literature review on strategic planning

Strategic Planning and Management in Transit Agencies (2005)

Chapter: chapter two - literature review.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

4OVERVIEW The literature review revealed that strategic planning is a popular and widespread practice in both the private and pub- lic sectors. It is a leadership and management tool that has been successfully used for decades to help organizations bet- ter prepare for the future and improve long-term performance. There is increased recognition that strategic planning is not enough by itself and that too many good strategic plans have been left to gather dust. Effective leadership is required to both develop and implement strategic plans. This has led to the concept of “strategic management,” which includes the implementation and ongoing management of strategic plans, not just their development. Another trend has been to make the strategic planning process briefer and more flexible. Part of the problem in the past has been that formal and elaborate planning processes have often led to the development of comprehensive and thor- ough plans that are out of date by the time they are produced. Today’s more turbulent and uncertain times require that less emphasis be given to the form of the plan and more to the substance and timeliness of the results. Henry Mintzberg has suggested that strategic planning is quite different than “strategic thinking,” the creative synthe- sis of visionary new business strategies. He goes further by suggesting that strategic planning, essentially analytical in nature, may even be antithetical to strategic thinking. He believes that strategic planning is more appropriately thought of as “strategic programming.” As such, it may be quite suit- able for relatively stable public transportation systems. Although it began in the military, the early nonmilitary use of strategic planning was primarily in the private sector. How- ever, its use in the public and nonprofit sectors has increased substantially and there are now several good sources of infor- mation on performing strategic planning in these sectors. Sev- eral reports and articles that pertain specifically to public- sector transportation are also reviewed. Effective strategic planning and management requires not only deciding what an organization should do, but also its having the knowledge and skills required to do it. With this in mind, the tools of organization development are discussed as a factor that could increase an organization’s capability to develop and implement strategic plans. This includes devel- oping and retaining a workforce with the requisite knowledge and skills. Finally, a recent TCRP study about “emerging new para- digms” in transit has suggested that fundamental changes will be required if transit is to succeed in a world of increasing social, economic, political, and technological change. If so, it could well be that strategic planning and management will be a crucial tool toward this end. INTRODUCTION As would be expected, there is a significant amount of liter- ature on the subject of strategic planning in general, particu- larly in the private sector. There is also a fair amount written on strategic planning in the public and nonprofit sectors. How- ever, much less has been written specifically about strategic planning in public transportation. This literature review will be selective rather than exhaus- tive. It will cover strategic planning in the private sector; how- ever, it will primarily focus on strategic planning in the public sector and in public transportation. HISTORY Strategic planning has a long history in organizations. Its ori- gins are often thought to have been in the military, where there was a need to develop comprehensive, long-term strate- gies to win a war as opposed to the shorter-term, more limited tactical planning needed to win battles or skirmishes. An early form of strategic planning, the SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats), came out of the Har- vard Business School in the 1950s as part of their efforts in regard to business policy development and the analysis of business strategies in relation to an organization’s internal and external environments. The practice of strategic planning achieved considerable popularity in private-sector organizations in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s, it became more and more prevalent in the public and nonprofit sectors. Unlike other management fads that have quickly disappeared, strategic planning is a management technique or practice that has demonstrated staying power and broad usage across a variety of organiza- tions in both the private and public sectors. STRATEGIC PLANNING IN GENERAL Early on, strategic planning was a relatively formal, elabo- rate, and often lengthy process. In addition, because times CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

5were more stable, a strategic plan was intended to last for several years. More recently, largely in response to these more rapidly changing and turbulent times, there has been a clear trend in the private sector to • Shorten the strategic planning cycle so that the plan is not out of date by the time it is finished. (However, it should also be noted that there has been a countervail- ing trend to open up the process and involve as many participants as feasible, rather than having it be a “top- down” plan developed largely by top management and imposed on the organization. The effect of this has been to lengthen the process.) • Make the planning process less formal and more flexible. • Make the process relatively continuous rather than some- thing undertaken only every 2 to 5 years. • Link it to other important business processes such as budgeting and performance measurement. An example of this is found in Strategic Readiness: The Making of the Learning Organization (1) in which the authors suggest a shift from strategic planning to strategic learning through a regular process of • Continuous planning—wherein the organization focuses on questioning and quickly adjusting existing plans; • Improvised implementation—that is, both experimental and evolving, and that provides good information for learning; and • Deep reflection about original assumptions—what has changed and what has been learned. The authors maintain that “most organizational change results not from formal plans and fixed programs for change but from a process of learning—and not just from the learning of indi- viduals but, more importantly, from the collective learning of entire organizations” (1, p. xi). The 1994 publication of The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning by Mintzberg (2) presented a very comprehensive, complex, and contrarian view of the practice of strategic plan- ning. His central argument is that strategic planning by its very nature is the antithesis of “strategic thinking.” He views strategic thinking as a creative act of synthesis, and strategic planning as a process that is essentially one of analysis. (An analogy might be right brain versus left brain thinking, in which the right brain is considered to be more creative and holistic and the left brain is considered to be more linear and logical.) Mintzberg believes that “strategic planning often spoils strategic thinking, causing managers to confuse real vision with the manipulation of numbers” (3, p. 107). Mintzberg goes on to argue that “Strategic planning, as it has been practiced, has really been strategic programming, the articulation and elaboration of strategies, or visions, that already exist” (3, p. 107). He asserts that strategic planning does not fail because of such commonly mentioned pitfalls as a lack of commitment from top management or resistance to change, but instead because of its fundamental nature of being too analytical, too formalized, and too detached from the functions and interests of the business’s line managers. In spite of his belief that strategic planning is not effective at creating business strategies (strategic thinking), he believes that it can play important roles including: • Strategic planning as strategic programming—Instead of trying to use strategic planning to generate strategies or visions, use it to program them. This can be done through a process of “codification” (expressing the strate- gies in ways that are clear and operational), by “elab- oration” (breaking strategies down into substrategies and action plans), and “conversion” (identifying the impacts of the strategies on operations; e.g., on budgets and performance controls). • Strategic plans as tools to communicate and control— Plans can be an important way of communicating the organization’s intentions both internally (helping to ensure that everyone in the organization is pulling in the same direction) and externally. • Strategic planners as analysts—Planners can use their analytical skills and orientation by performing special studies and by offering new perspectives. • Strategic planners as catalysts—In this role, planners do not try to enter the “black box” of strategy making, but instead encourage and assist line managers to think in creative ways about the future (3, pp. 112–114). In Mintzberg’s words, “Planners shouldn’t create strategies, but they can supply data, help managers think strategically, and program the vision” (3, p. 107). Although insightful, Mintzberg’s distinction between strategic thinking and strategic planning may be more rele- vant to the private sector, where the environment tends to be more volatile and where businesses must constantly be on the lookout for new business strategies and opportunities. Gen- erally, in the public sector, and in public transportation more specifically, the situation is usually more constrained. For example, the purpose and geographic jurisdiction of public transportation agencies is usually prescribed by state legisla- tion. For the most part, public transportation agencies are not going to be pursuing business opportunities outside of the area of public transportation. In addition, their financial struc- ture is often defined or controlled in large part by their enabling legislation or funding bodies. It might therefore be argued that strategic planning, when thought of as strategic programming as described by Mintzberg, may be the primary role it should play in public transportation. Mintzberg implies this when he states that “Only when an organization is sure of the relative stability of

its environment and is in need of the tight coordination of a myriad of intricate operations (as is typically the case of air- lines with their needs for complicated scheduling), does such strategic programming make sense” (3, p. 112). The more creative strategic thinking described by Mintzberg might be used only infrequently, when there is a need for more trans- formative organizational or institutional change. Another valuable perspective on strategic planning, that appeared in the mid-1990s, was the concept of the “balanced scorecard,” as developed by Kaplan and Norton in response to their belief that strategic planning and management as practiced in the private sector gave too much weight to financial matters (4). To remedy this, they developed the balanced scorecard idea, an approach that provides a frame- work for helping an organization achieve its long-term strate- gic goals by viewing the organization from four key per- spectives: (1) the customer, (2) internal business processes, (3) learning and growth, and (4) financial performance. The balanced scorecard system involves the development, utilization, and analysis of performance metrics that are devel- oped for each of these perspectives. STRATEGIC PLANNING IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR One of the “bibles” of strategic planning in the public (and nonprofit) sector has been John Bryson’s Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations: A Guide to Strength- ening and Sustaining Organizational Achievement (5). This book was first published in 1988, and then substantially revised in 1995. Bryson defines strategic planning as “a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organization is, what it does, and why it does it” (5, pp. 4–5). He offers a generic strategic planning model that has been successfully used by many public and nonprofit agencies. This model consists of 10 steps that he refers to as the Strategy Change Cycle (5, p. 23): 1. Initiate and agree on a strategic planning process (including who should be involved, and their roles and responsibilities). 2. Identify organizational mandates (e.g., enabling legislation). 3. Clarify organizational mission and values (this step should include an analysis of key “stakeholders”). 4. Assess the organization’s external and internal envi- ronments to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportu- nities, and threats (SWOT analysis). 5. Identify the strategic issues facing the organization. 6. Formulate strategies to manage these issues. 7. Review and adopt the strategic plan or plans. 8. Establish an effective organizational vision. 9. Develop an effective implementation process. 10. Reassess strategies and the strategic planning process. 6 Note that Steps 1–8 focus primarily on the planning process, whereas Steps 9 and 10 shift the emphasis from strategic planning to strategic management. There are some lessons to be learned in the revisions the author made to the book in 1995. For example, Steps 7, 9, and 10 were added, reflecting the need to not just produce a plan but to effectively implement it, and also to reassess the planning process as a prelude to another round of planning. The emphasis is on strategic management, not just strategic planning. In addition, the author places more emphasis on the recognition that strategic planning is different than strategic thought and action (a point strongly made by Mintzberg and noted previously). In summary, the 1995 edition makes a more explicit linkage between leadership, strategic planning, and management. Bryson is clearly a strong believer in the benefits of strate- gic planning, including the promotion of strategic thought and action, improved decision making, and enhanced orga- nizational responsiveness and performance (5, p. 7). However, he also recognizes that strategic planning has limitations and should not be considered a panacea for all organizational problems or situations. For example, strategic planning is most likely not an appropriate response to extreme adverse circumstances; if the organization does not have the necessary people, skills, or management commitment to pro- duce a good plan; or if the likelihood of plan implementation is low. Bryson believes that strategic planning is here to stay because it effectively deals with substantive issues and con- cerns as well as the reality of political decision making. In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed the Government Per- formance and Results Act (GPRA). This act requires that federal agencies take a number of steps to operate in a more businesslike manner and that they become more accountable to taxpayers. These steps require agencies to • Define their missions and desired outcomes, use strate- gic planning, involve their stakeholders, assess their environments, and align their activities, core processes, and resources in support of mission-related outcomes; • Measure their performance to ensure that goals are being met; and • Use the performance data to improve organizational processes, identify performance gaps, and set improve- ment goals. Under the GPRA, agencies were instructed to develop mul- tiyear strategic plans, annual performance plans, and annual performance reports. As a result, in 1996, the FTA published its first strategic plan, covering the period from 1997 to 2001. An executive guide for implementing the GPRA, pub- lished by the Government Accounting Office, pointed out that

7the success of the GPRA “depends on strong leadership prac- tices that devolve decision-making authority with account- ability, create incentives, build expertise, and integrate man- agement reforms” (6). STRATEGIC PLANNING IN PUBLIC-SECTOR TRANSPORTATION In the mid-1980s, the University Research and Training Program of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) (currently the FTA) funded a project that examined strategic planning in small- and medium-size transit agen- cies (7). The study report included a discussion of strategic planning and its benefits, a survey of 104 transit agencies, and a case study of a small transit system in Missouri (South- east Missouri Transportation Services, Inc.). The author observed that the crux of strategic planning is to create a process that answers three basic questions (7, p. 5): 1. Where are we? 2. Where do we want to go? 3. How can we get there? In the survey of transit properties, the following percent- ages of respondents answered that they conduct a formal strategic planning process: • Small systems (fewer than 50 vehicles) 42% • Medium systems (50–99 vehicles) 68% • Big systems (100–500 vehicles) 62% • Large systems (more than 500 vehicles) 93% The average for the four sizes was 59%. However, when responses were analyzed more closely, it was noted that more than half (57%) were actually referring to long-range service and capital plans as required by the fed- eral UMTA, short-range service plans, or to the annual bud- geting process. In short, there appeared to be a great deal of confusion as to what actually constitutes strategic planning. The study identified the following managerial tools used by transit agencies that might become part of a strategic plan- ning process: • Strategic-type special studies (e.g., performance audits), • Performance indicators, • Management by objectives, and • Strategy retreats. It found that there were a number of obstacles to con- ducting strategic planning in agencies, and that these obsta- cles differed according to the size of the agency. For exam- ple, inadequate staff resources was regarded as a significant obstacle by small agencies, but much less so by large ones. Conversely, a lack of good information was regarded as a serious problem by large agencies, but not so serious by small agencies. Large agencies cited the “fish-bowl” envi- ronment of public agencies as a problem and also changing state policies. Other obstacles cited by respondents included: • Operating pressures, • A short-term orientation inside and outside the agency (“fire-fighting”), • The annual budget process, and • An inability to enter new markets or alter the agency’s external environment. The study also found that small agencies in particular have difficulty in regard to strategic planning. In general, these dif- ficulties had to do with inadequate resources, including staff, expertise, data, and the money needed to hire outside exper- tise. Three key conclusions emerged from the study: 1. The need to reinterpret the concept of strategic planning. 2. The importance of organizational readiness. 3. The need to mold strategic planning to the specific context of the organization. In regard to the need to reinterpret the concept of strate- gic planning, the study noted that conducting a comprehen- sive and formal strategic planning process (the “classical” strategic planning model) may be beyond the capability of most transit agencies. Moreover, it may be more than is nec- essary. Five strategies are suggested in regard to this issue: 1. The formality of the process needs to be de-emphasized. 2. The level of data and analysis should be kept in rea- sonable relationship to the capabilities of the agency. 3. The cost of the process should be kept in some reason- able relationship with the likely benefits. 4. There needs to be a better understanding that long- range planning is not the same as strategic planning. Long-range planning may be necessary and useful; how- ever, it does not fulfill the same purposes. 5. Strategic planning might best be performed by seg- menting it. Rather than implementing a single, rigid process, it might be more effective if it is kept more flex- ible and if it uses various tools for specific purposes (e.g., special strategic studies). The second conclusion was the importance of organiza- tional readiness; some organizations may just not be ready to undertake strategic planning. Key factors in whether an orga- nization is ready include organizational sophistication and stamina, the flexibility and commitment of management, and the skills and expertise of the participants. Finally, in regard to adapting strategic planning to the orga- nizational context, management is encouraged to be realistic about the capabilities of the agency, set priorities and clearly define objectives for the process, design a process that reflects

these considerations, and build on what already exists in the agency. In 1985, an article was published about a case study of the development of a strategic management process in the Penn- sylvania Department of Transportation (8). This study made clear the importance of not just developing a strategic plan but of also creating a management process to implement and man- age the plan. There were several factors that distinguished this effort from typical strategic planning processes at the time. For example, several key structural changes were made. A strategic management committee made up of the agency’s six top managers was formed to direct and manage the change process. Seven substantive subcommittees were also formed to help manage the effort. Organization-wide planning was centralized and program and project planning were decentral- ized. A concept of “business groups” was used to create a new way of thinking about the primary products and services pro- vided by the agency (as opposed to the more traditional way of thinking about the functions performed). Four-year plans were developed for each of the agency’s operating districts. Finally, the strategic planning process was tightly linked to the budget process to ensure that the agency’s resources were being aligned with the plans. All of these actions served to institutionalize the strategic planning process throughout the agency. In 1988, the same year that Bryson published his book on strategic planning in the public sector, the UMTA published A Guide to Strategic Planning for Transit Properties (9). Considered by some in the transit industry to be a classic text, this report provided an early guide or framework for strate- gic planning in transit. The authors define strategic planning as “the analysis of environmental change, the formulation of organizational objectives, and the establishment of priorities for resource allocation” (9, p. 1). The report goes on to describe why it is important to do strategic planning, and presents several case studies as examples of how to do it effectively. (The case studies were Alameda–Contra Costa Transit, NJ Transit, Port Authority of Allegheny County Transit, Seattle Metro, and the Utah Transit Authority.) In addition, the report discusses the following key differences between planning in the public and private sectors (9, pp. 3–4): • The private sector is primarily driven by the financial bottom line, whereas public agencies generally have multiple and often ambiguous goals and a variety of key stakeholders. • Public agencies are more often subject to public scrutiny and political pressures. • Mandates in the public sector are often legislated and are not up to management prerogative. Key conclusions of the study were: 8 • Upper management must be seriously committed to and participate in the strategic planning process. • The development of a mission, goals, and objectives should be based on a careful analysis of the environ- ment (both internal and external) and should emphasize a marketing perspective. Objectives should be stated in ways that are measurable. • There should be linkages between strategic planning, program planning, and budgeting, and between achieve- ment of strategic planning objectives and personnel appraisals and compensation. • Indicators should be developed that measure the effi- ciency and effectiveness of transit services. • Good communication is a crucial ingredient of an effec- tive strategic planning and implementation process. • “Strategy champions” with appropriate responsibilities and incentives are needed for successful implementation. • Environmental change should be regularly monitored. • The process should be flexible, iterative, and continuous. • Based on the case studies, there are clearly different ways that strategic planning can be conducted in terms of levels of detail and formality, how the process is organized, who participates, and the degree of analysis and documentation. The report ends with a recommended strategic planning framework that includes the following seven steps: 1. Organize management team and planning staff. 2. Undertake an environmental or situation audit. 3. Establish mission, goals, and objectives. 4. Develop broad strategies. 5. Establish programs and budgets. 6. Monitor program results—measure. 7. Monitor the environment. In 1990, the NCHRP published Strategic Planning and Management Guidelines for Transportation Agencies (10). This study looked at the current environment for strategic planning and management in a variety of publicly funded transportation agencies, provided a definition of strategic man- agement and its components, and recommended guidelines for successfully institutionalizing strategic management. The report distinguished strategic management from other traditional management practices by noting that the tradi- tional practices ask “How do we keep doing what we are doing, only do it better?’ Strategic management focuses instead on an overall vision of where the organization should be heading, i.e., what it plans to accomplish and how it can get it accomplished. It provides for the involvement of the entire organization in managing its people, processes, and products toward successful accomplishment of its goals and objec- tives” (10, p. 1). The report went on to delineate the following minimum components of a strategic management process (10, p. 2):

9• Mission statement (including goals and objectives), • Environmental scan, • Strategy development, • Action plan development, • Resource allocation, and • Performance measurement. An environmental scan generally involves an analysis or assessment of both the external and internal issues that are likely to affect an organization. It is sometimes referred to as a “situation audit.” It concluded that in the various transportation agencies stud- ied, a “strategic management process and its benefits are pres- ent and understood in less than a dozen state departments of transportation” and that “many of the remainder—plus many transit, airport, port authorities, and other publicly funded transportation agencies—seem to have insufficient interest in, or understanding of, strategic management” (10, p. 1). The report included a set of guidelines for instituting strate- gic management comprised of four primary stages: Stage I. Identifying the Need for Strategic Management • Determine the current status of strategic management in the agency. Stage II. Establishment or Enhancement of Key Strategic Management Elements • Define the agency’s business. • Develop plans for implementing strategic management initiatives. Stage III. Integration of the Key Elements into a Functioning System • Ensure that the agency mission statement and goal structure are in place. • Obtain chief administrative officer and senior management commitment to the strategic management process. • Establish a clearly understood division of responsibility for strategic management implementation, including the selec- tion of implementation managers or facilitators. • Develop an accurate information base and maintain its timeliness. Stage IV. Ongoing Use and Refinement of the Strategic Management System • Monitor the strategic management system. • Develop a reward and recognition program. In a 2003 article, “How to Develop a Strategic Plan That Won’t Gather Dust” (11), Richard Simonetta (CEO of Val- ley Metro Rail, Inc., in Phoenix, Arizona) recognized that there is often a significant gap or breakdown between com- pleting a strategic plan and implementing its recommenda- tions. Too often the focus is on the production of a plan doc- ument and not enough emphasis is placed on its execution. He outlined several principles to ensure that the strategic planning effort is successful (11, p. 80): • The process needs to be ongoing, with broad input for development and specific responsibility for effective implementation. • The plan needs to have milestones and performance metrics to measure progress and celebrate achievements. • The plan needs to involve stakeholders in the develop- ment, deployment, and refinement stages. • Finally, a strategic plan must be a living document that evolves over time as the public transit system becomes more successful at achieving its short- and long-range goals. A similar case, that is, that strategic plans often fail to achieve full-scale implementation and significant service improvements, is made in “Segmented Strategic Planning: An Incremental Approach to Transit Planning and Implemen- tation” (12). The authors propose a segmented approach— rather than attempting a comprehensive organization-wide strategic planning effort, they recommend a “series of orches- trated, low-level strategic plans” (12, p. 1). The report describes such an approach in Knoxville, Tennessee, where only the downtown and university campus trolley service was the focus of a recent strategic planning effort. This segmentation made it much more manageable and helped to avoid many of the obstacles that often arise from a larger-scale planning effort. In December 2001, recognizing the potential of strategic planning to improve the effectiveness of transit systems, APTA produced a Strategic Planning Resource Kit (avail- able on CD) (13). Basically, the kit contains copies of the strategic plans of 28 transit systems. STRATEGIC PLANNING AND PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT Almost all of the literature on strategic planning and man- agement emphasizes the need for linking the process to per- formance measurement. This is necessary to be able to mon- itor whether plans are being achieved and whether corrective action needs to be taken. There is a great deal of literature on the general subject of performance measurement. An excellent and very compre- hensive study of the issue that pertains directly to transit is the 2003 TCRP Report 88: A Guidebook for Developing a Transit Performance-Measurement System (14). This report provides detailed guidance for developing a system using tra- ditional and nontraditional measures that address both cus- tomer and community issues.

