research paper about waste segregation in school

Greening of a campus through waste management initiatives: Experience from a higher education institution in Thailand

International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education

ISSN : 1467-6370

Article publication date: 6 February 2017

This paper aims to describe the effects of 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle) waste management initiatives on a campus community. It ascertains the environmental attitudes and opinions of the residents and investigates their behavioral responses to waste management initiatives. Practical implications for enhancing sustainable waste management are discussed in this paper.

Design/methodology/approach

Demonstration projects on waste segregation and recycling, as well as waste a reduction campaign, were set up on the campus to ascertain people’s attitudes and investigate their behavioral responses toward 3R practices. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey, observations, interviews and the project’s document review. A waste audit and waste composition analysis was carried out to assess waste flows and actual waste management behaviors and measure the change in the recycling rate.

3R waste management initiatives had positive effects on people’s attitudes about resources, waste management and consciousness of the need to avoid waste, but these initiatives did not affect recycling and waste management behavior. A voluntary approach-only cannot bring about behavioral change. Incentive measures showed a greater positive effect on waste reduction to landfills. Nevertheless, the demonstration projects helped to increase the overall campus recycling from 10 to 12 per cent.

Originality/value

This paper addresses a literature gap about the 3R attitudes and resulting behavior as part of campus sustainability of higher education institutions in a developing country. The authors’ results revealed hurdles to be overcome and presents results that can be compared to behavioral responses of people from other developed countries. These findings can be used as a guide for higher education institution’s policy-makers, as they indicate that voluntary instruments alone will not yield effective results, and other mechanisms that have an impact on people's behavior are required.

• Campus sustainability
• Higher education institution
• Packaging waste

Tangwanichagapong, S. , Nitivattananon, V. , Mohanty, B. and Visvanathan, C. (2017), "Greening of a campus through waste management initiatives: Experience from a higher education institution in Thailand", International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education , Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 203-217. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSHE-10-2015-0175

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2017, Siwaporn Tangwanichagapong, Vilas Nitivattananon, Brahmanand Mohanty and Chettiyappan Visvanathan.

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 3.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/3.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

Consumerism and convenience following a buy-use-dispose system (or a linear approach) accelerate resource use. Presently, there has been an increase in waste generation in most of the developing countries. This has resulted in a large volume of municipal solid waste (MSW) being discarded into landfills ( Ngoc and Schnitzer, 2009 ). Total MSW generation in Thailand in 2013 was about 26.8 million tonnes. About 5.2 million tonnes were recovered and recycled and only 7.4 million tonnes were suitably handled, while the rest of the MSW was unsuitably disposed ( Pollution Control Department, 2013 ). Packaging waste in Thailand accounts for a major proportion of municipal solid waste. The proportion increased due to lifestyle changes. In 2001, of the 14.1 million tonnes of waste discarded, 3.4 million tonnes (24 per cent) were packaging waste. This number rose to 31 per cent in 2004 ( Chulalongkorn University, 2004 ). There has so far been no updated data available on packaging waste in MSW. However, it is projected to increase as MSW volumes in Thailand have been rising by about 10 per cent annually ( Mungcharoen, 2006 ).

Higher education institutions (HEIs) are change agents in society. They require services and infrastructure, including waste management on the scale of a small city. They also have a recognized role in achieving sustainability ( Vagnoni and Cavicchi, 2015 ). HEIs are considered role models in their communities, as well as leaders in social and environmental responsibility ( Velazquez et al. , 2005 ; Zhang et al. , 2011 ). Generally, HEIs can become engaged in sustainable development in two ways. First, they can form linkages between knowledge and dissemination in the community. Second, they contribute to societal development through outreach and use of knowledge to serve society ( United Nations, 2011 ). Recently, HEIs have been called upon to commit to the development of sustainable practices by the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development or Rio+20. As a result, many HEIs around the world are engaging in sustainable practices with concrete and tangible programs on their campuses. The International Sustainable Campus Network (ISCN) was established to promote and provide a platform for exchanging information, ideas and best practices among colleges and universities. This was done to achieve sustainable campus operations and to integrate sustainability and research ( ISCN, 2015 ). ISCN has members from more than 20 countries. Many HEIs worldwide put waste management activities as a beginning point for campus sustainability initiatives. For instance, Massey University implemented a source separation and concourse-based recycling program in New Zealand ( Kelly et al. , 2006 ), and a recycling market program in Japan encourages students to donate used books, furniture and electronic appliances to be reused by new students. The Moving Towards Zero Waste program in the United Kingdom aims to implement reuse schemes in student residence halls of their campus ( Zhang et al. , 2011 ). Similarly, many HEIs in Thailand have shown their commitment to create green campuses by promoting reduction, reuse and recycling (3Rs) of waste through various voluntary initiatives ( Table I ).

Implementation of 3R programs has long been regarded as an alternative approach to traditional waste management practices. Many studies emphasized the benefits of minimizing the amount of waste sent to landfills, as well as the factors influencing recycling rate. However, the lack of information about attitudes and behavior of well-educated people in response to 3R programs and associated effects to MSW stream has remained as information gaps that hinder progress toward campus sustainability ( Kelly et al. , 2006 ).

Controlling consumption is the most important goal for effective source reduction and sustainable waste management. People’s choices, behaviors, awareness and attitudes about waste generation and management serve as precursors to achieving sustainable development ( Jackson and Michael, 2003 ). The present study primarily focused on sustainable initiatives in HEIs promoting “3R” practices. It is believed that 3R programs implemented on campuses positively influence the awareness of the campus community, as well as its attitudes and behaviors. To validate this hypothesis, the current study investigated how people’s attitudes and behaviors were influenced by sustainable 3R initiatives in an HEI. The Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), an international higher education institution located in Thailand, was used as a case study.

2. Methodology

2.1 context of study area.

Located in Pathumthani Province, Thailand, the AIT plays a leading role in promoting sustainable development in the Asia-Pacific region through higher education, research and outreach. It is committed to becoming a sustainable institution as evidenced by its adhering to voluntary commitments resulting from Rio+20. This requires teaching sustainable development across all disciplines, encouraging research and dissemination of knowledge about sustainable development, developing green campuses, supporting local sustainability efforts, engaging and sharing information with international networks ( United Nations, 2011 ). AIT is a multi-cultural educational institution of about 3,000 persons from more than 40 countries, including students, staff members and their families. While AIT’s orientation is purely international, their waste management handling practices follow Thailand’s law and regulations. Tha-Khlong Municipality has the direct responsibility to collect and transport waste generated on the campus for final treatment and disposal.

The physical infrastructure of AIT includes office buildings, laboratories, a conference center, accommodations, sport facilities and commercial establishments. Waste generation is primarily from three areas. These are staff and student housing, academic buildings and commercial areas. Typical mixed waste collection was adopted on campus, where the residents discard waste into a one-bin system without separation.

The waste stream on the AIT campus is illustrated in Figure 1 . Waste from bins is collected and temporarily stored at a campus-based transfer station before being sent for final disposal at landfills by the Tha-Khlong Municipality. The informal sector is a key player in recyclable waste collection and segregation for recycling. A small fraction of the recyclables (especially the packaging waste including plastic and glass bottles and metal cans) is sorted and sold by the housekeeping staff and waste collectors (janitorial staff) to earn extra income. A small amount of segregated food waste is utilized as animal feed. These basic waste management facilities did not guarantee an optimized waste segregation and utilization on the campus.

Since 2014, AIT has operated under the concept of being “a Sustainable Living Laboratory”, integrating its components to transform itself into a green campus. For this, campus-wide solid waste programs were launched and initiatives were carried out by groups of student-volunteers, with the support from faculty and the Office of Facilities and Asset Management (OFAM). This demonstration set up aims to increase people’s awareness and promote 3R practices on campus. It mainly included a voluntary approach and incentive measures, segregation of recyclable packaging waste by installing packaging-waste segregation bins to sort recyclable packaging (plastic bottles, glass bottles and metal cans in particular). The bins were located at prominent locations across the campus. A plastic bag reduction campaign was carried out in collaborative action with convenience stores in the institution, and a cash-for-trash program was initiated, which allowed people to sell their segregated recyclables to waste buying shops.

These initiatives were introduced and communicated continuously from the beginning of the project by distributing information door-to-door, internal e-mails, the AIT webpage, posters/banners, presentation of 3R initiatives to students at special annual events, e.g. orientation day and food fairs. Information was given about project activities, locations and the number of waste separation facilities, as well as information to raise awareness to inform people about the ways in which they can participate and to encourage the residents to contribute toward greening of their campus. Results of these initiatives were recorded and reported through campus media and e-mails on a monthly basis.

2.2 Research approach and methodology framework

3R solid waste initiatives were used to determine if the availability of these options could have positive impacts on the waste management behaviors and environmental attitudes of the campus community. A mixed method approach was applied to gather qualitative and quantitative data. An overall framework for the methodology of this study is presented in Figure 2 . The results were obtained through waste audits, waste composition analysis, field observations, key informant interviews and fieldwork records and were used to assess the actual behaviors of the community. Furthermore, the survey was designed to ascertain people’s attitudes, knowledge and self-reported behavior regarding sustainable solid waste practice. Quantitative data of the 3R performance results and waste composition analysis was gathered on a monthly basis beginning in August of 2014. A questionnaire survey was undertaken during a 3-month period, October to December 2014.

