research on emotional intelligence of students

• Emotional Intelligence

Why You Need Emotional Intelligence to Succeed at School

Understanding and managing emotions gives students the edge..

Posted June 13, 2020 | Reviewed by Lybi Ma

Parents, teachers, and students all want to know what personal qualities will help students perform well in their studies. While teaching quality, resources, and other environmental factors help students achieve their best, students’ personal qualities can give them an edge over others.

Past research has found two personal qualities that are important for student success. The first quality is intelligence . Being smart enough to master algebra and coding is obviously important for success. The second quality is conscientiousness . Being organized enough to remember your homework and organize your notes is another clear advantage.

It isn’t hard to see why being smart and working hard would help students get better grades and higher test scores. Students’ IQ scores explain about 15 percent of the differences in achievement . Conscientiousness explains about 5 percent of such differences .

But research shows that emotional intelligence can also give students a critical edge.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions.

Some emotional intelligence tests use rating scales. For example, test-takers might rate their agreement with statements like “I am aware of the nonverbal messages other people send." Other emotional intelligence tests directly measure emotional abilities with skill-based tasks. For example, test takers would have to identify which emotion is expressed in a face.

Our new research paper showed that emotionally intelligent students get better exam results and better grades . This meta-analysis summarized 1,246 research findings on the link between emotional intelligence and academic performance. While these findings could not directly show a cause-and-effect relationship between emotion-related characteristics and performance, they do reveal notable associations between them. Overall, we found that differences in students’ emotional intelligence could account for about 4 percent of differences in achievement.

But some types of emotional intelligence were more strongly related to achievement than others. Skill-based tasks of emotional intelligence accounted for 6 percent of differences in academic performance whereas self-ratings of emotional abilities accounted for 1 percent of differences.

But also, some kinds of abilities seemed to be especially significant—including understanding emotions and managing emotions .

Students who can understand emotions can accurately label their own and others’ emotions. They know what causes emotions, how emotions change, and how emotions combine.

Students who can manage emotions know how to regulate their emotions in stressful situations. They know what to do to maintain good social relationships with others.

Emotion management ability accounted for 7 percent of differences in academic performance.

Emotion understanding skills accounted for 12 percent.

That is, measures of emotion understanding skills seem to account for student success to a greater extent than measures of conscientiousness (5 percent), and almost as much as IQ scores (15 percent).

Why would emotional intelligence be important for success in education?

There are three likely reasons why emotional intelligence relates to higher academic performance.

First, emotional intelligence helps students cope with emotions in the academic environment. Students can feel anxious about exams, feel disappointed with poor results, feel frustrated when they try hard but cannot achieve what they want, or feel bored when the subject matter is not interesting. Being able to regulate these emotions so they do not interfere with learning helps students achieve.

Second, emotional intelligence can help students maintain their relationships with teachers, students, and family. Maintaining close personal relationships means they can call on friends and teachers to help them when they struggle, can learn from others in group work, or can call on others for emotional support.

Third, humanities subjects (like literature or history) require some level of emotional and social knowledge. For example, the universal themes and character development in literature requires understanding human motivations and emotions.

What do emotionally intelligent students do differently that allows them to succeed at school?

Emotionally intelligent students know more about emotions, which makes studying arts or humanities subjects easier for them. But what they do differently is mainly how they regulate their emotions. There are three ways emotion regulation would be different for high emotional intelligence versus low emotional intelligence students.

First, emotionally intelligent students use better processes to regulate their emotions. We know that some processes are more effective than others . For example, concentrating on negative emotions (rumination) is linked to worse outcomes, whereas looking on the bright side (positive reappraisal) is linked to better outcomes. We know that emotionally intelligent people generally report using more of the better processes (like positive reappraisal) less of the worse processes (like rumination).

Second, emotionally intelligent students might pick strategies that are more appropriate or effective for the situation they are in. That is, they may be more sensitive to key details of the situation, and therefore be more flexible in their responses. We know that positive reappraisal is linked to well-being in uncontrollable situations (where nothing can be done about the stress) but not controllable situations (where perhaps it is better to change the situation than change the way you think about it). Perhaps emotionally intelligent people are more sensitive to whether situations are in their control or not, and pick their strategies accordingly.

Third, emotionally intelligent students might implement the strategies better. For example, when using ‘positive reappraisal’, an emotionally intelligent student might be able to think of a feasible positive spin or silver lining. In contrast, a low-EI student might only be able to think a vague or unrealistic positive view of things, which would be less effective for making them feel better.

How could this play out in a student's day?

Consider a hypothetical student Cooper, who is good at maths and science but has low emotional intelligence abilities. She has difficulty seeing when others are irritated, worried, or sad. She does not know how people’s emotions may cause future behavior. She does not know what to do to regulate her own feelings. A typical day of school for Cooper shows how her low emotional intelligence can interfere with a student's ability to achieve at school.

Cooper arrives at school. Her best friend Alice is staring at the ground with her arms folded. Her eyes are a little red and puffy. Cooper tells her about a cool TV show she watched last night. Alice does not seem interested so Cooper goes to talk to someone else. Because Cooper has poor ability to perceive Alice’s emotions, she has not noticed anything is wrong. Alice is upset that Cooper did not show any sympathy for her. Alice tells Cooper that she is not a good friend.

Cooper goes into class. The class is meant to analyze the motivations and emotions of the characters in the book they are reading. Cooper finds this very hard. She is not able to answer many of the questions. Alice sometimes helps Cooper with things like this, but she is mad at Cooper today and refuses to help. Alice rolls her eyes and says that the questions are easy.

Cooper feels ashamed that she can’t do the work other students seem to find easy. She is also upset that Alice is mad at her. She can’t seem to shake these feelings, and she is not able to concentrate on her math problems in the next class. Because of her low emotion management ability, Cooper cannot bounce back from her negative emotions.

This example shows how paying attention to building a student's emotional intelligence can help them learn, achieve, and succeed at school.

MacCann, C., Jiang, Y., Brown, L. E. R., Double, K. S., Bucich, M., & Minbashian, A. (2019, December 12). Emotional Intelligence Predicts Academic Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication.

Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 322-338.

Webb, T. L., Miles, E., & Sheeran, P. (2012). Dealing with feeling: a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 775-338

Peña-Sarrionandia, A., Mikolajczak, M., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Integrating emotion regulation and emotional intelligence traditions: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 160.

Haines, S. J., Gleeson, J., Kuppens, P., Hollenstein, T., Ciarrochi, J., Labuschagne, I., ... & Koval, P. (2016). The wisdom to know the difference: Strategy-situation fit in emotion regulation in daily life is associated with well-being. Psychological Science, 27(12), 1651-1659.

Carolyn MacCann, Ph.D. , is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Sydney.

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Emotional intelligence: a qualitative study of student nurses' and midwives' theoretical and clinical experience

Affiliations.

• 1 Faculty of Health, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia.
• 2 School of Health, University of New England, Armidale, Australia.
• 3 Hunter New England Health, Armidale, Australia.
• 4 Centre for Nursing and Midwifery Research, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia.
• 5 Townsville Hospital and Health Service, Townsville, Australia.
• PMID: 31462166
• DOI: 10.1080/10376178.2019.1661784

Background: Emotional intelligence defined as the ability to recognise and respond appropriately to emotions in oneself and others is valued within nursing and midwifery professions. Objective: To explore nursing and midwifery students' understanding and experiences of emotional intelligence in their undergraduate program. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with undergraduate nursing and midwifery students. Data were recorded, transcribed and underwent thematic analysis. Findings: Three themes emerged from the interviews with seven participants: Emotional intelligence and undergraduate studies, Emotionally needed to be invested ; Emotional intelligence and the clinical environment, I don't want to like harden up ; and Emotional intelligence and patient care, I just felt helpless . Conclusion: The impact of emotions and subsequent behaviours on students' theoretical learning and clinical practice was significant. Students' often felt ill-prepared to portray emotional intelligence, particularly within the clinical environment. Impact statement: This study provided valuable insights into nursing and midwifery students' understanding and experiences of emotional intelligence.