STRATEGIC PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT One of the strengths of strategic management is that it recog- nizes that strategic planning by itself often does little to change an organization’s direction, because it does not deal with the significant structural, political, and behavioral forces that tend to resist change. This point is made in two articles that argue for the blending or “marriage” of strategic planning and management and “Organization Development” (15, 16). Organization development (OD) seeks to develop and implement planned change strategies aimed at improving an organization’s effectiveness. It uses many tools or techniques to ensure that an organization has the internal capability to effectively achieve its goals and objectives. These include such activities as goal setting, leadership development, team building, employee feedback surveys, education and train- ing, organizational design, process consultation, coaching and counseling, and development of appropriate reward and recog- nition programs. In “For Successful Strategic Change: Blend OD Practices with Strategic Management” (15, p. 43), Buller suggests that OD tools can be helpful in the following phases of a typical strategic planning process: • Assessing and developing the organization’s readiness for change, • Facilitating the strategic planning process, • Helping with strategy implementation, and • Developing leadership skills. A similar point is made by Eadie and Steinbacher in “Strategic Agenda Management: A Marriage of Organiza- tional Development and Strategic Planning”; that is, that tra- ditional strategic planning too often results in “unimple- mentable strategies” (16, p. 424). In this article, the authors describe a case study of a large and complex public-sector organization in Ohio. They argue that strategic management can be one of the tools in the larger strategy of OD. More specifically they describe a concept of “strategic agenda management.” Strategic agenda management basically involves the “col- lective management of a strategic agenda, which changes as an organization’s problems and opportunities change.” The authors state that “effective strategic agenda management requires intensive, continuous, and collective involvement of senior management,” and that a strategic agenda must be highly selective if it is not to overtax the organization’s abil- ity to manage strategic issues (16, p. 425). The important point is that strategic planning and man- agement must pay close attention to not only the development of strategic initiatives but also to the organization’s capabil- ity to implement the initiatives. OD tools can be an important resource for developing or enhancing this capability. 10 NEW PARADIGMS IN PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION In the late 1990s, a group of transit industry leaders gathered under the aegis of the TCRP. The reason for this gathering was a shared concern that unless fundamental changes were made, the future of the transit industry was in jeopardy, owing to the significant changes taking place in the world and the inability of the transit industry to adapt to them (e.g., fundamental social and economic changes in this country, an emerging global economy, and the increasing significance of rapid advances in information technology). In 1997, a “future search conference” was organized by TCRP and the Eno Foundation to explore this issue. The con- ference included approximately 80 individuals representing transit managers, riders, drivers, labor leaders, political lead- ers, community residents and other important public trans- portation stakeholders. The effort led to a TCRP project that in 2003 culminated in a report that described emerging “new paradigms” that might affect the industry and that outlined a number of suggested responses (17). Many of the responses are such that strategic planning and management would be a key tool for developing and implementing them. The report points out that the transit industry has not changed its basic business model for more than 40 years. It also notes that although in recent years transit ridership has reached post-World War II highs, its market share of trips remains quite small. Moreover, increasing levels of automo- bile traffic are far outpacing the capacity of the street and highway system, thus leading to severe congestion and grid- lock in many areas. The project studied transportation in three key arenas else- where in transportation industries in search of lessons, or new models, for transit. 1. The “logistics revolution” in intermodal freight. 2. The rise of airline “alliances.” 3. New models for organizing and managing transit in Europe. In the freight arena, companies are finding ways to inte- grate their operations to better serve the door-to-door needs of their customers, encourage customer loyalty, and increase efficiency. This involves use of a logistics manager, who coordinates the movement of items from start to finish, and the use of powerful information technologies that allow uni- fied dispatching and tracking. Airlines have followed a very similar strategy, forming alliances with other carriers so that passengers can book trips through a single airline and so that the quality of service can be better tracked. Information tech- nology again plays a key role. Much the same is occurring in European transit. For exam- ple, even though there are a variety of operators that provide service in metropolitan London, London Transport has been empowered to set broad policy on fares, service coverage, and

11 service quality. It tracks efficiency and quality from the cus- tomer’s viewpoint. More recently, organizational changes are being made that give multimodal responsibility (buses, taxis, rail systems, ferries, and traffic control) to a new agency— Transport for London. The report goes on to identify four key elements of “the emerging paradigm”: 1. Emphasis on monitoring service quality and customer satisfaction across the entire network is replacing the previous emphasis on the operation of a particular agency’s vehicles and facilities. 2. New collaborative relationships or alliances are replac- ing independent agency operations and head-to-head competition. 3. Traditional assets such as vehicles, passenger terminals, and maintenance facilities are being jointly managed. 4. State-of-the-art information technology is being used to better manage operations, evaluate service quality, and provide customer information. A key theme of the emerging paradigm is that of “mobil- ity management,” the function of meeting the door-to-door travel needs of the customer no matter whose transportation assets are being used. This concept should be a central focus of the strategic planning efforts of transportation agencies. One of the new paradigm project reports includes as an appendix a guide that organizations can use for managing the change process (18). This includes strategies for • Recognizing the need for change, • Leading and planning change, • Making change happen, and • Institutionalizing new approaches. Most of the strategies described would be excellent com- ponents of an effective strategic planning and management process. The final report points out that transit agencies cannot do this alone, and that public policy decisions and public invest- ment must be coordinated in other key areas such as land use strategies, other public infrastructure investments (water, sew- ers, parking facilities, etc.), environmental measures (clean air and energy conservation), and other public policies such as tax incentives and economic development strategies. Because transit agencies have little or no control over these areas, they must work indirectly to encourage such coordination.

TRB’s Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Synthesis 59: Strategic Planning and Management in Transit Agencies examines the value and benefits of strategic planning and management in transit agencies. The report also provides case studies from five transit agencies based on the comprehensiveness of process or presence of innovative or noteworthy practices.

READ FREE ONLINE

Welcome to OpenBook!

You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

Show this book's table of contents , where you can jump to any chapter by name.

...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter .

Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

View our suggested citation for this chapter.

Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

Get Email Updates

Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released.

Cultural Influences on the Process of Strategic Management pp 33–135 Cite as

What Is Strategic Management and Why Do We Need It: Theoretical Foundations of Strategic Management

• Andreas Michael Schühly 6  
• First Online: 01 January 2022

924 Accesses

2 Citations

Part of the book series: MIR Series in International Business ((MIRSIB))

In the second chapter, a sound understanding of strategic management and its core concepts, definitions, processes, and applications is provided. This is done by a review of relevant strategic management literature. Firstly, the applied methodology for the literature analysis is presented. This section provides an overview on the exhaustive range of approaches and understandings of the strategic management discipline, academic, and practice literature has developed. Included is an overview of historical developments of strategic management from early ancient concepts to modern strategic management. Further, fundamental concepts and three core theories of strategic management, i.e., market-based view, resource-based view, and the institution-based view, are discussed. The chapter also considers arguments opposing and supporting strategic management’s entitlement to exist. Furthermore, the process of strategic management with its four core process steps is introduced. Additionally, the answer to the research question is prepared by introducing factors that affect strategic management, such as institutional factors, market/industry factors, and organizational factors. Eventually, the strategic management process of multinational corporations in the field of tension between internal and external forces is debated along the two dimensions—structure and actors. Furthermore, procedural justice is discussed as organizational response to ensure efficiency in the strategic management process of multinational corporations as well as coordination and control mechanisms as enabler of multinational corporations’ strategic management processes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution .

Buying options

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Cf. Bird and Mendenhall ( 2016 , p. 116), Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219), Mintzberg ( 1987a , p. 67, 1990 , p. 171).

Cf. Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1757).

Cf. Pindur et al. ( 1995 , p. 59).

Cf. Barkema et al. ( 2015 , pp. 462f), Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219), Dent and Bozeman ( 2014 , p. 149), Mintzberg ( 1990 , p. 171), Talbot ( 2003 , pp. 2ff).

Cf. Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219), Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 5).

Cf. Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1987b , p. 11), Talbot ( 2003 , pp. 1ff).

Socrates explained Nichomachides, who lost an election for a position as a general against a businessman, the similarties of a general’s with a businessman’s duties (see Xenophon ( 1994 )).

Cf. Xenophon ( 1994 , pp. 77ff).

See Goldsworthy ( 2010 ). Roskell and Taylor ( 1971 ).

Cf. Dent and Bozeman ( 2014 , p. 147), Pindur et al. ( 1995 , pp. 60f).

Cf. Barkema et al. ( 2015 , p. 467).

Cf. Pindur et al. ( 1995 , pp. 61f).

Cf. Burnes ( 2017 , p. 50), Conti ( 2013 , p. 11).

Cf. Dent and Bozeman ( 2014 , p. 158), Peaucelle and Guthrie ( 2013 , p. 49), Pindur et al. ( 1995 , pp. 60ff).

Cf. Pindur et al. ( 1995 , p. 62).

Cf. Cummings et al. ( 2017 , pp 237ff), Pindur et al. ( 1995 , pp. 64ff), Sanders and Kianty ( 2006 , p. 57).

Cf. Powell et al. ( 2010 , p. 342).

Cf. Aldrich ( 2004 , pp. 379ff), Cummings et al. ( 2017 , pp. 46ff), Hofstede ( 1993 , p. 93), Powell et al. ( 2010 , pp. 315ff).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , p. 12), Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219), Ortmann and Seidl ( 2010 , p. 354).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 12ff), Taylor ( 1986 , pp. 16ff).

Cf. Ortmann and Seidl ( 2010 , p. 354).

Cf. Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219), Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 5f), Hurst ( 1986 , p. 6).

Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219), Hurst ( 1986 , p. 6).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 5f).

Mintzberg ( 1990 , p. 171).

Cf. Bracker ( 1980 , p. 221).

Cf. Hurst ( 1986 , p. 6).

Cf. Webster et al. ( 1989 , pp. 5f).

Cf. Blagg ( 2008 , n.p.), Hoskisson et al. ( 1999 , pp. 422f), Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 5), Kiechel III ( 2010 , p. 118), Seth ( 2015 , p. 6).

Cf. Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1993 , p. 23), Geissler and Krys ( 2013 , p. 30).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , p. 17), Chandler ( 1962 , pp. 13ff), Williams and van Triest ( 2009 , p. 157).

Chandler ( 1962 , pp. 13f).

Burgelman ( 1983 , pp. 62ff).

Lawrence and Lorsch ( 1969 , p. 54).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 120).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 545), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , p. 1650).

Cf. Hofstede ( 1980b , pp. 49ff).

Cf. Williams and van Triest ( 2009 , p. 157).

Cf. Paterson and Brock (pp. 140ff).

See Andrews ( 1971 ), Ansoff ( 1965 ). Chandler ( 1962 ), Learned et al. ( 1969 ).

Cf. Hoskisson et al. ( 1999 , p. 422).

Cf. Guerras-Martín et al. ( 2014 , p. 69), Hoskisson et al. ( 1999 , p. 422).

Learned et al. ( 1969 , p. 15).

Cf. Hurst ( 1986 , pp. 6ff), Ocasio and Joseph ( 2008 , pp. 249ff), Webster et al. ( 1989 , p. 5).

Most notably are the BCG growth-share matrix, GE’s multifactorial analysis also called McKinsey’s 9-box matrix or the Ansoff matrix (Cf. Ali and Shaw 1988 , pp. 112f; Johnson et al. 2008 , p. 315; Ocasio and Joseph 2008 , p. 256; Kiechel III 2010 , pp. 57ff, 109).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , pp. 110ff), Bea and Haas ( 2017 , p. 13), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1763).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , p. 13).

Cf. Ansoff ( 1969 , pp. 7f).

Cf. Bracker ( 1980 , pp. 219f).

Cf. Bonn and Christodoulou ( 1996 , p. 543).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 7, 99).

Cf. Hofer and Schendel ( 1978 , pp. 18ff).

Bonn and Christodoulou ( 1996 , p. 543).

Cf. Hussey ( 1998 , p. 4), Martinet ( 2010 , p. 1485).

Their approach is based on four pillars “(1) the systematic differentiation between the internal and external perspective, (2) the integration of strategy as a separate element of the organizational lifeworld, (3) the conceptualization of the ‘ongoing process’ as the primary location of the genesis of strategies and (4) the exploration of alternative forms of rationality” Ortmann and Seidl ( 2010 , p. 358).

Cf. Ortmann and Seidl ( 2010 , p. 358).

Cf. Webster et al. ( 1989 , p. 5).

Cf. Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , pp. 1760ff).

Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1756).

Cf. Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , p. 1662).

See Mintzberg ( 1994b ).

Cf. Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1756).

Cf. Darr ( 2011 , p. 7), Pindur et al. ( 1995 , p. 63).

Eichhorn and Towers ( 2018 , p. 264)

Olarewaju ( 2012 , p. 552)

Cf. Eichhorn and Towers ( 2018 , pp. 12f), Saltorato and Benatti ( 2018 , p. 252)

Gopinath and Hoffman ( 1995 , p. 575)

Samiee and Athanassiou ( 1998 , p. 80).

Nag et al. ( 2007 , p. 942).

Judge and Speitzfaden ( 1995 , p. 179).

Gluck et al. ( 1980 , p. 156).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 105), Boyd ( 1991 , p. 353).

Guerras-Martín et al. ( 2014 , p. 70).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 16f, 78f).

Lorange ( 1980 , p. 1).

Cf. Nag et al. ( 2007 , p. 942).

Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 10f).

Cf. Arend et al. ( 2017 , p. 1741), Veliyath ( 1992 , pp. 86ff).

Cf. Darr ( 2011 , 21), Johnson et al. ( 2008 , pp. 15ff).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 57f).

In the Germano-phone area, the military general von Clausewitz is accredited for the incorporation of strategy in modern times. He described strategy as “the use of combat for the purpose of war ( Die Lehre vom Gebrauch der Gefechte zum Zweck des Krieges ).” (See von Oetinger et al. ( 2016 , p. 106)).

Cf. Eichhorn and Towers ( 2018 , pp. 281f).

Cf. Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 8f).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 4f).

Cf. Porter ( 1985 , p. 8).

Cf. Zahn and Foschiani ( 2001 , p. 414).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1973 , pp. 44ff).

Cf. Hart ( 1992 , pp. 328f), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 12f), Mintzberg ( 1973 , pp. 44ff).

Cf. Hart ( 1992 , pp. 328ff).

Cf. Quinn ( 1978 , pp. 14ff).

Quinn ( 1980 , p. 58).

Cf. Hart ( 1992 , pp. 328ff), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 6f).

See Simon ( 1957 ).

Douma and Schreuder ( 2002 , p. 147).

Cf. Simon ( 1972 , pp. 173ff).

Cf. Camillus ( 2018 , pp. 920f).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1973 , p. 52).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 4).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , pp. 106ff).

Cf. Brock et al. ( 2000 , p. 689).

Cf. Brock et al. ( 2000 , p. 690).

Cf. Fredrickson and Mitchell ( 1984 , pp. 401ff).

Cf. Das ( 1991 , p. 52).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 543), Ramanujam and Venkatraman ( 1987 , p. 455).

Cf. Ramanujam and Venkatraman ( 1987 , pp. 455, 463), Veliyath and Shortell ( 1993 , pp. 361f).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 4,15f).

Cf. Brock et al. ( 2000 , pp. 690), Veliyath and Shortell ( 1993 , pp. 361f).

Cf. Lorange ( 1980 , pp. 74f).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 547), Weidenbaum ( 1966 , pp. 8ff).

Cf. Arend et al. ( 2017 , p. 1741), Barringer and Bluedorn ( 1999 , p. 422), Robinson Jr and Pearce ( 1983 , p. 198), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1768).

Cf. Brock et al. ( 2000 , p. 691), Veliyath and Shortell ( 1993 , p. 361).

Cf. Hopkins and Hopkins ( 1997 , pp. 636f).

Mintzberg and Lampel ( 1999 , p. 22).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , pp. 198f).

Chong and Park ( 2003 , p. 34).

Cf. Dibrell et al. ( 2014 , pp. 2004ff).

Cf. Bachmann et al. ( 2016 , p. 301), Dincer et al. ( 2006 , p. 208), Mintzberg ( 1994a , p. 24), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1772).

Cf. Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1772).

Shaw et al. ( 1998 , p. 42).

Cf. Eppler and Platts ( 2009 , pp. 42ff), Shaw et al. ( 1998 , pp. 41f), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , pp. 1772).

The agency theory provides insights into the delegation of decision-making from a principal (e.g., owner) to an agent (e.g., management) and resulting issues. It assumes risk aversity and self-interest of actors. Furthermore, it assumes asymmetric information between actors as well as goal incongruence. Through contracts principals hand over decision-making power and try to control agent’s behavior; however, they still bear uncertainty about the actual behavior of agents See Chang and Taylor ( 1999 , p. 543), Zajac ( 1990 , p. 217).

Cf. Zajac ( 1990 , pp. 218, 227).

Moisander and Stenfors ( 2009 , p. 228).

Cf. Oliver and Parrett ( 2018 , p. 340).

Cf. Moisander and Stenfors ( 2009 , p. 243).

Cf. Arend et al. ( 2017 , pp. 1741ff), Moisander and Stenfors ( 2009 , pp. 241f).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 124).

Cf. Jennings ( 2000 , pp. 213ff).

Cf. Brock et al. ( 2000 , p. 689), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , p. 3).

Cf. Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , p. 3).

Cf. Jocumsen ( 2004 , 669f), Johnson et al. ( 2008 , p. 607), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , p. 1651), Moisander and Stenfors ( 2009 , pp. 228ff).

Darr ( 2011 , p. 20).

Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1764).

Cf. Gluck et al. ( 1982 , p. 9).

Cf. Ansoff ( 1979 , pp. 5ff).

Cf. Wernham ( 1985 , p. 636).

Hussey ( 1998 , p. 12).

Cf. Hart and Banbury ( 1994 , p. 251).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 13f).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 6f), Mintzberg ( 1987b , pp. 11f).

Cf. Porter ( 1985 , pp. 482ff).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 6f), Mintzberg ( 1987b , pp. 11ff), Mintzberg and Waters ( 1985 , pp. 259ff).

See Boyd ( 1991 ), Brews and Hunt ( 1999 ), Hoffman ( 2007 ), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 ).

Cf. Brews and Hunt ( 1999 , pp. 890f), Hoffman ( 2007 , p. 28), Parnell et al. ( 2000 , p. 521).