2.3 Sample and data collection

The questionnaire survey was carried out using a simple random sampling method. The sample size was determined according to Yamane (1967) . The survey involved about 12 per cent of the total campus population. The questionnaire was organized into three sections. The first section was related to general information about respondents, followed by questions that assessed self-reported awareness, attitudes and perceptions of waste and resource issues. The last section included questions to determine methods used to dispose of recyclable waste. Responses were expressed using check boxes. A five-point Likert scale was used to measure attitude and opinion as follows: strongly disagree = 1, disagree = 2, indifferent (neither agree nor disagree) = 3, agree = 4 and strongly agree = 5. Additional space was given in the survey for the respondents to make written comments and suggestions.

The sample was split into two groups. These were respondents who cooperated and actively participated in the 3R sustainable solid waste management initiatives (hereafter, referred to as “Group A”) and those who did not (hereafter, referred to as “Group B”). The purpose of classifying the sample into these two groups was to determine the effect of 3R initiatives on people with the same (high) education level but different levels of involvement in campus 3R programs. Their awareness, attitude and knowledge were assessed to determine whether the 3R initiatives translated into behavioral changes or not. Results revealed 46.5 per cent of respondents belonged to “Group A”, while 53.5 per cent fell into “Group B”.

A t -test was used to elucidate the different levels of awareness and attitudes about resource and waste issues, disposal and recycling. A chi-square test for independence was utilized to explore the relationship between the 3R program and the campus community’s environmental consciousness. Lastly, correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between the amount of waste sent to landfills and the performance of 3R solid waste projects on campus. Waste composition analyses, field observations and key informant interviews were done to investigate material flows and the effect of 3R initiatives on these flows. The characterization of waste was performed according to the ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) D5231-92 standard method ( ASTM, 2008 ). Secondary sources of data were obtained from the cash-for-trash records maintained by the OFAM, 3R solid waste project records and key informant interviews.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 existing situation of waste quantity and characteristics.

AIT generates about 1.3 tonnes of waste per day, which corresponds to 0.5 kg per capita. This value is comparable with that of other Thai universities ( Table II ). At the national level, Thailand’s urban areas generate approximately 1.2 kg waste per capita each day. In an attempt to control waste generation, national policy aims to limit daily per capita solid waste generation to not more than 1 kg ( ONEP, 2012 ; PCD, 2013 ).

Although waste generation rate in AIT and many of Thailand HEIs does not exceed the 1 kg per capita limit targeted by national government, it is gradually increasing as can be noted by comparison with previous studies ( Soulalay, 2006 ; Dev, 2007 ), particularly due to the increasing use of packaging. Evidence of this is revealed by a field survey conducted in 2014 on the AIT campus. It was found that packaging waste had the second largest share in the campus MSW stream (36.2 per cent by wet weight), after food waste (55 per cent). Further detailed analysis of discarded packaging showed that plastic constituted the highest amount (25 per cent), followed by glass (6.5 per cent) and metal (1.6 per cent). When compared to the previous study, there was an increase in the proportion of packaging waste. Notably, of total packaging waste at the campus transfer station, the proportion of recyclable packaging waste in MSW stream was 34 per cent and that which could not be recycled was 66 per cent. This implied that an increasing amount of non-recyclable waste was being sent to uncontrolled landfills, which is common in Thai municipalities.

Controlling the generation of waste has been quite challenging due to weak regulations and the lack of effective policy mechanisms to control waste generation and disposal. The MSW market has no economic incentive for waste reduction. This is true for HEIs as well. AIT pays a fixed waste collection fee to the municipality of only 8,000 Baht a month (approximately US$250/month). This is an example of the lack of incentives to reduce waste according to the weight and volume. Furthermore, recycling is not as widely practiced as it should be, thus providing considerable opportunity for improvement in MSW management.

3.2 Environmental attitudes about resource and waste management issues

Respondents from the two previously defined groups were asked to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements. Figure 3 shows the score for each statement. Campus residents who were not involved in any 3R campus sustainability programs appeared to have less awareness and concern about 3R practices and waste issues than those who were more informed about the importance of waste separation for recycling and how they influence 3R activities. An independent sample t -test was done to compare the levels of awareness and attitudes of “Group A” and “Group B” respondents. This study found that “Group A” respondents showed different attitudes and levels of awareness. They strongly believed in the positive role of recycling for better waste management. There were significant differences between these groups as indicated by t -tests ( p ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, a very significant difference was observed in terms of the level of acceptance of the policy of charging for shopping bags [ p < 0.01].

3.3 Environmental consciousness

Differences in levels of environmental consciousness of waste reduction between “Group A” and “Group B” are presented in Figure 4 . Majority of “Group A” respondents had a higher level of environmental consciousness about waste reduction. About 20 per cent stated that they very often refuse to take plastic bag from grocery shops, while about 17 per cent of “Group B” said no to plastic bags. However, there was a higher percentage of “Group B” respondents that stated that they never (13.7 per cent) or rarely (27.9 per cent) refuse to take plastic bags, compared to people of “Group A” who responded in the same way at rates of 3.7 and 17.6 per cent, respectively. This revealed that “Group A” respondents “sometimes” to “very often” engaged waste avoidance, whereas “Group B” “rarely” to “never” did so when asked about refusing to take plastic bags from shops. The relationship between environmental consciousness and 3R campus initiatives and their effect on campus community awareness among “Group A” and “Group B” was examined. It was found that significant relationships exist between “Group A”, who actively participated in 3R campus initiatives, and their responses to “Do you refuse to take plastic bags from shops/convenience stores?” ( χ 2 = 13.97, df = 3, p = 0.003) according to the chi-square test for independence.

In short, recycling and resource efficient attitudes of respondents who cooperated and actively participated in 3R activities were found to be positive on resource and recycling issues, especially about accepting charges for plastic shopping bags, which differs from those who did not. Similarly, the study revealed a significant relationship between waste avoidance when purchasing products and active participation in 3R programs.

3.4 Knowledge on waste management hierarchy

In sustainable solid waste management practice, the first priority in the waste hierarchy is accorded to “reduction of waste” followed by “reuse” and “recycling”. Although 3R knowledge is not essential for individual 3R practices, it explains the intention or effort in adopting a specific behavior ( Wang et al. , 2014 ). Respondents were asked to prioritize the importance of “reduce”, “reuse” and “recycle” by ranking them based on what they understood. If a respondent makes the correct selections by choosing “reduce” as the first priority, then “reuse” and “recycling” as the second and last, respectively, it was concluded that he/she understands the concept and principle of sustainable waste management.

Environmental knowledge regarding the priority of the 3Rs among campus residents is shown in Table III . Response of “Group A” was the most accurate as they ranked “reduce” as the first option, followed by “reuse” and “recycle”. On the other hand, “Group B” perceived that “recycle” is the most important. Even though an HEI is a highly educated community, the 3R waste hierarchy was clearly not grasped by all. It was also found that a minority of “Group A” did not understand differences in the priorities of recycling and reducing waste.

Respondents who cooperated and actively participated in 3R initiatives had a more accurate and better understanding of sustainable waste management options compared to the group that did not. Recycling was often perceived as the most preferential option. These results revealed that environmental knowledge and perception of the 3R’s can significantly determine campus community awareness and its behaviors in waste reduction efforts. It detected significant differences in terms of attitudes and environmental consciousness among groups. However, the waste management hierarchy and waste reduction should be highlighted and put into action through proper policy measures to achieve the goal of sustainable consumption. Recycling options or building a recycling culture alone may lead to priority being given to recycling practices, which would result in the increased use of resources.

3.5 Effect of 3R solid waste campus initiatives on people’s behavior

3.5.1 waste disposal behavior..

discard and mix with general waste;

self-segregate recyclable waste at its source and give it to housecleaners;

segregate and sell waste to earn money through a “cash-for-trash” program; and

bring segregated waste-to-waste separation facilities.

Overall, discarding unseparated waste in a single bin was still the primary disposal method. Figure 5 shows that a large percentage of respondents disposed of recyclable packaging waste by mixing it with general waste (38 per cent), even though 3R programs provided residents with other waste disposal options. It was found that a relatively low percentage of respondents brought recyclables to recycling facilities (19 per cent). Interestingly, 38 per cent of respondents voluntarily segregated recyclables and gave them to housekeepers for sale. Only 5 per cent of respondents collected and sold them for extra income. People opined that “inadequate waste separation facilities” and “inconvenience” were the main hindrances to their practice of waste separation. Most respondents who answered open-ended questions raised technical issues and requested for an increase in the number and location of easily accessible waste separation bins. Notably, most of issues cited were of a technical nature and indicated a lack of information ( Table IV ).

This study also statistically tested differences between waste disposal methods of people who cooperated and actively participated in 3R initiatives and the group that did not. Surprisingly, there was not a statistically significant difference between the two groups in their disposal behaviors. The 3R programs did have positive effect on awareness and environmental attitudes, but not on disposal and waste management behaviors. This finding contradicts a previous investigation by Lee and Paik (2011) who examined Korean recycling behavior, and concluded that environmental attitudes affect recycling and waste management behaviors. In the context of developing country, 3R related knowledge and environmental attitudes does not necessarily translate into practice, unless identified barriers are addressed. Also, appropriate policy instruments and correct mechanisms are required.