Keywords: education; emotional intelligence; nursing and midwifery; undergraduate.

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How to Develop Emotional Intelligence in Students

Table of Contents

Introduction

As we navigate the 21st-century education landscape, a growing body of research underscores the importance of emotional intelligence (EQ) in student development. EQ—identifying, understanding, and managing emotions—is pivotal in academic success and future employability. This article provides insightful strategies for fostering EQ in students and provides information on How to Develop Emotional Intelligence in Students.

The Importance of Emotional Intelligence

EQ is a strong predictor of academic success. Students with high emotional intelligence demonstrate increased concentration, better problem-solving skills, and improved interpersonal relationships. Their enhanced self-awareness and self-regulation translate into more adaptive responses to stressors and better conflict-resolution skills.

Techniques to Develop Emotional Intelligence

• Mindfulness Training : Encouraging students to engage in mindfulness exercises can significantly impact their EQ. Mindfulness helps students stay present and attentive, increasing their awareness of emotions and how they respond to them.
• Modeling Emotional Intelligence: EQ is often learned through observation. Educators and parents who openly express their emotions, talk about feelings and demonstrate appropriate responses pave the way for students to develop emotional intelligence.
• Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) Curriculum : Implementing an SEL curriculum helps students understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions.

Role of Educators in Emotional Intelligence Development

Educators play a critical role in nurturing students’ emotional intelligence. They are tasked with imparting academic knowledge and fostering an environment encouraging empathy, emotional expression, and understanding. By modeling emotional intelligence and incorporating it into the curriculum, educators can help students develop these vital skills.

Parental Involvement in Emotional Intelligence Development

Parents, too, have a significant role in shaping their child’s emotional intelligence. Parental involvement in EQ development involves expressing and discussing emotions openly, modeling appropriate emotional responses, and promoting empathy and understanding. A home environment that fosters EQ can substantially contribute to a child’s emotional and social development.

Impact of Emotional Intelligence on Future Success

Building emotional intelligence in students has long-term implications for their success. High EQ levels are associated with better job prospects, workplace performance, and overall life satisfaction. Therefore, prioritizing EQ development in our educational systems is in our best interest.

• Improved Academic Performance: Students with higher EQ are more likely to succeed academically because of their enhanced self-awareness, self-regulation, and problem-solving skills.
• Better Interpersonal Relationships: EQ helps students to develop empathy, leading to stronger relationships with their peers, teachers, and family members.
• Increased Self-Awareness: EQ allows students to recognize and understand their emotions, enabling them to manage stress and conflict more effectively.
• Future Success: High levels of EQ have been associated with better job prospects, superior workplace performance, and higher life satisfaction.
• Implementation Challenges: Incorporating EQ development into the curriculum may face resistance due to a heavy academic focus in many education systems.
• Time and Resource Intensive: Training teachers and parents to foster EQ development alongside academic education may require significant time and resources.
• Measuring Success: Unlike academic success, EQ development success may be harder to measure and quantify, potentially leading to difficulty in assessing program efficacy.
• Individual Differences: Not all students develop emotional intelligence simultaneously, which might result in discrepancies and the need for individualized attention.

Emotional intelligence is a key factor in students’ academic and future success. By adopting mindfulness practices, implementing SEL curriculum, and fostering an environment that values emotional awareness, we can significantly enhance EQ in students. Both educators and parents play vital roles in this process, paving the way for well-rounded, emotionally intelligent future leaders.

Developing emotional intelligence in students is an investment that yields lifelong returns—educational attainment, career success, and overall well-being. Let’s pledge to make EQ a central part of our education systems and in the process, nurture students who are not just academically brilliant but also emotionally smart.

What is Emotional Intelligence (EQ)?

Emotional Intelligence, often called EQ, is the ability to understand, use, and manage our emotions positively to relieve stress , communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges, and defuse conflict.

How does Emotional Intelligence affect students’ academic performance?

Research shows that students with higher EQ tend to have better academic performance. They demonstrate increased concentration, improved problem-solving skills, and stronger interpersonal relationships.

How can parents help develop Emotional Intelligence in their children?

Parents can help develop EQ in their children by modeling emotional intelligence, discussing emotions openly, and promoting empathy and understanding at home.

Can Emotional Intelligence be taught in schools?

Yes, Emotional Intelligence can be taught in schools. Incorporating Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) curriculum, mindfulness exercises, and providing an environment that encourages emotional expression can foster EQ in students.

• Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., & Salovey, P. (2011). Emotional Intelligence: Implications for Personal, Social, Academic, and Workplace Success. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(1), 88-103.
• Crescentini, C., Capurso, V., Furlan, S., & Fabbro, F. (2016). Mindfulness-Oriented Meditation for Primary School Children: Effects on Attention and Psychological Well-Being. Frontiers in Psychology, 7.
• Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional Competence about Student and Classroom Outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491-525.
• Humphrey, N., Kalambouka, A., Wigelsworth, M., Lendrum, A., Deighton, J., & Wolpert, M. (2011). Measures of Social and Emotional Skills for Children and Young People: A Systematic Review. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 71(4), 617-637.
• Poropat, A. E. (2014). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological Bulletin, 140(2), 322.

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Cooperation of emotional intelligence and social activities in education: effects on school culture and value acquisition.

1. Introduction

• What are students’ opinions about the role of social activities in acquiring values and creating a school culture?
• Is there a relationship between values and the school culture? If so, in what direction and at what level is this relationship?
• Do social activities mediate the acquisition of values and the formation of a school culture?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. working group, 2.2. data collection tools.

• What activities are held in your school to help students learn and adapt to the school culture? How effective do you think these activities are in assisting students in getting to know the school culture and adapting to this culture? If so, can you explain with examples? In your opinion, what are the most effective activities for the transfer of the school culture?
• What activities are carried out in your school to help your students to acquire values? How effective do you think these activities are in assisting students to develop values? If so, can you explain with examples? In your opinion, what are the most effective activities for the transfer of values?

2.3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data

2.4. reliability and validity analysis, 3.1. the relationship between social activity, values, and the school culture, 3.2. the mediating role of social activities in acquiring values and forming a school culture.

• The path between values and social activity was significant (β = 0.76; S.H. = 0.02; t = 31.15; p = 0.00);
• The path between the social activity and school culture variables was significant (β = 0.28; S.H. = 0.05; t = 6.01; p = 0.00);
• The path between the values and school culture variables was significant (β = 0.32; S.H. = 0.06; t = 6.77; p = 0.00).

3.3. Opinions of School Administrators and Teachers on the Role of Social Activities in Acquiring Values and Forming School Culture

3.3.1. first code, 3.3.2. second code, 3.3.3. third code, 3.3.4. fourth code, 3.3.5. fifth code, 3.3.6. sixth code, 3.3.7. seventh code, 3.3.8. eighth code, 3.3.9. ninth code, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Koç, S.; Altınay, F.; Koç, A.; Altınay, Z.; Dagli, G. Cooperation of Emotional Intelligence and Social Activities in Education: Effects on School Culture and Value Acquisition. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6022. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146022

Koç S, Altınay F, Koç A, Altınay Z, Dagli G. Cooperation of Emotional Intelligence and Social Activities in Education: Effects on School Culture and Value Acquisition. Sustainability . 2024; 16(14):6022. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146022

Koç, Sümeyye, Fahriye Altınay, Ahmet Koç, Zehra Altınay, and Gokmen Dagli. 2024. "Cooperation of Emotional Intelligence and Social Activities in Education: Effects on School Culture and Value Acquisition" Sustainability 16, no. 14: 6022. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146022

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Emotional Intelligence among Nursing Students: Findings from a Longitudinal Study

Leona cilar budler.

1 Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Maribor, Žitna Ulica 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia

Lucija Gosak

Dominika vrbnjak, majda pajnkihar, gregor Štiglic.