Cf. Brews and Hunt ( 1999 , 891f), Hoffman ( 2007 , 28f).

Cf. Brews and Hunt ( 1999 , pp. 890ff), Hoffman ( 2007 , pp. 28f), Parnell et al. ( 2000 , p. 521).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1987b , pp. 14ff), Mintzberg and Waters ( 1985 , pp. 257ff).

Mintzberg and McHugh ( 1985 , p. 161).

Cf. Mintzberg and Waters ( 1985 , pp. 268f).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1994b , p. 111).

Cf. Porter ( 1994 , pp. 273ff).

Cf. Martinet ( 2010 , p. 1486).

Cf. Mauri and Michaels ( 1998 , p. 217).

Cf. Camillus ( 2018 , p. 920).

Cf. Slevin and Covin ( 1997 , pp. 201ff).

Cf. Burgelman ( 1983 , pp. 62ff), Samiee and Athanassiou ( 1998 , p. 89).

Cf. Acar and Acar ( 2012 , p. 684), Porter ( 1985 , pp. 268f).

Cf. Burgelman ( 1983 , p. 61).

Luo et al. ( 2011 , pp. 190f).

See Porter ( 1980 , 1985 ).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 124), Idenburg ( 1993 , p. 133), Porter ( 1985 , pp. 25f), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1767).

See Ansoff ( 1987 ).

See Mintzberg and Waters ( 1985 ).

Cf. Hart ( 1992 , pp. 330ff).

Cf. Hart ( 1992 , pp. 332).

Cf. Nonaka ( 1988 , pp. 13ff).

Cf. Crook et al. ( 2006 , p. 409), Degravel ( 2015 , p. 13).

See Porter ( 1980 ).

See Barney ( 1991 ). Wernerfelt ( 1984 ).

While literature uses both market- and industry-based views, the following thesis is using market-based view; however, verbal quotes might also use industry-based view, which can therefore be seen as a synonym.

Cf. Peng et al. ( 2008 , pp. 920ff), Zahn ( 1999 , p. 1).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 71f).

Wernerfelt ( 1984 , p. 171).

Cf. Bamberger and Wrona ( 1996 , p. 147), Kraaijenbrink et al. ( 2010 , p. 350).

Cf. Hoskisson et al. ( 1999 , pp. 420ff).

Cf. Johnson et al. ( 2008 , pp. 116ff).

Cf. Peng et al. ( 2008 , pp. 920f).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , pp. 251ff).

Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 923).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , pp. 252f).

See Porter ( 1980 ), (1985).

Cf. Powell ( 1992 , p. 552).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1987b , pp. 15f).

Cf. Hoskisson et al. ( 1999 , pp. 419, 425).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 29f), McWilliams and Smart ( 1993 , pp. 63ff).

Cf. Porter ( 1980 , pp. ix ff).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 59ff).

It is composed of the forces: threat of new entrants, bargaining power of buyers, threat of substitute products or services, bargaining power of suppliers, and rivalry among existing firms (see Porter ( 1980 , pp. 6ff)).

Cf. Porter ( 1980 , pp. 6ff).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 109ff).

Porter ( 1985 , pp. 4ff).

Cf. Porter ( 1985 , pp. 4ff).

Cf. Grundy ( 2006 , pp. 213ff).

Cf. Porter ( 1980 , pp. 35ff).

See Acar and Acar ( 2012 , p. 684), Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 549).

Cf. Porter ( 1980 , pp. 38ff).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 549).

Cf. Miller ( 1986 , pp. 239f, 1988 , pp. 284f).

Cf. Porter ( 1985 , pp. 11f, 15f).

Porter ( 1980 , p. 38).

Porter ( 1985 , p. 16).

Cf. Miller ( 1989 , p. 242), Parnell et al. ( 2000 , p. 521).

Cf. Porter ( 1980 , pp. 9ff).

Porter ( 1985 , p. 7).

Cf. Porter ( 1985 , p. 7).

Cf. Johnson et al. ( 2008 , pp. 242ff; 624).

Cf. McWilliams and Smart ( 1993 , pp. 68f).

Cf. Knecht ( 2014 , p. 19).

See Wernerfelt ( 1984 ).

Cf. Hoskisson et al. ( 1999 , pp. 419ff), Zubac et al. ( 2010 , p. 516).

Cf. Powell et al. ( 2010 , p. 318).

Cf. Zubac et al. ( 2010 , p. 515).

Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1773).

See Barney ( 1991 , pp. 105ff), Hart and Banbury ( 1994 , pp. 265f), Wernerfelt ( 1984 , pp. 172ff).

Birkinshaw ( 2000 , p. 102).

Birkinshaw ( 2000 , p. 107).

Cf. Birkinshaw ( 2000 , pp. 105ff).

Cf. Collis and Montgomery ( 1995 , p. 119), Degravel ( 2015 , pp. 13f)., Powell ( 1992 , p. 552), Vega-Jurado et al. ( 2008 , p. 617), Zubac et al. ( 2010 , 517ff).

Cf. Eisenhardt and Martin ( 2000 , pp. 1106f).

Cf. Barney ( 1991 , pp. 105ff), Hoskisson et al. ( 1999 , pp. 418ff), Powell ( 1992 , pp. 552f).

Cf. Acar and Acar ( 2012 , p. 684), Li et al. ( 2001 , p. 116), Vega-Jurado et al. ( 2008 , p. 617).

Cf. Conner ( 1991 , p. 121).

Cf. Helfat and Peteraf ( 2003 , pp. 998f), Sirmon et al. ( 2007 , p. 274).

Cf. Barney ( 1991 , pp. 101ff).

Cf. Barney ( 2001 , p. 648).

Cf. Barney ( 1991 , p. 102), Degravel ( 2015 , p. 13).

Cf. Ambrosini et al. ( 2009 , p. 9f), Barney ( 1991 , pp. 105ff), Powell ( 1992 , pp. 552f), Priem and Butler ( 2001 , p. 23), Sirmon et al. ( 2007 , p. 274).

Cf. Peteraf ( 1993 , pp. 183ff).

Teece ( 2007 , p. 1325).

Cf. Barney ( 1991 , pp. 102ff), Ghoshal ( 1988 , pp. 83f), Teece ( 2007 , pp. 1319ff).

Cf. Teece et al. ( 1997 , pp. 516ff), Teece ( 2007 , p. 1319).

Eisenhardt and Martin ( 2000 , p. 1106).

Cf. Helfat and Peteraf ( 2003 , pp. 998f), Teece et al. ( 1997 , pp. 517ff).

Cf. Teece et al. ( 1997 , p. 528).

Cf. Teece ( 2007 , pp. 1322ff).

Eisenhardt and Martin ( 2000 , p. 1117).

Cf. Eisenhardt and Martin ( 2000 , p. 1106).

Cf. Brews and Hunt ( 1999 , pp. 905f).

Cf. Hart and Banbury ( 1994 , p. 256).

Cf. Powell ( 1992 , p. 553).

Cf. Campbell ( 1999 , pp. 41ff).

Cf. Acar and Acar ( 2012 , p. 684).

Cf. Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1771).

Cf. Barney ( 1986 , pp. 656ff), Fiol ( 1991 , pp. 191ff), Hamel and Prahalad ( 1990 , pp. 87ff), Hansen and Wernerfelt ( 1989 , p. 401), Powell ( 1992 , p. 552).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 30ff).

Cf. Hamel and Prahalad ( 1990 , pp. 86ff).

Cf. Javidan ( 1998 , pp. 61ff).

Cf. Nonaka and Toyama ( 2003 , p. 4).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , p. 33).

Cf. Grant ( 1996 , p. 111).

Cf. Zahn and Foschiani ( 2001 , p. 417).

Cf. Nonaka et al. ( 2000 , pp. 10ff).

The transfer of tacit knowledge through shared experiences is called socialization. Externalization describes the transfer from tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge to serve as the basis of new knowledge. Combination covers when existing explicit knowledge that can originate from inside or outside the organization is combined, edited, or processed to gain new knowledge that is more complex and systematic. The internalization is transferring explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge (see Nonaka et al. ( 2000 , pp. 8ff), Nonaka and Toyama ( 2003 , pp. 4f)).

Cf. Nonaka et al. ( 2000 , pp. 8ff), Nonaka and Toyama ( 2003 , pp. 4f).

Cf. Degravel ( 2015 , p. 13), Eisenhardt and Martin ( 2000 , p. 1106), Kraaijenbrink et al. ( 2010 , p. 351), Priem and Butler ( 2001 , 27ff).

Kraaijenbrink et al. ( 2010 , p. 351).

Cf. Kraaijenbrink et al. ( 2010 , pp. 351, 361).

Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 929).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , pp. 251ff), Peng et al. ( 2008 , pp. 920ff).

North ( 1990 , p. 3).

Scott ( 1995 , p. 33).

Cf. Peng et al. ( 2008 , pp. 921f).

Davis and North ( 1971 , p. 6).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , p. 252).

Cf. Holmes et al. ( 2013 , pp. 533ff), North ( 1990 , pp. 3ff), Peng et al. ( 2008 , pp. 921ff), Scott ( 1995 , pp. 35ff).

Cf. Barley and Tolbert ( 1997 , pp. 93ff), Holmes et al. ( 2013 , pp. 533).

Cf. Powell ( 1991 , pp. 183ff), Witt and Redding ( 2009 , pp. 859ff).

Cf. Holmes et al. ( 2013 , p. 535).

Cf. North ( 1991 , p. 97, 1993 , p. 7).

See Coase ( 1937 ).

See Williamson ( 1973 , 1979 , 1994 ).

Cf. North ( 1987 , pp. 419ff), Williamson ( 2000 , pp. 599ff).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 28ff), Williamson ( 1994 , pp. 81ff, 2000 , p. 599).

See Sect. 2.2.2 .

Cf. Chen et al. ( 2002 , p. 567), Douma and Schreuder ( 2002 , p. 145), Simon ( 1972 , pp. 163ff), Williamson ( 1994 , p. 107).

Cf. Chen et al. ( 2002 , pp. 569ff), Ghoshal and Moran ( 1996 , p. 14), Sheng et al. ( 2018 , pp. 2ff).

Williamson ( 1993 , p. 476).

Cf. Chen et al. ( 2002 , p. 568).

Cf. Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 930), Williamson ( 1994 , pp. 77ff).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , pp. 252f, 2003 , pp. 275ff), Peng et al. ( 2008 , pp. 922f).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , pp. 256f), Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 923).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , p. 261), Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 930).

Schendel ( 1992 , p. 3).

See Ansoff et al. ( 1970 ). Chandler ( 1962 ), Learned et al. ( 1969 ), Thune and House ( 1970 ).

Cf. Powell ( 1992 , p. 551).

See Mintzberg et al. ( 1986 ), Quinn ( 1980 ). Sarrazin et al. ( 1977 ).

See Boyd ( 1991 ). Fredrickson and Mitchell ( 1984 ), Pearce et al. ( 1987a ), Powell ( 1992 ).

See Bresser and Bishop ( 1983 ), Mintzberg ( 1987c ).

Cf. Ali ( 2018 , p. 11), Arend et al. ( 2017 , p. 1743), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , pp. 1650f).

Hurst ( 1986 , pp. 24f).

See Grinyer and Norburn ( 1975 ). Rhenman ( 1973 ).

Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , p. 1651).

Cf. Pearce et al. ( 1987a , pp. 670ff).

Cf. Boyd ( 1991 , pp. 362f).

Cf. O’Gorman and Doran ( 1999 , p. 65).

See Ansoff ( 1991 ). Armstrong ( 1982 ), Barringer and Bluedorn ( 1999 ), Hoffman ( 2007 ), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 ), Pearce et al. ( 1987b ).

Cf. Ansoff ( 1991 , pp. 455ff).

Cf. Salomo et al. ( 2007 , pp. 297f).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , pp. 199f).

Cf. Ansoff ( 1991 , p. 456).

Cf. Smith and Grimm ( 1987 , pp. 363ff).

Cf. Pearce et al. ( 1987b , pp. 125ff).

Cf. Schwenk and Shrader ( 1993 , pp. 53ff).

Cf. Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , pp. 1660f).

Cf. Barringer and Bluedorn ( 1999 , pp. 433ff).

Cf. Hoffman ( 2007 , p. 42).

Cf. Rudd et al. ( 2008 , pp. 99f, 104).

Cf. Rudd et al. ( 2008 , p. 100).

Cf. Glaister et al. ( 2008 , p. 370).

Cf. Glaister et al. ( 2008 , pp. 377ff).

Cf. Arend et al. ( 2017 , pp. 1748f).

Cf. Mueller et al. ( 2007 , pp. 854ff).

Cf. Veliyath and Shortell ( 1993 , p. 359).

Cf. Capon et al. ( 1994 , p. 108).

Cf. Boyd ( 1991 , pp. 362f), Hart and Banbury ( 1994 , pp. 252f), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , pp. 1662f), Powell ( 1992 , pp. 554ff).

Cf. Lyles et al. ( 1993 , pp. 47f).

Cf. Falshaw et al. ( 2006 , pp. 23f).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , pp. 112f).

Cf. Ireland et al. ( 1987 , pp. 481f).

Cf. Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , pp. 1652ff), Parnell et al. ( 2000 , pp. 521).

Cf. Peterson et al. ( 2002 , p. 252), Zahn and Foschiani ( 2006 , p. 82f), Zuckerman ( 2011 , pp. 1ff).

Mintzberg ( 1990 , p. 184).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1990 , p. 184).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , p. 202).

Cf. Zahn and Foschiani ( 2006 , p. 83).

See Ansoff ( 1991 ), Baum and Wally ( 2003 ). Miller and Friesen ( 1983 ), Pearce et al. ( 1987a ).

Cf. Brews and Hunt ( 1999 , pp. 889ff).

Cf. Brews and Purohit ( 2007 , pp. 64ff).

Cf. Yusuf and Nyomori ( 2002 , pp. 11ff).

See Brews and Hunt ( 1999 ). Goll and Rasheed ( 1997 ).

Cf. Hoffman ( 2007 , p. 27).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 86f).

Cf. Ansoff ( 1991 , p. 457), Armstrong ( 1982 , pp. 202f), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , p. 1652).

Cf. Courtney et al. ( 1997 , pp. 67ff), Parnell et al. ( 2000 , p. 521).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , p. 203).

Cf. Hutzschenreuter and Kleindienst ( 2006 , p. 676).

Cf. Ashmore ( 1992 , pp. 57ff).

Souitaris and Marcello Maestro ( 2010 , p. 658).

Cf. Baum and Wally ( 2003 , pp. 1107f, 1125).

Cf. Forbes ( 2005 , pp. 360ff), Perlow et al. ( 2002 , pp. 947f).

Cf. Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , pp. 1649f).

Cf. Arend et al. ( 2017 , p. 1741), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1767).

Cf. Leonard-Barton ( 1992 , pp. 118ff), Slotegraaf and Dickson ( 2004 , pp. 380f).

Cf. Arend et al. ( 2017 , pp. 1743, 1743).

Cf. Arend et al. ( 2017 , p. 1741), Grant ( 2003 , p. 509).

Cf. Griffin ( 1997 , pp. 30ff).

Cf. Brown and Eisenhardt ( 1995 , pp. 372ff).

Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 107).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 555).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 548), Lorange ( 1980 , pp. 2ff), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , p. 1651), Robinson Jr and Pearce ( 1983 , pp. 197ff).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 548).

Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 544).

Please refer to Sect. 2.2.2 .

Cf. Ansoff ( 1987 , p. 505), Camillus ( 2018 , pp. 920f), Quinn ( 1980 , pp. 97ff).

van Maanen and Schein ( 1977 , pp. 1f).

Cf. Griffeth et al. ( 2000 , pp. 483ff).

Cf. Kaplan and Minton ( 2012 , p. 81).

Cf. Palomino and Peyrache ( 2013 , pp. 1301f).

Cf. Brews and Purohit ( 2007 , pp. 78f), Burgelman et al. ( 2018 , pp. 535f).

Cf. Hutzschenreuter and Kleindienst ( 2006 , pp. 702ff).

Brock et al. ( 2000 , p. 689).

Mintzberg ( 1973 , p. 53).

Hamel ( 1996 , p. 70).

See Lyles et al. ( 1993 ), Nadler ( 1994 ).

Cf. Greenley ( 1994 , p. 384).

Cf. Nadler ( 1994 , p. 30).

See Ansoff ( 1991 ). Armstrong ( 1982 ), Grinyer et al. ( 1986 ).

Cf. Miller and Cardinal (p. 1650).

Eichhorn and Towers ( 2018 , p. 2).

Cf. Falshaw et al. ( 2006 , p. 11).

Cf. Bromiley and Rau ( 2016 , p. 174).

See Gluck et al. ( 1982 ), Hax and Majluf ( 1984 ), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 ), Hurst ( 1986 ).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 19f).

Cf. Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 4ff).

Cf. Barr and Glynn ( 2004 , p. 65).

Cf. Barkema et al. ( 2015 , p. 463), Barringer and Bluedorn ( 1999 , p. 423).

Cf. Aldehayyat ( 2011 , pp. 193ff, 2015 , pp. 459ff), Ginter and Duncan ( 1990 , pp. 91ff), Hambrick ( 1982 , pp. 159ff).

Cf. Aldehayyat ( 2011 , pp. 193ff, 2015 , pp. 459ff), Bérard and Delerue ( 2010 , p. 168), Ghoshal ( 1988 , p. 69), Hambrick ( 1982 , pp. 159ff), Jain ( 1984 , pp. 117ff), Porter ( 1985 , p. 451).

Aguilar ( 1967 , p. 1).

Classical decision theory assumes a sequential three-step process starting by “ask[ing] the right questions, continues by discovering creative answers and finishes by making sure that the chosen solution is valuable and useful” and thereby assumes fully rational decision-makers who base their decisions on full certainty and with a complete set of information (Li 2008 , p. 151).

Cf. Feldman and March ( 1981 , p. 182).

Cf. Feldman and March ( 1981 , p. 175).

Daft and Weick ( 1984 , p. 286).

Cf. Choo ( 2001 , n.p.), Daft et al. ( 1988 , pp. 126ff).

Cf. Daft and Weick ( 1984 , pp. 286ff).

Cf. Choo ( 2001 , n.p.).

Cf. Daft and Weick ( 1984 , pp. 285ff), Sirmon et al. ( 2007 , pp. 274ff), Vecchiato ( 2015 , pp. 257ff).

Cf. Barringer and Bluedorn ( 1999 , p. 423).

Cf. Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 6; 49f).

Cf. Ebrahimi ( 2000 , pp. 68f).

Cf. Daft et al. ( 1988 , pp. 135f).

Cf. Choo ( 2001 , n.p.), Ebrahimi ( 2000 , p. 76), Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 87ff).

Cf. Barron et al. ( 2015 , 601ff).

Cf. Miller and Friesen ( 1983 , p. 223).

Cf. Bachmann et al. ( 2016 , p. 299).

Cf. Barringer and Bluedorn (pp. 433ff).

Cf. Rogers et al. ( 1999 , pp. 567ff).

Cf. Aldehayyat ( 2015 , p. 475).

Please refer to section “Market-Based View”.

Cf. Jennings and Lumpkin ( 1992 , p. 799).

Cf. Jain ( 1984 , pp. 117ff), Thomas ( 1980 , pp. 20ff).

Cf. Ebrahimi ( 2000 , p. 68).

Cf. Chattopadhyay et al. ( 2001 , p. 952).

Cf. O’Regan et al. ( 2007 , pp. 6ff).

Cf. Sallivan and Nonaka ( 1988 , pp. 6ff).

Cf. Daft et al. ( 1988 , pp. 135ff).

Cf. Schneider and De Meyer ( 1991 , pp. 307ff).

Cf. Hambrick and Mason ( 1984 , p. 193).

Cf. Ireland et al. ( 1987 , p. 470), Knight et al. ( 1999 , pp. 445ff), Souitaris and Marcello Maestro ( 2010 , pp. 653ff), Wang et al. ( 2012 , pp. 572ff).

Cf. Hutzschenreuter and Kleindienst ( 2006 , pp. 676f).

Cf. Hambrick and Mason ( 1984 , pp. 197ff), Peterson et al. ( 2002 , pp. 245f).