3.5.2 Campus waste stream and actual performance behavior.

A previous study cautioned that self-reported behavior may differ from actual behavior ( Barker et al. , 1994 ). To test this, the current study also examined actual behavior by doing a packaging-waste separation project, a cash-for-trash program, a waste audit and waste composition analysis.

Of the total packaging waste by weight, the percentage of potentially recyclable packaging (metal cans, plastic bottles and glass) was 31 per cent, while non-recyclables (e.g. styrofoam, plastic bags and paper/plastic cups) was about 69 per cent. The main sources were convenience stores, food vendors, cafeterias and coffee shops. On campus, most students do not cook, but rather they buy food from shops that offer single-use packages, which cannot be recycled. Therefore, the proportion of single-use packaging is on the rise.

Around 31 per cent of all packaging was potentially recyclable, but it remained in the MSW stream. This could have been diverted from the stream to ensure resource recycling rather than being sent for downstream management. People might argue that if they do not practice waste sorting, waste pickers will do it anyway. Therefore, source segregation might be overlooked. Although the traditional waste management system of developing cities included the important role of informal sector in the recycling system, upstream waste separation should be promoted. It will not only increase the level of awareness, but also build and contribute to a higher recycling rate. However, the large proportion of recyclable packaging found in the campus MSW stream indicated that people discard both recyclable and non-recyclables with general household waste, even though voluntary 3R initiatives were in place to encourage people to engage in 3R practices.

3.5.3 Correlation between the campus 3R program performance and waste proportions at transfer station.

It is believed that the proportion of recyclable packaging found at campus final transfer station was reduced when a higher amount of recyclable waste was collected through 3R waste separation and recycling programs. The percentage of recyclable packaging at the transfer station may have a significant relationship with effectiveness of 3R initiatives. To investigate this, the total weight of recyclable packaging from the waste separation project and the cash-for-trash program were used to determine if they influenced the amount of packaging waste that remained in the MSW stream.

Recycling activity through the cash-for-trash program had a positive effect on reducing the proportion of recyclable packaging remaining in the MSW stream, whereas the recyclable packaging-waste separation project did not. Financial incentives and consistent participation in the cash-for-trash program are possible explanations for this positive result. Those who participated earned money by selling recyclables. However, there was no incentive or perceived benefit in the packaging-waste separation project. The current study found a significant negative correlation between the cash-for-trash program results and the proportion of recyclable packaging sent to the transfer station. Pearson’s r data analysis revealed a strong negative correlation, r = −0.96, p < 0.001, using a two-tailed analysis ( Table V ). Results of the recyclable packaging-waste separation project did not have a significant relation with the amount of waste sent for disposal ( r = 0.22, p = 0.62). To reduce waste through voluntary measures, there is a need to create more and better waste recycling infrastructure, which may require financial support. Alternatively, 3R activities with incentives (cash-for-trash program) had a greater effect than voluntary measures in this HEI context.

3.6 Effect on campus waste flow

The campus packaging waste flow with 3R measures in place was assessed as illustrated in Figure 6 . The annual waste generation at AIT is about 529 tonnes. Waste flow at AIT is predominantly linear in its nature. Most of the generated waste is sent to the AIT transfer station and then to final disposal in uncontrolled landfills. Of the total packaging waste from AIT, 196.1 tonnes produced annually, about 173.3 tonnes (88.3 per cent of total) was sent to landfills. It was estimated that 60.8 tonnes of this was potentially recyclable and 135.3 tonnes was non-recyclable. The ratio of non-recyclable to recyclable packaging can be used as an indicator of consumption behavior to track the impact of 3R initiatives in the community. Through the efforts of waste pickers on campus, about 20 tonnes per year (33 per cent of recyclable packaging) was collected, which resulted in a significant recycling rate. Generally, in developing countries, the recycling rate achieved by the informal sector can often be in the range of 20-50 per cent ( Wilson et al. , 2009 ).

Due to the 3R campus initiatives, it was determined that the amount of recyclable packaging increased by approximately 2.8 tonnes annually (approximately 1.28 tonnes through the packaging-waste separation project and an additional 1.52 tonnes through cash-for-trash activities), boosting the recycling rate by 1.8 per cent, to an overall recycling rate of 12 per cent for all packaging waste. Based on these findings, the AIT campus needs to improve its recycling rate to meet the national target of at least 30 per cent of all waste generated ( PCD, 2012 ) by setting attainable recycling targets and regulatory measures. Most important, restriction of single-use packaging should be undertaken to control the use of disposable packages on the campus. This could help to reduce non-recyclable waste, which constitutes a significant amount of the MSW stream (69 per cent) on campus.

For the 31 per cent of the material that is potentially recyclable, diverting waste away from disposal can be done by increasing participation in waste segregation programs and other voluntary 3R initiatives, along with provisions for a proper recycling infrastructure on campus. However, better management of packaging waste on the AIT campus will not be successful and sustainable, unless the use of non-recyclable packaging is reduced at the point of generation.

4. Conclusions and recommendations

3R solid waste initiatives have positive effects on environmental attitudes and consciousness of the need to avoid producing waste in a highly educated community. The presence of 3R initiatives creates an accurate understanding about options in sustainable waste management. However, these initiatives did not affect recycling and waste disposal behavior. Three barriers to good recycling practices were inadequate recycling infrastructure, inconvenience, and a lack of specific and clear information about what can and cannot be recycled. Results of the current study demonstrated that in the context of developing countries, environmental attitudes, awareness and knowledge do not affect recycling behavior. This finding is in contrast to responses of people in developed countries.

The 3R initiatives on the AIT campus may take some time to have an impact. It also depends on other factors such as participation and project information. However, the presence of recycling facilities and visible campaigns at AIT increased the recycling rate by 1.8 per cent to 12 per cent. Although the current recycling rate has not yet reached the national target of 30 per cent, these initiatives have established recycling loops as sustainable options that minimize waste to final disposal. The result of this study shows a huge opportunity for the AIT community to improve its recycling rate by enhancing its ongoing 3R initiatives and increasing participation. These are key requirements for increasing and maximizing the campus-recycling rate.

Based on these findings, despite the fact that HEI community is well aware of waste and resource issues, building a recycling culture and bringing 3R practices into action for a successful 3R system requires some prerequisite actions. These include developing a complimentary package of clear directions and gaining a commitment on the part of the institution to implement green actions such as 3R initiatives. Implementation of a basic waste separation infrastructure is first needed. The lesson learnt from this study is that the most important factor to engage an HEI community in 3R practices is continuous communication of 3R activities, along with information about waste management results and achievements. In particular, the amount of waste reduction and waste recycling are considered basic indicators. It should be acknowledged that these actions are a part of job creation and income generation in the informal sector. This can potentially enhance the waste recycling rate on campus. However, to raise awareness among inactive residents, there is a need to ensure them that individual actions contribute to positive impacts by diverting waste from landfills. Generally, these people were demotivated to practice 3R, because they did not believe in an operational and waste collection system, which dumps all types of waste and mixes them together downstream.

To achieve the goal of campus sustainability, there is a need to build a 3R culture within the campus community by creating recycling infrastructure and making it convenient for people to practice waste segregation. Waste management programs must ensure that introduction of recycling facilities will not cause over consumption of resources. Based on research findings, voluntary measures are not sufficient to promote pro-environmental behavior in a developing country’s context. Even though environmental awareness and increasing knowledge through voluntary 3R initiatives is important to guide people’s behavior, 3R activities should be promoted with economic and fiscal measures and a ban on single-use packaging under the framework of a clear waste management policy.

At AIT, a recycling-only effort was not a sustainable solution because non-recyclable packaging tends to increase and comprises a large percentage of the material in the MSW. One of the strategies to curb the generation of non-recyclable packaging waste is to develop suitable alternatives, such as economic incentives/disincentives and regulatory measures for avoiding the use of disposable packaging. Alternatively, decision makers may consider installing or improving water fountains on campus and ensure their water quality. This is a potential way to reduce the use of plastic bottles. Charging for grocery bags and plastic food trays, as well as banning the use of styrofoam and one-time use of packaging for food and beverage containers, may bring about behavioral changes. These could be initially implemented at many campus events, e.g. sport days and food fairs. It might be also adopted in many HEIs in developing countries with the similar socio-economic background. Next steps for further improvement include monitoring performance of an increased waste management infrastructure and levels of participation, using the suggested campus waste management indicators. Campus sustainability reporting is a recommended communication tool for following-up, keeping people informed, sensitized and encouraged to practice 3R activities. This can serve as source of reliable information for institutional decision-makers for proper intervention.

In the long run, voluntary measures should also be promoted to consistently sensitize and encourage people to reduce waste generation. Additionally, incentive measures could potentially have greater impact on waste reduction and minimization. Therefore, incentive measures are strongly recommended for HEIs in developing countries. This can be done in conjunction with development of a campus waste-management policy and by setting up waste-reduction targets. Campus waste-management policies should use a mix of regulatory and incentive measures along with voluntary participation to establish sustainable loops of resources and waste management. It is hoped that this study influences institutional decision-makers rather than guiding people with only voluntary initiatives. It might be better to investigate how the use of motivational measures, incentives and regulatory mechanisms impact people’s behavior.

Campus waste handling system

Overall methodology and framework of the study

Responses regarding attitudes about 3R and waste issues

Campus community waste avoidance behaviours

Recyclable packaging-waste disposal methods

Flow of packaging waste

Waste management programs in HEIs (Thailand)

Per capita waste generation in Thai HEIs

Results of priority ranking of the waste hierarchy by respondents

Correlation results between variables

Significant at α = 0.01 level

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Miss Phyoe Thet Khaing for fieldwork assistance, technical and information support from the Office of Facility and Assets Management, AIT.