2 Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK

Associated Data

Data are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Emotional intelligence is an important factor for nursing students’ success and work performance. Although the level of emotional intelligence increases with age and tends to be higher in women, results of different studies on emotional intelligence in nursing students vary regarding age, study year, and gender. A longitudinal study was conducted in 2016 and 2019 among undergraduate nursing students to explore whether emotional intelligence changes over time. A total of 111 undergraduate nursing students participated in the study in the first year of their study, and 101 in the third year. Data were collected using the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form (TEIQue-SF) and Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT). There was a significant difference in emotional intelligence between students in their first (M = 154.40; 95% CI: 101.85–193.05) and third year (M = 162.01; 95% CI: 118.65–196.00) of study using TEIQue-SF questionnaire. There was a weak correlation (r = 0.170) between emotional intelligence and age measuring using the TEIQue-SF questionnaire, and no significant correlation when measured using SSEIT (r = 0.34). We found that nursing students’ emotional intelligence changes over time with years of education and age, suggesting that emotional intelligence skills can be improved. Further research is needed to determine the gendered nature of emotional intelligence in nursing students.

1. Introduction

Until recently, in many environments, the golden standard for student’s success was the intelligence quotient (IQ), which was also frequently used for entry tests in higher education. However, among these intelligent people, many do not face stressful situations and do not socialise with people. The consequence is that many of them fail in personal and professional life. Therefore, emotional intelligence (EI) was proposed as one of the measures that envision an individual’s all-around development and success [ 1 , 2 ].

EI reflects the capacity to comprehend and regulate emotions and cope effectively with emotional situations [ 3 ]. It can also be described as the ability, skill, or self-perceived ability to recognise, evaluate, and manage the emotions of ourselves, others, and groups [ 4 ]. Schmidt and Hunter [ 5 ] defined EI as the ability to grasp and reason correctly with concepts and solve problems. Petrides and Furnham [ 6 ] state that EI consists of two distinct concepts: an emotion-related cognitive ability and behavioural dispositions and self-perceptions of one’s ability to recognise and understand emotions. Intellect and EI work separately, as the individual may be intellectually brilliant but emotionally incapable. The IQ contributes only 20% to lifetime success, the rest is the result of EI, including motivation, perseverance, impulse control, empathy, and hope [ 7 ].

EI is now widely used among different organisations and schools [ 8 , 9 ] as it may contribute to the better performance of individuals both personally and professionally [ 9 , 10 ]. The nursing profession includes considerable emotional work, including managing and expressing relevant emotions. Therefore, researchers and lecturers need to focus on empowering EI in nursing to improve the nursing profession [ 1 ]. Nurses with a high EI level are more empathic, compassionate, caring, and resilient [ 11 ].

EI may be an important factor for nursing students’ success [ 10 , 12 , 13 ] and retention [ 14 ]. It can allow nursing students to face challenges in clinical placements [ 14 ] effectively, improve their leadership skills, performance in practice, and to enhance patient safety [ 15 ]. Several studies found that EI levels increases with age [ 10 , 16 ] and among nursing students in their first and last year [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. EI also tends to be higher in women [ 18 ]; however, results of different studies on EI in nursing vary regarding age, study year, and gender [ 14 ]. Foster et al. [ 15 ] and Nwabuebo [ 19 ], for example, did not find age or gender differences in EI scores. Hajibabaee et al. [ 18 ] found that students in their first and third years had the highest and lowest emotional intelligence scores, respectively. Foster et al. [ 15 ], on the other hand, found a significant increase in students EI at the beginning of the second year; however, there was not a significant change at the end of the study program, when compared with their study entry.

To the best of our knowledge, few longitudinal studies were conducted on EI in nursing students [ 13 , 15 , 20 , 21 ], and none from the Slovenian perspective. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine EI among nursing students and explore whether EI in nursing students changes over time in a Slovenian university. Objectives were to establish whether there were statistically significant differences in EI scores in nursing students in their first study year compared with the third study and to determine differences between EI scores and nursing students’ age.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design.

A longitudinal study was carried measuring EI scores using self-reported measures at two time points over three years.

For the purposes of the longitudinal study, a register of codes or identification numbers and the names and surnames of the respondents was set up due to the nature of the study and the data that needed to be collected on academic performance. The codes and names of the respondents were stored separately from the completed questionnaires and the academic performance data, in locked rooms, and were not accessible to higher education teachers and staff who were part of the study process. The data were collected and stored in a database which was properly password-protected and the data were encrypted and anonymised. Certain codes were used by the students throughout the longitudinal study.

The data were anonymised; this method of data collection was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Maribor, Faculty of Health Sciences (No. 038/2016/5975-2/1/504).

2.2. Participants

The study was conducted among undergraduate nursing students at the nursing faculty in Slovenia. The survey was conducted between 16th November 2016 and 30th January 2017, and between 12th November 2018 and 31st January 2019. The questionnaires were administrated during the seminars and laboratory exercises. The sample consisted of 111 undergraduate nursing students who were enrolled in a nursing study program in the 2016/2017 academic year. The same sample of students was invited to fill the questionnaire in 2019 in their third (i.e., last) study year: 101 students filled out the questionnaire; however, some students failed to write their ID numbers appropriately. As such, only 77 questionnaires were matched longitudinally.

2.3. Measures

All participants completed the questionnaire with EI measures on the entry in year one (2016) and at the end of year three (2019). This study is a replication of the Snowden et al. (2015); therefore, EI was measured using the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form (TEIQue-SF) [ 6 , 22 , 23 ] and Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) [ 24 ].

The TEIQue-SF is a 30-item scale with responses on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Four subscales are included: emotionality, sociability, self-control, and well-being [ 25 , 26 ]. Of 30 items, 15 are negatively stated and need reverse-scoring [ 6 ]. The total scale scoring is derived by summing the score on each item in the scale. The higher the score, the higher the trait EI of the individual [ 19 , 22 ]. The SSEIT is a 33-item scale with four subscales: emotion perception, utilising emotions, managing self-relevant emotions, and managing others’ emotions. The scale ranges from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). Each subscale score is graded and then summed to obtain the total score [ 24 ]. Both measures were back-translated into the Slovene language [ 10 ].

2.4. Data Analysis

Data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics (IBM, version 25, Slovenia) and R (3.6.1) and tested for normality and homogeneity of variance. Correspondingly, parametric, or non-parametric statistical tests were used to assessing the impact of different variables on SSEIT and TEIQ scores in the first and third study year. Due to the longitudinal study design, we were able to use paired-samples t -test to test for differences based on the study year. Spearman correlation coefficient was used to measure the correlation between age and two EI measures.

3.1. Demographics

In total, 77 students were included in the study. Students’ average age was 19.27 ± 0.81, with a minimum age of 18 and a maximum age of 23 years. In the first study year, 66 (85.7%) of students attended full-time study programs and 68 (88.3%) in the third study year.

In total, 55 (71.4%) students already had practical experience in healthcare. Almost half of them (n = 38; 49.4%) acquired their hospital experience during their practical education. Most students had previously completed secondary school for nursing (n = 52; 67.5%). Other students completed general secondary school (n = 18; 23.4%), technical secondary school (n = 3; 3.9%) or other schools (n = 4; 5.2%). When the study was conducted in the first study year, two (2.6%) students were employed, and eight (10.4%) students were employed in the third study year ( Table 1 ).

Distribution of students by gender, year of study, and study program.

Table 2 shows the differences between the SSEIT Score and the TEIQ Score in the first and third year of study according to gender, dominant hand, the environment in which the person grows up, employment status, the relationship status, the birth order, the number of hours spent at work each month, and work performance.

Average SSEIT and TEIQ scores in the first and third year in relation to other variables.

