research questions on social media

234 Social Media Research Topics & Ideas

• Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
• Icon Page 2646 words
• Icon Clock 12 min read

Social media research encompasses a broad range of different topics that delve into the ever-evolving digital landscape. People investigate the impact of social platforms on society, exploring subjects, such as online identity formation, self-presentation, the psychology of virtual interactions, and others. Additionally, studies examine the influence of social media on politics, activism, and public opinion, uncovering patterns of information dissemination and polarization. Privacy concerns, cyberbullying, and online safety are also explored in-depth, seeking strategies to mitigate the associated risks. In this article, people can find many social media research topics, ideas, and examples.

Hot Social Media Research Topics

• Impacts of Social Media and Internet Algorithms on User Experience
• The Rise of TikTok: A Socio-Cultural Analysis
• Dealing With Cyberbullying: Strategies and Solutions
• Understanding the Phenomenon of Social Media ‘Cancel Culture’
• NFTs and Social Media: The Future of Digital Art?
• Ethical Concerns in the Era of Influencer Marketing
• Social Media’s Role in Accelerating E-Commerce Growth
• Impacts of Internet and Social Media on Journalism and News Reporting
• Understanding the Psychology of Viral Challenges on Social Platforms
• Cryptocurrency and Social Media: The Intersection
• Mitigating Misinformation and ‘Fake News’ on Social Media
• Augmented Reality (AR) in Social Media: A Game Changer?
• Evaluating the Impact of Social Media on Political Campaigns
• Social Media’s Influence on Fashion and Beauty Trends
• Privacy, Safety, and Security Concerns in the Age of Social Networking
• Roles of Free Access and Social Media in Promoting Sustainable Practices
• Implications of Social Media Addiction on Mental Health
• Examining Social Media’s Role in Crisis Communication
• The Power of User-Generated Content in Branding
• Influence of Social Media on Food Culture and Dining Trends

Easy Social Media Research Topics

• Impacts of Online Videos and Social Media on Mental Health
• Influencer Marketing: Efficacy and Ethical Concerns
• Evolution of Privacy Policies Across Social Platforms
• Understanding Virality: What Makes Content Shareable?
• Cyberbullying: Prevalence and Prevention Strategies
• Social Media and Political Polarization: An In-Depth Study
• Role of Social Media in Modern Business Strategies
• Effect of Social Media on Interpersonal Relationships
• Social Platforms as Tools for Social Change
• Navigating Online Hate Speech: A Legal Perspective
• Emerging Trends in Social Media Advertising
• Online Identity Construction and Self-Presentation
• The Psychology of Social Media Addiction
• Social Media’s Role in Crisis Management and Communication
• Sentiment Analysis in Social Media and Its Implications
• Social Media Algorithms: Bias and Implications
• The Phenomenon of Cancel Culture on Social Platforms
• Cybersecurity Threats in the Era of Social Media
• Analyzing Adverse Impacts of Social Media on Consumer Behavior

Interesting Social Media Research Topics

• Evaluating the Effects of Social Media on Language and Communication
• Roles of Social Media in Fostering Political Engagement
• Misinformation and Propaganda Spread Through Social Platforms
• Analyzing the Shift From Traditional Media to Social Media
• Dark Patterns in Social Media: Hidden Manipulative Tactics
• Social Media and Digital Activism: Revolutionizing Advocacy
• Augmented Reality (AR) and Its Impact on Social Networking
• Exploring Cybersecurity Issues in Social Media Platforms
• Roles and Effects of Social Media and News in Mental Health Promotion
• Strategies for Effective Social Media Crisis Management
• The Power of Live Streaming for Brands and Influencers
• Using Social Media to Enhance Classroom Learning
• Analyzing the Influence of Memes on Internet Culture
• Impacts of Social Media Algorithms on User Behavior
• Assessing the Correlation Between Social Media and Loneliness
• Geotagging and Its Implications for Personal Privacy
• Social Media and E-commerce: A Cross-Industry Study
• The Ethics of Digital Advertising on Social Platforms
• Understanding the Psychology of Social Media Trolls
• The Cultural Shift Caused by Social Media Localization

Social Media Research Paper Topics for High School

• The Phenomenon of Cyberbullying: Prevention and Strategies
• How Does Social Media Influence Teen Body Image?
• Evaluating the Educational Potential of Social Media Platforms
• Impacts of Social Media on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
• Roles of Free Connection and Social Media in Modern Political Activism
• Exploring the Concept of ‘Digital Citizenship’ Among Teenagers
• The Ethics of Social Media Privacy: User Rights and Responsibilities
• Social Media Addiction: Understanding Its Causes and Effects
• Influence of Social Media on Modern Communication Styles
• Analyzing Positive Roles of Social Media in Promoting Reading Culture
• Social Media and Mental Health: Correlation or Causation?
• The Role of Social Media in Global Environmental Awareness
• Examining Social Media’s Impact on Real-Life Social Skills
• Social Media Platforms: Tools for Personal Branding or Narcissism?
• Influence of Social Media Trends on Youth Fashion Choices
• Impacts of Social Media on Teenagers’ Sleep Patterns
• Online Safety: The Role of Parents and Schools in Social Media Usage
• How Does Social Media Influence Teenagers’ Views on Relationships?
• Social Media and Empathy: Does Online Interaction Decrease Compassion?

Social Media Research Paper Topics for College Students

• Evaluating the Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem
• The Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns Among Young Adults
• Social Media as a Valid Tool for Social Change: A Case Study Approach
• Unveiling the Psychology of Social Media Addiction
• Social Media’s Role in Modern Journalism: Opportunities and Challenges
• Privacy Implications of Data Collection on Social Media Platforms
• Cyberbullying in the Age of Social Media: Scope and Solutions
• The Ethical Aspects of Social Media Influencer Marketing
• Roles and Effects of Social Media in Crisis Communication and Management
• Social Media and Its Effects on Interpersonal Communication Skills
• Analyzing Social Media Strategies of Successful Businesses
• Impacts of Internet Use and Social Media on Mental Health Among College Students
• The Roles That Social Media Has in Modern Political Campaigns
• Understanding the Social Media Algorithm: Bias and Implications
• Social Media and Consumer Behavior: The Power of Influencer Marketing
• Fake News, Authors, and Disinformation Spread Through Social Media Platforms
• Exploring Direct Links Between Social Media Use and Academic Performance
• Social Media’s Role in Promoting Sustainable Lifestyle Choices
• Regulation of Hate Speech and Offensive Content on Social Media
• The Power and Peril of Virality in the Age of Social Media

Social Media Research Paper Topics for University

• The Effect That Social Media Has on Global Politics
• The Ethics of Data Mining in Social Media
• Roles of Social Media in Business Marketing Strategies
• Social Media, Internet Use, and Their Impacts on Mental Health: A Systematic Review
• Algorithmic Bias in Social Media Platforms: Causes and Consequences
• The Influence of Colors and Social Media on Consumer Behavior
• Exploring Possible Relationships Between Social Media Use and Academic Performance
• Privacy, Morality, and Security Concerns in the Age of Social Media
• Social Media as a Platform for Digital Activism
• Impacts of Social Media on Interpersonal Communication and Relationships
• Cyberbullying on Social Media: Scope, Impact, and Preventive Measures
• The Role of Social Media in Spreading Health-Related Misinformation
• Analyzing the Effect of Social Media on Journalism Practices
• Understanding the Influence of Social Media on Body Image Perceptions
• Social Media’s Role in Crisis Management: Case Studies
• The Power and Effectiveness of Influencer Marketing on Social Media
• Fake News and Disinformation in the Social Media Age
• Regulatory Approaches to Hate Speech on Social Media Platforms
• The Economic Implications of Social Media: From Startups to Giants

Social Media Research Paper Topics for Masters

• Advanced Algorithms and Their Role in Shaping Social Media Interactions
• Evaluating the Impact of Social Media on Democratic Processes Globally
• The Intersection of Privacy, Data Mining, and Ethics in Social Media
• Quantitative Analysis of Social Media’s Impact on Consumer Buying Behavior
• Cybersecurity Threats in Social Media: Mitigation and Prevention Strategies
• Analyzing the Psychological Implications of Social Media Addiction
• Using Social Media Data to Predict Market Trends: An Econometric Approach
• Role of Social Media in Crisis Management: A Comparative Study
• The Sociolinguistic Impact of Social Media on Communication
• Machine Learning and AI in Social Media: An Examination of Emerging Trends
• Social Media as a Valid Tool for Public Health: Opportunities and Challenges
• Social Media’s Influence on Modern Journalism: A Critical Analysis
• Mapping Social Networks: A Graph Theory Approach
• Evaluating the Efficacy of Social Media Campaigns in Social Change Movements
• Analyzing the Role of Social Media in Corporate Reputation Management
• Data Privacy Laws and Social Media: A Comparative Study
• The Use of Small and Big Data Analytics in Social Media Marketing
• Social Media and Its Role in Strengthening Democracy: A Deep Dive
• The Impact of Social Media on Cultural Assimilation and Identity
• Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Social Media Content Moderation

Social Media Research Paper Topics for Ph.D.

• Analyzing the Impact of Social Media Algorithms on User Behavior and Perceptions
• Deciphering the Influence of Social Media on Political Campaign Strategies
• Examining the Role of Social Media in Corporate Social Responsibility Initiatives
• Social Media and Mental Health: A Comprehensive Analysis of Recent Studies
• Effects of Social Media and Internet Use on Consumer Buying Behavior: An Econometric Approach
• Social Media and Digital Diplomacy: A Critical Analysis
• Ethical Implications of Data Mining Techniques in Social Media Platforms
• Unpacking the Psychological Mechanisms of Social Media Addiction
• Role of Social Media in Contemporary Journalism: Opportunities and Challenges
• Social Media and Privacy: A Comparative Study of Data Protection Laws
• Machine Learning and AI in Social Media: Identifying Future Trends
• Social Media’s Possible Influence on People, Body Image, and Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis
• Analyzing the Role of Social Media in Crisis Management and Communication
• Impacts of Social Media on Different Language and Communication Styles
• Cybersecurity in Social Media: An Analysis of Current Threats and Mitigation Strategies
• Social Media as a Good Tool for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
• Effects of Social Media on Children and Their Parents: Social Skills and Interpersonal Relationships
• Roles of Social Media in Promoting Gender Equality and Women’s Rights
• Social Media and its Influence on Cultural Assimilation and Identity Formation