Corresponding author

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Effectiveness of Proper Segregation by Using Trash Bin Coal Filtration to Filter Waste in Classrooms of Grade 12 ABM Strand Students in Bestlink College of the Philippines, S.Y. 2019–2020

• Jomari Pedro
• Gerald Balitos
• Angelo Falconete
• Kimberly Joyce Embile

This research focused on the effectiveness of proper segregation by using trash bin coal filtration to filter waste in every classroom of Grade 12 Accountancy, Business, and Management (ABM) Strand students at Bestlink College of the Philippines in terms of filtering solid and liquid waste and proper waste segregation. Trash bin coal filtration helps students to maintain the cleanliness of the classroom, student’s behavior, and teacher’s mood and reaction. Trash bin coal filtration filters the leftover foodfrom the students’ wastes they that throw in a trash bin to properly segregate the trash. It has a metal string that filters the leftover food, a storage box under the trash bin that catches the leftover and liquid food, and coal that absorbs the bad odorto maintain the good smell of the room. This study also revealed the benefits of our trash bin coal filtration and how to maintain proper segregation in the classrooms of Grade 12 ABM Strand students at Bestlink College of the Philippines. The study used the qualitative and descriptive survey as the type of research method. This study involved 50 selected Grade 12 ABM Strand students. Two variables were considered to determine the effectiveness of having trash bin coal filtration, that is, filtered solid and liquid waste and odor of waste. Improper waste segregation is one of the factors that affect the academic performance of the students and the cleanliness of the classrooms of Grade 12 ABM Strand students. Another aspect revealed that students may also be affected if they do not have discipline in throwing their waste in the appropriate trash bin. As a result, trash bin coal filtration helps in managing the cleanliness of classrooms, improving students’ behavior regarding proper waste disposal, and filtering the leftover food waste. The study revealed that improper waste segregation has an impact on the academic performance, behavior of the students regarding cleanliness in the classroom of grade 12 ABM students, and teacher’s mood and reaction. The study also showed that students have priority problems in their personal lives and school.

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A CORRELATIONAL STUDY BETWEEN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS' COGNITIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS REGARDING PROPER SOLID WASTE SEGREGATION IN POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES CONDOTEL FOR SCHOOL YEAR 2019-2020

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• Published: 19 August 2023

Household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia

• Worku Adefris 1 ,
• Shimeles Damene   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9690-7111 1 &
• Poshendra Satyal 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  516 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Development studies
• Environmental studies
• Health humanities

Solid waste segregation plays a critical role in effective waste management; however, the practice remains at a low level in developing countries like Ethiopia. Despite the persistent nature of the problem, there are limited studies to date that can provide sufficient empirical evidence to support appropriate efforts by policy makers and practitioners, particularly in the context of the developing world. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to analyze household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in the urban areas of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. To achieve this objective, data were generated through a household survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observations. The collected quantitative data were cleaned, encoded, and statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics in SPSS, while thematic analysis was undertaken to evaluate and describe the qualitative data. The data analysis revealed that only 21.3% of respondents reported frequent solid waste segregation, while about half (45.5%) segregated solid waste rarely. Conversely, a considerable proportion (28.7%) of the respondents reported not segregating solid waste, and the remaining 4.5% of respondents were unsure about the practice. This implies that only one-fifth of the total sampled respondents actually implement solid waste segregation practices at the household level. The chi-square test showed that respondents’ awareness/training ( P  = 0.000) and use of social organizations to discuss waste management ( P  = 0.001) are significantly associated with the practice of solid waste segregation. This highlights the need to focus on awareness-raising efforts among the general public in order to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of individual households and residents toward solid waste segregation practices. Additionally, enabling policies, sufficient infrastructure, and incentive mechanisms can also help enhance wider adoption of the practices.

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Introduction

Solid waste management is a critical issue in various countries around the world (Nyampundu et al., 2020 ). Factors such as rising population density, urbanization, economic growth, and industrialization often contribute to an increasing volume of solid waste generated (Xiao et al., 2020 ). Globally, the average annual volume of solid waste generated by cities is estimated to be 1.9 billion tons (Kasozi and Von Blottnitz, 2010 ). In sub-Saharan cities, the volume reaches approximately 62 million tons per year (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ). Effective solid waste management is crucial in minimizing health and environmental risks associated with waste in urban areas, particularly in the developing world (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ; Amuda et al., 2014 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ). However, local authorities, especially in the urban settings of sub-Saharan Africa, face significant challenges in implementing effective and well-organized solid waste management (Firdaus and Ahmad, 2010 ). Rapid urbanization leading to increasing consumption and waste generation (both in terms of quantity and diversity) can deplete resources, cause environmental problems, and have significant social and economic impacts (Rousta and Ekström, 2013 ).

Developed countries have recognized the importance of waste segregation and recycling in improving solid waste management, leading them to implement various approaches such as the 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) policies, legislations, and strategies (Falk and McKeever, 2004 ; Kang and Schoenung, 2005 ; Kumar et al., 2017 ). However, developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, have made limited progress and effort in this regard. A study by Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) highlighted the weak legal reinforcement of waste segregation practices in Tanzania at all stages, including household, collection, and disposal. This is primarily due to a lack of attention, inefficient coordination among various actors, financial constraints, capacity deficiencies, poor infrastructure, and governance issues.

Ethiopia, like many other developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, has experienced rapid urbanization in recent years. This has resulted in overcrowding and the emergence of informal settlements with poor waste management practices, leading to public health and environmental problems (Nebiyou, 2020 ). Among developing cities, Addis Ababa has faced significant challenges related to poorly managed solid waste operations. The city’s waste generation has increased, but effective solid waste collection and management practices have been lacking (Gelan, 2021 ). These problems are influenced by various factors, including institutional, social, and contextual aspects of waste segregation (Zemena, 2016 ). Despite the persisting issues of solid waste collection and management, particularly regarding the practice of solid waste segregation, there is a limited empirical research in this area for Addis Ababa. This study aims to fill this research gap by assessing the determinants of solid waste segregation practices in Addis Ababa city. In so doing, the study seeks to provide an evidence-based understanding of the issue, support waste management implementation activities, facilitate policy-making, and contribute additional knowledge on the subject. The findings from this study may also offer valuable insights for other developing cities facing similar challenges.

Literature review

Theoretical background.

The evolving concept of waste management is centered around the principles of waste reduction, reuse, and recycling, with the aim of preventing harm to human health and the environment (Pongrácz et al., 2004 ). In addition, effective waste management plays a crucial role in achieving a circular economy, which has become a priority in many developed regions, especially in Europe. The circular economy aims to conserve resources and promote their circularity, leading to a more sustainable and economically viable future.

There is no single universal theory of waste management that can be directly applied as a practical tool for controlling waste-related activities (Pongrácz et al., 2004 ; Pongrácz, 2002 ). According to Pongrácz et al. ( 2004 ), a comprehensive waste management theory should involve a conceptual description of waste management that provides clear definitions of all waste-related concepts. Therefore, the achievement of sustainable waste management relies heavily on defining it properly and proposing an appropriate methodology that organizes the various variables of waste management systems. Pongrácz et al. ( 2004 ) emphasized four fundamental notions that should form the basis of waste management theory: (i) prevention of waste causing harm to human health and the environment; (ii) conservation of resources; (iii) reduction of waste creation by producing useful objects; and (iv) transformation of waste into non-waste materials.

In the context of waste management practices at the city or municipal level, it is important to apply and contextualize these core notions. Municipal solid waste management encompasses a range of tasks and activities, including waste generation control, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal (Rada et al., 2013 ). The overarching objective of these activities is to minimize the negative impacts of waste on human health and the environment, while simultaneously promoting economic development and improving quality of life (USEPA, 2020 ). Effective municipal solid waste management plays a crucial role in achieving efficient resource utilization, enhancing environmental quality and human health, and delivering socioeconomic benefits to local residents.

Solid waste management practices

The total urban waste generation is approximately 2 billion tons per year globally, with a projected per-capita increase of around 20% by the year 2100 (World Bank, 2018 ). As a result, municipal solid waste is considered a significant issue worldwide, as reflected in its inclusion within the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goals 11 (sustainable cities and communities) and 12 (responsible consumption and production). Effective waste management also plays a role in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions by 10–20% (Wilson, 2015 ; Hondo et al., 2020 ) and protecting the environment (Izvercian and Ivascu, 2015 ).

The generation rate and composition of solid waste vary across countries and regions due to socio-economic and cultural factors that influence consumption and production patterns. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the waste generation patterns within national and local contexts, taking into account socio-economic factors. This understanding helps inform waste management planning and actions (Ngoc and Schnitzer, 2009 ). Accurate data on solid waste generation and waste management practices are also essential for estimating the necessary human resources, equipment, and materials. Such data helps determine the size and location of waste collection and segregation facilities, design waste disposal systems, and develop overall waste management policies and plans (Ezeah and Roberts, 2012 ).