The uneven distribution of students across demographics makes it difficult to speak of significant differences. Students who were not employed had a higher TEIQ Score (155.21; SD = 23.21) in the first study year. In the third year, the highest score was found for the middle-born child (167.74; SD = 17.99). In the first study year, students who spent less than 10 h per month at work had higher SSEIT (94.16 vs. 82.75) and TEIQ (154.79 vs. 138.75) scores. In the third study year, the results were the opposite, with higher scores for those who spent more time at work for SSEIT score (103.50 vs. 95.06) and for TEIQ score (194.00 vs. 160.55). Students who rate their work performance as highly successful have a higher SSEIT Score (98.30 vs. 90.18 for the first study year; and 96.38 vs. 94.29 for the third study year) and TEIQ score (167.78 vs. 146.52 for the first study year; and 158.00 vs. 165.08 for the third study year) compared with those who rate their work performance as average.

3.2. EI Scores between Nursing Students in the First and Third Year of Study

Based on the Shapiro–Wilk test, we found that mean TEIQue-SF scores between the nursing students in the first study year and nursing students in the third study year were normally distributed. Figure 1 shows mean TEIQue-SF scores for nursing students in the first study year with a mean value of 154.40 (95% CI: 101.85–193.05) and for nursing students in the third study year with a mean of 162.01 (95% CI: 118.65–196.00).

Distribution of TEIQue-SF scores by year of study with mean value (blue) and confidence interval (red) in the first year and third year of study.

We used paired-samples T-test and found a statistically significant difference in TEIQue-SF scores between nursing students in the first study year and nursing students in the third study year (t (76) = −3.390; p = 0.001).

According to the Shapiro–Wilk test, the distribution of mean SSEIT scores between the nursing students in the first and third study year was normal. The mean SSEIT scores for nursing students in the first study year were 93.26 (95% CI: 67.90–118.20) and for nursing students in the third study year 95.34 (95% CI: 71.95–124.15).

Based on the paired-samples T-test, we found no statistically significant difference in SSEIT scores between nursing students in the first study year and nursing students in the third study year (t (76) = −1.523; p = 0.132). Figure 2 shows the distribution of the scores as well as the mean and 95% confidence interval values for the SSEIT score.

Distribution of SSEIT scores by year of study with mean value (blue) and confidence interval (red) in the first year and third year of study.

4. Discussion

This longitudinal study was conducted to investigate whether EI in nursing students changes over time. We confirmed a higher EI of students in the third year of study compared with students in the first study year. In our study, the difference was statistically significant, measuring the level of EI using TEIQue-SF, but not statistically significant when measured using SSEIT. Similar to our findings, Benson et al. [ 17 ] found that the average total EI was 98.0 for first-year students, 103.72 for the second year, 104.56 for the third year, and 107.80 for the fourth year, which shows us that EI has grown with study year. Herr et al. [ 27 ] also reported that third-year nursing students (M = 125.39; SD = 8.71) had higher EI than first-year students (M = 124.69, SD = 11.76), when measuring EI with SSEIT scale, but results were not statistically different (t = 0.257, p = 0.798). Other studies found same results [ 13 ] and suggest it is possible the difference is due to the type of EI being measured. TEIQue-SF is designed to measure EI as a trait, whereas SSEIT sees EI more as an ‘ability’, in other words, more stable over time [ 13 ]. The findings could suggest that emotional skills can be improved. Students may also grow and mature over the years of education, but other factors outside of the study program may impact the findings [ 15 ]. Vernon et al. (2008) and many other heritability studies of personality found EI largely attributable to genetic and nonshared environmental factors.

This study also aimed to determine whether EI scores of nursing students differ among students’ age. Age is a significant factor affecting an individual’s emotional maturity, which Por and others also found in their study who identified a strong positive relationship between the age of nursing students and their EI [ 28 ]. Ishii [ 29 ] also found out that EI positively correlates with age. EI evolves through life as we encounter different experiences, and as a result, our competence grows [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ]. EI in this study was significantly correlated with age when TEIQue-SF was used but not when measured using SSEIT. It should be noted that Slovenia students usually study nursing at a young age compared with some other countries. The narrow age range of just five years (from 18 to 23) confirms this.

It is known that females have a higher level of EI than males [ 9 , 13 , 29 , 32 , 33 ]. In males, EI is often correlated with the inability to perceive emotions, negative behaviours [ 34 ], and poor interpersonal relationships [ 32 ]. Due to the unequal gender distribution of the students, it was not possible to assess the differences on SSEIT scores and the TEIQ scores. Thus, further research is warranted with an equal number of male and female nursing students. We found some significant differences between the demographics and SSEIT scores and the TEIQ scores, but this is not significant due to the uneven distribution of the population between the groups.

Priyam et al. [ 35 ] found that people who have higher emotional intelligence score are more successful, accurate and precise in their work than those with lower emotional intelligence score. Similarly, our study confirms that people who believe they are high performers at work have higher SSEIT and TEIQ scores in their first and third year. Statistical correlation was found only in the first year of study.

The results should be therefore interpreted with caution, and some other limitations need to be considered: only one Slovenian nursing faculty was included; most of the participants were full-time students; there was also a loss during follow-up over the study, and self-reported measures were used.

Despite limitations, our study adds to the body of knowledge on EI in nursing students, especially in the Slovenian context. Findings suggest that EI skills can be improved; therefore, more attention should be given to EI skills development, and EI should be implemented into the nursing curriculum.

Additionally, further studies should use performance-based measures of EI and not only instruments that report students’ own level of EI [ 36 ].

5. Conclusions

Nursing students interact daily with people from different cultures and backgrounds; thus, they must develop different skills and knowledge to ensure a high quality of healthcare. Although it is known that women have a higher EI level, our research in 2018 in Slovenia did not confirm this, and further research is warranted. Moreover, the EI level usually increases with age, meaning that students in the third year should have a higher EI level than students in the first year. This was also confirmed in our study. It would be interesting to follow up with students after transitioning from being a student to a registered nurse working in practice to determine EI changes over their years of experiences in practice and professional development and investigate whether workshops and training courses on EI influence EI their EI scores after graduation.

Acknowledgments

Our sincere appreciation to all participants who were involved in this research. The authors would like to thank our colleague ŽN who participated in the data collection in the first year. The authors would also like to thank RW for language editing.

Funding Statement

This study was supported by the “knowledge through creative pathways 2016–2020” scheme cofunded by the European Union from the European Social Fund and the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovenian Research Agency (grant numbers N2-0101 and P2-0057).

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, L.C.B., D.V., M.P. and G.Š.; Data curation, L.C.B. and G.Š.; Formal analysis, L.G. and G.Š.; Methodology, L.C.B. and L.G.; Writing—original draft, L.C.B. and G.Š.; Writing—review and editing, L.C.B., L.G., D.V., M.P. and G.Š. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical approvals were obtained from the Ethics committee of University of Maribor, Faculty of Health Sciences (01/1IR-2016).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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How College Students Can Improve Their Emotional Intelligence

June 30th, 2022 by JWU

Having high emotional intelligence (EI), also known as emotional quotient or EQ, can help college students better manage their emotions and the emotions of others. It can also help them find more success in the classroom and prepare for a successful career. A high EQ can help you in many ways, not only at school. With a high EQ, it will be easier for you to build stronger relationships, be less likely to make decisions that you may regret out of anger or frustration, and be better able to build and work with a team on school projects and, ultimately, in the business world. So, what is emotional intelligence and how do you build your EQ?

What is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence refers to how well a person can identify, control, and evaluate emotions, both in themselves and in others. Some researchers think these skills are genetic, but most believe they can be learned or at least strengthened. Virtually all agree it takes both a high emotional quotient (EQ) as well as a high IQ to be successful in life.

According to Margaret Andrews, a former associate dean at Harvard University’s Division of Continuing Education and a current instructor in Harvard’s Emotional Intelligence in Leadership Program, ‘Emotional intelligence is critical in building and maintaining relationships and influencing others—key skills that help people throughout their career and wherever they sit in an organizational structure,’

Four Components of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence can be broken down into four key components:

• Self-awareness
• Self-management
• Social awareness
• Relationship management

1. Self-Awareness

Self-awareness refers to how well a person understands their own emotions. Self-awareness is the cornerstone of EI, and the other three components all depend on how well a person masters self-awareness. This trait involves being cognizant of how your emotions affect others. Many believe that self-aware individuals are more creative and confident, and that they make better decisions.