Social Media Research Topics for Argumentative Papers

• Impacts of Social Media on Social and Political Discourses: Enhancing or Hindering Democratic Engagement?
• Social Media and Mental Health: Exploring the Association Between Excessive Usage and Psychological Well-Being
• Fostering Online Activism and Social Movements: The Role of Social Media
• Balancing Personal Information Sharing and Data Protection: Social Media and Privacy
• Exploring the Effects of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem
• Social Media and Political Polarization: Reinforcing Echo Chambers or Encouraging Diverse Perspectives?
• Youth Culture and Identity Formation: The Influence of Social Media
• Fake News and Misinformation: Combating Inaccurate Information in the Era of Social Media
• Social Media and Cyberbullying: Examining the Impact on Mental Health and Well-Being
• The Ethics of Social Media Research: Privacy, Informed Consent, and Ethical Considerations
• Relationships in the Digital Age: Exploring the Influence of Social Media Use
• The Influence of Internet, Technology, and Social Media on Consumer Behavior and Buying Decisions
• Analyzing the Role of Online Platforms in Elections: Social Media and Political Campaigns
• Social Media in Education: Exploring the Benefits and Challenges of Integration in the Classroom
• Impacts of Social Media and Interface on News Consumption and Journalism Practices
• Body Politics in the Digital Space: Examining Representations of Gender, Race, and Body Image on Social Media
• Addressing Ethical and Security Concerns in the Digital Age: Social Media and Cybersecurity
• Shaping Consumer Behavior and Brand Perception: The Role of Social Media Influencers
• Civic Engagement in the Digital Era: Assessing the Role of Social Media Platforms
• The Influence of Social Media Algorithms on Information Consumption and Personalization

Social Media Research Topics for Persuasive Papers

• The Power of Social Media in Driving Social and Political Change
• Promoting Digital Literacy: Empowering Users to Navigate the Complexities of Social Media
• Social Media as a Catalyst for Social Justice Movements: Amplifying Marginalized Voices
• Countering Fake News and Misinformation on Social Media: Strategies for Critical Thinking
• Harnessing the Influence of Social Media for Environmental Activism and Sustainability
• The Dark Side of Social Media: Addressing Online Harassment and Cyberbullying
• Influencer Marketing: Ethical Considerations and Consumer Protection in the Digital Age
• Leveraging Social Media for Public Health Campaigns: Increasing Awareness and Behavioral Change
• Social Media and Mental Health: Promoting Well-Being in a Hyperconnected World
• Navigating the Privacy Paradox: Balancing Convenience and Personal Data Protection on Social Media
• Roles of Social Media and Internet in Fostering Civic Engagement and Democratic Participation
• Promoting Positive Body Image on Social Media: Redefining Beauty Standards and Empowering Individuals
• Enhancing Online Safety: Developing Policies and Regulations for Social Media Platforms
• Social Media and the Spread of Disinformation: Combating the Infodemic
• Roles of Social Media and Technology in Building and Sustaining Relationships: Connecting in a Digital Era
• Influencer Culture and Materialism: Examining the Impact on Consumer Behavior
• Social Media and Education: Maximizing Learning Opportunities and Bridging the Digital Divide
• The Power of Viral Hashtags: Exploring Social Movements and Online Activism
• Social Media and Political Polarization: Bridging Divides and Encouraging Constructive Dialogue

Social Media Topics for Pros and Cons Research Papers

• Examining the Social Effects of Digital Connectivity: Pros and Cons of Using Social Media
• Balancing Privacy Concerns in the Digital Age: Evaluating the Cons and Risks of Social Media Use
• Information Sharing in the Digital Era: Uncovering the Advantages of Social Media Platforms
• Building Online Communities: Analyzing the Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Media Interaction
• Navigating Political Discourse in the Digital Age: The Disadvantages of Social Media Engagement
• Mental Health in the Digital Sphere: Understanding the Benefits and Drawbacks of Social Media
• Combating Cyberbullying: Addressing the Negative Side of Online Social Interactions
• Personal Branding in the Digital Landscape: Empowerment vs. Self-Objectification on Social Media
• Establishing Meaningful Connections: Exploring the Pros and Cons of Social Media Relationships
• Leveraging the Educational Potential of Digital Platforms: Examining the Benefits of Social Media in Learning
• Body Image and Self-Esteem in the Age of Social Media: Weighing the Positives and Negatives
• From Digital Activism to Political Change: Assessing the Opportunities and Limitations of Social Media
• Unraveling the Influence: Social Media and Consumer Behavior in the Digital Marketplace
• Misinformation in the Digital Landscape: The Pros and Cons of Social Media in the Spread of Disinformation
• Crisis Communication in the Digital Age: Navigating the Benefits and Challenges of Social Media
• Tackling Fake News: Navigating Misinformation in the Era of Social Media
• Maximizing Business Opportunities: Evaluating the Advantages and Disadvantages of Social Media Marketing
• The Psychology of Social Media: Analyzing the Upsides and Downsides of Digital Engagement
• Exploring the Impact of Social Media on Socialization: Benefits, Drawbacks, and Implications
• Online Activism: The Power and Limitations of Social Media Movements

Social Media Topics for Cause and Effect Research Papers

• Enhancing Political Activism: Exploring the Relationship Between Social Media and Civic Engagement
• The Psychological Effects of Digital Connectivity: Investigating the Relationship Between Mental Health of People and Social Media Use
• Political Polarization in the Online Sphere: Understanding the Impact of Digital Networks
• Disrupted Sleep Patterns in the Digital Era: Exploring the Role of Online Platforms
• Digital Distractions and Academic Performance: Analyzing the Effects of Online Engagement
• Navigating Online Relationships: Understanding the Impacts of Digital Interactions
• The Digital Marketplace: Exploring Consumer Behavior in the Age of Online Platforms
• The Loneliness Epidemic: Investigating the Relationship Between Social Media Use and Social Isolation
• Redefining Political Participation: The Influence of Digital Networks on Democracy
• Unmasking Digital Identities: The Psychological Effects of Social Media Use
• News Consumption in the Digital Era: Exploring the Impacts of Online Platforms
• Cyberbullying in the Virtual World: Analyzing the Effects of Online Interactions
• The Digital Campaign Trail: Investigating the Influence of Online Platforms on Voter Behavior
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO) in the Digital Age: Exploring the Psychological Consequences
• Body Dissatisfaction in the Digital Sphere: Understanding the Impacts of Online Presence
• Information Overload: Coping With the Digital Deluge in the Information Age
• Privacy Concerns in the Online Landscape: Analyzing the Implications of Digital Footprints
• Unveiling the Dark Side: Exploring the Relationship Between Online Activities and Substance Abuse
• Bridging the Political Divide: The Impact of Digital Networks on Sociopolitical Polarization

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300+ Social Media Research Topics

Social media has become an integral part of our lives, and it has transformed the way we communicate, share information, and interact with each other. As social media platforms continue to evolve and gain popularity, they have also become a rich source of data for researchers. Social media research is a rapidly growing field that encompasses a wide range of topics , from understanding the psychological and social effects of social media to analyzing patterns of user behavior and identifying trends in online conversations. In this era of data-driven decision-making, social media research is more important than ever, as it provides insights into how we use and are influenced by social media. In this post, we will explore some of the most fascinating and relevant social media research topics that are shaping our understanding of this powerful medium.

Social Media Research Topics

Social Media Research Topics are as follows:

• The effects of social media on mental health
• The role of social media in political polarization
• The impact of social media on relationships
• The use of social media by businesses for marketing
• The effects of social media on body image and self-esteem
• The influence of social media on consumer behavior
• The use of social media for education
• The effects of social media on language use and grammar
• The impact of social media on news consumption
• The role of social media in activism and social change
• The use of social media for job seeking and career development
• The effects of social media on sleep patterns
• The influence of social media on adolescent behavior
• The impact of social media on the spread of misinformation
• The use of social media for personal branding
• The effects of social media on political participation
• The influence of social media on fashion trends
• The impact of social media on sports fandom
• The use of social media for mental health support
• The effects of social media on creativity
• The role of social media in cultural exchange
• The impact of social media on language learning
• The use of social media for crisis communication
• The effects of social media on privacy and security
• The influence of social media on diet and exercise behavior
• The impact of social media on travel behavior
• The use of social media for citizen journalism
• The effects of social media on political accountability
• The role of social media in peer pressure
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships
• The use of social media for community building
• The effects of social media on gender identity
• The influence of social media on music consumption
• The impact of social media on academic performance
• The use of social media for social support
• The effects of social media on social skills
• The role of social media in disaster response
• The impact of social media on nostalgia and memory
• The use of social media for charity and philanthropy
• The effects of social media on political polarization in developing countries
• The influence of social media on literary consumption
• The impact of social media on family relationships
• The use of social media for citizen science
• The effects of social media on cultural identity
• The role of social media in promoting healthy behaviors
• The impact of social media on language diversity
• The use of social media for environmental activism
• The effects of social media on attention span
• The influence of social media on art consumption
• The impact of social media on cultural values and norms.
• The impact of social media on mental health
• The impact of social media on mental health.
• The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem.
• The use of social media for political activism and social justice movements.
• The role of social media in promoting cultural diversity and inclusivity.
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships and dating.
• The use of social media for customer service and support.
• The impact of social media on mental health and well-being among young adults.
• The impact of social media on political polarization and partisanship.
• The use of social media for health communication and behavior change.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards vaccination.
• The impact of social media on political participation and civic engagement.
• The impact of social media on political polarization and echo chambers.
• The use of social media for political campaigning and the manipulation of public opinion.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards vaccination and public health.
• The impact of social media on news consumption and trust in journalism.
• The use of social media for promoting sustainable fashion practices and ethical consumption.
• The role of social media in influencing beauty standards and body image.
• The impact of social media on the music industry and the role of social media influencers.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among healthcare professionals.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards gun violence and gun control policies.
• The impact of social media on social activism and advocacy.
• The use of social media for promoting cross-cultural communication and intercultural understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards climate change and environmental policies.
• The impact of social media on public health during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and access to financial services for low-income individuals.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards immigration policies and refugee crises.
• The impact of social media on political activism and social movements.
• The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology education in developing countries.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards gender and sexual orientation.
• The impact of social media on consumer behavior in the food and beverage industry.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among first responders.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards racial justice and police brutality.
• The impact of social media on privacy concerns and data security.
• The use of social media for promoting interfaith dialogue and religious tolerance.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards income inequality and economic justice.
• The impact of social media on the film and television industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among military personnel.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards privacy and data security.
• The impact of social media on the hospitality industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting intergenerational communication and understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards animal welfare and animal rights.
• The impact of social media on the gaming industry and gamer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology skills among seniors.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards renewable energy and sustainability.
• The impact of social media on the advertising industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among children and adolescents.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards online privacy and security.
• The impact of social media on the beauty industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting cultural preservation and heritage tourism.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards criminal justice reform.
• The impact of social media on the automotive industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among marginalized communities.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards sustainable development goals.
• The impact of social media on the fashion industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting intercultural communication in the workplace.
• The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards mental health policies.
• The impact of social media on the travel industry and sustainable tourism practices.
• The use of social media for health information seeking and patient empowerment.
• The role of social media in promoting environmental activism and sustainable practices.
• The impact of social media on consumer behavior and brand loyalty.
• The use of social media for promoting education and lifelong learning.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards mental health issues.
• The impact of social media on the fashion industry and fast fashion practices.
• The use of social media for promoting social entrepreneurship and social innovation.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gun control.
• The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of adolescents.
• The use of social media for promoting intercultural exchange and understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards climate change.
• The impact of social media on political advertising and campaign strategies.
• The use of social media for promoting healthy relationships and communication skills.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards police brutality and racial justice.
• The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and personal finance management.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
• The impact of social media on the music industry and fan engagement.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among marginalized populations.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration and border policies.
• The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of journalists.
• The use of social media for promoting community building and social cohesion.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards healthcare policies.
• The impact of social media on the food industry and consumer behavior.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gender equality.
• The impact of social media on the sports industry and athlete-fan interactions.
• The use of social media for promoting financial inclusion and access to banking services.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards animal welfare.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among college students.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards privacy and data security.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards income inequality and poverty.
• The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology skills.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards renewable energy.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among elderly populations.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards online privacy and security.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards criminal justice reform.
• The impact of social media on online activism and social movements.
• The use of social media for business-to-business communication and networking.
• The role of social media in promoting civic education and engagement.
• The impact of social media on the fashion industry and sustainable fashion practices.
• The use of social media for promoting cultural diversity and inclusion.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards police reform.
• The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of frontline healthcare workers.
• The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and investment education.
• The role of social media in promoting environmental sustainability and conservation.
• The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem among adolescent girls.
• The use of social media for promoting intercultural dialogue and understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration policies and refugees.
• The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of healthcare professionals.
• The use of social media for promoting community resilience and disaster preparedness.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards the Black Lives Matter movement.
• The impact of social media on the music industry and artist-fan interactions.
• The use of social media for promoting healthy eating habits and nutrition education.
• The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among college students.
• The impact of social media on the entertainment industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting workplace diversity and inclusion.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards climate change policies.
• The impact of social media on the travel industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among military veterans.
• The role of social media in promoting intergenerational dialogue and understanding.
• The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of educators.
• The use of social media for promoting animal welfare and advocacy.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards reproductive rights.
• The impact of social media on the sports industry and fan behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting financial inclusion and literacy among underprivileged populations.
• The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among LGBTQ+ populations.
• The impact of social media on the food and beverage industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for promoting interfaith dialogue and understanding.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gun ownership.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among caregivers.
• The role of social media in promoting sustainable tourism practices.
• The impact of social media on the gaming industry and gamer culture.
• The use of social media for promoting cultural heritage tourism and preservation.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards public transportation policies.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among homeless populations.
• The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among immigrants and refugees.
• The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and entrepreneurship among youth.
• The use of social media for political mobilization and participation in authoritarian regimes.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration policies.
• The impact of social media on the professional development of teachers and educators.
• The use of social media for emergency communication during public health crises.
• The role of social media in promoting LGBTQ+ rights and advocacy.
• The impact of social media on body positivity and self-acceptance among women.
• The use of social media for public diplomacy and international relations.
• The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of marginalized communities.
• The use of social media for crisis management and disaster response in the corporate sector.
• The role of social media in promoting environmental activism and conservation.
• The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of entrepreneurs.
• The use of social media for medical education and healthcare communication.
• The role of social media in promoting cultural exchange and understanding.
• The impact of social media on social capital and civic engagement among young adults.
• The use of social media for disaster preparedness and community resilience.
• The role of social media in promoting religious pluralism and tolerance.
• The use of social media for promoting healthy lifestyles and wellness.
• The use of social media for fundraising and philanthropy in the non-profit sector.
• The role of social media in promoting interfaith dialogue and understanding.
• The impact of social media on the travel and tourism industry and consumer behavior.
• The use of social media for customer engagement and brand loyalty in the retail sector.
• The impact of social media on the political attitudes and behaviors of young adults.
• The use of social media for promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment.
• The use of social media for promoting animal welfare and adoption.
• The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among the elderly.
• The impact of social media on the art industry and artist-fan interactions.
• The use of social media for promoting healthy food choices and nutrition.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards income inequality.
• The use of social media for promoting political satire and humor.
• The role of social media in promoting disability rights and advocacy.
• The use of social media for promoting voter registration and participation.
• The role of social media in promoting entrepreneurship and small business development.
• The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among incarcerated populations.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gun violence prevention.
• The use of social media for promoting cultural heritage and preservation.
• The impact of social media on mental health and well-being.
• The relationship between social media use and academic performance.
• The use of social media for emergency communication during natural disasters.
• The impact of social media on traditional news media and journalism.
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion and discourse.
• The use of social media for online learning and education.
• The impact of social media on the fashion and beauty industry.
• The use of social media for brand awareness and marketing.
• The impact of social media on privacy and security.
• The use of social media for job searching and recruitment.
• The impact of social media on political polarization and extremism.
• The use of social media for online harassment and cyberbullying.
• The role of social media in promoting environmental awareness and sustainability.
• The impact of social media on youth culture and identity formation.
• The use of social media for travel and tourism marketing.
• The impact of social media on consumer behavior and decision-making.
• The role of social media in shaping beauty standards and body positivity.
• The use of social media for crisis communication and disaster response.
• The impact of social media on the music industry.
• The use of social media for fundraising and philanthropy.
• The role of social media in promoting healthy lifestyles and wellness.
• The impact of social media on sports fandom and fan behavior.
• The use of social media for political lobbying and advocacy.
• The impact of social media on the entertainment industry.
• The use of social media for healthcare communication and patient engagement.
• The role of social media in promoting gender equality and feminism.
• The impact of social media on the restaurant and food industry.
• The use of social media for volunteerism and community service.
• The role of social media in promoting religious tolerance and interfaith dialogue.
• The impact of social media on the art industry.
• The use of social media for political satire and humor.
• The role of social media in promoting disability awareness and advocacy.
• The impact of social media on the real estate industry.
• The use of social media for legal advocacy and justice reform.
• The role of social media in promoting intercultural communication and understanding.
• The impact of social media on the automotive industry.
• The use of social media for pet adoption and animal welfare advocacy.
• The role of social media in promoting mental health and wellness for marginalized communities.
• The impact of social media on the retail industry.
• The use of social media for promoting civic engagement and voter participation.
• The impact of social media on the film and television industry.
• The use of social media for fashion and style inspiration.
• The role of social media in promoting activism for human rights and social issues.
• The effectiveness of social media for political campaigns.
• The role of social media in promoting fake news and misinformation.
• The impact of social media on self-esteem and body image.
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships.
• The use of social media for online activism and social justice movements.
• The impact of social media on traditional news media.
• The impact of social media on interpersonal communication skills.
• The impact of social media on the fashion industry.
• The use of social media for social support and mental health awareness.
• The use of social media for political lobbying and activism.
• The impact of social media on travel and tourism behavior.
• The use of social media for customer feedback and market research.
• The impact of social media on the restaurant industry.
• The role of social media in political activism
• The effect of social media on interpersonal communication
• The relationship between social media use and body image concerns
• The impact of social media on self-esteem
• The role of social media in shaping cultural norms and values
• The use of social media by celebrities and its impact on their image
• The role of social media in building and maintaining personal relationships
• The use of social media for job searching and recruitment
• The impact of social media on children and adolescents
• The use of social media by political candidates during election campaigns
• The role of social media in education
• The impact of social media on political polarization
• The use of social media for news consumption
• The effect of social media on sleep habits
• The use of social media by non-profit organizations for fundraising
• The role of social media in shaping public opinion
• The influence of social media on language and communication patterns
• The use of social media in crisis communication and emergency management
• The role of social media in promoting environmental awareness
• The influence of social media on music preferences
• The impact of social media on body positivity movements
• The role of social media in shaping beauty standards
• The influence of social media on sports fandom
• The use of social media for health promotion and education
• The impact of social media on political participation
• The role of social media in shaping parenting practices
• The influence of social media on food preferences and eating habits
• The use of social media for peer support and mental health advocacy
• The role of social media in shaping religious beliefs and practices
• The influence of social media on humor and comedy
• The use of social media for online activism and social justice advocacy
• The impact of social media on public health awareness campaigns
• The role of social media in promoting cultural diversity and inclusion
• The influence of social media on travel behavior and decision-making
• The use of social media for international diplomacy and relations
• The impact of social media on job satisfaction and employee engagement
• The role of social media in shaping romantic preferences and dating behavior
• The influence of social media on language learning and language use
• The use of social media for political satire and humor
• The impact of social media on social capital and community building
• The role of social media in shaping gender identity and expression
• The influence of social media on fashion and beauty advertising.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Social Media Research: A Comprehensive Guide

Guv Callahan

May 20, 2024

8 min. read

Social media research helps you unlock the potential of social content for business. We’re living in a world where tweets hold power and likes shape perceptions. When you know what to publish and who you’re posting it for, you can construct a stronger strategy that helps you meet key goals.

Data isn’t just about numbers; it’s about uncovering narratives and following the breadcrumbs of likes, shares, and comments to gain deeper understandings. There’s a method to the madness of selfies and status updates. The right approach to social media research helps you learn more about the collective consciousness of society — and use it to your advantage.

Let’s explore the language of social media likes and shares and dig beneath the surface of our digital interactions.

What is Social Media Research?

Tools and techniques for social media research, understanding the difference: social media research vs. traditional research, harnessing the power of social media research for your business, ethics and privacy in social media research, success stories: real world examples of social media research.

Social media research is the process of using social media data to learn about trending topics, audiences, and content performance. Reviewing social data gives you quantitative insights (e.g., engagement rates , best posting times ), but it can also lead to qualitative learnings like human behaviors, preferences, and opinions.

When conducting social media research, companies can look for patterns and sentiments to drive their social media marketing strategy. They can decide what content to create, which channels to post on, how to reach their audience, when to post content, and a myriad of other decisions that will lead to faster results.

There’s no single best way to do social media research. You can manually review engagement on your posts or look at your competitors’ content. Or you can use third-party social listening tools to aggregate social data for you. 

Social media research can be formal (like a traditional research project) or informal. You might have a certain goal in mind, or you might not know what you’re looking for and just want to see what pops up. 

Let’s review some options.

Social media analytics

No matter what channels you choose, you can gain a wealth of insights from built-in social analytics. Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter give you instant intel about your content performance and audiences. 

Even better, you don’t always need to know what you’re looking for. You can start combing through your analytics, then jot down questions or ideas you want to explore further.

Tip: Learn more in our blog The Complete Guide to Social Media Analytics .

Google Alerts

Google Alerts is a free and underrated tool that gives you unique angles and insights on a given topic. You can set up a Google Alert related to a keyword or topic of your choice, then receive a daily digest of articles published on that topic. 

From there, you can learn more about what other brands and businesses are publishing. Repurpose your findings into your social media content to get ahead of trends and topics. You can lead conversations instead of joining them after they blow up on social.

Social listening tools

Social listening tools like Meltwater let you be the fly on the wall in the social world. You can “listen” to what your audience is saying and truly be everywhere all at once. 

These tools monitor billions of publicly available data points across multiple social channels, like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. They help brands track mentions of their products or brand names in real time so you can become part of important conversations. 

You can also track topics related to your niche or learn more about what your audience is talking about beyond your brand. This gives you direct insight into their lifestyles so you can meet them where they are authentically.