Solid waste production, particularly in developing countries, is experiencing a significant increase that exceeds the capacities of cities and municipalities in terms of removal and recycling. In these countries, the waste collection rates are 70% lower than the generation rates, and over 50% of the collected waste is disposed of in uncontrolled landfills or open dumpsites, often without adequate recycling measures (UNDESA, 2012 ). Ethiopia serves as an example of the consequences of inadequate solid waste management, with approximately 20–30% of the waste generated in its capital city, Addis Ababa, remaining uncollected (Tilaye and Dijk 2014 ).

Waste segregation practices

In the developed world, solid waste management methods have undergone progressive changes over the years. For instance, in Japan, separate waste collection was introduced in the 1970s and gradually became a common practice among citizens (Africa Data Book, 2019 ). However, in developing countries, waste segregation is not widely practiced (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ). Source segregation of waste ensures that it is less contaminated and can be collected and transported for further processing. It also optimizes waste processing and treatment technologies, resulting in a higher quantity of segregated materials that can be recycled and reused, thus reducing the need for virgin materials (Ministry of Indian Urban Development, 2016 ). Similarly, waste segregation during or before collection improves efficiency and reduces costs by minimizing the labor and infrastructure required for segregating mixed wastes. However, in many developing countries, regular solid waste segregation is not practiced by users at the source, making the collection of segregated waste challenging in urban areas (Saja et al., 2021 ). This may be attributed to factors such as a lack of public awareness, limited investment in recycling facilities, and slow adoption of solid waste segregation practices (Abdel-Shafy and Mansour, 2018 ).

According to Kihila et al. ( 2021 ), there is still inadequate implementation of recycling practices in sub-Saharan Africa, primarily due to slow and limited behavioral change, as well as insufficient technologies for reuse, recycling, and recovery. In Ethiopia, the amount of generated waste varies (ranging between 0.25 and 0.49 kilogram per capita per day) by source in urban areas, including households, health institutions, commercial centers, industries, hotels, and street sweepings. Among these sources, households account for 70% of the total volume of solid waste generated in Addis Ababa municipality, with the remaining contributions coming from commercial centers (9%), industries (6%), hotels (3%), health institutions (1%), street sweepings (10%), and other sources (1%). The physical composition of the waste is estimated to include fruit and vegetables (4.2%), paper (2.5%), rubber/plastics (2.9%), woody materials (2.3%), bone (1.1%), textiles (2.4%), metals (0.9%), glass (0.5%), combustibles leaves (15.1%), non-combustible stones (2.5%), and 65.6% different fine materials such as sand, ash, and dust (Gelan, 2021 ). Moreover, solid waste management strategies such as prevention (reduction), reuse, and recycling, along with appropriate solid waste collection, segregation, transportation, and disposal, have been rarely adopted in Ethiopian cities. Source separation of solid waste can promote reuse and recycling practices and encourage informal private sector involvement in these activities (Hirpe and Yeom, 2021 ).

Ethiopia has established a legal framework (Negarit Gazeta Proclamation No. 513/ 2007 ) for solid waste management. Article 11:1 of the proclamation mandates households to segregate non-decomposable solid waste at the source for proper disposal at designated collection sites. However, despite these legal provisions, solid waste segregation has not been widely adopted (Abebe, 2017 ). Therefore, it is crucial to understand the factors influencing and the barriers to the practice of solid waste segregation. This study aimed to address the knowledge gap regarding this issue by analyzing the determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city. The findings of the study can offer empirical insights and evidence-based recommendations for practitioners, policy makers, and the research community in improving solid waste management practices.

Methodology

Description of the study area.

Addis Ababa, the political capital of Ethiopia and its primary commercial and cultural center, is situated geographically between 8°50’ and 9°06’N latitude and 38°39’ to 38°55’E longitude (Fig. 1 ). The city is located at an average altitude of 2400 meters above sea level (a.s.l.), with the highest elevations reaching approximately 3200 meters a.s.l. at mount Entoto in the north. As a result, Addis Ababa is classified as a high-altitude global city. The city spans a total land area of 540 square kilometers and is surrounded by hilly and mountainous terrain to the north and west. Drainage in Addis Ababa is facilitated by small rivers known as Akaki, including small and big Akaki, which originate from different locations and converge near the city’s outskirts. These rivers, namely small and big Akaki, have influenced the city’s landform (Abnet et al., 2017 ) and are vulnerable to pollution from solid and liquid waste.

Map of the study districts showing the location of sample woredas (Pinkish) and sub-cities (Indicolite Green) of Addis Ababa City (Topaz Sand) the capital of Ethiopia (Sodalite Blue) in Africa (Yucca Yellow) (Source of the data/(shape file: Ethiopian Central Statistical Authority, 2007). Source: Developed by the researcher using Ethio-GIS database (2007).

In recent years, waste generation in Addis Ababa has experienced a significant increase, with no signs of reduction, while waste management practices have remained largely traditional. The city has an estimated daily per capita solid waste generation capacity of approximately 0.45 kg (Gelan, 2021 ). Considering the city’s geographical area and population, the average waste generation is estimated to be around 330 kg/m 3 , resulting in a daily solid waste generation of approximately 6019 m 3 . Currently, the municipal solid waste produced in the city is directed to an uncontrolled landfill site called Koshe ( Reppi ). This landfill site has been associated with serious health and environmental risks, including foul odor and the discharge of contaminated leachates into surrounding areas and communities.

The population of Addis Ababa engages in various economic activities, with different sectors contributing to the city’s livelihoods. The major occupations include trade and commerce, which accounts for 22.6% of the population, followed by manufacturing (21.6%), the construction industry (15.3%), public service (13.5%), transport and communication (9.6%), social services—including health, education and other (8.1%), hotel and similar services (6.2%), and 3.1% urban agriculture (3.1%) (Abebe, 2017 ). The city has a considerable capacity of delivering economies of scale due to its concentrated demand, specialization, diversity, innovation, and technology transfer, enabling a broader range of operations (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ). However, as consumption and production patterns continue to rise, Addis Ababa faces a significant challenge of generating a high volume of solid waste (Gelan, 2021 ). Despite this, solid waste management, particularly waste segregation practices, lags behind considerably in the city.

Sampling and data collection

In this study, Addis Ababa city was divided into three clusters based on economic activities, and waste generation capacity. The clusters were determined based on dominant activities such as business, residence, office, and other services one sub-city was purposefully selected from each cluster in consultation with the city’s solid waste management office. Out of the 11 sub-cities, the selected sub-cities were Addis Ketema (representing low waste generation capacity), Yeka (representing medium waste generation capacity), and Bole (representing high waste generation capacity). Subsequently, one woreda (district) was randomly chosen from each selected sub-city using a lottery method. The selected woredas were woreda 07, woreda 09, and woreda 01, representing Addis Ketema, Yeka, and Bole sub-cities, respectively. Based on the city administration data for the year 2022, the total number of households in the sampled woredas were as follows: 3576 in woreda 07; 4573 in woreda 09; and 3523 households in woreda 01.

The study utilized a descriptive research approach to examine the pattern of solid waste segregation practices in Addis Ababa. Both primary and secondary data were collected to achieve the research objectives. The primary data was collected from households through a questionnaire survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observations. The survey questions had varying properties, with some being dichotomous (requiring a single response) and others allowing for multiple responses. As a result, certain variables in the analysis do not add up to the total sample size (i.e. n  = 245).

Focus group discussions were conducted in each woreda , involving groups of 8–12 participants. The participants mainly consisted of members of waste collection enterprises who were engaged in door-to-door waste collection and segregation at the source (temporary collection site). It is important to note that the segregation at the source primarily focused on separating non-decomposable materials such as plastic bags, bottles, metal scraps, and glass from decomposable materials.

Fifteen interviews were conducted with woreda leaders of waste collectors, officials from the Addis Ababa City Solid Waste Management Agency, and staff from the solid waste cleansing office in the sampled woredas . Before the actual household survey and data collection, a pilot test was conducted to ensure the effectiveness of the questionnaire. Field observations were also conducted, with a specific focus on door-to-door waste collection, segregation, and management practices. These observations were guided by a checklist and documented in a research diary, which served as an important resource for data interpretation and analysis.

In the study, the sample size was determined by Cochran’s formula (Cochran, 1977 ): ( \({{{n}}} = {\textstyle{{{{{Z}}}^2{{{pq}}}} \over {{{{e}}}^2}}}\) ). In this formula, n represents the sample size, z is the selected critical value corresponding to the desired confidence level, p is the estimated proportion of an attribute in the population, q  = 1− p , and e is the desired level of precision, with a 95% confidence level and a maximum variability in a population of 0.5. Accordingly, the survey questionnaire was administered to 245 respondents by a trained enumerator in May 2022 from the three sampled woredas with a total household population of 11,762.

Using the Cochran ( 1977 ) formula with a 95% confidence level and a precision of 0.05, and assuming a variability of 20% due to time constraints, the sample size was calculated as follows:

Therefore, the sample size was determined to be 245.

The sampled proportion was then distributed in each woreda (Table 1 ) based on the number of households, using the formula: \(nh = \left( {{\textstyle{{Nh} \over N}}} \right){{{n}}}\) where Nh represents the population on each woreda , N is the total household population, nh is the total sampled population.

It is worth noting that one questionnaire had missing values, resulting in a total of 244 questionnaires being used for the analysis. The survey questionnaire also included a section on the socio-demographic profile of the households. In this study, a chi-square model was employed to test the relationship between categorical data.

Results and discussion

Solid waste segregation practices.