2. Self-Management

Self-management builds on self-awareness. Good self-management means that, since you are aware of your emotions, you can control and manage them and the behaviors that result. One good example of this is stepping back and taking a deep breath when something angers you rather than immediately lashing out verbally or physically. Angry decisions and interpersonal communications are rarely compatible.

3. Social Awareness

The key component in social awareness is empathy. Someone with good social awareness is able to relate to what others are feeling and act accordingly. This differs from putting yourself in someone else’s shoes. Social awareness is about what the other person is feeling, not what you would feel in their place. People with strong social awareness skills tend to be kind and well-respected.

4. Relationship Management

Relationship management, also referred to as social skills, is often what differentiates a good manager from a mediocre one. These skills include influence, conflict management, teamwork, and the ability to inspire others. They are not only beneficial for creating strong working relationships, but they can help with every relationship in a person’s life, including family dynamics, romantic relationships, and project teams at school.

Benefits of Emotional Intelligence

Having higher job satisfaction and being happier in life are just two of the many benefits of cultivating a high EQ. According to “ Psych Central ,” some of the other benefits in the workplace include:

The ability to meet and adjust to deadlines

People with a high EQ understand deadlines and can work well within those parameters without undue stress.

Accepting criticism and learning from it

No one likes criticism; however, a person with a high EQ doesn’t take criticism personally. Instead, they use criticism as a learning opportunity and a way to build their EQ.

Getting along in the workplace

You need to be able to understand and work with a variety of co-workers, including those from different backgrounds and with different opinions. In the workplace as well as at school, you’ll find people from different cultures and who grew up with different circumstances. It’s important to be able to work with them just as you would someone who grew up next door to you.

Being open to change in the workplace

Too often workers fear change and cling to the old ways of doing things. People with high EQs embrace change and look forward to new ways to improve.

How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence

We side with the opinion that a person’s emotional intelligence can be improved and strengthened with time and effort. Some of the ways to improve your emotional intelligence include:

1. Practice Self-Awareness

As we mentioned above, good self-awareness is essential to a high EQ. Some ways to increase your self-awareness include practicing mindfulness, which is concentrating on the present and avoiding unnecessary worry about the future. You can also ask trusted friends and family to give you feedback on how empathetic, flexible, cooperative, and adaptable you are. Use that feedback to grow and improve your EI.

2. Empathize with Others

Being able to understand what others are feeling is also important to cultivating a high EQ. You can increase your ability to do this by reading novels or articles, watching movies, and even appreciating art. The key here is to get you to feel something; it can be anger, grief, joy, or any other emotion.

3. Stay Positive

Being positive not only makes you more pleasant to be around, but also helps your brain function better. Positive affirmations may sound like a self-help fad, but spending 3-5 minutes each day reciting your goals or something positive about you and your life can help reduce stress and increase learning functions. Affirmations also help banish negative thoughts and help you have a cheerier outlook on life.

4. Listen to Feedback

It can be challenging to receive feedback, especially if some of it is constructive criticism. Instead of becoming defensive and making excuses when someone is giving you feedback, use those moments to grow and reflect on what you might do differently the next time you are in a similar situation. Receiving feedback is the ultimate test of your listening skills. Even if you can’t process the information right then, practice listening and make a note of what they tell you for further reflection later.

5. Understand Your Motivations

Sometimes we act impulsively without fully realizing why. A person with a high EQ strives to understand the motivation behind his or her actions before making a move. This not only prevents making bad, impulsive decisions, but helps the person become more self-aware. It’s not always easy.

Entire books have been written about how to understand your motivations . However, a good start is to make sure you are acting on fact and not just perception. We all bring our past experiences and beliefs into the decision-making process. A good manager makes sure that they aren’t letting those things unduly influence their decisions.

6. Keep Negative Emotions in Check

People with high EQs rarely react in anger or frustration. Instead, they measure their responses and only act when they have their emotions under control and when they feel they can express their feelings constructively. It’s also helpful in keeping negative emotions and thoughts at bay to practice meditation, reflection, or prayer and to actively concentrate on affirmations or good thoughts when you feel yourself feeling angry.

Networking gives you the opportunity to talk with more people, and the more people you encounter, the more you’ll be able to practice empathy and relationship building. You can find networking events on your school’s bulletin boards, online via networking sites like LinkedIn, and through your school’s alumni organization. The contacts you make at these events can also help you down the road in your business career, by giving you leads to new customers and new suppliers and sharing leads on new career opportunities. According to Inc.com , being social and interacting with others is one of the best ways to boost your emotional intelligence.

Earning your degree from Johnson & Wales University

Johnson & Wales University, founded in 1914, offers a variety of undergraduate and advanced business degrees . This includes Bachelor of Science (BS) and Bachelor of Science in Business Administration (BSBA) degree programs in 15 specialties. If you want to pursue a career in psychology and help people with their emotional intelligence, the university also offers a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

Johnson & Wales has campuses in Charlotte, NC and Providence, RI. Some Johnson & Wales degree programs are offered online, offering students the advantage of being able to complete classwork and listen to lectures on their own schedule.

Johnson & Wales University has a current enrollment of around 8,000 undergraduate, graduate, and online students. The university is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. Johnson & Wales offers a variety of financial aid packages to help make earning your degree more affordable.

If you’re interested in topics like emotional intelligence, a career in psychology could be for you! Earn your bachelor’s degree in psychology online from Johnson & Wales University. For more information about completing your degree online or on-campus, complete the Request Info form, call 855-JWU-1881, or email [email protected] .

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BRIEF RESEARCH REPORT article

Is culture the key emotional intelligence, autonomous motivation and physical activity of student-athletes from china and russia.

• 1 Institute of Physical Culture, Sports and Youth Policy, Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia
• 2 College of Sport and Health, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
• 3 Department of Psychology, University of the Balearic Islands, Palma, Spain

Emotional intelligence is considered as an important factor impacting on sports motivation of students-athletes. Meanwhile the role of culture in the development of emotional intelligence is still insufficiently studied in sports psychology. The purpose of the study included comparing the indicators of emotional intelligence of student-athletes in China and Russia, identifying the relationship between emotional intelligence, sports motivation and physical activity, as well as studying the prognostic effect of emotional intelligence on autonomous motivation. The research was done among 474 student- athletes. In Chinese students sample ( N = 281), the 163 men and 118 women. In the Russian student sample ( N = 193), there were 64 men and 129 women. The following research methods were used: emotional intelligence scale, the sport motivation scale-6, the international physical activity questionnaire. The results of the study have showed that the level of emotional intelligence of Chinese student-athletes is higher than that of Russian students-athletes. Positive correlations between emotional intelligence, autonomous motivation and physical activity were found in both samples. At the same time, the correlation coefficient in the Russian sample was lower. A predictive relationship between emotional intelligence and autonomous motivation has been established; meanwhile the self-assessment of emotions and emotion regulation make the greatest contribution to autonomous motivation in the Chinese sample, while in the Russian sample there is only the use of emotions. Considering the cultural context can contribute to the preparation effective programs for the development of emotional intelligence and autonomous motivation for physical activity.

Introduction

Sports motivation is one of the main reasons when students choose sports specialties. Therefore, studying the sport motivation of Chinese and Russian student-athletes and its determining factors is important for understanding long-term commitment to sports and physical activity. Past research on sport motivation has been conducted either on non-sport students ( Deng et al., 2023 ) or on student-athletes in the context of the dual-career theory ( Stambulova et al., 2015 ). In the first and second case, the authors do not consider the differences between Eastern and Western culture and its influence on athletic motivation.

At the same time, Pan and Huang (2019) comparing Western and Eastern culture note that Western culture is focused on the conquest of nature, so sports are oriented toward competition and individual achievement, while Eastern culture is focused on ethics, so Eastern sports culture is characterized by a focus on the development of “mind and spirit.” In this context, Chinese student-athletes and Russian student-athletes belong to different sports cultures. Traditional Chinese sports culture is based on the philosophical ideas of “harmony of man and nature,” preservation of health through the “unity of body and spirit,” and focus on psychophysical improvement ( Song and Shen, 2021 ). Russian sports culture is closely related to the values and ideas of Western sports culture, with the desire for excellence, maximum development of physical qualities ( Zagrevskaya, 2019 ). The study of the influence of culture on the motivation to engage in physical activity implies the analysis of the main directions of its research.