Want to learn more about how Meltwater could help your social media research? Fill out the form below and an expert will be in touch!

Media intelligence tools

Taking social listening a step further, you can add media intelligence tools to the mix to learn what’s being talked about beyond social media. Meltwater’s media intelligence suite lets you monitor TV and radio channels, blogs, print media, and other new sources around the world.

This gives you more comprehensive insights into hot topics and trends that you can repurpose for social media. News-worthy events make their way to social media, giving you an easy “in” to your audience’s attention. 

Aside from the social-specific aspect, social media research holds a few advantages over traditional research. 

For starters, social research gives you real-time data that’s constantly changing. You can also get the most specific insights according to your audience and social channels, not just general info. This means you can shorten the research curve and get faster insights about topics that matter to you.  

By comparison, traditional research is often a more structured approach with specific goals in mind. It typically requires lots of sources and manual effort. It takes time to find and vet sources, cross-reference data, and ensure a high level of accuracy. 

Combining both types of research can give you the most comprehensive view of your audience.

Now that you know what social media research is, let’s explore some ways you can apply it to your business.

Identify your target audience

Analyzing social media data can help you pinpoint who your target audience is (because it’s not always who you think). You might have your audience defined on the surface with basics like age, gender, and geographic location, but social research can dig several layers deeper to uncover new audience segments you haven’t considered. 

Audiences evolve all the time. Their preferences, needs, and interests change. This means that who you want to reach today might not be the same person you want to connect with in the future. Constantly finding new things about your audience will help you continue generating content that captures their interests.

Improve brand reputation

Monitoring online conversations and feedback gives companies a direct path to reputation management . You can more easily spot when trouble might be brewing so you can act fast and defend against hits to your brand image.

Proactively engaging with customers on social platforms shows that the company values their opinions and is committed to providing excellent customer service. This not only builds trust and loyalty but also strengthens the brand's reputation as a customer-centric organization.

Optimize social media marketing campaigns

When you know more about your audience and past content performance, you’re in a better position to create better posts that resonate. Learn what type of content your audience prefers based on engagement metrics. Tailor your content and messaging to reflect their interests and needs.

You’ll also have insights about what’s hot in the social media world. You can use these trends as the foundation for your own content, taking the guesswork out of what you should talk about. 

Tip: Learn more about tailoring your content and messaging in our Personalization at Scale Guide !

Collecting social media research from outside data sources brings ethics and privacy into question. Marketers should be proactive in asking where their data is coming from and how it was obtained. 

Ideally, you’ll choose tools that are in compliance with regulations like GDPR and CCPA. Know how they obtain data and whether they safeguard individual users’ information. Getting ahead of your competitors shouldn't be at the expense of your customers’ privacy or potential legal challenges.

Companies around the world use social media research to drive engagement, create better content, and grow their brand presence. 

Take Shiseido , for instance. This Meltwater customer uses our Explore solution to learn what makes their brand special across 120 markets. The company uses social listening to monitor competitors, unify social mentions in a single dashboard, and understand the brand’s presence on a global stage.

Another Meltwater customer, Fifty Acres , uses the platform to learn about relevant narratives happening on social media. Learning what others are talking about allows them to shape their own stories, pitch new ideas for business growth, and connect with people in the right places at the right times.

W Hotels in Singapore is another great example of social media research at work. The company uses Meltwater to learn more about what customers like when traveling, allowing them to create custom experiences in their hotels.

Last but not least, Mailchimp uses Meltwater to inform its content strategy. The company looks for trends and themes on social media that resonate with creators, allowing them to easily scale their content by making their audience go bananas over every post.

Learn more when you request a demo by filling out the form below.

Continue Reading

Personalization at Scale: Removing Guesswork from Consumer Research

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Customer Segmentation Models: Types, Benefits & Uses

The Ultimate Social Listening Guide - Never Miss a Social Mention

Insight-Driven Marketing, Your New Strategic Advantage

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• Open access
• Published: 01 July 2020

The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent

• Ine Beyens   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7023-867X 1 ,
• J. Loes Pouwels   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9586-392X 1 ,
• Irene I. van Driel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7810-9677 1 ,
• Loes Keijsers   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8580-6000 2 &
• Patti M. Valkenburg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0477-8429 1  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  10763 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour

The question whether social media use benefits or undermines adolescents’ well-being is an important societal concern. Previous empirical studies have mostly established across-the-board effects among (sub)populations of adolescents. As a result, it is still an open question whether the effects are unique for each individual adolescent. We sampled adolescents’ experiences six times per day for one week to quantify differences in their susceptibility to the effects of social media on their momentary affective well-being. Rigorous analyses of 2,155 real-time assessments showed that the association between social media use and affective well-being differs strongly across adolescents: While 44% did not feel better or worse after passive social media use, 46% felt better, and 10% felt worse. Our results imply that person-specific effects can no longer be ignored in research, as well as in prevention and intervention programs.

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Introduction.

Ever since the introduction of social media, such as Facebook and Instagram, researchers have been studying whether the use of such media may affect adolescents’ well-being. These studies have typically reported mixed findings, yielding either small negative, small positive, or no effects of the time spent using social media on different indicators of well-being, such as life satisfaction and depressive symptoms (for recent reviews, see for example 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ). Most of these studies have focused on between-person associations, examining whether adolescents who use social media more (or less) often than their peers experience lower (or higher) levels of well-being than these peers. While such between-person studies are valuable in their own right, several scholars 6 , 7 have recently called for studies that investigate within-person associations to understand whether an increase in an adolescent’s social media use is associated with an increase or decrease in that adolescent’s well-being. The current study aims to respond to this call by investigating associations between social media use and well-being within single adolescents across multiple points in time 8 , 9 , 10 .

Person-specific effects

To our knowledge, four recent studies have investigated within-person associations of social media use with different indicators of adolescent well-being (i.e., life satisfaction, depression), again with mixed results 6 , 11 , 12 , 13 . Orben and colleagues 6 found a small negative reciprocal within-person association between the time spent using social media and life satisfaction. Likewise, Boers and colleagues 12 found a small within-person association between social media use and increased depressive symptoms. Finally, Coyne and colleagues 11 and Jensen and colleagues 13 did not find any evidence for within-person associations between social media use and depression.

Earlier studies that investigated within-person associations of social media use with indicators of well-being have all only reported average effect sizes. However, it is possible, or even plausible, that these average within-person effects may have been small and nonsignificant because they result from sizeable heterogeneity in adolescents’ susceptibility to the effects of social media use on well-being (see 14 , 15 ). After all, an average within-person effect size can be considered an aggregate of numerous individual within-person effect sizes that range from highly positive to highly negative.

Some within-person studies have sought to understand adolescents’ differential susceptibility to the effects of social media by investigating differences between subgroups. For instance, they have investigated the moderating role of sex to compare the effects of social media on boys versus girls 6 , 11 . However, such a group-differential approach, in which potential differences in susceptibility are conceptualized by group-level moderators (e.g., gender, age) does not provide insights into more fine-grained differences at the level of the single individual 16 . After all, while girls and boys each represent a homogenous group in terms of sex, they may each differ on a wide array of other factors.

As such, although worthwhile, the average within-person effects of social media on well-being obtained in previous studies may have been small or non-significant because they are diluted across a highly heterogeneous population (or sub-population) of adolescents 14 , 15 . In line with the proposition of media effects theories that each adolescent may have a unique susceptibility to the effects of social media 17 , a viable explanation for the small and inconsistent findings in earlier studies may be that the effect of social media differs from adolescent to adolescent. The aim of the current study is to investigate this hypothesis and to obtain a better understanding of adolescents’ unique susceptibility to the effects of social media on their affective well-being.

Social media and affective well-being

Within-person studies have provided important insights into the associations of social media use with cognitive well-being (e.g., life satisfaction 6 ), which refers to adolescents’ cognitive judgment of how satisfied they are with their life 18 . However, the associations of social media use with adolescents’ affective well-being (i.e., adolescents’ affective evaluations of their moods and emotions 18 ) are still unknown. In addition, while earlier within-person studies have focused on associations with trait-like conceptualizations of well-being 11 , 12 , 13 , that is, adolescents’ average well-being across specific time periods 18 , there is a lack of studies that focus on well-being as a momentary affective state. Therefore, we extend previous research by examining the association between adolescents’ social media use and their momentary affective well-being. Like earlier experience sampling (ESM) studies among adults 19 , 20 , we measured adolescents’ momentary affective well-being with a single item. Adolescents’ momentary affective well-being was defined as their current feelings of happiness, a commonly used question to measure well-being 21 , 22 , which has high convergent validity, as evidenced by the strong correlations with the presence of positive affect and absence of negative affect.

To assess adolescents’ momentary affective well-being (henceforth referred to as well-being), we conducted a week-long ESM study among 63 middle adolescents ages 14 and 15. Six times a day, adolescents were asked to complete a survey using their own mobile phone, covering 42 assessments per adolescent, assessing their affective well-being and social media use. In total, adolescents completed 2,155 assessments (83.2% average compliance).

We focused on middle adolescence, since this is the period in life characterized by most significant fluctuations in well-being 23 , 24 . Also, in comparison to early and late adolescents, middle adolescents are more sensitive to reactions from peers and have a strong tendency to compare themselves with others on social media and beyond. Because middle adolescents typically use different social media platforms, in a complementary way 25 , 26 , 27 , each adolescent reported on his/her use of the three social media platforms that s/he used most frequently out of the five most popular social media platforms among adolescents: WhatsApp, followed by Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, and, finally, the chat function of games 28 . In addition to investigating the association between overall social media use and well-being (i.e., the summed use of adolescents’ three most frequently used platforms), we examined the unique associations of the two most popular platforms, WhatsApp and Instagram 28 .

Like previous studies on social media use and well-being, we distinguished between active social media use (i.e., “activities that facilitate direct exchanges with others” 29 ) and passive social media use (i.e., “consuming information without direct exchanges” 29 ). Within-person studies among young adults have shown that passive but not active social media use predicts decreases in well-being 29 . Therefore, we examined the unique associations of adolescents’ overall active and passive social media use with their well-being, as well as active and passive use of Instagram and WhatsApp, specifically. We investigated categorical associations, that is, whether adolescents would feel better or worse if they had actively or passively used social media. And we investigated dose–response associations to understand whether adolescents’ well-being would change as a function of the time they had spent actively or passively using social media.

The hypotheses and the design, sampling and analysis plan were preregistered prior to data collection and are available on the Open Science Framework, along with the code used in the analyses ( https://osf.io/nhks2 ). For details about the design of the study and analysis approach, see Methods.

In more than half of all assessments (68.17%), adolescents had used social media (i.e., one or more of their three favorite social media platforms), either in an active or passive way. Instagram (50.90%) and WhatsApp (53.52%) were used in half of all assessments. Passive use of social media (66.21% of all assessments) was more common than active use (50.86%), both on Instagram (48.48% vs. 20.79%) and WhatsApp (51.25% vs. 40.07%).

