation? 2. How does teacher's teaching style affect students' motivation? 3. What could be some categories that make one's teaching style effective in motivating students?

Research Design/Methods of Collecting Data

The descriptive-survey method was used in this study, and descriptive means that surveys are made in order to discover some aspects of teacher's teaching style and the word survey denotes an investigation of a field to ascertain the typical condition is obtaining. The researchers used questionnaires, observations, interviews, students' class work and other student outputs for this study. The questionnaires were administered before and after ESL strategies were applied. Observation refers to what he/she sees taking place in the classroom based on student's daily participation. Student interviews were done informally before, during, and after classes. Several categories affecting motivation were being presented in the questionnaire.

Research Environment and Respondents

The research was conducted at IS 164 and IS 143 where three teachers conducting this research were the subjects and the students of these teachers selected randomly specifically in the eighth and sixth grade. The student respondents were the researchers' own students, where 6 to 7 students from each teacher were selected. Twenty students were used as samples.

To measure students' motivation, researchers used questionnaires which covered important categories, namely: attitudes, student's participation, homework, and grades. Open-ended questions were also given for students' opinion, ideas and feelings towards the teacher and the subject. The teacher's teaching style covers the various scaffolding strategies. The data that were collected from this research helped the teachers to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses so as to improve instruction. The results of this study could benefit both teachers and students.

Research Procedure

Data gathering.

The researchers personally distributed the questionnaires. Each item in each category ranges from a scale of 5-1 where 5 rated as Strongly Agree while 1 as Strongly Disagree. The questionnaires were collected and data obtained were tabulated in tables and interpreted using the simple percentage. While the open ended questions, answers that were given by the students with the most frequency were noted.

Review of Related Literature

Helping students understand better in the classroom is one of the primary concerns of every teacher. Teachers need to motivate students how to learn. According to Phil Schlecty (1994), students who understand the lesson tend to be more engaged and show different characteristics such as they are attracted to do work, persist in the work despite challenges and obstacles, and take visible delight in accomplishing their work. In developing students' understanding to learn important concepts, teacher may use a variety of teaching strategies that would work best for her/his students. According to Raymond Wlodkowski and Margery Ginsberg (1995), research has shown no teaching strategy that will consistently engage all learners. The key is helping students relate lesson content to their own backgrounds which would include students' prior knowledge in understanding new concepts. Due recognition should be given to the fact that interest, according to Saucier (1989:167) directly or indirectly contributes to all learning. Yet, it appears that many teachers apparently still need to accept this fundamental principle. Teachers should mind the chief component of interest in the classroom. It is a means of forming lasting effort in attaining the skills needed for life. Furthermore teachers need to vary teaching styles and techniques so as not to cause boredom to the students in the classroom. Seeking greater insight into how children learn from the way teachers discuss and handle the lesson in the classroom and teach students the life skills they need, could be one of the greatest achievements in the teaching process.

Furthermore, researchers have begun to identify some aspects of the teaching situation that help enhance students' motivation. Research made by Lucas (1990), Weinert and Kluwe (1987) show that several styles could be employed by the teachers to encourage students to become self motivated independent learners. As identified, teachers must give frequent positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they can do well; ensure opportunities for students' success by assigning tasks that are either too easy nor too difficult; help students find personal meaning and value in the material; and help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community. According to Brock (1976), Cashin (1979) and Lucas (1990), it is necessary for teachers to work from students' strengths and interests by finding out why students are in your class and what are their expectations. Therefore it is important to take into consideration students' needs and interests so as to focus instruction that is applicable to different groups of students with different levels.

CHAPTER II  PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter presents and analyzes data that answer the subsidiary problems of the study. Table I showed that out of the 20 student respondents, 50% were males and 50% females. Of the male students respondents, only 2 males belong to the high group while 8 males from the low group. For the females, each of the group had 5 respondents. It also showed that there were 7 respondents from the high group and 13 came from the low group.

Table 1:Respondents by Gender

Table 2 showed that out of the 20 students respondents, 80% of students were of Hispanic origin; 10% of respondents were White (not of Hispanic origin); and 10% were Black (not of Hispanic origin); while 0% were of American Indian, Asian or Pacific Islander ethnicity. The results also showed that among the Hispanic, 40% came from the low and 40% came from the high group. There were only 10% White respondents from both groups. There were 10% respondents who were Black from both groups.

Table 2: Respondents by Ethnicity

Table 3 showed that 15% of the respondents had grades between 96-100 in Science, 0% between 91-95, while 15% scored between 86-90, the same as the range between 81-85. However, on the low group 25% of the respondents had grades between 71-75, 5% each had a range between 66-70 and 61-65; while 15% of the respondents did not have Science last year.

Table 3: Grades in Science

Table 4 revealed that for students' motivation-attitude, more than half of the respondents agreed that they are always excited to attend classes this school year. 75% of the students believed that Science is fun and interesting. Similarly, 80% of the respondents agreed that Science is important for them and 60% said that they love Science.

For student motivation-participation, it showed that more than half of the respondents affirm that they are always prepared in their Science classes. 75% of the students participated in Science activities; 50% did their Science assignments consistently.

For student motivation-homework, it could be noted that 60% of the students completed their homework on time and 50% found homework useful and important. 85% of the students said that they got enough support to do homework at home and 90% said that the teachers checked their homework.

For student motivation-grades, 65% got good grades in Science. 65% of the respondents said that they study their lessons before a test or a quiz. More than half of the respondents disagreed that the terms or words used in the test were difficult to understand. Less than half of the respondents agreed tests measure their understanding of Science concepts and knowledge, while 80% thought that grading is fair. On the other hand, the data under teaching style as noted on table 4 showed that 65% of the students strongly agreed that they have a good relationship with their Science teacher and no one disagreed. 75% noted that their Science teachers used materials that were easy to understand. 60% said that their teachers presented the lessons in many ways. More than half of the students said that they understood the way their Science teachers explained the lesson while 25% were not sure of their answer. 75% said that they got feedback from their Science teacher.

Table 4: Data on the Five Categories