These studies are concentrated around three key areas. The first concerns the study of students' sports motivation in the context of socio-demographic characteristics ( Ekelund et al., 2006 ), and the role of external and internal factors influencing it ( Wang et al., 2018 ). The second is related to the substantiation of the relationship between different types of sports motivation and the level of physical activity ( Liu et al., 2023 ). It should be noted that in recent years, most research on this problem has been carried out within the framework of the theory of self-determination, which considers three different motivational structures depending on the degree of self-determination: autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation ( Deci and Ryan, 2000 ). Autonomous motivation is considered as the most self-determined, since it is associated with the focus on performing activities, in accordance with the goals and motives of the personality. Autonomous motivation is associated with volitional effort made out of pleasure, personal importance, or in accordance with personal values ( Ryan and Deci, 2020 ). In contrast, controlled motivation involves engaging in behavior driven by external factors such as potential reward, perceived approval from others, or avoidance of punishment or guilt. Amotivation refers to a state of lack of motivation and interest, and a person cannot see the exact reason for performing an action ( Wong and Law, 2002 ).

Numerous studies have proven the effect of autonomous motivation on increased physical activity and commitment to sports ( Vallerand, 2007 ). At the same time, it is important to note that researchers emphasize that internal motivation (pleasure and challenge) is more typical for students who play sports, in turn, for students focused on physical exercise, external motives (appearance, weight, and stress reduction) are more characteristic ( Diehl et al., 2018 ). The third direction justifies strategies, pedagogical conditions, or interventions related to increasing sports motivation ( Ntoumanis et al., 2021 ).

Thus, the main vector of the conducted research is aimed at studying the factors contributing to the increase of sports motivation, and mainly the autonomous motivation of students, which is revealed more among student-athletes. In recent years, more and more attention has been paid to emotional intelligence in the study of personal factors affecting sports motivation ( Laborde et al., 2016 ; Sukys et al., 2019 ).

Emotional intelligence is understood as a fundamental ability that ensures the effective integration of cognitive and emotional resources that ensure the effectiveness of activities ( Côté and Miners, 2006 ). The results of the conducted research on the role of emotional intelligence in sports are quite contradictory. Some studies prove that emotional intelligence plays a significant role in increasing sports motivation and physical activity, contributing to the growth of athletic performance ( Castro-Sánchez et al., 2018 ), while other studies indicate a slight connection or lack of interrelationships between them ( Mazhar et al., 2021 ). This indicates the complexity of studying the phenomenon of emotional intelligence, which depends on sports experience ( Ubago-Jiménez et al., 2019 ), socio-demographic and individual characteristics ( Laborde et al., 2016 ; Rodriguez-Romo et al., 2021 ), and on some cultural factors ( Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2005 ; Miranda-Rochín et al., 2023 ).

All the above confirms the importance of studying autonomous motivation among students at physical education universities and its determining factors. At the same time, it should be noted that emotional intelligence plays a critically important role in the training of future sports teachers ( Malinauskas and Vazne, 2014 ), as it ensures their favorable social development, the ability to maintain both their internal motivation and the internal motivation of future students ( Mercader-Rubio et al., 2023 ).

The conducted research has revealed that among student-athletes studying in sports specialties, there is a relationship between three dimensions of emotional intelligence (emotional attention, emotional clarity, and emotional regulation) and internal motivation (to acquire knowledge, to achieve goals and to search for incentives ( Mercader-Rubio et al., 2023 ). At the same time, in these works the reasons for the differences in the emotional intelligence of student-athletes are not explained.

The answer to this question is to a certain extent provided by cross-cultural studies of the emotional intelligence of student-athletes. Quinaud et al. (2020) , using the theory of building a dual career ( Stambulova et al., 2015 ) when studying the motivation and identity of student-athletes from Brazilian and Portuguese universities, has revealed that student-athletes from Brazil are characterized by a higher level of sports motivation and pleasure from sports compared to Portuguese athletes- students. The obtained results indicate the influence of culture on the internal motivation and emotional intelligence of student-athletes.

Another cross-cultural study proved that Latvian student-athletes, unlike Lithuanian ones, have a better ability to use their own positive emotional experience (optimism) ( Malinauskas and Vazne, 2014 ). Researchers have noted that the study of differences between the emotional intelligence of university students in Mexico and Spain is justified by the fact that emotional intelligence is mediated by cultural and individual variables ( Miranda-Rochín et al., 2023 ).

Thus, the research results prove the important role of culture in the development of emotional intelligence of student–athletes, but they are not numerous, are limited by empirical data, and do not have sufficient theoretical justification. Therefore, in our opinion, in the context of studying the problem of the influence of emotional intelligence on the motivation of self-determination of student-athletes, the following questions remain unresolved: What is the role of culture in shaping the emotional intelligence of student–athletes? And to what extent can cultural differences in emotional intelligence influence the motivation of self-determination and physical activity of student-athletes? To answer these questions, we formulated the purpose of the study: to study the relationship between emotional intelligence, sports motivation and the level of physical activity of students at physical education universities in China and Russia.

The theoretical basis of the research is based on an integrative approach, including a cultural approach, the theory of emotional intelligence and the theory of motivation of self-determination. The cultural approach recognizes the existence of significant differences in the sports culture of the East and the West ( Chen and Zhong, 2011 ; Song and Shen, 2021 ), as well as the influence of the culture of the East and the West on emotional self-regulation ( Zhang and Cross, 2011 ).

Since the sports culture of the East and West can shape the way people think, act and regulate their emotions, our study suggests considering the influence of culture on emotional intelligence, which is considered as a predictor of autonomous motivation to engage student-athletes in physical activity. A theoretical is presented in Figure 1 .

Figure 1 . The theoretical model of the relationship between emotional intelligence, sports motivation (autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation) and physical activity in the aspect of cultural differences.

General hypothesis

Our hypothesis is that China's sports culture is influenced by cultural traditions, which prioritize achieving inner harmony through psychophysical practices to manage one's emotions. As a result, student-athletes from China may have different levels of emotional intelligence compared to those from Russia.

Particular hypotheses

Three hypotheses were tested during the study:

Hypothesis 1: Significant differences in the indicators of emotional intelligence in the group of Chinese and in the group of Russian student athletes will be determined.

Hypothesis 2: The existence of significant differences in the relationship between emotional intelligence, motivation and physical activity in a group of Chinese and a group of Russian student-athletes will be determined.

Hypothesis 3: The existence of significant differences in the influence of emotional intelligence and motivation in predicting behavior during physical activity in a group of Chinese and in a group of Russian student-athletes will be determined.

Materials and methods

Research design.

The present study utilized a quantitative research design to address the research hypotheses ( Figgou and Pavlopoulos, 2015 ). Research data from Chinese and Russian student-athletes were collected via a survey-based approach. Correlational models and regression models were adopted to test the effects among the study variables of emotional intelligence, sport motivation and physical activity.

Participants

The research was done among 474 students-athletes from Chinese and Russian. Convenience sampling was used for participant recruitment. There were 281 Chinese students-athletes, including 163 men, average age 19.39 + 1.84 (from 17 to 23 years old) and 118 women average age 19.02 + 1.41 (from 17 to 22 years old). The group of Russian students-athletes included 193 participants, 64 men average age 19.5 ± 2.27 (from 17 to 25 years old) and 129 women average age 19.17 ± 2.19 (from 16 to 25 years old). All participants had experience in sport activity and were studying on programs related to sport. All participants gave their voluntary consent to participate in the research.