Strong positive between-person correlations were found between the duration of active and passive social media use (overall: r  = 0.69, p  < 0.001; Instagram: r  = 0.38, p  < 0.01; WhatsApp: r  = 0.85, p  < 0.001): Adolescents who had spent more time actively using social media than their peers, had also spent more time passively using social media than their peers. Likewise, strong positive within-person correlations were found between the duration of active and passive social media use (overall: r  = 0.63, p  < 0.001; Instagram: r  = 0.37, p  < 0.001; WhatsApp: r  = 0.57, p  < 0.001): The more time an adolescent had spent actively using social media at a certain moment, the more time s/he had also spent passively using social media at that moment.

Table 1 displays the average number of minutes that adolescents had spent using social media in the past hour at each assessment, and the zero-order between- and within-person correlations between the duration of social media use and well-being. At the between-person level, the duration of active and passive social media use was not associated with well-being: Adolescents who had spent more time actively or passively using social media than their peers did not report significantly higher or lower levels of well-being than their peers. At the within-person level, significant but weak positive correlations were found between the duration of active and passive overall social media use and well-being. This indicates that adolescents felt somewhat better at moments when they had spent more time actively or passively using social media (overall), compared to moments when they had spent less time actively or passively using social media. When looking at specific platforms, a positive correlation was only found for passive WhatsApp use, but not for active WhatsApp use, and not for active and passive Instagram use.

Average and person-specific effects

The within-person associations of social media use with well-being and differences in these associations were tested in a series of multilevel models. We ran separate models for overall social media use (i.e., active use and passive use of adolescents’ three favorite social media platforms, see Table 2 ), Instagram use (see Table 3 ), and WhatsApp use (see Table 4 ). In a first step we examined the average categorical associations for each of these three social media uses using fixed effects models (Models 1A, 3A, and 5A) to investigate whether, on average, adolescents would feel better or worse at moments when they had used social media compared to moments when they had not (i.e., categorical predictors: active use versus no active use, and passive use versus no passive use). In a second step, we examined heterogeneity in the within-person categorical associations by adding random slopes to the fixed effects models (Models 1B, 3B, and 5B). Next, we examined the average dose–response associations using fixed effects models (Models 2A, 4A, and 6A), to investigate whether, on average, adolescents would feel better or worse when they had spent more time using social media (i.e., continuous predictors: duration of active use and duration of passive use). Finally, we examined heterogeneity in the within-person dose–response associations by adding random slopes to the fixed effects models (Models 2B, 4B, and 6B).

Overall social media use.

The model with the categorical predictors (see Table 2 ; Model 1A) showed that, on average, there was no association between overall use and well-being: Adolescents’ well-being did not increase or decrease at moments when they had used social media, either in a passive or active way. However, evidence was found that the association of passive (but not active) social media use with well-being differed from adolescent to adolescent (Model 1B), with effect sizes ranging from − 0.24 to 0.68. For 44.26% of the adolescents the association was non-existent to small (− 0.10 <  r  < 0.10). However, for 45.90% of the adolescents there was a weak (0.10 <  r  < 0.20; 8.20%), moderate (0.20 <  r  < 0.30; 22.95%) or even strong positive ( r  ≥ 0.30; 14.75%) association between overall passive social media use and well-being, and for almost one in ten (9.84%) adolescents there was a weak (− 0.20 <  r  < − 0.10; 6.56%) or moderate negative (− 0.30 <  r  < − 0.20; 3.28%) association.

The model with continuous predictors (Model 2A) showed that, on average, there was a significant dose–response association for active use. At moments when adolescents had used social media, the time they spent actively (but not passively) using social media was positively associated with well-being: Adolescents felt better at moments when they had spent more time sending messages, posting, or sharing something on social media. The associations of the time spent actively and passively using social media with well-being did not differ across adolescents (Model 2B).

Instagram use

As shown in Model 3A in Table 3 , on average, there was a significant categorical association between passive (but not active) Instagram use and well-being: Adolescents experienced an increase in well-being at moments when they had passively used Instagram (i.e., viewing posts/stories of others). Adolescents did not experience an increase or decrease in well-being when they had actively used Instagram. The associations of passive and active Instagram use with well-being did not differ across adolescents (Model 3B).

On average, no significant dose–response association was found for Instagram use (Model 4A): At moments when adolescents had used Instagram, the time adolescents spent using Instagram (either actively or passively) was not associated with their well-being. However, evidence was found that the association of the time spent passively using Instagram differed from adolescent to adolescent (Model 4B), with effect sizes ranging from − 0.48 to 0.27. For most adolescents (73.91%) the association was non-existent to small (− 0.10 <  r  < 0.10), but for almost one in five adolescents (17.39%) there was a weak (0.10 <  r  < 0.20; 10.87%) or moderate (0.20 <  r  < 0.30; 6.52%) positive association, and for almost one in ten adolescents (8.70%) there was a weak (− 0.20 <  r  < − 0.10; 2.17%), moderate (− 0.30 <  r  < − 0.20; 4.35%), or strong ( r  ≤ − 0.30; 2.17%) negative association. Figure  1 illustrates these differences in the dose–response associations.

The dose–response association between passive Instagram use (in minutes per hour) and affective well-being for each individual adolescent (n = 46). Red lines represent significant negative within-person associations, green lines represent significant positive within-person associations, and gray lines represent non-significant within-person associations. A graph was created for each participant who had completed at least 10 assessments. A total of 13 participants were excluded because they had completed less than 10 assessments of passive Instagram use. In addition, one participant was excluded because no graph could be computed, since this participant's passive Instagram use was constant across assessments.

WhatsApp use

As shown in Model 5A in Table 4 , just as for Instagram, we found that, on average, there was a significant categorical association between passive (but not active) WhatsApp use and well-being: Adolescents reported that they felt better at moments when they had passively used WhatsApp (i.e., read WhatsApp messages). For active WhatsApp use, no significant association was found. Also, in line with the results for Instagram use, no differences were found regarding the associations of active and passive WhatsApp use (Model 5B).

In addition, a significant dose–response association was found for passive (but not active) use (Model 6A). At moments when adolescents had used WhatsApp, we found that, on average, the time adolescents spent passively using WhatsApp was positively associated with well-being: Adolescents felt better at moments when they had spent more time reading WhatsApp messages. The time spent actively using WhatsApp was not associated with well-being. No differences were found in the dose–response associations of active and passive WhatsApp use (Model 6B).

This preregistered study investigated adolescents’ unique susceptibility to the effects of social media. We found that the associations of passive (but not active) social media use with well-being differed substantially from adolescent to adolescent, with effect sizes ranging from moderately negative (− 0.24) to strongly positive (0.68). While 44.26% of adolescents did not feel better or worse if they had passively used social media, 45.90% felt better, and a small group felt worse (9.84%). In addition, for Instagram the majority of adolescents (73.91%) did not feel better or worse when they had spent more time viewing post or stories of others, whereas some felt better (17.39%), and others (8.70%) felt worse.

These findings have important implications for social media effects research, and media effects research more generally. For decades, researchers have argued that people differ in their susceptibility to the effects of media 17 , leading to numerous investigations of such differential susceptibility. These investigations have typically focused on moderators, based on variables such as sex, age, or personality. Yet, over the years, studies have shown that such moderators appear to have little power to explain how individuals differ in their susceptibility to media effects, probably because a group-differential approach does not account for the possibility that media users may differ across a range of factors, that are not captured by only one (or a few) investigated moderator variables.

By providing insights into each individual’s unique susceptibility, the findings of this study provide an explanation as to why, up until now, most media effects research has only found small effects. We found that the majority of adolescents do not experience any short-term changes in well-being related to their social media use. And if they do experience any changes, these are more often positive than negative. Because only small subsets of adolescents experience small to moderate changes in well-being, the true effects of social media reported in previous studies have probably been diluted across heterogeneous samples of individuals that differ in their susceptibility to media effects (also see 30 ). Several scholars have noted that overall effect sizes may mask more subtle individual differences 14 , 15 , which may explain why previous studies have typically reported small or no effects of social media on well-being or indicators of well-being 6 , 11 , 12 , 13 . The current study seems to confirm this assumption, by showing that while the overall effect sizes are small at best, the person-specific effect sizes vary considerably, from tiny and small to moderate and strong.

As called upon by other scholars 5 , 31 , we disentangled the associations of active and passive use of social media. Research among young adults found that passive (but not active) social media use is associated with lower levels of affective well-being 29 . In line with these findings, the current study shows that active and passive use yielded different associations with adolescents’ affective well-being. Interestingly though, in contrast to previous findings among adults, our study showed that, on average, passive use of Instagram and WhatsApp seemed to enhance rather than decrease adolescents’ well-being. This discrepancy in findings may be attributed to the fact that different mechanisms might be involved. Verduyn and colleagues 29 found that passive use of Facebook undermines adults’ well-being by enhancing envy, which may also explain the decreases in well-being found in our study among a small group of adolescents. Yet, adolescents who felt better by passively using Instagram and WhatsApp, might have felt so because they experienced enjoyment. After all, adolescents often seek positive content on social media, such as humorous posts or memes 32 . Also, research has shown that adolescents mainly receive positive feedback on social media 33 . Hence, their passive Instagram and WhatsApp use may involve the reading of positive feedback, which may explain the increases in well-being.

Overall, the time spent passively using WhatsApp improved adolescents’ well-being. This did not differ from adolescent to adolescent. However, the associations of the time spent passively using Instagram with well-being did differ from adolescent to adolescent. This discrepancy suggests that not all social media uses yield person-specific effects on well-being. A possible explanation may be that adolescents’ responses to WhatsApp are more homogenous than those to Instagram. WhatsApp is a more private platform, which is mostly used for one-to-one communication with friends and acquaintances 26 . Instagram, in contrast, is a more public platform, which allows its users to follow a diverse set of people, ranging from best friends to singers, actors, and influencers 28 , and to engage in intimate communication as well as self-presentation and social comparison. Such diverse uses could lead to more varied, or even opposing responses, such as envy versus inspiration.

Limitations and directions for future research

The current study extends our understanding of differential susceptibility to media effects, by revealing that the effect of social media use on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent. The findings confirm our assumption that among the great majority of adolescents, social media use is unrelated to well-being, but that among a small subset, social media use is either related to decreases or increases in well-being. It must be noted, however, that participants in this study felt relatively happy, overall. Studies with more vulnerable samples, consisting of clinical samples or youth with lower social-emotional well-being may elicit different patterns of effects 27 . Also, the current study focused on affective well-being, operationalized as happiness. It is plausible that social media use relates differently with other types of well-being, such as cognitive well-being. An important next step is to identify which adolescents are particularly susceptible to experience declines in well-being. It is conceivable, for instance, that the few adolescents who feel worse when they use social media are the ones who receive negative feedback on social media 33 .