Table 2 presents the findings of the solid waste segregation practices based on the analysis of data from 244 respondents. The analysis revealed that the majority of survey households (63.5%) recognized the importance of solid waste segregation practices. This indicates that the community has a significant understanding of solid waste segregation, which can encourage the actual implementation of segregation practices.

According to the input from focus group discussions and key informant interviews, mass media, health extension services, and waste collectors have played a major role in disseminating information (although it has been limited thus far) on the importance of solid waste segregation. A study conducted by Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ) in Malaysia also indicated that a large proportion (86.3%) of respondents had heard about waste segregation through mass media or community discussions. However, the authors emphasized that simply providing information does not guarantee people’s active involvement in implementing waste segregation practices. Similarly, Abdel-Shafy and Mansour ( 2018 ) reported that the success of any solid waste segregation practice heavily relies on the level of public awareness and active participation of different communities. It is essential for the community to undergo a radical attitudinal change that allows the acquired knowledge to be translated into practical implementation.

The study also examined the willingness of respondents to engage in solid waste segregation practices, revealing that the majority (84%) expressed their willingness to implement the practice. This indicates a significant potential to translate this willingness into action through further efforts in public awareness campaigns, capacity-building initiatives, and policy support.

A similar study conducted in Suzhou, China demonstrated that residents’ positive attitudes and willingness to engage in solid waste separation played a crucial role in the rapid adoption of the practice (Zhang and Wen, 2014 ). This suggests that by leveraging the positive attitudes and willingness of individuals, combined with educational initiatives, the implementation of solid waste segregation practices can be accelerated.

The study found that slightly more than half of the respondents (54.1%) reported a lack of sufficient space to segregate waste in their residence areas. Focus group discussants further highlighted the challenges faced by waste collectors in segregating waste in congested living conditions. This indicates that the absence of adequate space to segregate collected waste in situ in residential areas is a barrier to achieving the required level of segregation for different communities.

This finding aligns with a study conducted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 2020 ), which emphasized that a well-designed storage system will not be effective if the locations or containers for waste segregation are inconvenient for residents or waste collectors. Therefore, addressing the issue of limited space and ensuring convenient and accessible segregation points are crucial factors for promoting effective waste segregation practices.

The study found that 54.5% of the respondents do not prepare different containers for solid waste segregation, while 45.9% of respondents reported not having the necessary materials for segregating waste or keeping different kinds of waste separately. This indicates that overall, the practice of solid waste segregation at the source (household) is poor in the community.

A study conducted by Tassie et al. ( 2019 ) supports these findings, highlighting the importance of good awareness and appropriate facilities for the proper implementation of segregation practices. When the community has sufficient awareness and motivation, individual households can use materials available at home such as baskets, cardboard boxes, bamboo containers, cans, plastic bags, barrels, etc., to prepare temporary storage containers for waste segregation. Similarly, Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ) found that providing more facilities such as bins and containers in housing areas, in addition to creating awareness, can enhance community participation in waste segregation.

Among the survey households, 45.5% reported segregating waste sometimes, while 21.3% reported segregating waste regularly. On the other hand, 28.7% of respondents did not segregate waste before disposing of it from their homes or compounds, and 4.5% were unsure about the practice. This indicates that only one-fifth of sampled respondents correctly implement solid waste segregation at the household level, while the majority (79%) either practice segregation rarely or not at all. For those households not practicing segregation or uncertain about it, targeted interventions such as education, public awareness campaigns, enabling policies, sufficient infrastructure, and incentive mechanisms need to be implemented by the relevant authorities to promote the adoption and scaling up of segregation practices. A study by Yoada et al. ( 2014 ) in Accra, Ghana, reported that only 17.3% of respondents indicated that the households sort waste by category at home before delivering it to collectors, which reflects the broader trend observed in many African cities.

Table 2 provides insights into the reasons for the non-segregation of waste at the household or outdoor level. According to the table, 50.4% of the respondents thought that they generate a very small amount of waste, leading them to consider waste separation as pointless. Additionally, 25.6% of respondents reported a lack of facilities for waste segregation, 10.5% mentioned the inability to afford dust bins due to cost, and another 10.5% were not aware of the practice of segregation.

During the focus group discussions, participants expressed the view that segregation could be more feasible if they generated larger volumes of solid waste. Some participants expressed the need for external support to provide facilities such as dust bins, while others showed a lack of concern and awareness about the importance of solid waste segregation. These findings suggest a lack of awareness and limited motivation among the community to engage in segregation practices. In line with these findings, Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) also reported that people often disregard segregating waste at the source due to poor awareness, lack of facilities and equipment like containers, or the low volumes of recyclable materials generated.

The study found that in terms of separating waste at temporary solid waste disposal places, 36.9% of the respondents do not separate the waste at all, and 12.3% are unsure about whether they separate solid waste. On the other hand, 29.9% of the respondents always separate waste, and 20.9% sometimes separate waste. These findings suggest that, in general, the community has a low inclination toward practicing solid waste segregation outside their homes. There seems to be a common attitude of “I don’t care after I’ve used it”.

These findings align with the study conducted by Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ), which revealed that communities do not have a promising attitude towards solid waste segregation as long as the waste is collected. The research conducted in Accra by Yoada et al. ( 2014 ) also highlighted that citizens do not take responsibility for proper waste disposal, including segregation, as they rely on the government to remove household-generated waste. This can be attributed, in part, to a poor attitude and lack of concern about the environment and public health.

These attitudes and behaviors reflect a need for increased awareness, education, and a shift in mindset toward the importance of proper waste segregation and disposal. Efforts to promote community engagement, responsible waste management practices, and environmental consciousness can help address these challenges and encourage greater participation in waste segregation.

According to Fig. 2 , the majority (76.2%) of respondents associate the 3Rs (Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery) primarily with the segregation of waste. A portion of respondents (12.3%) reported not knowing about the 3Rs, and 11.5% were unsure. Overall, the majority of participants demonstrated a good understanding of the 3Rs, particularly in relation to solid waste segregation. They recognized the economic value of waste and provided examples such as using animal dung or other decomposable waste for composting and selling plastic bottles to generate income.

Source: Questionnaire survey (2022).

Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) reported that waste segregation is a crucial element in the waste management chain for effective implementation of the 3Rs. Segregation at the source simplifies handling and processing, thereby facilitating resource recovery, promoting reuse and recycling, and reducing operational costs. Similarly, Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ) suggested that discarded products and waste materials possess economic value when they are reused or reintroduced into the technological cycle. Therefore, source segregation is fundamental for successful and economically viable recycling activities.

According to Fig. 3 , when asked about the importance of solid waste segregation at the source for waste reduction, over 73% of the respondents believed that the practice is effective in reducing waste. Only 3.2% perceived that it does not contribute to waste reduction, and the remaining respondents were unsure. This indicates that a significant number of community members understand that segregating waste at the source can lead to a reduction in the volume of generated solid waste at various levels.

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2022.

This finding is consistent with the study conducted by Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ), which emphasizes that practicing segregation at the source can significantly reduce the amount of solid waste that ends up in landfills. Similarly, the study by Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) suggests that waste segregation at the source can lead to a significant reduction in waste volumes, ultimately improving the efficiency of collection and disposal processes. These findings highlight the importance of promoting and implementing solid waste segregation practices as an effective means of waste reduction, contributing to more efficient waste management systems.

Figure 4 illustrates the type of materials used for waste collection among the survey respondents. The majority (65.2%) reported using sacks, 12.3% use plastic bags, 7.7% use both plastic and glass containers, 2.5% use metallic materials, and 12.3% do not use any fixed type of material. The predominant use of sacks for sorting solid waste indicates a potential for reusing or recycling them. However, it is important to note that the use of sacks can lead to the escape of leachate materials, which poses a risk of environmental pollution (e.g., water or soil contamination) and may require frequent replacement (Abebe, 2017 ).

Overall, the key informant interviewees and focus group discussants confirmed the low level of understanding and awareness among households regarding solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa, despite some recent improvements. They attributed the limited progress to sporadic door-to-door awareness activities conducted by the health extension workers and informal communication from the waste collectors. However, in most residential areas of the city, proper practices of solid waste segregation have been lagging at all levels.

Determinants of solid waste segregation practices

In the study, Chi-square and t -test analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between various variables and the willingness of solid waste segregation. The p -value was used to assess the statistical significance of the observed results. A p -value of <0.005 indicates a higher level of statistical significance, suggesting a significant correlation between the variables.

The variables of gender, educational level, monthly income, willingness, awareness/training, and use of social organizations were specifically analyzed to determine their potential association with solid waste segregation practices. The results of these analyses can provide insights into the factors that influence the willingness of individuals to engage in solid waste segregation.

Gender and solid waste segregation practice

According to the results presented in Table 3 , the calculated value of Chi-square is 1.565 with a p -value of 0.211. This indicates that there is no significant association between the gender of the respondents and their practice of solid waste segregation at the gate/door.

Traditionally, domestic chores and household management, including activities related to house cleaning, have been culturally associated with women’s roles in many developing countries (Banga, 2011 ). However, our analysis did not find a significant difference between male and female respondents in terms of segregating solid waste before disposal. It is worth noting that female members generally have knowledge and decision-making authority regarding what is considered useful and non-waste, although male members also cooperate in waste management practices.

Educational level of the respondents

According to Table 3 , the p -value obtained for the association between educational level and solid waste segregation practice at the gate/door is 0.446, indicating an insignificant difference. The analysis suggests that the educational level of the respondents is not significantly associated with their practice of solid waste segregation.