Cf. Hambrick and Mason ( 1984 , pp. 197ff), Knight et al. ( 1999 , pp. 445ff), Peterson et al. ( 2002 , p. 247)

Wang et al. ( 2012 , p. 572).

Cf. Souitaris and Marcello Maestro (p. 654).

Cf. López-Duarte et al. ( 2016 , pp. 411ff).

Cf. Aldehayyat ( 2015 , pp. 459ff), Daft et al. ( 1988 , pp. 124f), Ebrahimi ( 2000 , p. 68).

Cf. Aldehayyat ( 2015 , pp. 459ff), Ebrahimi ( 2000 , pp. 68f), Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 88ff).

Cf. Johnson et al. ( 2008 , p. 65).

Cf. Burgelman et al. ( 2018 , p. 537), Eichhorn and Towers ( 2018 , p. 284), Johnson et al. ( 2008 , p. 102), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1772).

Schneider and De Meyer ( 1991 , p. 307).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 85).

Cf. Bachmann et al. ( 2016 , p. 300), Gopinath and Hoffman ( 1995 , p. 577), Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 9).

Cf. Schneider and De Meyer ( 1991 , p. 307).

Cf. Waddock and Isabella ( 1989 , pp. 626ff).

Cf. Newgren et al. ( 1984 , pp. 352ff).

Cf. West ( 1990 , pp. 87ff).

Cf. Subramanian et al. ( 1993 , pp. 271ff).

Cf. Costa ( 1995 , pp. 4ff).

Cf. Bachmann et al. ( 2016 , p. 299), Barringer and Bluedorn ( 1999 , 432ff).

Cf. Aldehayyat ( 2015 , pp. 474f).

Cf. Lenz and Engledow ( 1986 , pp. 70f).

Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , p. 6).

Cf. Palich and Gomez-Mejia ( 1999 , p. 596).

Cf. Schneider ( 1989 , pp. 149ff).

Cf. Parnell et al. (p. 525).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 110), Hay and Usunier ( 1993 , pp. 317ff).

Hoffman ( 2007 , p. 28).

Cf. Mintzberg ( 1993 , p. 32).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , p. 199).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 70ff), Hay and Usunier ( 1993 , pp. 315ff), Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 9ff), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 6ff), Johnson et al. ( 2008 , p. 209), Pasha and Poister ( 2017 , pp. 504ff).

Cf. Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , p. 9).

Cf. Clercq et al. ( 2010 , pp. 87ff).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , pp. 198ff), Idenburg ( 1993 , p. 133f).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 10).

Singh ( 1998 , p. 146).

Cf. Hrebiniak ( 2006 , pp. 12, 14), Li et al. ( 2008 , pp. 3ff).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 10), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , p. 9).

Cf. Li et al. ( 2008 , pp. 18ff), Powell ( 1992 , p. 552).

Cf. Judge and Stahl ( 1995 , p. 105).

Cf. Alexander ( 1985 , pp. 91ff), Allio ( 2005 , pp. 12ff).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1995 , pp. 44ff), Singh ( 1998 , pp. 160ff).

Cf. Alexander ( 1985 , pp. 91ff), Hrebiniak ( 2006 , p. 13), Li et al. ( 2008 , pp. 11ff).

Allio ( 2005 , p. 13).

Cf. Bourgeois and Eisenhardt ( 1988 , p. 833).

Cf. Mufudza et al. ( 2013 , pp. 24ff).

Cf. Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , p. 2).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 10f), Palich and Gomez-Mejia ( 1999 , p. 598).

Cf. Bea and Haas ( 2017 , pp. 19ff), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 10f), Palich and Gomez-Mejia ( 1999 , p. 598).

Cf. Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , p. 1651).

Cf. Chandler ( 1962 , pp. 13f), Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 9f).

Cf. Schreyögg and Steinmann ( 1987 , p. 91).

Cf. Argyris ( 1977 , p. 114).

Cf. de Waal and de Boer ( 2017 , p. 150).

Armstrong ( 1982 , p. 198).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , p. 200), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 10f).

Cf. Barringer and Bluedorn ( 1999 , pp. 426f).

Hofstede ( 1980b , p. 49).

Cf. Bracker ( 1980 , p. 219), Hofstede ( 1983 , 75ff, 1993, p. 93), Holt ( 2011 , pp. 80f), Samiee and Athanassiou ( 1998 , p. 86).

Cf. Bird and Mendenhall ( 2016 , p. 116).

Between 2000 and 2015, the number of US companies in the Fortune Global 500 list declined from 179 to 128, while the number of Chinese firms grew from 10 to 98. Similarly in the year 2000, 17 of the top 20 business schools in the Financial Times Full-time MBA ranking were located in the USA, while this number declined to 10 business schools in 2015 (see Whittington ( 2017 , p.34)).

Cf. Whittington ( 2017 , p. 34).

Cf. Adegboye ( 2013 , p. 206), Harzing et al. ( 2009 , p. 418), Hoffman ( 2007 , p. 27), Parnell et al. ( 2000 , p. 520).

Cf. Ang and Massingham ( 2007 , p. 16).

Cf. Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 921).

Cf. Ansoff ( 1987 , pp. 505ff), Holt ( 2011 , p. 83), Schneider and De Meyer ( 1991 , p. 308).

Cf. Elbanna and Child ( 2007 , pp. 569f, 577), Iaquinto and Fredrickson ( 1997 , pp. 66f).

Cf. Amason and Sapienza ( 1997 , p. 499), Haleblian and Finkelstein ( 1993 , pp. 845ff, 855ff), Iaquinto and Fredrickson ( 1997 , pp. 66f), Yoon et al. ( 2016 , pp. 762f, 772ff).

Cf. Ferrier ( 2001 , p. 862), Rao and Tilt ( 2016 , 333ff), Yoon et al. ( 2016 , pp. 764ff, 772).

Cf. Chen and Li ( 2005 , pp. 626f, 630ff), Hitt et al. ( 1997 , p. 160).

Cf. Ferrier ( 2001 , p. 862), Iaquinto and Fredrickson ( 1997 , pp. 66f), Tulung and Ramdani ( 2016 , p. 164).

Please refer to section “Factors Influencing Environmental Scanning”.

Cf. Schneider and De Meyer ( 1991 , p. 308).

Cf. Dean Jr and Sharfman ( 1993 , p. 589), Dutton ( 1993 , p. 339), Dutton and Ashford ( 1993 , p. 397), Rindova ( 1999 , p. 954).

Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 125).

Cf. Huang ( 2009 , pp. 2ff).

Cf. Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1991 , p. 9).

Cf. Meyer and Rowan ( 1977 , p. 346), Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 923).

Ingram and Silverman ( 2002 , p. 20).

Cf. Gerhart ( 2008 , pp. 259f).

Cf. Hofstede ( 1980b , p. 62).

Cf. Li et al. ( 2001 , p. 117), Tutar et al. ( 2014 , p. 351).

Cf. Singh ( 2007 , p. 425).

Cf. Holmes et al. ( 2013 , pp. 535ff), March and Olsen ( 1983 , pp. 734ff).

Cf. Holmes et al. ( 2013 , p. 535), Jackson and Deeg ( 2008 , pp. 541, 555), Levy and Pablo ( 1993 , pp. 215ff), Richter et al. ( 2016 , p. 65).

Cf. Holmes et al. ( 2013 , pp. 535ff), Lozano and Rodríguez ( 2011 , pp. 206ff).

Cf. Barkema et al. ( 2015 , p. 462), Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 921).

Cf. Peterson et al. ( 2002 , p. 252).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , pp. 259ff), Peng et al. ( 2008 , pp. 921f), Peng et al. ( 2009 , pp. 69f).

Cf. Luo et al. ( 2011 , p. 195).

Cf. Zhu et al. ( 2012 , p. 1135).

Cf. Helpman ( 1993 , pp. 1247f), Soete ( 2007 , 274ff).

Cf. Hill ( 1995 , pp. 119ff).

Cf. Chavance ( 2008 , pp. 57ff), Powell ( 1991 , pp. 183ff).

Cf. Fan ( 1998 , p. 208).

Hofstede et al. ( 2010 , p. 24).

Cf. Holmes et al. ( 2013 , p. 533), North ( 1990 , p. 42), Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 922), Richter et al. ( 2016 , p. 65), Scott ( 1995 , pp. 38ff).

Dwyer et al. ( 2005 , p. 19).

Cf. Beugelsdijk et al. ( 2017 , pp. 30f).

Cf. Flatten et al. ( 2015 , p. 521), House et al. ( 2002 , p. 3), Kirkman et al. ( 2017 , pp. 13f), Rohlfer and Zhang ( 2016 , p. 41), Tutar et al. ( 2014 , p. 345).

Hofstede ( 1980b , p. 43).

Cf. Matsumoto et al. ( 2008 , p. 926).

Richter et al. ( 2016 , p. 65).

Cf. Cooke and Rousseau ( 1988 , pp. 247ff).

Cf. Hofstede ( 1980a , 6f).

Cf. Schein ( 1996 , p. 9).

Cf. DiMaggio ( 1997 , pp. 267f), Holmes et al. ( 2013 , p. 534).

Cf. Fu et al. ( 2004 , pp. 288f), Tuomela ( 2003 , pp. 123ff).

Cf. Holmes et al. ( 2013 , p. 534).

Cf. Peng et al. ( 2008 , p. 922).

Cf. Peng and Heath ( 1996 , p. 505).

Cf. Elg et al. ( 2008 , pp. 674ff), Michailova and Worm ( 2003 , pp. 509ff).

Cf. Peng ( 2003 , p. 284).

Cf. Ayoun and Moreo ( 2008 , p. 65).

See Ansoff ( 1965 ), Mintzberg ( 1987b ), Porter ( 1980 ).

Cf. Hutzschenreuter and Kleindienst ( 2006 , p. 694).

Cf. Ayoun and Moreo ( 2008 , p. 67).

Cf. Calabretta et al. ( 2017 , pp. 366ff), Degravel ( 2015 , pp. 12ff), Eldar et al. ( 2016 , pp. 16ff).

Cf. Degravel ( 2015 , pp. 14f; 18f), Gilbert-Saad et al. ( 2018 , pp. 75ff).

See Hofstede ( 1980a ), House et al. ( 2002 ).

Cf. Gerhart ( 2008 , p. 260).

Cf. Kirkman et al. ( 2006 , p. 285).

Cf. Ayoun and Moreo ( 2008 , p. 66), Degravel ( 2015 , p. 15), Gannon et al. ( 2006 , p. 40), Geletkanycz ( 1997 , pp. 615ff), Lin et al. ( 2019 , p. 3115).

Hitt and Tyler ( 1991 , p. 332).

Cf. Pant and Lachman ( 1998 , p. 195).

Cf. Harzing ( 1997 , pp. 654ff), Hofstede ( 1993 , pp. 91ff), Holt ( 2011 , pp. 80f).

Cf. Leung et al. ( 2005 , p. 368).

Hofstede ( 1983 , p. 88).

Cf. Ayoun and Moreo ( 2008 , pp. 66f).

Cf. Maruyama ( 1985 , pp. 125ff).

Cf. Pisani et al. ( 2009 , p. 1135).

Cf. Degravel ( 2015 , pp. 13f, 20).

Cf. Ghoshal and Bartlett ( 1998 , pp. 110f).

Cf. Grinyer et al. ( 1986 , pp. 3ff), Miller and Cardinal ( 1994 , pp. 1651f).

Cf. Mauri and Michaels (pp. 214ff).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , pp. 202f).

See Mauri and Michaels ( 1998 ), McGahan and Porter ( 1997 , 2003 ), Rumelt ( 1991 ).

Cf. Mauri and Michaels ( 1998 , pp. 213ff).

Cf. Yasai-Ardekani and Haug ( 1997 , 729ff).

Cf. Barney ( 1991 , pp. 105ff), Wernerfelt ( 1984 , pp. 172ff).

Cf. Godfrey and Hill ( 1995 , pp. 519ff).

Cf. Hart and Banbury ( 1994 , 256), Holt ( 2011 , 81f).

Cf. Holt ( 2011 , p. 81).

Cf. Fredrickson and Mitchell ( 1984 , pp. 401ff), Robinson Jr and Pearce ( 1983 , pp. 197ff).

Cf. Ali ( 2018 , p. 13).

Cf. Hutzschenreuter and Kleindienst ( 2006 , p. 693).

Hickson et al. ( 1974 , p. 64).

Cf. Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , pp. 1760, 1763).

Cf. Ferrier ( 2001 , p. 872), Greckhamer et al. ( 2008 , p. 719), McCaskey ( 1974 , p. 288).

Cf. Eddleston et al. ( 2013 , p. 1187), Lester et al. ( 2003 , pp. 339ff), McCaskey ( 1974 , p. 287), Withane ( 1997 , pp. 689ff).

Cf. Anderson and Zeithaml ( 1984 , pp. 5ff).

Cf. Marginson ( 2002 , pp. 1019ff), Simons ( 1990 , p. 127).

Cf. Bloom and van Reenen ( 2007 , p. 1352).

Cf. Ferrier ( 2001 , p. 871), Fredrickson ( 1985 , p. 821), Lant et al. ( 1992 , pp. 585ff), Talaulicar et al. ( 2005 , p. 526).

Cf. Dutton ( 1993 , pp. 341ff).

Cf. Miller ( 1993 , pp. 116ff).

Cf. Papadakis et al. ( 1998 , 116ff).

Cf. Bloom and van Reenen (p. 1357).

Cf. Baum and Wally ( 2003 , pp. 1112f), Elenkov ( 1997 , pp. 294ff), Khatri and Ng ( 2000 , pp. 59ff).

Cf. Yasai-Ardekani and Haug ( 1997 , p. 732).

Cf. Bloom and van Reenen ( 2007 , pp. 1356f).

Cf. Mauri and Michaels ( 1998 , pp. 215ff), Rumelt ( 1991 , pp. 176ff).

Cf. Ghoshal and Bartlett ( 1990 , p. 604), Sageder and Feldbauer-Durstmüller ( 2019 , p. 876), Schuler et al. ( 1993 , p. 420), Vora et al. ( 2007 , p. 596).

Cf. Ghoshal and Bartlett ( 1998 , pp. 6ff), Harzing ( 2000 , pp. 102f), Lin and Hsieh ( 2010 , p. 53).

Cf. Ambos and Mueller-Stewens ( 2017 , p. 12), Gupta and Govindarajan ( 1991 , p. 768), Lin and Hsieh ( 2010 , p. 53), Sageder and Feldbauer-Durstmüller ( 2019 , p. 876).

Porter ( 1986 , p. 17).

Cf. Alfoldi et al. ( 2012 , p. 281), Birkinshaw et al. ( 1998 , p. 222), Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 15ff), Jarzabkowski and Kaplan ( 2015 , p. 544), Ketchen and Shook ( 1996 , p. 441), Kutschker and Schmid ( 2004 , pp. 483), Taggart ( 1996 , p. 542).

Cf. Ayoun and Moreo ( 2008 , p. 67), Bachmann et al. ( 2016 , p. 297), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 7f), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , pp. 1765ff).

Cf. Goold et al. ( 1998 , pp. 308ff), Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 15f), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 7f), Johnson et al. ( 2008 , pp. 303ff).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , pp. 15f), Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 7f).

Cf. Hunger and Wheelen ( 2009 , pp. 7f), Luo et al. ( 2011 , p. 190), Ondrack ( 1985 , pp. 1f).

Cf. Hungenberg ( 2014 , p. 17).

Cf. Jarzabkowski and Kaplan ( 2015 , p. 544).

Cf. Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1991 , p. 9), Birkinshaw and Morrison ( 1995 , pp. 730f).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 420), Palich and Gomez-Mejia ( 1999 , p. 597).

Cf. Gammelgaard et al. ( 2012 , p. 1158).

Cf. Gammelgaard et al. ( 2012 , pp. 1158ff), Kirkman et al. ( 2006 , pp. 306f), Michailova and Mustaffa ( 2012 , p. 383), Paterson and Brock ( 2002 , pp. 141f), Young and Tavares ( 2004 , pp. 218ff).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , p. 120), Rosenzweig and Singh ( 1991 , p. 342).

Spotify has established an agile organizational structure focusing on autonomy and alignment simultaneously (please refer to Kniberg and Ivarsson ( 2012 ) for further information).

Cf. Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1987 , p. 14), Harzing ( 2000 , pp. 101f), Kutschker and Schmid ( 2004 , p. 299), Smite et al. ( 2019 , pp. 51f).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 420), Palich and Gomez-Mejia ( 1999 , p. 597), Sageder and Feldbauer-Durstmüller ( 2019 , p. 884).

Cf. Narula ( 2014 , p. 4), Yeung et al. ( 2001 , p. 165).

Cf. Idenburg ( 1993 , p. 133).

Cf. Alfoldi et al. ( 2012 , p. 279), Ciabuschi et al. ( 2012 , p. 215), Herbert ( 1999 , p. 81f), Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 420), Kutschker and Schmid ( 2004 , p. 292), Narula ( 2014 , p. 4), Veliyath and Shortell ( 1993 , pp. 366f).

Cf. Yeung et al. ( 2001 , p. 165).

Cf. Gupta and Govindarajan ( 1991 , p. 769).

Cf. Arenas and Ayuso ( 2016 , p. 220).

Cf. Herbert ( 1999 , p. 81), Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 424), Meyer and Rowan ( 1977 , p. 344), Rabbiosi ( 2011 , p. 97), Smelser and Baltes ( 2001 , p. 10197).

Cf. Kutschker and Schmid ( 2004 , p. 292), Narula ( 2014 , p. 4), Yeung et al. ( 2001 , p. 165).

Cf. Hout et al. ( 1982 , p. 98).

Cf. Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1987 , p. 7), Ghoshal and Bartlett ( 1998 , pp. 16ff; 79f), Harzing ( 2000 , p. 107f), Svensson ( 2001 , p. 9).

Cf. Trefry ( 2006 , pp. 563ff), Tutar et al. ( 2014 , p. 345).

Cf. Young and Tavares ( 2004 , p. 218).

Cf. Taggart and Hood ( 1999 , p. 228).

Cf. Herbert ( 1999 , pp. 81f).

Cf. Chow et al. ( 1999 , pp. 561f), Dimitratos et al. ( 2009 , p. 412).

Cf. Birkinshaw et al. ( 2000 , pp. 323).

As introduced in Sect. 2.2.2 .

Cf. Alfoldi et al. ( 2012 , p. 282), Chang and Taylor ( 1999 , pp. 544, 557), Liu et al. ( 2014 , p. 221), Nobel and Birkinshaw ( 1998 , p. 483).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 424).

Cf. Ghoshal and Bartlett ( 1998 , p. 16), Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 424), Lin and Hsieh ( 2010 , p. 53), Narula ( 2014 , p. 10).

Scott et al. ( 2010 , pp. 328ff), Wolf and Egelhoff ( 2010 , p. 144).

Cf. Birkinshaw and Morrison ( 1995 , pp. 737f), Hedlund ( 1986 , pp. 9ff).

Cf. Gammelgaard et al. ( 2012 , p. 1160), Gupta and Govindarajan ( 1991 , p. 770).

Cf. Hedlund ( 1986 , pp. 24f).

Cf. Persson ( 2006 , p. 548), Rabbiosi ( 2011 , p. 97), Scott et al. ( 2010 , pp. 329f), Taggart ( 1996 , p. 533).

Cf. Fang et al. ( 2013 , p. 30).

Cf. Hedlund ( 1986 , pp. 21;24).

Cf. Hedlund ( 1986 , p. 21), Macharzina ( 2009 , p. 47).

Cf. Yeniyurt ( 2003 , pp. 137f).

Cf. Birkinshaw et al. ( 2000 , p. 321).

Cf. Andersson and Pahlberg ( 1997 , p. 320).

Cf. Ghoshal and Nohria ( 1989 , pp. 324f).

Cf. Gammelgaard et al. ( 2012 , pp. 1160f), Schmid et al. ( 2014 , p. 215), Taggart ( 1999 , pp. 237f), Taggart and Hood ( 1999 , pp. 227f).

Cf. Gammelgaard et al. ( 2012 , pp. 1159ff), Madhok ( 2015 , p. 628), Rabbiosi ( 2011 , p. 97), Scott et al. ( 2010 , pp. 329ff), Taggart and Hood ( 1999 , p. 228), Williams and van Triest ( 2009 , p. 157).