In addition, future ESM studies into the effects of social media should attempt to include one or more follow-up measures to improve our knowledge of the longer-term influence of social media use on affective well-being. While a week-long ESM is very common and applied in most earlier ESM studies 34 , a week is only a snapshot of adolescent development. Research is needed that investigates whether the associations of social media use with adolescents’ momentary affective well-being may cumulate into long-lasting consequences. Such investigations could help clarify whether adolescents who feel bad in the short term would experience more negative consequences in the long term, and whether adolescents who feel better would be more resistant to developing long-term negative consequences. And while most adolescents do not seem to experience any short-term increases or decreases in well-being, more research is needed to investigate whether these adolescents may experience a longer-term impact of social media.

While the use of different platforms may be differently associated with well-being, different types of use may also yield different effects. Although the current study distinguished between active and passive use of social media, future research should further differentiate between different activities. For instance, because passive use entails many different activities, from reading private messages (e.g., WhatsApp messages, direct messages on Instagram) to browsing a public feed (e.g., scrolling through posts on Instagram), research is needed that explores the unique effects of passive public use and passive private use. Research that seeks to explore the nuances in adolescents’ susceptibility as well as the nuances in their social media use may truly improve our understanding of the effects of social media use.

Participants

Participants were recruited via a secondary school in the south of the Netherlands. Our preregistered sampling plan set a target sample size of 100 adolescents. We invited adolescents from six classrooms to participate in the study. The final sample consisted of 63 adolescents (i.e., 42% consent rate, which is comparable to other ESM studies among adolescents; see, for instance 35 , 36 ). Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their parents. On average, participants were 15 years old ( M  = 15.12 years, SD  = 0.51) and 54% were girls. All participants self-identified as Dutch, and 41.3% were enrolled in the prevocational secondary education track, 25.4% in the intermediate general secondary education track, and 33.3% in the academic preparatory education track.

The study was approved by the Ethics Review Board of the Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Amsterdam and was performed in accordance with the guidelines formulated by the Ethics Review Board. The study consisted of two phases: A baseline survey and a personalized week-long experience sampling (ESM) study. In phase 1, researchers visited the school during school hours. Researchers informed the participants of the objective and procedure of the study and assured them that their responses would be treated confidentially. Participants were asked to sign the consent form. Next, participants completed a 15-min baseline survey. The baseline survey included questions about demographics and assessed which social media each adolescent used most frequently, allowing to personalize the social media questions presented during the ESM study in phase 2. After completing the baseline survey, participants were provided detailed instructions about phase 2.

In phase 2, which took place two and a half weeks after the baseline survey, a 7-day ESM study was conducted, following the guidelines for ESM studies provided by van Roekel and colleagues 34 . Aiming for at least 30 assessments per participant and based on an average compliance rate of 70 to 80% reported in earlier ESM studies among adolescents 34 , we asked each participant to complete a total of 42 ESM surveys (i.e., six 2-min surveys per day). Participants completed the surveys using their own mobile phone, on which the ESM software application Ethica Data was installed during the instruction session with the researchers (phase 1). Each 2-min survey consisted of 22 questions, which assessed adolescents’ well-being and social media use. Two open-ended questions were added to the final survey of the day, which asked about adolescents’ most pleasant and most unpleasant events of the day.

The ESM sampling scheme was semi-random, to allow for randomization and avoid structural patterns in well-being, while taking into account that adolescents were not allowed to use their phone during school time. The Ethica Data app was programmed to generate six beep notifications per day at random time points within a fixed time interval that was tailored to the school’s schedule: before school time (1 beep), during school breaks (2 beeps), and after school time (3 beeps). During the weekend, the beeps were generated during the morning (1 beep), afternoon (3 beeps), and evening (2 beeps). To maximize compliance, a 30-min time window was provided to complete each survey. This time window was extended to one hour for the first survey (morning) and two hours for the final survey (evening) to account for travel time to school and time spent on evening activities. The average compliance rate was 83.2%. A total of 2,155 ESM assessments were collected: Participants completed an average of 34.83 surveys ( SD  = 4.91) on a total of 42 surveys, which is high compared to previous ESM studies among adolescents 34 .

The questions of the ESM study were personalized based on the responses to the baseline survey. During the ESM study, each participant reported on his/her use of three different social media platforms: WhatsApp and either Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, and/or the chat function of games (i.e., the most popular social media platforms among adolescents 28 ). Questions about Instagram and WhatsApp use were only included if the participant had indicated in the baseline survey that s/he used these platforms at least once a week. If a participant had indicated that s/he used Instagram or WhatsApp (or both) less than once a week, s/he was asked to report on the use of Snapchat, YouTube, or the chat function of games, depending on what platform s/he used at least once a week. In addition to Instagram and WhatsApp, questions were asked about a third platform, that was selected based on how frequently the participant used Snapchat, YouTube, or the chat function of games (i.e., at least once a week). This resulted in five different combinations of three platforms: Instagram, WhatsApp, and Snapchat (47 participants); Instagram, WhatsApp, and YouTube (11 participants); Instagram, WhatsApp, and chatting via games (2 participants); WhatsApp, Snapchat, and YouTube (1 participant); and WhatsApp, YouTube, and chatting via games (2 participants).

Frequency of social media use

In the baseline survey, participants were asked to indicate how often they used and checked Instagram, WhatsApp, Snapchat, YouTube, and the chat function of games, using response options ranging from 1 ( never ) to 7 ( more than 12 times per day ). These platforms are the five most popular platforms among Dutch 14- and 15-year-olds 28 . Participants’ responses were used to select the three social media platforms that were assessed in the personalized ESM study.

Duration of social media use

In the ESM study, duration of active and passive social media use was measured by asking participants how much time in the past hour they had spent actively and passively using each of the three platforms that were included in the personalized ESM surveys. Response options ranged from 0 to 60 min , with 5-min intervals. To measure active Instagram use, participants indicated how much time in the past hour they had spent (a) “posting on your feed or sharing something in your story on Instagram” and (b) “sending direct messages/chatting on Instagram.” These two items were summed to create the variable duration of active Instagram use. Sum scores exceeding 60 min (only 0.52% of all assessments) were recoded to 60 min. To measure duration of passive Instagram use, participants indicated how much time in the past hour they had spent “viewing posts/stories of others on Instagram.” To measure the use of WhatsApp, Snapchat, YouTube and game-based chatting, we asked participants how much time they had spent “sending WhatsApp messages” (active use) and “reading WhatsApp messages” (passive use); “sending snaps/messages or sharing something in your story on Snapchat” (active use) and “viewing snaps/stories/messages from others on Snapchat” (passive use); “posting YouTube clips” (active use) and “watching YouTube clips” (passive use); “sending messages via the chat function of a game/games” (active use) and “reading messages via the chat function of a game/games” (passive use). Duration of active and passive overall social media use were created by summing the responses across the three social media platforms for active and passive use, respectively. Sum scores exceeding 60 min (2.13% of all assessments for active overall use; 2.90% for passive overall use) were recoded to 60 min. The duration variables were used to investigate whether the time spent actively or passively using social media was associated with well-being (dose–response associations).

Use/no use of social media

Based on the duration variables, we created six dummy variables, one for active and one for passive overall social media use, one for active and one for passive Instagram use, and one for active and one for passive WhatsApp use (0 =  no active use and 1 =  active use , and 0 =  no passive use and 1 =  passive use , respectively). These dummy variables were used to investigate whether the use of social media, irrespective of the duration of use, was associated with well-being (categorical associations).

Consistent with previous ESM studies 19 , 20 , we measured affective well-being using one item, asking “How happy do you feel right now?” at each assessment. Adolescents indicated their response to the question using a 7-point scale ranging from 1 ( not at all ) to 7 ( completely ), with 4 ( a little ) as the midpoint. Convergent validity of this item was established in a separate pilot ESM study among 30 adolescents conducted by the research team of the fourth author: The affective well-being item was strongly correlated with the presence of positive affect and absence of negative affect (assessed by a 10-item positive and negative affect schedule for children; PANAS-C) at both the between-person (positive affect: r  = 0.88, p < 0.001; negative affect: r  = − 0.62, p < 0.001) and within-person level (positive affect: r  = 0.74, p < 0.001; negative affect: r  = − 0.58, p < 0.001).

Statistical analyses

Before conducting the analyses, several validation checks were performed (see 34 ). First, we aimed to only include participants in the analyses who had completed more than 33% of all ESM assessments (i.e., at least 14 assessments). Next, we screened participants’ responses to the open questions for unserious responses (e.g., gross comments, jokes). And finally, we inspected time series plots for patterns in answering tendencies. Since all participants completed more than 33% of all ESM assessments, and no inappropriate responses or low-quality data patterns were detected, all participants were included in the analyses.

Following our preregistered analysis plan, we tested the proposed associations in a series of multilevel models. Before doing so, we tested the homoscedasticity and linearity assumptions for multilevel analyses 37 . Inspection of standardized residual plots indicated that the data met these assumptions (plots are available on OSF at  https://osf.io/nhks2 ). We specified separate models for overall social media use, use of Instagram, and use of WhatsApp. To investigate to what extent adolescents’ well-being would vary depending on whether they had actively or passively used social media/Instagram/WhatsApp or not during the past hour (categorical associations), we tested models including the dummy variables as predictors (active use versus no active use, and passive use versus no passive use; models 1, 3, and 5). To investigate whether, at moments when adolescents had used social media/Instagram/WhatsApp during the past hour, their well-being would vary depending on the duration of social media/Instagram/WhatsApp use (dose–response associations), we tested models including the duration variables as predictors (duration of active use and duration of passive use; models 2, 4, and 6). In order to avoid negative skew in the duration variables, we only included assessments during which adolescents had used social media in the past hour (overall, Instagram, or WhatsApp, respectively), either actively or passively. All models included well-being as outcome variable. Since multilevel analyses allow to include all available data for each individual, no missing data were imputed and no data points were excluded.

We used a model building approach that involved three steps. In the first step, we estimated an intercept-only model to assess the relative amount of between- and within-person variance in affective well-being. We estimated a three-level model in which repeated momentary assessments (level 1) were nested within adolescents (level 2), who, in turn, were nested within classrooms (level 3). However, because the between-classroom variance in affective well-being was small (i.e., 0.4% of the variance was explained by differences between classes), we proceeded with estimating two-level (instead of three-level) models, with repeated momentary assessments (level 1) nested within adolescents (level 2).

In the second step, we assessed the within-person associations of well-being with (a) overall active and passive social media use (i.e., the total of the three platforms), (b) active and passive use of Instagram, and (c) active and passive use of WhatsApp, by adding fixed effects to the model (Models 1A-6A). To facilitate the interpretation of the associations and control for the effects of time, a covariate was added that controlled for the n th assessment of the study week (instead of the n th assessment of the day, as preregistered). This so-called detrending is helpful to interpret within-person associations as correlated fluctuations beyond other changes in social media use and well-being 38 . In order to obtain within-person estimates, we person-mean centered all predictors 38 . Significance of the fixed effects was determined using the Wald test.