Emotional intelligence

It was assessed using the emotional intelligence scale of Wong and Law (2002) . The scale has been used internationally, demonstrating satisfactory validity and reliability for research purposes ( Extremera Pacheco et al., 2019 ). The back-translation method was employed to translate the English version of the scale into both languages. Specifically, the instrument was translated into both languages by the bilingual authors. Subsequently, the translated versions were translated back into English by a different bilingual colleague in their institutions. The back-translated versions were then compared to the original instrument in order to identify and correct any differences, thus ensuring that they accurately reflected the original meaning.

Students' motivation for sports activities was assessed using the Sports Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6) ( Mallett et al., 2007 ). The scale consists of 24 items, four items each, assessing intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, and amotivation. Based on the level of internalization of motivation and consistent with past research, intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, and identified regulation were grouped as autonomous motivation, whereas introjected regulation and external regulation were grouped as controlled motivation ( Mouratidis et al., 2021 ). This instrument has been reported to have acceptable psychometric properties ( Blecharz et al., 2015 ). The translation procedure was the same as employed in the previous scale.

The Cronbach's Alpha value gives an indication of the internal consistency and reliability of the data. Its range is 0–1, and its value should be >0.70 to be considered acceptable internal consistency. Emotional intelligence: the values of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), in the Chinese and Russian cultural contexts, were 0.946 and 0.849 for self-emotions appraisal, 0.939 and 0.800 for others-emotions appraisal, 0.943 and 0.780 for use of emotion, 0.948 and 0.872 for regulation of emotion, respectively. Motivation: the values of internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), in the Chinese and Russian cultural contexts, were 0.952 and 0.927 for autonomous motivation, 0.882 and 0.852 for controlled motivation, and 0.846 and 0.731 for amotivation, respectively.

Physical activity

Physical activity levels were measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ-SF). The IPAQ-SF has been widely used and validated in international studies. Both the Chinese and Russian versions of the questionnaire were available for use. This measure was developed to facilitate international research on physical activity and has been widely used and accepted as a useful tool for measuring behavior ( Ekelund et al., 2006 ).

The authors first created a web-based survey that utilized the tools used in the current study. After customizing the survey, the authors coordinated with their colleagues at their institutions to obtain permission to conduct the survey. Once permission was granted, a survey invitation containing information about the study and a QR code for our survey was distributed to college students.

Interested participants could access the survey by scanning the QR code of the survey. In the introduction to the survey, participants were informed that their participation in the study was anonymous and voluntary; they had the right to withdraw at any time if they did not wish to continue. Participants were also informed that by completing and returning the survey, they implied their consent to participate.

Statistical analysis

The data were imported into SPSS version 26.0 for statistical analysis. Descriptive analysis was used to outline the bivariate correlations of the study variables, namely indicators of emotional intelligence, motivation, and physical activity. In line with the hypothesis, we then tested if there were any significant differences in scores of emotional intelligence across the Chinese and Russian student samples using independent samples t- test. Furthermore, we tested regression models in which indicators of emotional intelligence were set as independent variables, while autonomous motivation was set as a dependent variable. This was done to explore how emotional intelligence would affect autonomous motivation, a key factor in self-determination theory for human development. Additionally, we conducted regression analyses in both Chinese and Russian student participants to examine the role of emotional intelligence and motivation in predicting physical activity behavior.

To test hypothesis 1, we conducted a t- test of independent samples for differences in emotional intelligence dimensions on data from different countries. The results showed that Chinese students had higher scores on self-emotion appraisal (Chinese 5.43 ± 1.12 vs. Russian 5.10 ± 1.27, p < 0.01), emotional evaluation of others (Chinese 5, 32 ± 1.22 vs. Russian 5.08 ± 1.12, p < 0.05), emotion utilization (Chinese 5.32 ± 1.21 vs. Russian 5.00 ± 1.10, p < 0.01), and emotion regulation (Chinese 5.17 ± 1.32 vs. Russian 4.89 ± 1.30, p < 0.05). Thus, the statistical significance of differences in scores was established. Higher emotional intelligence scores prove the presence of cultural factor influence on the development of emotional intelligence, and as we hypothesized emotional intelligence is higher among Chinese student-athletes.

To test hypothesis 2, we conducted bivariate correlation analysis using Pearson correlation coefficient. Data of coefficients for Chinese and Russian samples are presented above and below the Table 1 diagonal line, respectively. According to the findings, in the sample of Chinese student-athletes, emotional intelligence indicators have higher correlation with autonomous motivation than with controlled motivation. The correlations between autonomous motivation and emotional intelligence indicators were as follows: self-emotion appraisal (r = 0.61, p < 0.01), other's emotion appraisal (r = 0.57, p < 0.01), use of emotion (r = 0.60, p < 0.01), and regulation of emotion (r = 0.563, p < 0.01). In addition, the correlation coefficients of emotional intelligence and amotivation indicators were insignificant, indicating that there was no relationship between them. In a sample of Chinese student-athletes, positive correlations were observed between emotional intelligence scores and physical activity. Similar results could be observed in the Russian sample but the relationship between emotional intelligence and autonomous motivation in the Chinese sample was higher than that in the Russian sample. At the same time the relationship between autonomous motivation and physical activity was similar in Chinese and Russian samples (r = 0.345, p < 0.01 and r = 0.359, p < 0.01 respectively).

Table 1 . Bivariate correlation analyses results of study variables.

Regarding the predictive effect of emotional intelligence on physical activity, regression analysis yielded a significant model for the Chinese sample, R 2 = 0.172, F (4, 276) = 14.302, p < 0.001, indicating that emotional intelligence explained 17.2% of the variance in physical activity. Specifically, emotion utilization was found to be a significant predictor. In the sample of Russian students, regression analysis also yielded a significant model, R 2 = 0.108, F (4, 188) = 5.718, p < 0.001, indicating that emotional intelligence explained 10.8% of the variance in physical activity. Specifically, emotion utilization was found to be a significant predictor. The values of tolerance and VIF were within acceptable range. The result is presented in Table 2 .

Table 2 . Regression model results of emotional intelligence on physical activity.

To test hypothesis 3, we studied the prognostic influence of emotional intelligence on autonomous motivation, which is the most significant from the perspective of self-determined human behavior. For this purpose, we ran regression models to test such effects. The results are presented in Table 3 . For the model tested in the sample of Chinese students, the overall regression model was statistically significant ( R 2 = 0.426, F (4, 276) = 51.180, p < 0.001), indicating that emotional intelligence explained 42.6% of the variance in autonomous motivation. It was found that emotion self-appraisal and emotion regulation significantly predicted autonomous motivation, and the effect of emotion utilization on autonomous motivation was close to significance. Tolerance and VIF values were in the acceptable range.

Table 3 . Regression model results of motivation on physical activity.

The main vector of research during considering the physical activity of students is associated with the substantiation of factors contributing to the increase of autonomous sports motivation. This study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence, intrinsic motivation and physical activity among student-athletes studying at institutes of physical education in China and Russia. The results of the study have revealed that Chinese students had higher scores on all components of emotional intelligence, which confirmed the hypothesis about the role of culture as a predictor of the development of emotional intelligence.

We can partially link the data we have obtained with other studies ( Lane et al., 2009 ), which have proven that emotional intelligence positively correlates with positive emotions and with the use of psychological skills, and negatively with negative emotions.

A higher level of emotional intelligence of Chinese student-athletes is provided not only by positive emotions, such as those of Russian students. But mostly due to the ability to regulate negative emotions, which is reflected in the Chinese proverb “Emotions are not on the face,” as well as due to the possession of the techniques of “taichi,” “qigong” and other psychological skills that students at physical education universities in China master ( Jiao et al., 2021 ).

According to the results of the two-dimensional correlation analysis, it has been revealed that in both samples, indicators of emotional intelligence have a higher correlation with autonomous motivation. Our data coincide with the results of other studies, which revealed the relationship between emotional intelligence and autonomous motivation ( Mercader-Rubio et al., 2023 ).