Cf. Williams and van Triest ( 2009 , p. 158).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 424), Taggart ( 1996 , p. 542), Young and Tavares ( 2004 , pp. 218ff).

Cf. Taggart ( 1999 , p. 247).

Cf. Taggart and Hood ( 1999 , p. 227).

Cf. Paterson and Brock ( 2002 , pp. 141f), Taggart and Hood ( 1999 , p. 227), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1768).

Cf. Williams and van Triest ( 2009 , p. 156).

Cf. Kawai and Strange ( 2014 , pp. 510ff).

Cf. Narula ( 2014 , p. 10).

Cf. Ghoshal and Bartlett ( 1998 , p. 287).

Cf. Feurer and Chaharbaghi ( 1995 , p. 19), Hodgkinson et al. ( 2006 , pp. 480f).

Cf. Palich and Gomez-Mejia ( 1999 , p. 598).

Cf. Scott et al. ( 2010 , pp. 329f).

Cf. Feurer and Chaharbaghi ( 1995 , p. 18).

Cf. Andersson and Pahlberg ( 1997 , p. 319), Birkinshaw et al. ( 1998 , p. 222), Ciabuschi et al. ( 2012 , p. 217), Paterson and Brock ( 2002 , p. 141).

Cf. Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1986 , pp. 90ff), Kutschker and Schmid ( 2004 , p. 338).

Cf. Andersson and Pahlberg ( 1997 , p. 320), Ayoun and Moreo ( 2008 , p. 67), Ciabuschi et al. ( 2012 , p. 215), Hodgkinson et al. ( 2006 , p. 480), Veliyath and Shortell ( 1993 , p. 365).

Cf. Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , p. 1768).

Cf. Armstrong ( 1982 , p. 201).

A mental model can be defined as an individual’s cognitive structure to interpret situations. The structure is consisting of different elements and relations (see Zahn and Foschiani ( 2006 , p. 85)).

Cf. Meyer and Rowan ( 1977 , p. 341), Whittington ( 2017 , p. 34), Zahn and Foschiani ( 2006 , pp. 84f).

Cf. Hedlund ( 1986 , p. 21), Scott et al. ( 2010 , pp. 329f).

Cf. Kutschker and Schmid ( 2004 , pp. 670ff; 780f), Viegas-Pires ( 2013 , p. 363).

Donthu and Yoo ( 1998 , p. 183).

Cf. Ambos and Mueller-Stewens ( 2017 , p. 14), Herbert ( 1999 , p. 82).

Cf. Peng ( 2002 , p. 256).

Cf. Barkema et al. ( 2015 , p. 462), Brouthers et al. ( 2000 , p. 864).

Cf. Chong and Park ( 2003 , p. 33).

Cf. Herbert ( 1999 , pp. 82ff), Paterson and Brock ( 2002 , pp. 155ff).

Cf. Chow et al. ( 1999 , p. 579).

Cf. Ambos and Mueller-Stewens ( 2017 , p. 14), Herbert ( 1999 , pp. 85ff), Whittington ( 2017 , p. 34).

Cf. Oesterle and Weikum ( 2019 , pp. 13f).

Cf. Meyer and Rowan ( 1977 , p. 355).

Cf. Brock et al. ( 2008 , pp. 1294f).

Cf. Ambos and Mueller-Stewens ( 2017 , p. 13), Herbert ( 1999 , p. 81), Whittington ( 2017 , p. 33).

Ahlvik and Björkman ( 2015 , p. 498).

Cf. Brock and Barry ( 2003 , p. 546).

Hedlund ( 1986 , p. 26).

Cf. Feurer and Chaharbaghi ( 1995 , p. 19), Hedlund ( 1986 , p. 29), Zahn and Foschiani ( 2001 , p. 417).

Cf. Williams and Lee ( 2011 , p. 261).

de Geus ( 1988 , p. 71).

Cf. Ali and Shaw ( 1988 , pp. 116ff), Gammelgaard et al. ( 2012 , p. 1161), Madhok ( 2015 , p. 628), Scott et al. ( 2010 , p. 329f), Taggart ( 1999 , p. 233ff), Wolf and Floyd ( 2017 , pp. 1768f).

Cf. Cattani et al. ( 2011 , pp. XVIff), Grabher ( 2004 , p. 1491), Turner and Müller ( 2003 , pp. 2ff).

Please refer to Sect. 2.4.1 .

Cf. Veliyath and Shortell ( 1993 , pp. 365f).

Williams and Lee ( 2011 , p. 255).

Cf. Bartlett and Ghoshal ( 1987 , p. 7), Kutschker and Schmid ( 2004 , p. 292).

Cf. Persson ( 2006 , p. 547), Rabbiosi and Santangelo ( 2013 , p. 160).

Fang et al. ( 2013 , p. 31).

Cf. Williams and Lee ( 2011 , p. 259).

Cf. Cohen and Levinthal ( 1990 , p. 128), Fang et al. ( 2013 , p. 30).

Cf. Williams and Lee ( 2011 , p. 260).

Cf. Narula ( 2014 , p. 11), Rabbiosi and Santangelo ( 2013 , p. 163).

Cf. Chandler ( 1962 , p. 383), Mauri and Michaels ( 1998 , pp. 211f).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , pp. 443f).

Cf. Lin and Hsieh ( 2010 , pp. 54f).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 422).

Cf. Rahim et al. ( 2000 , pp. 13f).

Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 422).

Cf. Cropanzano and Mitchell ( 2005 , p. 874).

Cf. Cropanzano and Mitchell ( 2005 , pp. 875ff), Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 423).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , pp. 424f).

Cf. Egelhoff ( 1991 , pp. 345ff).

Cf. Alfoldi et al. ( 2012 , p. 281).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , pp. 422f).

Cf. Lin and Hsieh ( 2010 , pp. 52, 54), Mirchandani and Lederer ( 2014 , p. 30).

Cf. Birkinshaw et al. ( 2000 , pp. 321f), Ghoshal and Bartlett ( 1990 , p. 604).

Liu et al. ( 2014 , p. 219).

Cf. Chang and Taylor ( 1999 , p. 542), Liu et al. ( 2014 , p. 219).

See, for example, Martinez and Jarillo ( 1989 ).

Cf. Martinez and Jarillo ( 1989 , p. 491).

Cf. Alfoldi et al. ( 2012 , p. 282), Arenas and Ayuso ( 2016 , p. 220), Boyacigiller ( 1990 , p. 359), Chang and Taylor ( 1999 , pp. 544ff, 557), Liu et al. ( 2014 , p. 221), Martinez and Jarillo ( 1989 , pp. 491f, 1991 , pp. 431f), Nobel and Birkinshaw ( 1998 , pp. 483f), Rabbiosi ( 2011 , p. 98), Wolf et al. ( 2014 , pp. 101ff).

Cf. Kostova et al. ( 2016 , p. 181).

Cf. Ahlvik and Björkman ( 2015 , pp. 498f).

Cf. Ciabuschi et al. ( 2012 , p. 217).

Cf. Birkinshaw and Morrison ( 1995 , p. 738), Michailova and Mustaffa ( 2012 , p. 383), Scott et al. ( 2010 , p. 331).

Cf. Young and Tavares ( 2004 , p. 225).

Cf. Birkinshaw and Morrison ( 1995 , pp. 737ff), Boyacigiller ( 1990 , p. 359).

Cf. Kim and Mauborgne ( 1993 , p. 420).

Cf. Persson ( 2006 , pp. 561f), Rabbiosi ( 2011 , p. 108).

Cf. Rabbiosi ( 2011 , p. 98), Williams and van Triest ( 2009 , p. 164).

Cf. Prahalad and Doz ( 1981 , p. 5).

Cf. Doz and Prahalad ( 1981 , p. 15), Prahalad and Doz ( 1981 , pp. 9f).

Acar, A. Z., & Acar, P. (2012). The effects of organizational culture and innovativeness on business performance in healthcare industry. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 58 , 683–692.

Article   Google Scholar  

Adegboye, M. (2013). The APPLICABILITY of management theories in Nigeria: Exploring the cultural challenge. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4 (10), 205–215.

Google Scholar  

Aguilar, F. J. (1967). Scanning the business environment . Macmillan.

Ahlvik, C., & Björkman, I. (2015). Towards explaining subsidiary implementation, integration, and internalization of MNC headquarters HRM practices. International Business Review, 24 (3), 497–505.

Aldehayyat, J. S. (2011). Organisational characteristics and the practice of strategic planning in Jordanian hotels. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30 (1), 192–199.

Aldehayyat, J. S. (2015). Environmental scanning in business organisations: Empirical evidence from a middle eastern country context. Management Research Review, 38 (5), 459–481.

Aldrich, J. (2004). The discovery of comparative advantage. Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 26 (3), 379–399.

Alexander, L. D. (1985). Successfully implementing strategic decisions. Long Range Planning, 18 (3), 91–97.

Alfoldi, E. A., Clegg, L. J., & McGaughey, S. L. (2012). Coordination at the edge of the empire: The delegation of headquarters functions through regional management mandates. Journal of International Management, 18 (3), 276–292.

Ali, A. A. (2018). Strategic planning–organizational performance relationship: Perspectives of previous studies and literature review. International Journal of Healthcare Management, 11 (1), 8–24.

Ali, M. Y., & Shaw, R. N. (1988). Strategic planning and strategic management in australian organisations. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 6 (1), 105–127.

Allio, M. K. (2005). A short, practical guide to implementing strategy. The Journal of Business Strategy, 26 (4), 12–21.

Amason, A. C., & Sapienza, H. J. (1997). The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conflict. Journal of Management, 23 (4), 495–516.

Ambos, T. C., & Mueller-Stewens, G. (2017). Rethinking the role of the centre in the multidivisional firm: A retrospective. Long Range Planning, 50 (1), 8–16.

Ambrosini, V., Bowman, C., & Collier, N. (2009). Dynamic capabilities: An exploration of how firms renew their resource base. British Journal of Management, 20 (1), 9–24.

Anderson, C. R., & Zeithaml, C. P. (1984). Stage of the product life cycle, business strategy, and business performance. Academy of Management Journal, 27 (1), 5–24.

Andersson, U., & Pahlberg, C. (1997). Subsidiary influence on strategic behaviour in MNCs: An empirical study. International Business Review, 6 (3), 319–334.

Andrews, K. R. (1971). The concepts of corporate strategy . Dow Jones-Irwin.

Ang, Z., & Massingham, P. (2007). National culture and the standardization versus adaptation of knowledge management. Journal of Knowledge Management, 11 (2), 5–21.

Ansoff, H. I. (1965). Corporate strategy: An analytic approach to business policy for growth and expansion . McGraw-Hill Companies.

Ansoff, H. I. (1969). Business strategy: Selected readings . Penguin books.

Ansoff, H. I. (1979). Strategic management . Wiley.

Book   Google Scholar  

Ansoff, H. I. (1987). The emerging paradigm of strategic behavior. Strategic Management Journal, 8 (6), 501–515.

Ansoff, H. I. (1991). Critique of henry mintzberg’s ‘the design school: Reconsidering the basic premises of strategic management’. Strategic Management Journal, 12 (6), 449–461.

Ansoff, H. I., Avner, J., Brandenburg, R. G., Portner, F. E., & Radosevich, R. (1970). Does planning pay?: The effect of planning on success of acquisitions in American firms. Long Range Planning, 3 (2), 2–7.

Arenas, D., & Ayuso, S. (2016). Unpacking transnational corporate responsibility: Coordination mechanisms and orientations. Business Ethics: A European Review, 25 (3), 217–237.

Arend, R. J., Zhao, Y. L., Song, M., & Im, S. (2017). Strategic planning as a complex and enabling managerial tool. Strategic Management Journal, 38 (8), 1741–1752.

Argyris, C. (1977). Organizational learning and management information systems. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 2 (2), 113–123.

Armstrong, J. S. (1982). The value of formal planning for strategic decisions: Review of empirical research. Strategic Management Journal, 3 (3), 197–211.

Ashmore, G. M. (1992). Better information means better quality. The Journal of Business Strategy, 13 (1), 57–60.

Ayoun, B. M., & Moreo, P. J. (2008). The influence of the cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance on business strategy development: A cross-national study of hotel managers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27 (1), 65–75.

Bachmann, J.-T., Engelen, A., & Schwens, C. (2016). Toward a better understanding of the association between strategic planning and entrepreneurial orientation: The moderating role of national culture. Journal of International Management, 22 (4), 297–315.

Bamberger, I., & Wrona, T. (1996). Der Ressourcenansatz und seine Bedeutung für die strategische Unternehmensführung. Schmalenbachs Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung, 48 (2), 130–153.

Barkema, H. G., Chen, X.-P., George, G., Luo, Y., & Tsui, A. S. (2015). West meets east: New concepts and theories. Academy of Management Journal, 58 (2), 460–479.

Barley, S. R., & Tolbert, P. S. (1997). Institutionalization and structuration: Studying the links between action and institution. Organization Studies, 18 (1), 93–117.

Barney, J. B. (1986). Organizational culture: Can it be a source of sustained competitive advantage? Academy of Management Review, 11 (3), 656–665.

Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17 (1), 99–120.

Barney, J. B. (2001). Resource-based theories of competitive advantage: A ten-year retrospective on the resource-based view. Journal of Management, 27 (6), 643–650.

Barr, P. S., & Glynn, M. A. (2004). Cultural variations in strategic issue interpretation: Relating cultural uncertainty avoidance to controllability in discriminating threat and opportunity. Strategic Management Journal, 25 (1), 59–67.

Barringer, B. R., & Bluedorn, A. C. (1999). The relationship between corporate entrepreneurship and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 20 (5), 421–444.

Barron, A., Hultén, P., & Vanyushyn, V. (2015). Country-of-origin effects on managers’ environmental scanning behaviours: Evidence from the political crisis in the Eurozone. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 33 (3), 601–619.

Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1986). Tap your subsidiaries for global reach. Harvard Business Review, 64 (6), 87–94.

Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1987). Managing across borders: New strategic requirements. Sloan Management Review, 28 (4), 7–17.

Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1991). Global strategic management: Impact on the new frontiers of strategy research. Strategic Management Journal, 12 (S1), 5–16.

Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1993). Beyond the M-form: Toward a managerial theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 14 (S2), 23–46.

Baum, J. R., & Wally, S. (2003). Strategic decision speed and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 24 (11), 1107–1129.

Bea, F. X., & Haas, J. (2017). Strategisches management (9th ed.). UVK Verlagsgesellschaft mbH.

Bérard, C., & Delerue, H. (2010). A cross-cultural analysis of intellectual asset protection in SMEs: The effect of environmental scanning. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 17 (2), 167–183.

Beugelsdijk, S., Kostova, T., & Roth, K. (2017). An overview of hofstede-inspired country-level culture research in international business since 2006. Journal of International Business Studies, 48 (1), 30–47.

Bird, A., & Mendenhall, M. E. (2016). From cross-cultural management to global leadership: Evolution and adaptation. Journal of World Business, 51 (1), 115–126.

Birkinshaw, J. (2000). Entrepreneurship in the global firm: Enterprise and renewal (Sage strategy series) . Sage Publications.

Birkinshaw, J. M., & Morrison, A. J. (1995). Configurations of strategy and structure in subsidiaries of multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, 26 (4), 729–753.

Birkinshaw, J., Hood, N., & Jonsson, S. (1998). Building firm-specific advantages in multinational corporations: The role of subsidiary initiative. Strategic Management Journal, 19 (3), 221–242.

Birkinshaw, J., Holm, U., Thilenius, P., & Arvidsson, N. (2000). Consequences of perception gaps in the headquarters-subsidiary relationship. International Business Review, 9 (3), 321–324.

Blagg, D. (2008). Chris christensen: Legend of the classroom . Harvard Business School. Accessed February 6, 2019, from https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/chris-christensen-legend-of-the-classroom .

Bloom, N., & van Reenen, J. (2007). Measuring and explaining management practices across firms and countries. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122 (4), 1351–1408.

Bonn, I., & Christodoulou, C. (1996). From strategic planning to strategic management. Long Range Planning, 29 (4), 543–551.

Bourgeois, L. J., & Eisenhardt, K. M. (1988). Strategic decision processes in high velocity environments: Four cases in the microcomputer industry. Management Science, 34 (7), 816–835.

Boyacigiller, N. (1990). The role of expatriates in the management of interdependence complexity and risk in multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, 21 (3), 357–381.

Boyd, B. K. (1991). Strategic planning and financial performance: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Management Studies, 28 (4), 353–374.

Bracker, J. (1980). The historical development of the strategic management concept. Academy of Management Review, 5 (2), 219–224.

Bresser, R. K., & Bishop, R. C. (1983). Dysfunctional effects of formal planning: Two theoretical explanations. Academy of Management Review, 8 (4), 588–599.

Brews, P. J., & Hunt, M. R. (1999). Learning to plan and planning to learn: Resolving the planning school/learning school debate. Strategic Management Journal , 889–913.

Brews, P., & Purohit, D. (2007). Strategic planning in unstable environments. Long Range Planning, 40 (1), 64–83.

Brock, D. M., & Barry, D. (2003). What if planning were really strategic?: Exploring the strategy-planning relationship in multinationals. International Business Review, 12 (5), 543–561.

Brock, D. M., Barry, D., & Thomas, D. C. (2000). “Your forward is our reverse, your right, our wrong”: Rethinking multinational planning processes in light of national culture. International Business Review, 9 (6), 687–701.

Brock, D. M., Shenkar, O., Shoham, A., & Siscovick, I. C. (2008). National culture and expatriate deployment. Journal of International Business Studies, 39 (8), 1293–1309.

Bromiley, P., & Rau, D. (2016). Social, behavioral, and cognitive influences on upper echelons during strategy process: A literature review. Journal of Management, 42 (1), 174–202.

Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E., & Werner, S. (2000). Influences on strategic decision-making in the dutch financial services industry. Journal of Management, 26 (5), 863–883.

Brown, S. L., & Eisenhardt, K. M. (1995). Product development: Past research, present findings, and future directions. Academy of Management Review, 20 (2), 343–378.

Burgelman, R. A. (1983). A model of the interaction of strategic behavior, corporate context, and the concept of strategy. Academy of Management Review, 8 (1), 61–70.

Burgelman, R. A., Floyd, S. W., Laamanen, T., Mantere, S., Vaara, E., & Whittington, R. (2018). Strategy processes and practices: Dialogues and intersections. Strategic Management Journal, 39 (3), 531–558.

Burnes, B. (2017). Managing change: A strategic approach to organisational dynamics (7th ed.). Pearson Education.

Calabretta, G., Gemser, G., & Wijnberg, N. M. (2017). The interplay between intuition and rationality in strategic decision making: A paradox perspective. Organization Studies, 38 (3–4), 365–401.

Camillus, J. C. (2018). Logical Incrementalism. In M. Augier & D. J. Teece (Eds.), The Palgrave encyclopedia of strategic management (1st ed., pp. 920–923). Palgrave Macmillan.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Campbell, A. (1999). Tailored, not benchmarked: Fresh look at corporate planning. Harvard Business Review, 77 (2), 41–50.

Capon, N., Farley, J. U., & Hulbert, J. M. (1994). Strategic planning and financial performance: More evidence. Journal of Management Studies, 31 (1), 105–110.

Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., Frederiksen, L., & Täube, F. (2011). Project-based organizing and strategic management: A long-term research agenda on temporary organizational forms. Advances in Strategic Management, 28 , 3–26.

Chandler, A. D. (1962). Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the American enterprise . MIT Press.

Chang, E., & Taylor, M. S. (1999). Control in Multinational Corporations (MNCs): The case of korean manufacturing subsidiaries. Journal of Management, 25 (4), 541–565.

Chattopadhyay, P., Glick, W. H., & Huber, G. P. (2001). Organizational actions in response to threats and opportunities. Academy of Management Journal, 44 (5), 937–955.

Chavance, B. (2008). Formal and informal institutional change: The experience of postsocialist transformation. European Journal of Comparative Economics, 5 (1), 57–71.

Chen, X.-P., & Li, S. (2005). Cross-national differences in cooperative decision-making in mixed-motive business contexts: The mediating effect of vertical and horizontal individualism. Journal of International Business Studies, 36 (6), 622–636.