This finding is consistent with previous studies conducted by Abebe ( 2017 ) and Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ), which also reported a lack of significant relationship between the educational level of households and their participation in solid waste segregation at the source. It implies that people’s attitude towards waste segregation, rather than their education or knowledge, plays a more significant role in determining their household-level waste segregation practices.

Monthly income of the respondents

As indicated in Table 3 , the calculated t -test value for the association between monthly income (with a mean monthly income of 5141.4 Birr and 4618.4 Birr std. deviation) and solid waste segregation practice at the gate is −0.185, assuming equal variances, with a p -value of 0.220. This suggests that there is an insignificant association between the monthly income of respondents and their practice of solid waste segregation practice at the gate.

The focus group discussions also supported this finding, as they did not observe any substantial difference in waste segregation practices among households with different income levels. This implies that income level does not play a significant role in determining the extent to which households segregate their solid waste at the source. Other factors, such as awareness, motivation, and access to facilities, may have a stronger influence on waste segregation practices than income alone.

Awareness and training

As presented in Table 3 , the Chi-square test value for the association between respondents’ awareness/training and practice of solid waste segregation at the gate is 50.920, with a p -value of 0.000. This indicates a highly significant ( p  < 001) association between respondent’s awareness or training and their practice of solid waste segregation at the gate.

The analysis demonstrates that an increase in public awareness and the provision of relevant training can have a significant impact on promoting and encouraging solid waste segregation practices at the household or gate/door level. When individuals are aware of the importance of waste segregation and have received appropriate training on how to implement it effectively, they are more likely to actively engage in segregating their waste at the source.

These findings emphasize the importance of targeted awareness campaigns and training programs to improve waste management practices, particularly in promoting solid waste segregation. By increasing the knowledge and understanding of the community, it becomes more feasible to enhance the adoption and implementation of waste segregation practices, leading to more effective waste management and environmental sustainability.

Role of social organizations (e.g. Idir , Ikub )

As indicated in Table 3 , the Chi-square test value for the relationship between the use of social organizations (such as Idir and Iqub ) and the practice of solid waste segregation at the gate is 10.878, with a p -value of 0.001. This suggests a significant association between the use of social organizations and the practice of solid waste segregation.

The findings highlight that individuals who actively participate in social organizations, such as Idir and Iqub , are more likely to engage in solid waste segregation practices at the household or gate/door level. While Idir is aimed at helping each other, especially in funerals or burials, Iqub is a traditional mutual saving and credit association. These social organizations can serve as platforms for disseminating information, promoting awareness, and encouraging community members to adopt sustainable waste management practices. The collective nature of these associations can foster a sense of social responsibility and cooperation, leading to increased participation in waste segregation activities.

Other studies have also shown that active participation in social groups or associations can positively influence individuals’ attitudes and behaviors, including waste management practices. The sense of belonging, shared values, and mutual support within these organizations can contribute to the adoption of group decisions and actions, such as the implementation of waste segregation practices (Begashaw, 1978 ; Aredo, 1993 ).

Therefore, leveraging the existing social organizations in the community and engaging them in waste management initiatives can be an effective strategy to promote and enhance solid waste segregation practices at the household level. By working together through these organizations, communities can create a collective impact and contribute to the improvement of waste management and environmental sustainability.

This study focused on exploring household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city. The findings reveal that solid waste segregation practices at the household level are very low in the city, with significant variations in awareness, understanding, and willingness among the community to adequately implement these practices effectively. Only one-fifth of sampled respondents reported implementing solid waste segregation, while the majority (79%) of the respondents either rarely practiced the segregation or did not at all. Analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data from this study indicates that awareness and attitude regarding solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city are still poor, despite some recent progress. Consequently, the actual implementation of solid waste segregation practices is generally weak. The analysis demonstrates that household awareness/training and the use of social organizations have a positive and significant impact on solid waste segregation practices. However, other household factors such as gender, income, and education level do not seem to influence households’ willingness to segregate solid waste at home or at the gate. Based on these findings, efforts should be focused on raising broad public awareness and providing training to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of individual households and residents regarding solid waste segregation practices. This should be complemented by necessary policy interventions, such as additional regulatory measures, and support for recycling facilities. Therefore, targeted interventions, including intensive awareness campaigns, the facilitation of relevant infrastructure, and other incentive mechanisms, should be considered by the government and local authorities to promote the adoption and scaling up of waste segregation practices. Although this study had limitations in fully understanding the barriers and opportunities in waste management practices, it provides useful insights for other rapidly urbanizing cities in the developing world. A more detailed study focusing on people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors could further explore the underlying causes of poor waste segregation practices.

Data availability

Data will be shared on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors express their sincere gratitude to all the respondents who participated in the survey, focus group discussion, and key informant interviews. The valuable time and willingness of the participants to share their insights and information were essential for the success of this study. Their contributions have greatly contributed to the generation of meaningful data and the overall quality of the research. The authors appreciate their cooperation and willingness to engage in the research process.

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Adefris, W., Damene, S. & Satyal, P. Household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 516 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01982-7

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WASTE GENERATION AND ITS MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS

Waste management in schools continues to generate thoughts, interest and research because of the huge amount of the refuse that schools generation which include papers, cartons, cans, broken bottles, polymers which can be recycled but are rather turned out as rubbish to be collected as refuse. These refuse from schools are collected alongside other household refuses and heaped on streets or refuse dump with it antecedent health challenges which include unsightly heap of refuse, the odour emanating from such heap and the heap being a breeding ground for disease vectors like mosquitoes, cockroaches, rodents, reptiles among others. Among all the significant contributors of environmental waste, schools have been chosen for this write up since the waste generation rate and its corresponding composition has not been reported or has been underestimated. Hence, the present paper is an attempt to fill up this gap in knowledge. The objective of this paper specifically is to raise awareness among educators, learners and their families of the cause and effect of poor waste management and the benefits of recycling, reuse and reduce as waste management strategies. Also, to provide environmental tools to enhance quality of life and assist schools with portfolio development and waste minimization projects.

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The Practices of At-Source Segregation of Household Solid Waste by the Youths in Nepal

Ashish khanal.

1 Department of Energy and Environment, Teri School of Advanced Studies, Global Research Institute and Training Center, Kathmandu, Nepal

2 Global Research Institute and Training Center, Kathmandu, Nepal

Prasuj Mainali

3 Jiwanta Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal

Associated Data

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Source segregation, the first important step for effective solid waste management, is practised by a handful of organizations in limited areas in Nepal. The inadequacy of source segregation and ineffective collection system in Nepal have led to maximum waste reaching the landfill site. Though several researchers have studied the role of stakeholders and the importance of youths in the waste management sector, there is a paucity of studies on the role of youths, particularly in waste segregation in Nepal. In this regard, this study was conducted to understand the at-source household waste segregation practices by youths in Nepal. The study adopted the snowball sampling technique. A structured survey questionnaire which included information on the sociodemographic status of the respondents, placement of bins, segregation practices, and satisfaction with the waste collection provider was used to elicit information from 522 youths. It was found that almost half (49.2%) of the respondents had installed two dustbins in their kitchen with 80.3% of respondents claiming to practice source segregation in their houses. The majority (75.1%) of participants were ready to pay more for improved solid waste management in their area. Also, 75.8% of respondents declared that everyone is responsible for solid waste management with fewer than 14.8% and 9.4%, stating that waste management should be the responsibility of the government and waste management service provider, respectively. The gender and source segregation was statistically significant with a p value of 0.007 (<0.05). However, the likelihood ratio significance showed no association between the level of education and the practice of source segregation. Hence, the source segregation practice of household solid waste was found to be satisfactory among the youths of Nepal. Thus, there should be a proper monitoring mechanism to ensure that household waste gets collected in a segregated form causing less burden on landfills.

1. Introduction

Global waste generation has increased from 635 million tons in 1965 to 1999 million tons in 2015 and is forecasted to reach 3539 million tons by 2050 [ 1 ]. Asia has seen a notable increase in solid waste generation due to rapid urbanization, industrialization, and economic growth since 2000 [ 2 ]. Around one-fourth of global solid waste is generated in the Asian region which is predicted to be about one-third by 2050 [ 3 ]. Unfortunately, there is no proper system of source segregation, collection, and disposal in Asian countries [ 4 ]. Apart from that, rapid population growth and urbanization have also caused an increase in the generation of household solid waste [ 5 , 6 ]. Lack of skilled manpower, irregular waste collection services, inadequate equipment used for waste collection, inadequate legal provisions, and resource constraints are factors responsible for inefficient solid waste management in all developing countries [ 7 ]. Nepal, a South Asian country, is facing greater challenges with solid waste management caused due to rapid urbanization [ 8 , 9 ].