We can note a certain dynamic in the relationship between emotional intelligence and sports motivation. The greatest relationship was found with autonomous motivation, the relationship with controlled motivation is significantly lower, and there is a very weak relationship or lack thereof with autonomous motivation. We have not found an explanation of the obtained data in the literature. Therefore, we believe that autonomous motivation, in which the main focus is on the effective performance of activities, is significant for the athlete himself and requires high self-control, which is provided only through conscious emotion management. Therefore, the importance of the contribution of emotional intelligence to the successful performance of activities is quite high, which was recorded in our study. It can be noted that a similar rationale for this relationship is presented in other studies ( Mercader-Rubio et al., 2023 ). Studies have noted that emotional intelligence affects increased self-control (attention) ( Ubago-Jiménez et al., 2019 ), wellbeing ( García-Mas et al., 2021 ) and self-efficacy ( Wang et al., 2020 ).

With controlled motivation, the main focus is not on the activity, but on the external result, which is associated with uncertainty, stress, pressure, while managing the emotional state does not fully ensure the achievement of the result, which reduces the contribution of emotional intelligence to achieving the goal. With sports amotivation, the focus of attention is not related to activity, so the need to manage emotions is reduced to zero.

The data we have obtained from other studies indicate that there is no connection between a low level of emotional intelligence with motivation and physical activity ( Mazhar et al., 2021 ), a high relationship between a high level of emotional intelligence with autonomous motivation and physical activity ( Castro-Sánchez et al., 2018 ). The predictive effect of emotional intelligence on intrinsic motivation and physical activity showed that in the Chinese sample, emotion self-assessment and emotion regulation largely predicted autonomous motivation, and the effect of using emotions on autonomous motivation was close to significant.

In the sample of Russian students, the indicators of emotional intelligence were significantly lower than in the Chinese. Therefore, in the Russian sample, only the use of emotions reliably predicts autonomous motivation. The obtained data indicate that the emotional intelligence of Russian student-athletes has a more functional role associated with ensuring the success of their activities, while for Chinese student–athletes, the value of emotions is important itself and a high ability to manage their emotions is also essential. It is important to note that in the study of the emotional intelligence of Spanish student-athletes, the lowest values among the indicators of emotional intelligence are associated with the use of emotions, while, as the authors note, they are more typical for women than for men ( Castro-Sánchez et al., 2018 ). In our study, this conclusion is similar for Chinese student–athletes and it is not confirmed for Russian student–athletes.

Higher values of the level of emotion regulation in the Chinese sample confirm our hypothesis about the role of culture, but also indicate that a high ability to regulate emotions is a prerequisite for higher self-control of student-athletes over themselves, over managing activities and enjoying activities. But it is exactly this ability of emotional intelligence that is not only related to sports practice, but requires its conscious development. This point of view is consistent with the position of Mercader-Rubio et al. (2023) . It is apparent that in sports psychology the techniques of self-regulation have always been considered to be an important component in the psychological preparation of athletes, but our study proves the influence of emotional intelligence on autonomous motivation.

Of course, in sports psychology, self-regulation techniques have always been considered an important component in the psychological preparation of athletes, but our study proves that there is the contribution of emotional intelligence as a predictor of autonomous motivation and physical activity. Moreover, the solution to this problem is not provided only by the inclusion of students in sports or physical activity, but requires the development of a strategy for the improvement of their psychological skills.

Limitations

It should be noted that the research contains a number of restrictions which are related to the difference in social-demographic characteristics of participants from China and Russia, and first of all it relates to the number of participants. As the restriction should be considered that fact that the research was conducted online and included respondents from only one university of each country. Perception of the questions by the participants could have cultural differences, especially in the estimation of emotional intelligence. The obtained data requires further verification. Increase in the number of participants from different countries will allow to conduct a deeper analysis and interpretation of culture impact on emotional intelligence and motivation to engage in physical activity.

In general, we can say that the study has allowed us to obtain new data that, on the one hand, reveal the role of culture as a factor determining the development of emotional intelligence, and on the other hand, the significant role of emotional intelligence as a predicate of autonomous motivation.

It is proved that the higher level of emotional intelligence in Chinese sample has the higher demonstrated relationship with autonomous motivation and the level of physical activity than Russian sample. In Chinese sample the most significant contribution in autonomous motivation and the level of physical activity makes such indicators as self-esteem and regulation of emotions, while in Russian selection only the indicator “using emotions” does.

Further research, in our opinion, should be aimed at taking into account the cultural context and normative forms of emotion regulation, primarily negative emotions, which can significantly reduce the development of emotional intelligence, and therefore affect autonomous motivation and physical activity levels.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Ethics Committee of Ural Federal University. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

LR: Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. TZ: Data curation, Investigation, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AG-M: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.

Publisher's note

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Keywords: emotional intelligence, motivation, physical activity, student-athletes, culture

Citation: Rogaleva LN, Zhong T and Garcia-Mas A (2024) Is culture the key? Emotional intelligence, autonomous motivation and physical activity of student-athletes from China and Russia. Front. Psychol. 15:1420430. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1420430

Received: 22 April 2024; Accepted: 17 June 2024; Published: 10 July 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Rogaleva, Zhong and Garcia-Mas. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Liudmila Nikolaevna Rogaleva, liudmila.rogaleva@yandex.ru

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Relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Ageism of Chinese Medical and Nursing Students: Gratitude as Mediator

• First Online: 19 July 2024

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• Yang Wang 2  

This study examines the association between emotional intelligence and ageism, and the mediating role of gratitude in the relationship among Chinese medical and nursing students. An online survey was completed by 315 freshman and sophomore students. Students with higher emotional intelligence were likely to have higher gratitude, and could discriminate against older adults less. A higher gratitude indicated a lower ageism. Mediation analysis results suggested a significant mediating effect of gratitude. To improve medical and nursing students’ attitude towards older adults, future training programs should focus more on medical humanity and increasing students’ emotional intelligence and gratitude.

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All authors express their sincere gratitude to the adolescents and parents who shared their experiences during this study.

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Wang, Y. (2024). Relationship of Emotional Intelligence and Ageism of Chinese Medical and Nursing Students: Gratitude as Mediator. In: Advancing Older Adults' Well-being. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-3569-3_10

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Challenges faced by adult gifted students who have experienced traumatic brain injury: a phenomenological study.

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Kristy A. Motte

gifted students, traumatic brain injury, Kazimierz Dabrowski, positive disintegration, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, emotional intelligence, exceptional children, multiple intelligence, Wechsler intelligence scale, Kaufman test of educational achievement, resilience, support systems, counseling, retention, memory loss, reflection, disbelief, anxiety, simplicity, personality, frustrations, learning, embarrassment, invisible injuries, depression, mental challenge, personality challenge, personal strengths, emotional impacts, skills from abilities, triggers, not alone, Stanford-Binet intelligence test, Lewis Terman, perfectionism, National Association of Gifted Children, Individuals with Disabilities and Education Act, self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, self-determination, giftedness, overachievement, education regulation, intrinsic motivator, extrinsic motivator, personality, triangulation, hermeneutic circle

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Nessler, Dawn M., "Challenges Faced By Adult Gifted Students Who Have Experienced Traumatic Brain Injury: A Phenomenological Study" (2024). Doctoral Dissertations and Projects . 5811. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/doctoral/5811

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe the educational experiences of gifted adult students who have experienced traumatic brain injury (TBI). The theory guiding this phenomenological study was Kazimierz Dabrowski's theory of positive disintegration, with a focus on how the tragedy of various natures impacts the development of an individual's identity. This qualitative phenomenological study sought to understand the shared educational experiences of gifted undergraduate students who have experienced a TBI. 12 participants from Strong Minds, Kind Hearts, a Christian counseling and educational office located in Northwest Florida engaged in the study. Stratified sampling was used within the agency where the research was conducted with participants having varying aspects of TBI. Participants were chosen to participate in interviews observations, and journal prompts, which were conducted and recorded using visual and audio technology. Coding techniques were used to present a composite of my interpretation of the participants' experiences, in addition to the study's findings of life after TBI and not alone, with sub-themes of mental and personality challenges, emotional impacts, personal strengths, and skills from abilities.

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