Chen, C. C., Peng, M. W., & Saparito, P. A. (2002). Individualism, collectivism, and opportunism: A cultural perspective on transaction cost economics. Journal of Management, 28 (4), 567–583.

Chong, J. K. S., & Park, J. (2003). National culture and classical principles of planning. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 10 (1), 29–39.

Choo, C. W. (2001). Environmental scanning as information seeking and organizational learning. Information Research, 7 (1), 7–1.

Chow, C. W., Harrison, G. L., McKinnon, J. L., & Wu, A. (1999). Cultural influences on informal information sharing in chinese and anglo-american organizations: An exploratory study. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 24 (7), 561–582.

Ciabuschi, F., Dellestrand, H., & Holm, U. (2012). The role of headquarters in the contemporary MNC. Journal of International Management, 18 (3), 213–223.

Coase, R. H. (1937). The nature of the firm. Economica, 4 (16), 386–405.

Cohen, W. M., & Levinthal, D. A. (1990). Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35 , 128–152.

Collis, D. J., & Montgomery, C. A. (1995). Competing on resources: Strategy in the 1990s. Harvard Business Review, 73 (4), 118–128.

Conner, K. R. (1991). A historical comparison of resource-based theory and five schools of thought within industrial organization economics: Do we have a new theory of the firm? Journal of Management, 17 (1), 121–154.

Conti, R. F. (2013). Frederick winslow taylor. In M. Witzel & M. Warner (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of management theorists (pp. 11–31). Oxford University Press.

Cooke, R. A., & Rousseau, D. M. (1988). Behavioral norms and expectations: A quantitative approach to the assessment of organizational culture. Group & Organization Studies, 13 (3), 245–273.

Costa, J. (1995). An empirically-based review of the concept of environmental scanning. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 7 (7), 4–9.

Courtney, H., Kirkland, J., & Viguerie, P. (1997). Strategy under uncertainty. Harvard Business Review, 75 (6), 67–79.

Crook, T. R., Bratton, V. K., Street, V. L., & Ketchen, D. J., Jr. (2006). Has strategic management shed the normal science straightjacket?: Revisiting bettis’(1991) critiques. Journal of Managerial Issues, 18 (3), 409–423.

Cropanzano, R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31 (6), 874–900.

Cummings, S., Bridgman, T., Hassard, J., & Rowlinson, M. (2017). A new history of management . Cambridge University Press.

Daft, R. L., & Weick, K. E. (1984). Toward a model of organizations as interpretation systems. Academy of Management Review, 9 (2), 284–295.

Daft, R. L., Sormunen, J., & Parks, D. (1988). Chief executive scanning, environmental characteristics, and company performance: An empirical study. Strategic Management Journal, 9 (2), 123–139.

Darr, K. (2011). Introduction to management and leadership concepts, principles, practices. In R. Burke & L. Friedman (Eds.), Essentials of management and leadership in public health (pp. 7–24). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Das, T. K. (1991). Time: The Hidden dimension in strategic planning. Long Range Planning, 24 (3), 49–57.

Davis, L. E., & North, D. C. (1971). Institutional change and American economic growth . Cambridge University Press.

de Clercq, D., Dimov, D., & Thongpapanl, N. T. (2010). The moderating impact of internal social exchange processes on the entrepreneurial orientation–performance relationship. Journal of Business Venturing, 25 (1), 87–103.

de Geus, A. P. (1988). Planning as learning. Harvard Business Review, 66 (2), 70–74.

de Waal, A. A., & de Boer, F. A. (2017). Project management control within a multicultural setting. Journal of Strategy and Management, 10 (2), 148–167.

Dean, J. W., Jr., & Sharfman, M. P. (1993). Procedural rationality in the strategic decision-making process. Journal of Management Studies, 30 (4), 587–610.

Degravel, D. (2015). Does national culture impact managerial cognition of RBV capabilities? Journal of Management Policy and Practice, 16 (4), 11–29.

Dent, E. B., & Bozeman, P. (2014). Discovering the foundational philosophies, practices, and influences of modern management theory. Journal of Management History, 20 (2), 145–163.

Dibrell, C., Craig, J. B., & Neubaum, D. O. (2014). Linking the formal strategic planning process, planning flexibility, and innovativeness to firm performance. Journal of Business Research, 67 (9), 2000–2007.

DiMaggio, P. (1997). Culture and cognition. Annual Review of Sociology, 23 (1), 263–287.

Dimitratos, P., Liouka, I., Ross, D., & Young, S. (2009). The multinational enterprise and subsidiary evolution: Scotland since 1945. Business History, 51 (3), 401–425.

Dincer, O., Tatoglu, E., & Glaister, K. W. (2006). The strategic planning process: Evidence from turkish firms. Management Research News, 29 (4), 206–219.

Donthu, N., & Yoo, B. (1998). Cultural influences on service quality expectations. Journal of Service Research, 1 (2), 178–186.

Douma, S., & Schreuder, H. (2002). Economic approaches to organizations (3rd ed.). Pearson Education.

Doz, Y. L., & Prahalad, C. K. (1981). Headquarters influence and strategic control in MNCs. Sloan Management Review, 23 (1), 15–29.

Dutton, J. E. (1993). Interpretations on automatic: A different view of strategic issue diagnosis. Journal of Management Studies, 30 (3), 339–357.

Dutton, J. E., & Ashford, S. J. (1993). Selling issues to top management. Academy of Management Review, 18 (3), 397–428.

Dwyer, S., Mesak, H., & Hsu, M. (2005). An exploratory examination of the influence of national culture on cross-national product diffusion. Journal of International Marketing, 13 (2), 1–27.

Ebrahimi, B. P. (2000). Perceived strategic uncertainty and environmental scanning behavior of hong kong chinese executives. Journal of Business Research, 49 (1), 67–77.

Eddleston, K. A., Kellermanns, F. W., Floyd, S. W., Crittenden, V. L., & Crittenden, W. F. (2013). Planning for growth: Life stage differences in family firms. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37 (5), 1177–1202.

Egelhoff, W. G. (1991). Information-processing theory and the multinational enterprise. Journal of International Business Studies, 22 (3), 341–368.

Eichhorn, P., & Towers, I. (2018). Principles of management: Efficiency and effectiveness in the private and public sector . Springer International Publishing AG.

Eisenhardt, K. M., & Martin, J. A. (2000). Dynamic capabilities: What are they? Strategic Management Journal, 21 (10-11), 1105–1121.

Elbanna, S., & Child, J. (2007). The influence of decision, environmental and firm characteristics on the rationality of strategic decision-making. Journal of Management Studies, 44 (4), 561–591.

Eldar, E., Rutledge, R. B., Dolan, R. J., & Niv, Y. (2016). Mood as representation of momentum. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20 (1), 15–24.

Elenkov, D. S. (1997). Strategic uncertainty and environmental scanning: The case for institutional influences on scanning behavior. Strategic Management Journal, 18 (4), 287–302.

Elg, U., Ghauri, P. N., & Tarnovskaya, V. (2008). The role of networks and matching in market entry to emerging retail markets. International Marketing Review, 25 (6), 674–699.

Eppler, M. J., & Platts, K. W. (2009). Visual strategizing: The systematic use of visualization in the strategic-planning process. Long Range Planning, 42 (1), 42–74.

Falshaw, J. R., Glaister, K. W., & Tatoglu, E. (2006). Evidence on formal strategic planning and company performance. Management Decision, 44 (1), 9–30.

Fan, Y. (1998). The transfer of western management to China: Context, content and constraints. Management Learning, 29 (2), 201–221.

Fang, Y., Wade, M., Delios, A., & Beamish, P. W. (2013). An exploration of multinational enterprise knowledge resources and foreign subsidiary performance. Journal of World Business, 48 (1), 30–38.

Feldman, M. S., & March, J. G. (1981). Information in organizations as signal and symbol. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26 , 171–186.

Ferrier, W. J. (2001). Navigating the competitive landscape: The drivers and consequences of competitive aggressiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 44 (4), 858–877.

Feurer, R., & Chaharbaghi, K. (1995). Strategy development: Past, present and future. Management Decision, 33 (6), 11–21.

Fiol, C. M. (1991). Managing culture as a competitive resource: An identity-based view of sustainable competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17 (1), 191–211.

Flatten, T., Adams, D., & Brettel, M. (2015). Fostering absorptive capacity through leadership: A cross-cultural analysis. Journal of World Business, 50 (3), 519–534.

Forbes, D. P. (2005). Managerial determinants of decision speed in new ventures. Strategic Management Journal, 26 (4), 355–366.

Fredrickson, J. W. (1985). Effects of decision motive and organizational performance level on strategic decision processes. Academy of Management Journal, 28 (4), 821–843.

Fredrickson, J. W., & Mitchell, T. R. (1984). Strategic decision processes: Comprehensiveness and performance in an industry with an unstable environment. Academy of Management Journal, 27 (2), 399–423.

Fu, P. P., Kennedy, J., Tata, J., Yukl, G., Bond, M. H., Peng, T.-K., et al. (2004). The impact of societal cultural values and individual social beliefs on the perceived effectiveness of managerial influence strategies: A meso approach. Journal of International Business Studies, 35 (4), 284–305.

Gammelgaard, J., McDonald, F., Stephan, A., Tüselmann, H., & Dörrenbächer, C. (2012). The impact of increases in subsidiary autonomy and network relationships on performance. International Business Review, 21 (6), 1158–1172.

Gannon, M. J., Locke, E. A., Gupta, A., Audia, P., & Kristof-Brown, A. L. (2006). Cultural metaphors as frames of reference for nations: A six-country study. International Studies of Management & Organization, 35 (4), 37–47.

Geissler, C., & Krys, C. (2013). The challenges of strategic management in the twenty-first century. In B. Schwenker & T. Wulf (Eds.), Scenario-based strategic planning: Developing strategies in an uncertain world (Roland berger school of strategy and economics) (pp. 21–42). Springer Fachmedien.

Geletkanycz, M. A. (1997). The salience of ‘culture’s consequences’: The effects of cultural values on top executive commitment to the status quo. Strategic Management Journal, 18 (8), 615–634.

Gerhart, B. (2008). Cross cultural management research: Assumptions, evidence, and suggested directions. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8 (3), 259–274.

Ghoshal, S. (1988). Environmental scanning in Korean firms: Organizational isomorphism in action. Journal of International Business Studies, 19 (1), 69–86.

Ghoshal, S., & Bartlett, C. A. (1990). The multinational corporation as an interorganizational network. Academy of Management Review, 15 (4), 603–626.

Ghoshal, S., & Bartlett, C. A. (1998). Managing ACROSS Borders: The transnational solution (Business books) (2nd ed.). Random House.

Ghoshal, S., & Moran, P. (1996). Bad for practice: A critique of the transaction cost theory. Academy of Management Review, 21 (1), 13–47.

Ghoshal, S., & Nohria, N. (1989). Internal differentiation within multinational corporations. Strategic Management Journal, 10 (4), 323–337.

Gilbert-Saad, A., Siedlok, F., & McNaughton, R. B. (2018). Decision and design heuristics in the context of entrepreneurial uncertainties. Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 9 (1), 75–80.

Ginter, P. M., & Duncan, W. J. (1990). Macroenvironmental analysis for strategic management. Long Range Planning, 23 (6), 91–100.

Glaister, K. W., Dincer, O., Tatoglu, E., Demirbag, M., & Zaim, S. (2008). A causal analysis of formal strategic planning and firm performance: Evidence from an emerging country. Management Decision, 46 (3), 365–391.

Gluck, F. W., Kaufman, S. P., & Walleck, A. S. (1980). Strategic management for competitive advantage. Harvard Business Review, 58 (4), 154–161.

Gluck, F., Kaufman, S., & Walleck, A. S. (1982). The four phases of strategic management. The Journal of Business Strategy, 2 (3), 9–21.

Godfrey, P. C., & Hill, C. W. L. (1995). The problem of unobservables in strategic management research. Strategic Management Journal, 16 (7), 519–533.

Goldsworthy, A. (2010). Julius caesar and the general as state. In V. D. Hanson (Ed.), Makers of ancient strategy: From the persian wars to the fall of Rome (pp. 206–226). Princeton University Press.

Goll, I., & Rasheed, A. M. A. (1997). Rational decision-making and firm performance: The moderating role of the environment. Strategic Management Journal, 18 (7), 583–591.

Goold, M., Campbell, A., & Alexander, M. (1998). Corporate strategy and parenting theory. Long Range Planning, 31 (2), 308–314.

Gopinath, C., & Hoffman, R. C. (1995). The relevance of strategy research: Practitioner and academic viewpoints. Journal of Management Studies, 32 (5), 575–594.

Grabher, G. (2004). Temporary architectures of learning: Knowledge governance in project ecologies. Organization Studies, 25 (9), 1491–1514.

Grant, R. M. (1996). Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17 (S2), 109–122.

Grant, R. M. (2003). Strategic planning in a turbulent environment: Evidence from the oil majors. Strategic Management Journal, 24 (6), 491–517.

Greckhamer, T., Misangyi, V. F., Elms, H., & Lacey, R. (2008). Using qualitative comparative analysis in strategic management research: An examination of combinations of industry, corporate, and business-unit effects. Organizational Research Methods, 11 (4), 695–726.

Greenley, G. E. (1994). Strategic planning and company performance: An appraisal of the empirical evidence. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 10 (4), 383–396.

Griffeth, R. W., Hom, P. W., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A Meta-analysis of antecedents and correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for the next millennium. Journal of Management, 26 (3), 463–488.

Griffin, A. (1997). The effect of project and process characteristics on product development cycle time. Journal of Marketing Research, 34 (1), 24–35.

Grinyer, P. H., & Norburn, D. (1975). Planning for existing markets: Perceptions of executives and financial performance. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 138 (1), 70–97.

Grinyer, P. H., Al-Bazzaz, S., & Yasai-Ardekani, M. (1986). Towards a contingency theory of corporate planning: Findings in 48 UK companies. Strategic Management Journal, 7 (1), 3–28.

Grundy, T. (2006). Rethinking and reinventing michael porter’s five forces model. Strategic Change, 15 (5), 213–229.

Guerras-Martín, L. Á., Madhok, A., & Montoro-Sánchez, Á. (2014). The evolution of strategic management research: Recent trends and current directions. Business Research Quarterly, 17 (2), 69–76.

Gupta, A. K., & Govindarajan, V. (1991). Knowledge flows and the structure of control within multinational corporations. Academy of Management Review, 16 (4), 768–792.

Haleblian, J., & Finkelstein, S. (1993). Top management team size, CEO dominance, and firm performance: The moderating roles of environmental turbulence and discretion. Academy of Management Journal, 36 (4), 844–863.

Hambrick, D. C. (1982). Environmental scanning and organizational strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 3 (2), 159–174.

Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9 (2), 193–206.

Hamel, G. (1996). Strategy as revolution. Harvard Business Review, 74 (4), 69–82.

Hamel, G., & Prahalad, C. K. (1990). The core competence of the corporation. Harvard Business Review, 68 (3), 79–91.

Hansen, G. S., & Wernerfelt, B. (1989). Determinants of firm performance: The relative importance of economic and organizational factors. Strategic Management Journal, 10 (5), 399–411.

Hart, S. L. (1992). An integrative framework for strategy-making processes. Academy of Management Review, 17 (2), 327–351.

Hart, S., & Banbury, C. (1994). How strategy-making processes can make a difference. Strategic Management Journal, 15 (4), 251–269.

Harzing, A.-W. (1997). Response rates in international mail surveys: Results of a 22-country study. International Business Review, 6 (6), 641–665.

Harzing, A.-W. (2000). An empirical analysis and extension of the bartlett and ghoshal typology of multinational companies. Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (1), 101–120.

Harzing, A.-W., Baldueza, J., Barner-Rasmussen, W., Barzantny, C., Canabal, A., Davila, A., et al. (2009). Rating versus ranking: What is the best way to reduce response and language bias in cross-national research? International Business Review, 18 (4), 417–432.

Hax, A. C., & Majluf, N. S. (1984). The corporate strategic planning process. INFORMS Journal on Applied Analytics, 14 (1), 47–60.

Hay, M., & Usunier, J.-C. (1993). Time and strategic action: A cross-cultural view. Time & Society, 2 (3), 313–333.

Hedlund, G. (1986). The hypermodern MNC: A heterarchy? Human Resource Management, 25 (1), 9–35.

Helfat, C. E., & Peteraf, M. A. (2003). The dynamic resource-based view: Capability lifecycles. Strategic Management Journal, 24 (10), 997–1010.

Helpman, E. (1993). Innovation, imitation, and intellectual property rights. Econometrica, 61 (6), 1247–1280.

Herbert, T. T. (1999). Multinational strategic planning: Matching central expectations to local realities. Long Range Planning, 32 (1), 81–87.

Hickson, D. J., Hinings, C. R., McMillan, C. J., & Schwitter, J. P. (1974). The culture-free context of organization structure: A tri-national comparison. Sociology, 8 (1), 59–80.

Hill, C. W. L. (1995). National institutional structures, transaction cost economizing and competitive advantage: The case of Japan. Organization Science, 6 (1), 119–131.

Hitt, M. A., & Tyler, B. B. (1991). Strategic decision models: Integrating different perspectives. Strategic Management Journal, 12 (5), 327–351.

Hitt, M. A., Dacin, M. T., Tyler, B. B., & Park, D. (1997). Understanding the differences in Korean and U.S. executives’ strategic orientations. Strategic Management Journal, 18 (2), 159–167.

Hodgkinson, G. P., Whittington, R., Johnson, G., & Schwarz, M. (2006). The role of strategy workshops in strategy development processes: Formality, communication, co-ordination and inclusion. Long Range Planning, 39 (5), 479–496.

Hofer, C. W., & Schendel, D. (1978). Strategy formulation: Analytical concepts (The west series in business policy and planning) . West Group.

Hoffman, R. C. (2007). The strategic planning process and performance relationship: Does culture matter? Journal of Business Strategies, 24 (1), 27–48.

Hofstede, G. (1980a). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values (Cross-cultural research and methodology series) (Vol. 5)). Sage Publications.

Hofstede, G. (1980b). Motivation, leadership, and organization: Do American theories apply abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 9 (1), 42–63.

Hofstede, G. (1983). The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories. Journal of International Business Studies, 14 (2), 75–89.

Hofstede, G. (1993). Cultural constraints in management theories. Academy of Management Perspectives, 7 (1), 81–94.

Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival) (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Holmes, R. M. J., Miller, T., Hitt, M. A., & Salmador, M. P. (2013). The interrelationships among informal institutions, formal institutions, and inward foreign direct investment. Journal of Management, 39 (2), 531–566.

Holt, M. K. (2011). Culture-free or culture-bound?: Two views of swaying branches. International Journal of Business, Humanities and Technology, 1 (3), 80–87.

Hopkins, W. E., & Hopkins, S. A. (1997). Strategic planning–financial performance relationships in banks: A causal examination. Strategic Management Journal, 18 (8), 635–652.

Hoskisson, R. E., Wan, W. P., Yiu, D., & Hitt, M. A. (1999). Theory and research in strategic management: Swings of a pendulum. Journal of Management, 25 (3), 417–456.

House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: An introduction to project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37 (1), 3–10.

Hout, T. M., Porter, M. E., & Rudden, E. (1982). How global companies win out. Harvard Business Review, 60 (5), 98–108.

Hrebiniak, L. G. (2006). Obstacles to effective strategy implementation. Organizational Dynamics, 35 (1), 12–31.

Huang, X. (2009). The influence of national culture, history and institution on strategic management in chinese firms: A complexity based perspective. International Journal of Business Studies: A Publication of the Faculty of Business Administration, Edith Cowan University, 17 (1), 1–18.

Hungenberg, H. (2014). Strategisches Management in Unternehmen: Ziele-Prozesse-Verfahren (8th ed.). Springer-Verlag.

Hunger, J. D., & Wheelen, T. L. (2009). Essentials of strategic management (4th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.

Hurst, D. K. (1986). Why strategic management is bankrupt. Organizational Dynamics, 15 (2), 5–27.

Hussey, D. E. (1998). Strategic management: From theory to implementation (4th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.