In the third and final step, we assessed heterogeneity in the within-person associations by adding random slopes to the models (Models 1B-6B). Significance of the random slopes was determined by comparing the fit of the fixed effects model with the fit of the random effects model, by performing the Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square test 39 and by comparing the Bayesian information criterion (BIC 40 ) and Akaike information criterion (AIC 41 ) of the models. When the random effects model had a significantly better fit than the fixed effects model (i.e., pointing at significant heterogeneity), variance components were inspected to investigate whether heterogeneity existed in the association of either active or passive use. Next, when evidence was found for significant heterogeneity, we computed person-specific effect sizes, based on the random effect models, to investigate what percentages of adolescents experienced better well-being, worse well-being, and no changes in well-being. In line with Keijsers and colleagues 42 we only included participants who had completed at least 10 assessments. In addition, for the dose–response associations, we constructed graphical representations of the person-specific slopes, based on the person-specific effect sizes, using the xyplot function from the lattice package in R 43 .

Three improvements were made to our original preregistered plan. First, rather than estimating the models with multilevel modelling in R 43 , we ran the preregistered models in Mplus 44 . Mplus provides standardized estimates for the fixed effects models, which offers insight into the effect sizes. This allowed us to compare the relative strength of the associations of passive versus active use with well-being. Second, instead of using the maximum likelihood estimator, we used the maximum likelihood estimator with robust standard errors (MLR), which are robust to non-normality. Sensitivity tests, uploaded on OSF ( https://osf.io/nhks2 ), indicated that the results were almost identical across the two software packages and estimation approaches. Third, to improve the interpretation of the results and make the scales of the duration measures of social media use and well-being more comparable, we transformed the social media duration scores (0 to 60 min) into scales running from 0 to 6, so that an increase of 1 unit reflects 10 min of social media use. The model estimates were unaffected by this transformation.

Reporting summary

Further information on the research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The dataset generated and analysed during the current study is available in Figshare 45 . The preregistration of the design, sampling and analysis plan, and the analysis scripts used to analyse the data for this paper are available online on the Open Science Framework website ( https://osf.io/nhks2 ).

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Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the NWO Spinoza Prize and the Gravitation grant (NWO Grant 024.001.003; Consortium on Individual Development) awarded to P.M.V. by the Dutch Research Council (NWO). Additional funding was received from the VIDI grant (NWO VIDI Grant 452.17.011) awarded to L.K. by the Dutch Research Council (NWO). The authors would like to thank Savannah Boele (Tilburg University) for providing her pilot ESM results.

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Ine Beyens, J. Loes Pouwels, Irene I. van Driel & Patti M. Valkenburg

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I.B., J.L.P., I.I.v.D., L.K., and P.M.V. designed the study; I.B., J.L.P., and I.I.v.D. collected the data; I.B., J.L.P., and L.K. analyzed the data; and I.B., J.L.P., I.I.v.D., L.K., and P.M.V. contributed to writing and reviewing the manuscript.

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Beyens, I., Pouwels, J.L., van Driel, I.I. et al. The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent. Sci Rep 10 , 10763 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67727-7

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Young users of social media: an analysis from a gender perspective.

• 1 Blanquerna School of Communication and International Relations, Ramon Llull University, Barcelona, Spain
• 2 Faculty of Education and Sport, University of Deusto, Donostia, Spain
• 3 Faculty of Education and Sport, University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain
• 4 CESAG, Comillas Pontifical University, Mallorca, Spain

One of the major challenges for edu-communication research is to analyze the influence of social media on young and adolescent users. This article examines the evaluation of gender inequalities – real and symbolic – in the consumption of social networks such as YouTube and Instagram among young people. Within the framework of a Research & Development & innovation (R&D + i ) project, it presents a discursive-theoretical analysis of how young users of social media perceive the presence and representation of gender on social media and whether such digital representations can be associated with an empowering gender perspective. This study presents results from 14 focus groups ( N  = 83), composed of students aged 12 to 18, drawn from three Spanish Autonomous Communities (Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the Basque Country). The results show that gender issues arise in participants’ conversations, especially among female participants, who perceive the importance of physical appearance on platforms such as Instagram and TikTok. Female participants feel more pressure in terms of appearance and dress compared to male participants. Among male participants there are more expressions of self-affirmation and more mentions related to fun and social prestige. Both male and female participants express concern about the impact of that pressure on younger girls. The influence of social media on self-image is more evident among female participants, who make frequent mention of the importance of self-esteem in relation to beauty standards and exposure to idealized body images. Notably, there were no comments by male participants that acknowledge any influence of social media on their self-image. The findings are in line with existing research and taken as a whole gives rise to concern as to the gender disparities observed in the use of social media, which do not constitute a picture of female empowerment. This research underlines the importance of promoting a respectful and equitable environment in relation to gender equality within digital spaces. Thus, this study provides support for the need to develop and implement edu-communicative initiatives to foster critical thinking around the influence of social media in this context and the evaluation of the impact of such initiatives in future research.

1 Introduction

One of the major challenges for research in edu-communication – a term used in the field of Communication ( Orozco, 1997 , 2010 ; Kaplún, 2013 ) and which UNESCO defined in 2002 as teaching and critical learning about the media – and its dissemination to the wider community is to analyze the influence of social media on young users. Prior research has indicated the significant impact of social media on identity development ( Ahn, 2011 ; Valkenburg and Peter, 2011 ; boyd, 2014 ; Baym, 2018 ; van Eldik et al., 2019 ). Social media such as YouTube and Instagram are considered privileged spaces for the construction and (self-)representation of youth identity ( Cover, 2012 ; Thumim and Enli, 2012 ; boyd, 2014 ), and allow for parasocial relationships with influencers ( Rihl and Wegenerpp, 2017 ; Ferchaud et al., 2018 ; Rasmussen, 2018 ), who may act as role models ( Westenberg, 2016 ). As studies in Spain and internationally show, adolescents are now heavy users of social media use, especially YouTube and Instagram ( Ríos Hernández et al., 2022 ; IAB, 2023 ). Here, however, we are concerned with the extent to which this scenario of hyperconnectivity favors or impedes the (co-)responsibility of the new generations for gender equality in the digital media space, as new moral subjects – active audiences ( Ruiz, 2015 ). That responsibility is linked to the concept of participation that we take up here from the perspective of the complexity and ambivalences that its practice requires ( Jenkins and Carpentier, 2013 ), so as to overcome the magical or cosmetic roles often assigned to that have often been attributed to the participatory activity of audiences ( Bergillos, 2019 ).

As is well known, digital platforms are part of the societal and media discourse that constitutes and shapes collective imaginaries, including representations of gender. Since the 1970s, the incorporation of gender into research approaches has highlighted stereotypical representations of men and women ( Bernárdez, 2015 ) that lead people to internalize inequality in ways that even today continue to hinder the development of fairer societies.

Progress toward equality and women’s empowerment has been marked by a number of milestones on a global scale, such as the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. Within the European Union there has been progress at a political level such as the Charter of Fundamental Rights, the creation of the European Institute for Gender Equality and the issue of the Gender Equality Strategy by the European Commission ( García-Ruiz et al., 2014 ). In fact, gender equality and empowering all women and girls is one of the UN’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals and is integral to every facet of inclusive, sustainable development. As stated by UN Women (2023) , there is an urgent need to identify and eliminate all forms of discrimination against women and girls, in both the public and the private sphere. In Spain, it is a cause for concern that the progress made in bridging the gender gap since 2006 ( IME, 2023 ) will come under threat between 2021 and 2023 ( Statista, 2023 ), at the same time as the country is seeing growing anti-feminism and denial of gender violence among adolescent males ( Boneta-Sádaba et al., 2023 ).

In the digital space, the rise in hate speech aimed at feminist principles or directly against women, has been noted, as shown by different assessments of the internet and social media ( EIU, 2021 ; Tortajada and Vera, 2021 ). Several studies show how users of social media tend to coalesce around highly polarized positions driven by partisan differences in the framing of discourse ( Demszky et al., 2019 ). As Diepeveen (2024 , p. 5) points out, “over the past ten years, online spaces with content that rejects feminism and gender equality and promotes male supremacy – sometimes termed the “manosphere” ( Marwick and Caplan, 2018 ; Kimeu, 2023 ) have become increasingly prevalent.” Some authors ( Medina and Talarn, 2020 , pp. 494–495) observe the spread of a neo-liberal feminism among young men and women, “the belief that the acceptance of rigid patterns of an idealized femininity is, in fact, an exercise of free and determined will.” Among the risks of social media consumption among young people, the impact of esthetic standards from the world of fashion and the persistence of stereotyped roles are highlighted ( Fernández-de-Arroyabe-Olaortua et al., 2018 ). Nevertheless, there are other more encouraging developments. The notoriety of popular feminism ( Banet-Weiser, 2018 ) seems to have influenced the digital imaginary around the construction of gender, giving rise to more diverse and inclusive representations that partially invalidate postfeminist theses ( Caballero-Gálvez et al., 2017 ; Keller and Ryan, 2018 ). The opportunities that the consumption of digital sources can offer compared to the use of other media are said to include less divergence in the roles assigned to males and females ( Feijoo and García-González, 2017 ). In Spain, according to the Youth Report ( Injuve, 2021 ), young people have an interest in gender inequality, very possibly in consequence of having been socialized in an environment in which the most actively advocated social issues were associated with feminism ( Peña-Fernández et al., 2023 ).

In order to understand the evidence on whether, how and to what extent social media affect gender norms among adolescents, in 2023 the ODI ( Diepeveen, 2024 ) conducted a targeted review of empirical studies published since 2015, focusing on publications in English, Spanish, French and German on adolescent boys. Included in the review were 51 studies on social media platforms with public-facing content, such as Instagram and YouTube. The evidence was diverse. As Diepeveen (2024) summarizes, many of the quantitative studies explored correlations and tended to assume that the direction of influence went from social media platforms to gender norms and attitudes, rather than vice versa or in both directions. Qualitative studies provided a useful corrective, revealing the many ways in which adolescents use social media and select and produce online content in function of their pre-existing interests and attitudes.

Our article provides qualitative research that captures the subtle and sometimes contradictory comments of adolescents themselves about what they perceive social media to be and, in turn, what it is that social media entrench or undermine.

For all these reasons, it appears to us appropriate to address the discourse of adolescents from a gender perspective, in order to determine whether they take gender differences into account in their assessments of social media such as YouTube and Instagram and whether they make any link between those differences and forms of power and discrimination ( EIGE, 2023 ). The gender perspective is (or should be) understood, consequently, as a consubstantial element of the (trans)media education or literacy of digital generations, in line with the understanding of those terms and the importance attributed to them by various authors ( García-Ruiz and Pérez-Escoda, 2019 ; Balladares-Burgos and Jaramillo-Baquerizo, 2022 ) and international organizations and initiatives such as Unesco, the Agenda 2030 action plan and Unicef. Spaces for reflection, debate and content creation from a feminist perspective can be created for young girls and adolescent women and their male peers through such media empowerment ( Tornay-Marquez, 2019 ).

2 Gender perspective and transmedia education

Despite the theoretical nuances between their conceptual frameworks, edu-communication and transmedia education or transmedia literacy can be understood as convergent approaches from the perspectives of education and communication, respectively, to the growing interrelation between media, communication and education in different stages of the lives of children, adolescents and young adults. Both theoretical frameworks aim to encourage and facilitate critical reflection and empowerment of users of media, information, and communication technology.