The history of solid waste management in Nepal goes back to 1919 after the establishment of Safai Adda in Kathmandu [ 10 , 11 ]. Though the government started waste management from their level around 100 years ago in Nepal, it is important to understand that the local authorities are not solely responsible for solid waste management [ 12 ]. Waste management is a public issue and involves the predefined role of every stakeholder. Baseline data of solid waste management in Nepal [ 4 ] show a daily waste generation of 1435 tons per day with an average per capita household waste generation rate of 170 gm/capita/day. Organic waste comprises of 66% followed by plastic (12%) and paper (9%). Another study conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics in 2021 [ 13 ] found that the municipal waste generation in Nepal has reached 1653 tons per day with organic waste comprising of 54%. It shows that there is a high potential for recyclable extraction from the waste stream [ 14 ]. However, the waste recovery rate of Nepal is very low causing the maximum waste to reach the landfill site [ 15 ]. After the new constitution was established in 2015, Nepal has formed hundreds of new municipalities; several of which do not have formal waste management systems [ 16 ]. A huge budget is allocated every year for solid waste management in Nepal, yet the major portion of the budget is spent on street sweeping [ 17 ] giving less priority to recyclable extraction and environmentally friendly disposal of waste.

The solid waste management national policy of Nepal in 1996 had emphasized on the minimization of waste by integrating the private sector. The solid waste management act 2011 of Nepal has also focused on source segregation of waste and encouraged households to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste. It shows that the private sector is active in solid waste management in Nepal for a very long period of time. The private sector has been providing household waste collection services by charging monthly fees. Thus, it is necessary to find the experience of youth regarding the waste management service provided in their area. The willingness to pay for the solid waste management service is very much important for private sector participation in the waste management system [ 18 ]. Once the waste is segregated at the source, recyclables can be easily extracted and occupational hazards during waste separation can also be reduced [ 19 ].

Youths are important stakeholders and respond to environmental threats with better civic engagement and personal responsibility [ 20 ]. Most of the researchers agree that source segregation is very important for a better recycling system [ 21 – 24 ]. Waste recovery and reuse can, also, provide economic benefits to the people [ 25 ]. In this case, the role of youth is very important in creating a cultural shift towards sustainability and environmental justice [ 26 ]. Researchers from Singapore [ 27 ], Kenya [ 28 ], Egypt [ 29 ], Iran [ 30 ], Indonesia [ 31 ], India [ 32 ], and Uganda [ 33 ] have focused on the major role of youths in waste management. However, an in-depth study with a focus on source segregation has been lacking in the studies. The involvement and participation of all stakeholders are key factors for sustainable waste management [ 34 ]. Also, the role of youths (households), one of the major stakeholders of waste management, needs to be identified. Thus, this study was intended to know the source segregation practices of the youths of Nepal.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. population and sample.

The study was conducted on a larger youth population of Nepal where the exact current population was unknown. The last census was conducted in Nepal in 2011 [ 35 ] which categorized youths aged between 16 and 40 years old accounting for 40% of the total population (26,494,504). Based on the population projection by the Central Bureau of Statistics [ 36 ], the population of Nepal in 2021 was 30,526,143 with a youth population of 12,210,457.

Based on the population, the sample size was calculated by using the following equation [ 37 ]:

where z stands for 95% confidence level (1.96), N stands for total population size, p is the estimated population proportion, d stands for the margin of error, and n is the sample size.

As the sample size in a social survey depends on the preferred margin of error and confidence level [ 38 ], the number of respondents was 522 calculated at a 95% confidence level with a 4.3% margin of error. The sample size obtained from the mentioned equation aligns with the sample size of the table for an infinite population (>100,000) with a precision of ±5% [ 39 ]. Krejcie and Morgan [ 40 ] also confirm that the sample size of 384 is sufficient for any population of 1,000,000 or above. Hence, the sample size of 522 was enough to conduct the study among the youths of Nepal.

2.2. Data Collection and Analysis

The survey questionnaire was prepared on a Google form and distributed via Facebook. Facebook was purposively chosen to collect the data as it is the most popular social media in Nepal [ 41 ]. Online surveys using social media have been widely used during crises and disasters [ 42 ]. Researchers used social media to collect data for surveys and to perform analysis [ 43 ]. A snowball technique, the most commonly used technique in social science [ 44 ], was used where the respondents were asked to share it with other youths in their circle. The Google form was accessible for three weeks. The survey questionnaire included information on sociodemographic status, placement of bins, segregation practices, and satisfaction with the waste collection provider. The data collected through the online survey were automatically added to an excel sheet by the Google form. The obtained excel sheet was exported to Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for further analysis. The descriptive statistics including mean and frequency were calculated along with the relation and strength between the variables.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. demographic details.

Out of 522 respondents, 56.5% were female and 43.5% were male. Most (96.4%) of the youths were below 29 years old with only 3.6% of respondents between the age group of 30–40 years. The majority (70.3%) of respondents had passed the bachelor level of education followed by graduation (15.5%). The least (0.4%) respondents declared that they had passed the lower secondary level. Tables ​ Tables1 1 ​ 1 – 3 show that most (66.5%) of the youth had no income.

Demographic details of the respondents.

Waste segregation practices among the youths of Nepal.

Associations between sociodemographic characteristics and source segregation of household solid waste.

3.2. Source Segregation Practice

Almost half (49.2%) of respondents had installed two dustbins in their kitchens. Also, 35.2% of respondents claimed that they had a single bin system in their kitchen with 4.8% having no bin placed inside the kitchen. 80.3% of respondents claimed that they have been practising source segregation in their houses. A study has found that the source segregation behaviour of households has drastically changed after installing the sorting equipment in the households [ 45 ]. The current study shows that the majority of Nepalese households have installed separate dustbins for separate storage of waste, and it would be comparatively easier if asked for the people to contain the source segregation of waste in their household. A question was asked whether if they would segregate the waste if asked by the waste management service provider, and the majority (94.4%) of respondents shared a positive answer. Similarly, another question was asked so as to know if the incentives would lead to better source segregation, 40.8% said that they would start segregating waste if provided with any form of incentives. Research studies conducted in Ghana [ 46 ] also found that monetary incentives act as the motivating factor for the source segregation of household solid waste. It shows that though people are concerned about the environment, they also look for financial incentives for better motivation [ 47 ]. The option could be using a lesser waste collection service fee for those households who segregate the waste and provide the waste in a segregated form to the waste management service providers. The differential user fee with leverage to the household that segregates the waste has also been shared in a study conducted in India [ 48 ]. Apart from the monetary incentives, the gender, income, attitude, type of service provider, and locality of households also affect the source segregation behaviour of the households [ 46 ].

3.3. Satisfaction with Waste Collection System

About 53.0% of respondents were happy with the waste management service provider in their area. The reasons for unhappiness were asked using multiple-response questions. Out of the 248 respondents, 85.5% were unhappy with the irregularities in waste collection in their area followed by the high service fees (15.7%) and bad behaviour (13.7%) from the waste collectors. Most of the waste management service providers in Nepal transfer the collected waste directly to the landfill site. There is frequent obstruction of access to the landfill which made it difficult for waste management service providers to transfer the waste to the landfill site [ 9 ]. There are several issues including financial, technical, physical, and communication obstacles which obstructs to achieve integrated SWM [ 49 ]. In such cases, the waste collection companies do not want to collect waste from the households. However, the majority (75.1%) of participants were ready to pay more for improved solid waste management in their area. It shows that when the waste management services are regular, people are, also, willing to pay more for the services rendered.

For example, in a study conducted among households in Nigeria found that people were happy to pay the waste management fee if the service was provided regularly [ 18 ]. Another study conducted among 1560 households in Ghana also found that 53.7% of the households were willing to make an additional payment for improved services [ 50 ]. A household survey conducted in Gorkha, Nepal found that the majority (67%) of people were ready to segregate the waste if the government enforces the law [ 51 ].

Female respondents (59.4%) were more active in the source segregation of household solid waste compared to males. The gender source segregation was statistically significant with a p value of 0.007 (<0.05). Furthermore, the phi ( φ ) value was calculated to evaluate the strength which resulted in a weak negative association (−0.12) between gender and source segregation. The finding is similar to a survey conducted on household solid waste segregation at a source in Kazakhstan which found females to be more active in waste sorting behaviour [ 52 ]. Another study conducted in Colombia also concluded that females are more active than males in terms of at-source waste segregation [ 53 ]. Women are more engaged in household chores in Nepal and more likely to deal with the daily generated household waste. Studies have found that women are likely to recycle more than men and play an important role in solid waste management at the household level [ 54 ].

When a cross tab of source segregation with education was derived, the majority (70.9%) of bachelor-level respondents were practising source segregation at their house. The expected value count for education with source segregation less than 5 was found to be 41.7% which violated our assumption (required < 20%). The likelihood ratio significance value was calculated as 0.634 which was more than 0.05 (5% confidence level). A study among the youths of Nepal found that there is no gender difference in gaining knowledge about good environmental practices [ 55 ]. Although the education of an individual helps to encourage the at-source segregation of waste [ 30 , 56 ], this study did not find any association between the level of education and the practice of at-source segregation among the youths of Nepal.

4. Conclusion

The source segregation practice of household solid waste was found to be satisfactory among the youths of Nepal. However, the youths are not satisfied with the waste management service provided in their area. Though the majority of youths have been practising source segregation at their houses, the waste collector service provider has been collecting waste in the mixed form. The majority of youths are ready to pay more for improved waste management services. The influence of gender on source segregation was found to be statistically significant while the likelihood ratio significance showed no association between the level of education and the practice of source segregation. As there is high enthusiasm among youth regarding the source segregation of household waste, there is an urgent need for a proper monitoring mechanism from the government to ensure that the household waste gets collected in a segregated form to reduce the volume transported to the landfills.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all the respondents who participated in this study.

Data Availability

A preprint of this paper has previously been published [ 57 ].

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.