Hutzschenreuter, T., & Kleindienst, I. (2006). Strategy-process research: What have we learned and what is still to be explored. Journal of Management, 32 (5), 673–720.

Iaquinto, A. L., & Fredrickson, J. W. (1997). Top management team agreement about the strategic decision process: A test of some of its determinants and consequences. Strategic Management Journal, 18 (1), 63–75.

Idenburg, P. J. (1993). Four styles of strategy development. Long Range Planning, 26 (6), 132–137.

Ingram, P., & Silverman, B. S. (2002). Introduction: The new institutionalism in strategic management. In P. Ingram & B. S. Silverman (Eds.), The new institutionalism in strategic management (Advances in strategic management) (pp. 1–30). Elsevier.

Ireland, R. D., Hitt, M. A., Bettis, R. A., & de Porras, D. A. (1987). Strategy formulation processes: Differences in perceptions of strength and weaknesses indicators and environmental uncertainty by managerial level. Strategic Management Journal, 8 (5), 469–485.

Jackson, G., & Deeg, R. (2008). Comparing capitalisms: Understanding institutional diversity and its implications for international business. Journal of International Business Studies, 39 (4), 540–561.

Jain, S. C. (1984). Environmental scanning in US corporations. Long Range Planning, 17 (2), 117–128.

Jarzabkowski, P., & Kaplan, S. (2015). Strategy tools-in-use: A framework for understanding “technologies of rationality” in practice. Strategic Management Journal, 36 (4), 537–558.

Javidan, M. (1998). Core competence: What does it mean in practice? Long Range Planning, 31 (1), 60–71.

Jennings, D. (2000). PowerGen: The development of corporate planning in a privatized utility. Long Range Planning, 33 (2), 201–219.

Jennings, D. F., & Lumpkin, J. R. (1992). Insights between environmental scanning activities and porter’s generic strategies: An empirical analysis. Journal of Management, 18 (4), 791–803.

Jocumsen, G. (2004). How do small business managers make strategic marketing decisions?: A model of process. European Journal of Marketing, 38 (5/6), 659–674.

Johnson, G., Scholes, K., & Whittington, R. (2008). Exploring corporate strategy: Text & cases . Pearson Education.

Judge, W. Q., & Speitzfaden, M. (1995). The management of strategic time horizons within biotechnology firms: The impact of cognitive complexity on time horizon diversity. Journal of Management Inquiry, 4 (2), 179–196.

Judge, W. Q., & Stahl, M. J. (1995). Middle-manager effort in strategy implementation: A multinational perspective. International Business Review, 4 (1), 91–111.

Kaplan, S. N., & Minton, B. A. (2012). How has CEO turnover changed? International Review of Finance, 12 (1), 57–87.

Kawai, N., & Strange, R. (2014). Subsidiary autonomy and performance in Japanese multinationals in Europe. International Business Review, 23 (3), 504–515.

Ketchen, D. J., & Shook, C. L. (1996). The application of cluster analysis in strategic management research: An analysis and critique. Strategic Management Journal, 17 (6), 441–458.

Khatri, N., & Ng, H. A. (2000). The role of intuition in strategic decision making. Human Relations, 53 (1), 57–86.

Kiechel, W., III. (2010). The lords of strategy: The secret intellectual history of the new corporate world . Harvard Business Review Press.

Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. A. (1993). Effectively conceiving and executing multinationals’ worldwide strategies. Journal of International Business Studies, 24 (3), 419–448.

Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. A. (1995). A procedural justice model of strategic decision making: Strategy content implications in the multinational. Organization Science, 6 (1), 44–61.

Kirkman, B. L., Lowe, K. B., & Gibson, C. B. (2006). A quarter century of culture’s consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating hofstede’s cultural values framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 37 (3), 285–320.

Kirkman, B. L., Lowe, K. B., & Gibson, C. B. (2017). A retrospective on culture’s consequences: The 35-year journey. Journal of International Business Studies, 48 (1), 12–29.

Knecht, M. (2014). Diversification, industry dynamism, and economic performance: The impact of dynamic-related diversification on the multi-business firm (1st ed.). Springer Gabler.

Kniberg, H., & Ivarsson, A. (2012). Scaling agile @spotify: With tribes, squads, chapters & guilds . Accessed August 3, 2020, from https://blog.crisp.se/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/SpotifyScaling.pdf .

Knight, D., Pearce, C. L., Smith, K. G., Olian, J. D., Sims, H. P., Smith, K. A., et al. (1999). Top management team diversity, group process, and strategic consensus. Strategic Management Journal, 20 (5), 445–465.

Kostova, T., Marano, V., & Tallman, S. (2016). Headquarters–subsidiary relationships in MNCs: Fifty years of evolving research. Journal of World Business, 51 (1), 176–184.

Kraaijenbrink, J., Spender, J.-C., & Groen, A. J. (2010). The resource-based view: A review and assessment of its critiques. Journal of Management, 36 (1), 349–372.

Kutschker, M., & Schmid, S. (2004). Internationales management (3rd ed.). Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag.

Lant, T. K., Milliken, F. J., & Batra, B. (1992). The role of managerial learning and interpretation in strategic persistence and reorientation: An empirical exploration. Strategic Management Journal, 13 (8), 585–608.

Lawrence, P. R., & Lorsch, J. W. (1969). Organization and environment . Harvard Business School.

Learned, E. P., Christensen, C. R., Andrews, K., & Guth, W. D. (1969). Business policy: Text and cases . RD Irwin.

Lenz, R. T., & Engledow, J. L. (1986). Environmental analysis units and strategic decision-making: A field study of selected ‘leading-edge’ corporations. Strategic Management Journal, 7 (1), 69–89.

Leonard-Barton, D. (1992). Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox in managing new product development. Strategic Management Journal, 13 (S1), 111–125.

Lester, D. L., Parnell, J. A., & Carraher, S. (2003). Organizational life cycle: A five-stage empirical scale. The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 11 (4), 339–354.

Leung, K., Bhagat, R. S., Buchan, N. R., Erez, M., & Gibson, C. B. (2005). Culture and international business: Recent advances and their implications for future research. Journal of International Business Studies, 36 (4), 357–378.

Levy, B., & Pablo, T. S. (1993). Regulation, institutions, and commitment in telecommunications: A comparative analysis of five country studies. The World Bank Economic Review, 7 (1), 215–252.

Li, B. (2008). The classical model of decision making has been accepted as not providing an accurate account of how people typically make decisions. International Journal of Business and Management, 3 (6), 151–154.

Li, J., Lam, K., & Qian, G. (2001). Does culture affect behavior and performance of firms?: The case of joint ventures in China. Journal of International Business Studies, 32 (1), 115–131.

Li, Y., Guohui, S., & Eppler, M. J. (2008). Making strategy work: A literature review on the factors influencing strategy implementation. ICA Working Paper, 2 (2).

Lin, S.-L., & Hsieh, A.-T. (2010). International strategy implementation: Roles of subsidiaries, operational capabilities, and procedural justice. Journal of Business Research, 63 (1), 52–59.

Lin, Y., Shi, W., Prescott, J. E., & Yang, H. (2019). In the eye of the beholder: Top managers’ long-term orientation, industry context, and decision-making processes. Journal of Management, 45 (8), 3114–3145.

Liu, X., Vredenburg, H., & Steel, P. (2014). A meta-analysis of factors leading to management control in international joint ventures. Journal of International Management, 20 (2), 219–236.

López-Duarte, C., Vidal-Suárez, M. M., & González-Díaz, B. (2016). International business and national culture: A literature review and research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 18 (4), 397–416.

Lorange, P. (1980). Corporate planning: An executive viewpoint . Prentice Hall.

Lozano, I., & Rodríguez, K. (2011). Assessing the macroeconomic effects of fiscal policy in Colombia. Journal of Financial Economic Policy, 3 (3), 206–228.

Luo, Y., Sun, J., & Wang, S. L. (2011). Comparative strategic management: An emergent field in international management. Journal of International Management, 17 (3), 190–200.

Lyles, M. A., Baird, I. S., Burdeane Orris, J., & Kuratko, D. F. (1993). Formalized planning in small businesses: Increasing strategic choices. Journal of Small Business Management, 31 , 38–50.

Macharzina, K. (2009). Inhaltliche entwicklung des internationalen managements als wissenschaftliche disziplin. In M.-J. Oesterle & S. Schmid (Eds.), Internationales management: Forschung, lehre, praxis (pp. 39–67). Schäffer-Poeschel Verlag.

Madhok, A. (2015). Commentary: A critical assessment of firm advantage and implications for multinationals and multinationalizing firms. Journal of World Business, 50 (4), 627–630.

March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1983). The new institutionalism: Organizational factors in political life. American Political Science Review, 78 (3), 734–749.

Marginson, D. E. W. (2002). Management control systems and their effects on strategy formation at middle-management levels: Evidence from a UK organization. Strategic Management Journal, 23 (11), 1019–1031.

Martinet, A.-C. (2010). Strategic planning, strategic management, strategic foresight: The seminal work of H. Igor Ansoff. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 77 (9), 1485–1487.

Martinez, J. I., & Jarillo, J. C. (1989). The evolution of research on coordination mechanisms in multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, 20 (3), 489–514.

Martinez, J. I., & Jarillo, J. C. (1991). Coordination demands of international strategies. Journal of International Business Studies, 22 (3), 429–444.

Maruyama, M. (1985). Mindscapes: How to understand specific situations in multicultural management. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 2 (3), 125–149.

Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Nakagawa, S. (2008). Culture, emotion regulation, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94 (6), 925–937.

Mauri, A. J., & Michaels, M. P. (1998). Firm and industry effects within strategic management: An empirical examination. Strategic Management Journal, 19 (3), 211–219.

McCaskey, M. B. (1974). A contingency approach to planning: Planning with goals and planning without goals. Academy of Management Journal, 17 (2), 281–291.

McGahan, A. M., & Porter, M. E. (1997). How much does industry matter, really? Strategic Management Journal, 18 (S1), 15–30.

McGahan, A. M., & Porter, M. E. (2003). The emergence and sustainability of abnormal profits. Strategic Organization, 1 (1), 79–108.

McWilliams, A., & Smart, D. L. (1993). Efficiency v. structure-conduct-performance: Implications for strategy research and practice. Journal of Management, 19 (1), 63–78.

Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83 (2), 340–363.

Michailova, S., & Mustaffa, Z. (2012). Subsidiary knowledge flows in multinational corporations: Research accomplishments, gaps, and opportunities. Journal of World Business, 47 (3), 383–396.

Michailova, S., & Worm, V. (2003). Personal networking in Russia and China: Blat and Guanxi. European Management Journal, 21 (4), 509–519.

Miller, D. (1986). Configurations of strategy and structure: Towards a synthesis. Strategic Management Journal, 7 (3), 233–249.

Miller, D. (1988). Relating porter’s business strategies to environment and structure: Analysis and performance implications. Academy of Management Journal, 31 (2), 280–308.

Miller, D. (1989). Matching strategies and strategy making: Process, content, and performance. Human Relations, 42 (3), 241–260.

Miller, D. (1993). The architecture of simplicity. Academy of Management Review, 18 (1), 116–138.

Miller, C. C., & Cardinal, L. B. (1994). Strategic planning and firm performance: A synthesis of more than two decades of research. Academy of Management Journal, 37 (6), 1649–1665.

Miller, D., & Friesen, P. H. (1983). Strategy-making and environment: The third link. Strategic Management Journal, 4 (3), 221–235.

Mintzberg, H. (1973). Strategy-making in three modes. California Management Review, 16 (2), 44–53.

Mintzberg, H. (1987a). Crafting strategy. Harvard Business Review, 65 (4), 66–75.

Mintzberg, H. (1987b). The strategy concept I: Five Ps for strategy. California Management Review, 30 (1), 11–24.

Mintzberg, H. (1987c). The strategy concept II: Another look at why organizations need strategies. California Management Review, 30 (1), 25–32.

Mintzberg, H. (1990). The design school: Reconsidering the basic premises of strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 11 (3), 171–195.

Mintzberg, H. (1993). The pitfalls of strategic planning. California Management Review, 36 (1), 32–47.

Mintzberg, H. (1994a). Rethinking strategic planning part II: New roles for planners. Long Range Planning, 27 (3), 22–30.

Mintzberg, H. (1994b). The fall and rise of strategic planning. Harvard Business Review, 72 (1), 107–114.

Mintzberg, H., & Lampel, J. (1999). Reflecting on the strategy process. Sloan Management Review, 40 , 21–30.

Mintzberg, H., & McHugh, A. (1985). Strategy formation in an adhocracy. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30 , 160–197.

Mintzberg, H., & Waters, J. A. (1985). Of strategies, deliberate and emergent. Strategic Management Journal, 6 (3), 257–272.

Mintzberg, H., Brunet, J. P., & Waters, J. A. (1986). Does planning impede strategic thinking?: Tracking the strategies of air Canada from 1937 to 1976. Advances in Strategic Management, 4 (1), 3–41.

Mirchandani, D. A., & Lederer, A. L. (2014). Autonomy and procedural justice in strategic systems planning. Information Systems Journal, 24 (1), 29–59.

Moisander, J., & Stenfors, S. (2009). Exploring the edges of theory-practice gap: Epistemic cultures in strategy-tool development and use. Organization, 16 (2), 227–247.

Mueller, G. C., Mone, M. A., & Barker, V. L. (2007). Formal strategic analyses and organizational performance: Decomposing the rational model. Organization Studies, 28 (6), 853–883.

Mufudza, T., Jengeta, M., & Hove, P. (2013). The usefulness of strategic planning in a turbulent economic environment: A case of zimbabwe during the period 2007–2009. Business Strategy Series, 14 (1), 24–29.

Nadler, D. A. (1994). Collaborative strategic thinking. Planning Review, 22 (5), 30–44.

Nag, R., Hambrick, D. C., & Chen, M.-J. (2007). What is strategic management, really?: Inductive derivation of a consensus definition of the field. Strategic Management Journal, 28 (9), 935–955.

Narula, R. (2014). Exploring the paradox of competence-creating subsidiaries: Balancing bandwidth and dispersion in MNEs. Long Range Planning, 47 (1-2), 4–15.

Newgren, K. E., Rasher, A. A., & LaRoe, M. E. (1984). An empirical investigation of the relationship between environmental assessment and corporate performance. Academy of Management Proceedings, 1984 (1), 352–356.

Nobel, R., & Birkinshaw, J. (1998). Innovation in multinational corporations: Control and communication patterns in international R&D operations. Strategic Management Journal, 19 (5), 479–496.

Nonaka, I. (1988). Toward middle-up-down management: Accelerating information creation. MIT Sloan Management Review, 29 (3), 9–18.

Nonaka, I., & Toyama, R. (2003). The knowledge-creating theory revisited: Knowledge creation as a synthesizing process. Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 1 (1), 2–10.

Nonaka, I., Toyama, R., & Konno, N. (2000). SECI, Ba and leadership: A unified model of dynamic knowledge creation. Long Range Planning, 33 (1), 5–34.

North, D. C. (1987). Institutions, transaction costs and economic growth. Economic Inquiry, 25 (3), 419–428.

North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, institutional change and economic performance . Harvard University Press.

North, D. C. (1991). Institutions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5 (1), 97–112.

North, D. C. (1993). Five propositions about institutional change. Economics working paper archive at WUSTL .

Ocasio, W., & Joseph, J. (2008). Rise and fall-or transformation?: The evolution of strategic planning at the general electric company, 1940–2006. Long Range Planning, 41 (3), 248–272.

Oesterle, M.-J., & Weikum, E. (2019). Institutional Voids als Problem internationaler Unternehmenstätigkeit in Emerging Markets. WiSt – Wirtschaftswissenschaftliches Studium, 48 (10), 11–17.

O’Gorman, C., & Doran, R. (1999). Mission statements in small and medium-sized businesses. Journal of Small Business Management, 37 (4), 59–66.

Olarewaju, A. A. (2012). Strategic decision making: A review of literature. International Business Management, 6 (4), 552–557.

Oliver, J. J., & Parrett, E. (2018). Managing future uncertainty: Reevaluating the role of scenario planning. Business Horizons, 61 (2), 339–352.

Ondrack, D. (1985). International transfers of managers in North American and European MNEs. Journal of International Business Studies, 16 (3), 1–19.

O’Regan, N., Sims, M. A., & Gallear, D. (2007). Leaders, loungers, laggards: The strategic-planning-environment-performance relationship re-visited in manufacturing SMEs. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 19 (1), 6–21.

Ortmann, G., & Seidl, D. (2010). Strategy research in the german context: The influence of economic, sociological and philosophical traditions. In J. A. Baum & J. Lampel (Eds.), The globalization of strategy research (Advances in strategic management) (pp. 353–387). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Palich, L. E., & Gomez-Mejia, L. R. (1999). A theory of global strategy and firm efficiencies: Considering the effects of cultural diversity. Journal of Management, 25 (4), 587–606.

Palomino, F., & Peyrache, E. (2013). Internal versus external CEO choice and the structure of compensation contracts. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 48 (4), 1301–1331.

Pant, P. N., & Lachman, R. (1998). Value incongruity and strategic choice. Journal of Management Studies, 35 (2), 195–212.

Papadakis, V. M., Lioukas, S., & Chambers, D. (1998). Strategic decision-making processes: The role of management and context. Strategic Management Journal, 19 (2), 115–147.

Parnell, J. A., Lester, D. L., & Menefee, M. L. (2000). Strategy as a response to organizational uncertainty: An alternative perspective on the strategy-performance relationship. Management Decision, 38 (8), 520–530.

Pasha, O., & Poister, T. H. (2017). Exploring the change in strategy formulation and performance measurement practices under turbulence. Public Performance & Management Review, 40 (3), 504–528.

Paterson, S. L., & Brock, D. M. (2002). The development of subsidiary-management research: Review and theoretical analysis. International Business Review, 11 (2), 139–163.

Pearce, J. A., Freeman, E. B., & Robinson, R. B., Jr. (1987a). The tenuous link between formal strategic planning and financial performance. Academy of Management Review, 12 (4), 658–675.

Pearce, J. A., Robbins, D. K., & Robinson, R. B., Jr. (1987b). The impact of grand strategy and planning formality on financial performance. Strategic Management Journal, 8 (2), 125–134.

Peaucelle, J.-L., & Guthrie, C. (2013). Henri fayol. In M. Witzel & M. Warner (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of management theorists (pp. 49–73). Oxford University Press.

Peng, M. W. (2002). Towards an institution-based view of business strategy. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19 (2-3), 251–267.

Peng, M. W. (2003). Institutional transitions and strategic choices. Academy of Management Review, 28 (2), 275–296.

Peng, M. W., & Heath, P. S. (1996). The growth of the firm in planned economies in transition: Institutions, organizations, and strategic choice. Academy of Management Review, 21 (2), 492–528.

Peng, M. W., Wang, D. Y. L., & Jiang, Y. (2008). An institution-based view of international business strategy: A focus on emerging economies. Journal of International Business Studies, 39 (5), 920–936.

Peng, M. W., Sun, S. L., Pinkham, B., & Chen, H. (2009). The institution-based view as a third leg for a strategy tripod. Academy of Management Perspectives, 23 (3), 63–81.

Perlow, L. A., Okhuysen, G. A., & Repenning, N. P. (2002). The speed trap: Exploring the relationship between decision making and temporal context. Academy of Management Journal, 45 (5), 931–955.

Persson, M. (2006). The impact of operational structure, lateral integrative mechanisms and control mechanisms on intra-MNE knowledge transfer. International Business Review, 15 (5), 547–569.

Peteraf, M. A. (1993). The cornerstones of competitive advantage: A resource-based view. Strategic Management Journal, 14 (3), 179–191.

Peterson, R. M., Dibrell, C. C., & Pett, T. L. (2002). Long-vs. short-term performance perspectives of Western European, Japanese, and US countries: Where do they lie? Journal of World Business, 37 (4), 245–255.

Pindur, W., Rogers, S. E., & Kim, P. S. (1995). The history of management: A global perspective. Journal of Management History, 1 (1), 59–77.

Pisani, M. J., Hayes, R., Kumar, A., & Lepisto, L. (2009). Is six sigma culture bound?: A conceptual model and propositions for further inquiry. Total Quality Management, 20 (10), 1123–1137.

Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries. Competitors . The Free Press.

Porter, M. E. (1985). Competitive advantage: Creating and sustaining superior performance . Free Press.

Porter, M. E. (1986). Competition in global industries: A conceptual framework. In M. E. Porter (Ed.), Competition in global industries (pp. 15–60). Harvard Business School Press.

Porter, M. E. (1994). Competitive strategy revisited: A view from the 1990s. In P. Duffy (Ed.), The relevance of a decade: Essays to mark the first ten years of the harvard business school press (pp. 244–285). Harvard Business School Press.

Powell, W. W. (1991). Expanding the scope of institutional analysis. In W. W. Powell & P. J. DiMaggio (Eds.), The new institutionalism in organizational analysis (1st ed., pp. 183–203). University of Chicago Press.

Powell, T. C. (1992). Research notes and communications: Strategic planning as competitive advantage. Strategic Management Journal, 13 (7), 551–558.

Powell, T. C., Rahman, N., & Starbuck, W. H. (2010). European and north American origins of competitive advantage. In J. A. Baum & J. Lampel (Eds.), The globalization of strategy research (Advances in strategic management) (pp. 313–351). JAI-Emerald.

Prahalad, C. K., & Doz, Y. L. (1981). An approach to strategic control in MNCs. Sloan Management Review, 22 (4), 5–13.

Priem, R. L., & Butler, J. E. (2001). Is the resource-based “view” a useful perspective for strategic management research? Academy of Management Review, 26 (1), 22–40.

Quinn, J. B. (1978). Strategic change: Logical incrementalism. Sloan Management Review, 20 (1), 7–21.

Quinn, J. B. (1980). Strategies for change: Logical incrementalism . Irwin Professional Publishing.

Rabbiosi, L. (2011). Subsidiary roles and reverse knowledge transfer: An investigation of the effects of coordination mechanisms. Journal of International Management, 17 (2), 97–113.

Rabbiosi, L., & Santangelo, G. D. (2013). Parent company benefits from reverse knowledge transfer: The role of the liability of newness in MNEs. Journal of World Business, 48 (1), 160–170.

Rahim, M. A., Magner, N. R., & Shapiro, D. L. (2000). Do justice perceptions influence styles of handling conflict with supervisors?: What justice perceptions, precisely? International Journal of Conflict Management, 11 (1), 9–31.

Ramanujam, V., & Venkatraman, N. (1987). Planning system characteristics and planning effectiveness. Strategic Management Journal, 8 (5), 453–468.

Rao, K., & Tilt, C. (2016). Board composition and corporate social responsibility: The role of diversity, gender, strategy and decision making. Journal of Business Ethics, 138 (2), 327–347.

Rhenman, E. (1973). Organization theory for long range planning . Wiley.

Richter, N. F., Hauff, S., Schlaegel, C., Gudergan, S., Ringle, C. M., & Gunkel, M. (2016). Using cultural archetypes in cross-cultural management studies. Journal of International Management, 22 (1), 63–83.

Rindova, V. P. (1999). What corporate boards have to do with strategy: A cognitive perspective. Journal of Management Studies, 36 (7), 953–975.

Robinson, R. B., Jr., & Pearce, J. A. (1983). The impact of formalized strategic planning on financial performance in small organizations. Strategic Management Journal, 4 (3), 197–207.

Rogers, P. R., Miller, A., & Judge, W. Q. (1999). Using information-processing theory to understand planning/performance relationships in the context of strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 20 (6), 567–577.

Rohlfer, S., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Culture studies in international business: Paradigmatic shifts. European Business Review, 28 (1), 39–62.

Rosenzweig, P. M., & Singh, J. V. (1991). Organizational environments and the multinational enterprise. Academy of Management Review, 16 (2), 340–361.

Roskell, J. S., & Taylor, F. (1971). The authorship and purpose of the ‘gesta henrici quinti. Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 54 (1), 428–464.

Rudd, J. M., Greenley, G. E., Beatson, A. T., & Lings, I. N. (2008). Strategic planning and performance: Extending the debate. Journal of Business Research, 61 (2), 99–108.

Rumelt, R. P. (1991). How much does industry matter? Strategic Management Journal, 12 (3), 167–185.

Sageder, M., & Feldbauer-Durstmüller, B. (2019). Management control in multinational companies: A systematic literature review. Review of Managerial Science, 13 (5), 875–918.

Sallivan, J., & Nonaka, I. (1988). Culture and strategic issue categorization theory. Management International Review, 28 (3), 6–10.

Salomo, S., Weise, J., & Gemünden, H. G. (2007). NPD planning activities and innovation performance: The mediating role of process management and the moderating effect of product innovativeness. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 24 (4), 285–302.

Saltorato, P., & Benatti, G. (2018). Reinventing the management organizational field: From the social construction of shareholder value to the emergence of the celebrity CEO. Gestão & Produçã, 25 (2), 251–268.

Samiee, S., & Athanassiou, N. (1998). International strategy research: Cross-cultural methodology implications. Journal of Business Research, 43 (2), 79–96.

Sanders, K., & Kianty, A. (2006). Organisationstheorien: Eine einführung . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

Sarrazin, J., Schmidt, A., & Schmidt, T. (1977). Decentralized planning in a large french company: An interpretive study. International Studies of Management & Organization, 7 (3/4), 37–59.

Schein, E. H. (1996). Three cultures of management: The key to organizational learning. Sloan Management Review, 38 (1), 9–20.

Schendel, D. (1992). Introduction to the summer 1992 special issue on ‘strategy process research’. Strategic Management Journal, 13 (S1), 1–4.

Schmid, S., Dzedek, L. R., & Lehrer, M. (2014). From rocking the boat to wagging the dog: A literature review of subsidiary initiative research and integrative framework. Journal of International Management, 20 (2), 201–218.

Schneider, S. C. (1989). Strategy formulation: The impact of national culture. Organization Studies, 10 (2), 149–168.

Schneider, S. C., & De Meyer, A. (1991). Interpreting and responding to strategic issues: The impact of national culture. Strategic Management Journal, 12 (4), 307–320.

Schreyögg, G., & Steinmann, H. (1987). Strategic control: A new perspective. Academy of Management Review, 12 (1), 91–103.

Schuler, R. S., Dowling, P. J., & de Cieri, H. (1993). An integrative framework of strategic international human resource management. Journal of Management, 19 (2), 419–459.

Schwenk, C. R., & Shrader, C. B. (1993). Effects of formal strategic planning on financial performance in small firms: A meta-analysis. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 17 (3), 53–64.

Scott, W. R. (1995). Institutions and organizations: Ideas, interests and identities . Sage Publications.

Scott, P., Gibbons, P., & Coughlan, J. (2010). Developing subsidiary contribution to the MNC: Subsidiary entrepreneurship and strategy creativity. Journal of International Management, 16 (4), 328–339.

Seth, C. (2015). The SWOT analysis: Develop strengths to decrease the weaknesses of your business (Management and Marketing). 50Minutes.com .

Shaw, G., Brown, R., & Bromiley, P. (1998). Strategic stories: How 3M is rewriting business planning. Harvard Business Review, 76 (3), 41–50.

Sheng, S., Zhou, K. Z., Li, J. J., & Guo, Z. (2018). Institutions and opportunism in buyer–supplier exchanges: The moderated mediating effects of contractual and relational governance. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 46 (6), 1–18.

Simon, H. A. (1957). Models of man: Social and rational. Mathematical essays on rational human behavior in society setting . Wiley.

Simon, H. A. (1972). Theories of bounded rationality. Decision and organization, 1 (1), 161–176.

Simons, R. (1990). The role of management control systems in creating competitive advantage: new perspectives. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 15 (1-2), 127–143.

Singh, D. T. (1998). Incorporating cognitive aids into decision support systems: The case of the strategy execution process. Decision Support Systems, 24 (2), 145–163.

Singh, K. (2007). The limited relevance of culture to strategy. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 24 (4), 421–428.

Sirmon, D. G., Hitt, M. A., & Ireland, R. D. (2007). Managing firm resources in dynamic environments to create value: Looking inside the black box. Academy of Management Review, 32 (1), 273–292.

Slevin, D. P., & Covin, J. G. (1997). Strategy formation patterns, performance, and the significance of context. Journal of Management, 23 (2), 189–209.

Slotegraaf, R. J., & Dickson, P. R. (2004). The paradox of a marketing planning capability. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 32 (4), 371–385.

Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.). (2001). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences . Pergamon.

Smite, D., Moe, N. B., Levinta, G., & Floryan, M. (2019). Spotify guilds: How to succeed with knowledge sharing in large-scale agile organizations. IEEE Software, 36 (2), 51–57.

Smith, K. G., & Grimm, C. M. (1987). Environmental variation, strategic change and firm performance: A study of railroad deregulation. Strategic Management Journal, 8 (4), 363–376.

Soete, L. (2007). From industrial to innovation policy. Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade, 7 (3), 273–284.

Souitaris, V., & Marcello Maestro, B. M. (2010). Polychronicity in top management teams: The impact on strategic decision processes and performance of new technology ventures. Strategic Management Journal, 31 (6), 652–678.

Subramanian, R., Fernandes, N., & Harper, E. (1993). Environmental scanning in US companies: Their nature and their relationship to performance. Management International Review, 33 (3), 271–286.

Svensson, G. (2001). “Glocalization” of business activities: A “glocal strategy” approach. Management Decision, 39 (1), 6–18.

Taggart, J. H. (1996). Evolution of multinational strategy: Evidence from scottish manufacturing subsidiaries. Journal of Marketing Management, 12 (6), 533–549.

Taggart, J. (1999). MNC subsidiary performance, risk, and corporate expectations. International Business Review, 8 (2), 233–255.

Taggart, J., & Hood, N. (1999). Determinants of autonomy in multinational corporation subsidiaries. European Management Journal, 17 (2), 226–236.

Talaulicar, T., Grundei, J., & Werder, A. v. (2005). Strategic decision making in start-ups: The effect of top management team organization and processes on speed and comprehensiveness. Journal of Business Venturing, 20 (4), 519–541.

Talbot, P. A. (2003). Corporate generals: The military metaphor of strategy. Irish Journal of Management, 24 (2), 1–10.

Taylor, B. (1986). Corporate planning for the 1990s: The new frontiers. Long Range Planning, 19 (6), 13–18.

Teece, D. J. (2007). Explicating dynamic capabilities: The nature and microfoundations of (sustainable) enterprise performance. Strategic Management Journal, 28 (13), 1319–1350.

Teece, D. J., Pisano, G., & Shuen, A. (1997). Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 18 (7), 509–533.

Thomas, P. S. (1980). Environmental scanning: The state of the art. Long Range Planning, 13 (1), 20–28.

Thune, S., & House, R. (1970). Where long range planning pays off. Business Horizons, 13 (4), 81–87.

Trefry, M. G. (2006). A double-edged sword: Organizational culture in multicultural organizations. International Journal of Management, 23 (3), 563–575.

Tulung, J. E., & Ramdani, D. (2016). The influence of top management team characteristics on BPD performanc. International Research Journal of Business Studies, 8 (3), 155–166.

Tuomela, R. (2003). Collective acceptance, social institutions, and social reality. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 62 (1), 123–165.

Turner, J. R., & Müller, R. (2003). On the nature of the project as a temporary organization. International Journal of Project Management, 21 (1), 1–8.

Tutar, H., Altinoz, M., & Cakiroglu, D. (2014). A study on cultural difference management strategies at multinational organizations. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150 , 345–353.

van Maanen, J. E., & Schein, E. H. (1977). Toward a theory of organizational socialization .

Vecchiato, R. (2015). Strategic planning and organizational flexibility in turbulent environments. Foresight, 17 (3), 257–273.

Vega-Jurado, J., Gutiérrez-Gracia, A., Fernández-de-Lucio, I., & Manjarrés-Henríquez, L. (2008). The effect of external and internal factors on firms’ product innovation. Research Policy, 37 (4), 616–632.

Veliyath, R. (1992). Strategic planning: balancing short-run performance and longer term prospects. Long Range Planning, 25 (3), 86–97.

Veliyath, R., & Shortell, S. M. (1993). Strategic orientation, strategic planning system characteristics and performance. Journal of Management Studies, 30 (3), 359–381.

Viegas-Pires, M. (2013). Multiple levels of culture and post M&A integration: A suggested theoretical framework. Thunderbird International Business Review, 55 (4), 357–370.

von Oetinger, B., von Ghyczy, T., & Bassford, C. (2016). Clausewitz: Strategie Denken (10th ed.). dtv.

Vora, D., Kostova, T., & Roth, K. (2007). Roles of subsidiary managers in multinational corporations: The effect of dual organizational identification. Management International Review, 47 (4), 595–620.

Waddock, S. A., & Isabella, L. A. (1989). Strategy, beliefs about the environment, and performance in a banking simulation. Journal of Management, 15 (4), 617–632.

Wang, H., Waldman, D. A., & Zhang, H. (2012). Strategic leadership across cultures: Current findings and future research directions. Journal of World Business, 47 (4), 571–580.

Webster, J. L., Reif, W. E., & Bracker, J. S. (1989). The manager’s guide to strategic planning tools and techniques. Planning Review, 17 (6), 4–48.

Weidenbaum, M. L. (1966). Program budgeting: Applying economic analysis to government expenditure decisions . Washington University.

Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5 (2), 171–180.

Wernham, R. (1985). Obstacles to strategy implementation in a nationalized industry. Journal of Management Studies, 22 (6), 632–648.

West, J. J. (1990). Strategy, Environmental scanning and firm performance: An integration of content and process in the foodservice industry. Hospitality Research Journal, 14 (1), 87–100.

Whittington, R. (2017). Comments on ʻMultinational strategic planning: Matching central expectations to local realitiesʼ, Theodore T Herbert. Long Range Planning, Volume 32, Issue 1, 19 March 1999, Pages 81–87. Long Range Planning, 50 (1), 33–35.

Williams, C., & Lee, S. H. (2011). Entrepreneurial contexts and knowledge coordination within the multinational corporation. Journal of World Business, 46 (2), 253–264.

Williams, C., & van Triest, S. (2009). The impact of corporate and national cultures on decentralization in multinational corporations. International Business Review, 18 (2), 156–167.

Williamson, O. E. (1973). Markets and hierarchies: Some elementary considerations. The American Economic Review, 63 (2), 316–325.

Williamson, O. E. (1979). Transaction-cost economics: The governance of contractual relations. The Journal of Law and Economics, 22 (2), 233–261.

Williamson, O. E. (1993). Calculativeness, trust, and economic organization. The Journal of Law and Economics, 36 (1, Part 2), 453–486.

Williamson, O. E. (1994). Transaction cost economics and organization theory. In N. J. Smelser & R. Swedberg (Eds.), The Handbook of economic sociology (pp. 77–107). Princeton University Press.

Williamson, O. E. (2000). The new institutional economics: Taking stock, looking ahead. Journal of Economic Literature, 38 (3), 595–613.

Withane, S. (1997). How strategy changes through the public sector growth cycle. Long Range Planning, 30 (5), 689–698.

Witt, M. A., & Redding, G. (2009). Culture, meaning, and institutions: Executive rationale in Germany and Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 40 (5), 859–885.

Wolf, J., & Egelhoff, W. G. (2010). Limitations of the network organization in MNCs. Progress in International Business Research, 5 , 143–172.

Wolf, C., & Floyd, S. W. (2017). Strategic planning research: Toward a theory-driven agenda. Journal of Management, 43 (6), 1754–1788.

Wolf, J., Egelhoff, W. G., & Rohrlack, C. (2014). What best explains the success of cross-border technology transfers in MNCs: Traditional coordination instruments or modern management concepts? In A. Verbeke, R. van Tulder, & S. Lundan (Eds.), Multinational enterprises, markets and institutional diversity (Progress in international business research) (Vol. 9, pp. 97–130). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Xenophon. (1994). Memorabilia . Cornell University Press.

Yasai-Ardekani, M., & Haug, R. S. (1997). Contextual determinants of strategic planning processes. Journal of Management Studies, 34 (5), 729–767.

Yeniyurt, S. (2003). A literature review and integrative performance measurement framework for multinational companies. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 21 (3), 134–142.

Yeung, H. W.-C., Poon, J., & Perry, M. (2001). Towards a regional strategy: The role of regional headquarters of foreign firms in Singapore. Urban Studies, 38 (1), 157–183.

Yoon, W., Kim, S. J., & Song, J. (2016). Top management team characteristics and organizational creativity. Review of Managerial Science, 10 (4), 757–779.

Young, S., & Tavares, A. T. (2004). Centralization and autonomy: Back to the future. International Business Review, 13 (2), 215–237.

Yusuf, A., & Nyomori, R. O. (2002). Uncertainty, planning sophistication and performance in small New Zealand firms. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 11 (1), 1–19.

Zahn, E. (1999). Strategizing needs systems thinking. In Prodeedings of the 17th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society & Australian New Zealand Systems Conference, Wellington, New Zealand, 20–23 July 1999 , pp. 1–14.

Zahn, E., & Foschiani, S. (2001). Strategiekompetenz und Strategieinnovation für den dynamischen Wettbewerb. Controlling, 13 (8/9), 413–418.

Zahn, E., & Foschiani, S. (2006). Unterstützung elementarer Strategieprozesse. In D. Karagiannis & B. Rieger (Eds.), (pp. 79–98). Springer.

Zajac, E. J. (1990). CEO selection, succession, compensation and firm performance: A theoretical integration and empirical analysis. Strategic Management Journal, 11 (3), 217–230.

Zhu, Y., Wittmann, X., & Peng, M. W. (2012). Institution-based barriers to innovation in SMEs in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 29 (4), 1131–1142.

Zubac, A., Hubbard, G., & Johnson, L. W. (2010). The RBV and value creation: A managerial perspective. European Business Review, 22 (5), 515–538.

Zuckerman, A. M. (2011). Healthcare strategic planning . Health Administration Press.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

Andreas Michael Schühly

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter.

Schühly, A.M. (2022). What Is Strategic Management and Why Do We Need It: Theoretical Foundations of Strategic Management. In: Cultural Influences on the Process of Strategic Management. MIR Series in International Business. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86660-0_2

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86660-0_2

Published : 01 January 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-86659-4

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-86660-0

eBook Packages : Business and Management Business and Management (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

The Management of a Business Strategic Plan: A Systematic Literature Review

Journal of Economics, Finance And Management Studies

The viability of a company depends heavily on its ability to gain an edge not only in its competitors but also in the ever-changing business environment. In today's global economy, it is imperative that corporate leaders always make better decisions than their competitors and maintain a healthy economic position. This can only be achieved with insight, knowledge, skills, experience and leadership. All of this is built on the passage of time and effort. It also reveals and raises questions about the impact management and strategic thinkers have had on the profitability of successful businesses. Therefore, all this can be enshrined in the business strategic plan to create a clear road map for an institution for a specific period of time. After the development of the strategic business plan the next crucial stage is to manage it all the way up to the end of the specified period.

RELATED PAPERS

Anibal Costa

Jan Stenlid

Biological Control

Herbert Rezende Siqueira

Nathaniel K Newlands

Yannick Goy

Journal of Cyber Security and Mobility

kwame simpe ofori

Science, Technology & Human Values

Christopher J Shepherd

Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation

Sabra Aloui

European journal of pharmacology

Jurnal Ilmiah Mandala Education

Wilibaldus Bhoke

Al-Khair Journal : Management, Education, And Law

irsal bengkulu

Ringing & Migration

Dawn Balmer

Modern Physics Letters A

Jungjai Lee

European Review of Applied Psychology-revue Europeenne De Psychologie Appliquee

Odile Camus

Scientific Reports

Prasad Variyar

Necati Tonga

On the Current Globalization and the Causes of the Russian-Ukrainian War

Ruslan Bortnik

DS 32: Proceedings of DESIGN 2004, the 8th International Design Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia

Nikolaos Bilalis

Comparative Economic Research. Central and Eastern Europe

Jakub DONSKI-LESIUK

办USYD毕业证书悉尼大学毕业证成绩单 QQ微信1989 88881

Mónica Clara Manhey

IntechOpen eBooks

Abdelhak Aqqal

Caminhos de Geografia

FERNANDA AMARO

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024