The concept of media literacy has been approached from different perspectives and has evolved as digital and virtual technology has developed. As Ríos Hernández et al. (2022) point out, in today’s digital ecosystem audiences have a more active role, generating a relationship of dialog between different media and their users. Thus, Scolari (2018) posits the term transmedia literacy to reflect contemporary reality: such literacy consists not only in critical analysis of content, but also in treating consumers of media as active subjects in the digital world, with increasingly sophisticated interpretative and creative skills.

In relation to the media literacy of young people, we are in agreement with theoretical stances that reject simplistic solutions or hypodermic’ processes ( Bragg et al., 2011 ). Zimmerman (2000) expands this holistic approach by emphasizing the positive aspects of human behavior (including identification and capacity building) that accompany “the analysis of the influence of the environment rather than blaming the victims” ( Silva and Martínez, 2004 , p. 2).

Several formulations have been proposed of the competencies and indicators that make up (trans)media literacy. For example, the dimensions of media competence put forward by Ferrés and Piscitelli (2012) : language, technology, processes of interaction, processes of production and dissemination, ideology, and values and esthetics. Similarly, Scolari (2018) posits the following transmedia competencies: production, management, performative, media and technology, narrative and esthetics, risk prevention, and ideologies and ethics.

Our principal interest resides in the competencies that can be seen as making up a journey, since such a journey can bring together the notion of transmedia education – alert to new technological and social realities – with empowerment as a process ( Montero, 2003 ). That is so not only because it is a non-linear model of change ( Kabeer, 1999 ), but also because it is in itself a double process: individual, as the acquisition of greater autonomy, and collective, “with the aim of achieving a fair and egalitarian society, especially in terms of relations between men and women” ( Charlier and Caubergs, 2007 , p. 6).

Making a link between media literacy and the concept of empowerment raises the issue of the role of men’s and women’s involvement and participation in the digital environment. In academic works, different studies ( Tufecki, 2017 ; Dussel et al., 2021 ) discuss the contradictions of the new conditions of popular participation in the digital world. While some authors observe that more gender differences have been found in the offline world, in the “real” life of young people ( Renau et al., 2012 ), others continue to focus on the risks presented by beauty standards and the persistence of stereotypical female roles ( Fernández-de-Arroyabe-Olaortua et al., 2018 ; Santos et al., 2022 ) and stereotypical gender roles in general ( Ringrose et al., 2013 ; Van Oosten et al., 2017 ). In other words, there may be inequalities in media access and representation that reflect differences in digital participation. We want to determine whether any such inequalities are found among adolescents and young adults: a particularly important stage in the journey of edu-communication and transmedia literacy development.

Previous studies on social media and young people point out that, beyond the interests of each individual, the self-perception of the skills and competencies needed to manage cyberspace is different between males and females, with males more positive ( Siddiq and Scherer, 2019 ; Estanyol et al., 2023 ). However, there are also studies that point to the influence of sexist stereotypes that can sentence one of the genders to a position of inequality in the “onlife reality”, a term used by Floridi (2015 , p. 1) to refer to a hyperconnected reality in which online and offline realities are in practice inseparable [cited by Serrate-González et al. (2023) ].

Specifically, we are interested in the perceptions conveyed by male and female participants of their experience on YouTube and Instagram around gender identity in the representations and discourses in these media. To that end, our research questions can be summarized as two questions:

RQ 1. How do young users of social media such as YouTube and Instagram of either sex see the presence and representation of gender on social media?

RQ 2. Is it possible to say that the way they see gender on social media is empowering for them?

3 Materials and methods

3.1 participants.

An exploratory qualitative study was carried out using focus groups (FG) with adolescents aged 12 to 18 in the Autonomous Communities of Catalonia, the Basque Country and the Balearic Islands in Spain according to a criterion of convenience, in light of the location of the three universities participating in the project. The selection of the sample responds to age criteria, to cover the three stages of adolescence ( UNICEF, 2024 ): early or initial adolescence (10–13 years), middle adolescence (14–16) and late or post-adolescence (17 up to as late as 21 years of age), in three geographic areas, and to a criterion of convenience in the selection of the three Autonomous Communities, corresponding in which the three participating universities are located (anonymized). The sample was selected with the help of the educational settings that had participated in a previous questionnaire ( Aran-Ramspott et al., 2022 ) using two filter criteria:

• age of the participants: three categories according to stage of education, first year of Compulsory Secondary Education (approximately 12 years of age); fourth year of Compulsory Secondary Education (15–16 years old) and first year university students (18–20 years old) following Communication and Education courses most closely related to Media literacy at each of the three participating universities.

• gender balance.

Finally, in late 2021 and early 2022, 14 FGs were held, involving a total of to 76 students (37 male, 39 female): five FGs of first year of Compulsory Secondary Education, five FGs of fourth year of Compulsory Secondary Education and four FGs of first year university students.

3.1.1 Procedure

The focus groups were designed with semi-structured prepared questions and topics and were conducted and audio-recorded in the settings with the consent of the parents or guardians of participants under 18 and of the students themselves. The open-ended script is based on the prior literature review ( Buckingham, 2008 ; Ferrés and Piscitelli, 2012 ; boyd, 2014 ; Gill, 2017 ; Aran-Ramspott et al., 2018 , 2022 ; Scolari, 2018 ), the method ( Barbour, 2007 ) and the objectives of the study. The script, which was intended to be flexible as this was an exploratory analysis, initially canvassed general categories related to the participants’ views of social media, their preferences and motives for consuming social media; types of functions and uses made; characteristics of preferred YouTubers and Instagrammers; and specifically, toward the participants’ identification and perception of (trans)media competencies in Ideology and Ethics [ Aran-Ramspott et al., 2024 ; based mainly on Ferrés and Piscitelli (2012) and Scolari (2018) ]. These competencies can be summarized as the ability to detect and critically analyze representations of stereotypes related to gender, or sexual and gender orientation, among other things, and the ethical and social implications related to processes of emotional identification, manipulation or invisibility of certain groups, including women. Gill (2017) particularly allows us to review notions seen in contemporary culture as “postfeminism” which currently operates as a kind of gender neoliberalism (“cultivation of the “right” dispositions to survive in neoliberal society: confidence, resilience and self-confidence”).

The open-ended script design facilitated the coding of categories; new categories emerged from participants’ comments. First, the literal comments (in sentences or phrases) related to the priority dimensions of the script were independently analyzed by each researcher. Second, they were cross-checked within the team to refine and validate the coding in successive sessions ( Bryman, 2012 ), taking into account their nature and importance, and in light of their frequency, occurrence and repetition. In order to gather data on participants’ gender perspectives, the relevant interventions were taken to be those in which an informant reflected their personal gender perspective in the discourse in relation to social media. We analyzed co-occurrence with the type of social media, content, reasons for use, references to influencers, (trans)media competence and characteristics of the remarks by age and gender (in function of how each participant introduced themselves). The location variable proved not to be significant in the focus groups. Coding shows the FG number _age_gender (F: Female/M: Male, the numbers show order of intervention where there is more than one participant of a given gender).

The research was approved by the Ethics Committee of University Ramón LLull University, Barcelona, which confirmed that participation was voluntary and anonymous, the confidentiality of the participants’ data, the collection of permissions and informed consents. This research was overseen and monitored by the public body that financed the research project.

The most relevant results directly related to the research questions for the study are presented below. First, we show distribution by gender and age of the total number of comments by participants in the FGs in relation to gender perspective in their discourse in relation to social media ( Figure 1 ), so as to show the origin of each remark. Figure 2 shows principal co-occurrences of the gender perspective in the discourse in relation to the dimensions set out in the materials and method section.

Figure 1 . Distribution by gender and age of comments concerning gender perspective.

Figure 2 . Principal co-occurrences of the gender perspective by dimension (Sankey Diagram).

Explicit mentions of gender perspective have been broken down by gender of the participants. As can be seen in Figure 1 , female participants made almost 70% of the total number of comments. By age, the gender perspective is mentioned progressively more at older ages: 27.7% among 12–13 year-old participants (1st year of Compulsory Secondary Education), 33.8% in 15–16 year-olds (4th year of Compulsory Secondary Education) and 38% among 18–19 year-olds (first-year university students).

Figure 2 shows not only how female participants comment materially more on the gender perspective, but also how the information from the focus groups identifies the dimensions that students consider more important. Thus, dimensions related to the type of social media, the type of content, the definition of influencer, (trans)media skills and age are more salient in participants’ discourse. Further detail is provided in the following paragraphs.

4.1 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by type of social media

The analysis of the perceptions of adolescents and young people of gender on social media shows that most comments concern Instagram (23%), TikTok (20%), and YouTube (17%). TikTok was spontaneously mentioned by participants. In terms of gender, females make more mentions than males, and refer to Instagram, TikTok and YouTube in descending order.

But what is the discourse of young people as revealed by these comments about social media? In relation to Instagram, TikTok and YouTube, the significance attributed to personal appearance is what is most commented on. The obsession with physical appearance is expressed in terms of self-representation, whereby appearance contributes to identity in terms of approximation to esthetic ideals and beauty standards:

“Lots of girls who go on TikTok may be affected by seeing influencers who look perfect, at least at first, and then they may look at other bodies and that may lower their self-esteem” (G9_12–13_F).

The same is true of the sexualization of physical appearance, which participants refer to, directly or indirectly, in relation to the bodies of girls and women. Instagram is perceived to be somewhere where females can more readily take a leading role.

“Boys are more popular on YouTube and on Instagram it’s women, perhaps girls’ content seems more attractive, not only because it is more or less sexualized, which depends, but because on Instagram you have to be really careful, you have to know what photo to take, how, what lighting, see how you tell the story, whether you post it this way or that way, and girls take greater care over those details, and so they are more popular” (G14_15–16_F).

Females make almost twice as many comments about the importance of body image as males (21 and 13 quotes, respectively):

“I think as girls we expose ourselves more” (G4_18–19_F).

In turn, they are more affected by beauty standards, including the risk of developing an eating disorder.

“[Referring to the influencer Marina Yers]… but to say that after eating, being sick is good for you… That can lead to illness in 12-year-old girls” (G2_15–16_F).

On the other hand, there are female participants who demand parity with males in relation to the display of the body on the social media, with comments that identify contradictions inherent to post-feminist discourses ( Gill, 2017 ), by presenting as a personal choice what others might see as the internalization of objectification or sexual neoliberalism ( de Miguel, 2015 ).

“TikTok also does a lot of harm, for example if any of the three of us posts a video of us wearing a top or bikini, TikTok unpublishes it, it does not let us post it, but the guys can post videos in their underwear or shirtless, and TikTok’s algorithm does not say anything to them. We are super censored (G10_15–16_F).

• -And on Instagram even more so (G10_15–16_M).

• No (G10_15–16_F2).

• More on Instagram than TikTok (G10_15–16_M).

• I posted a video in trackies and T-shirt and they censored it” (G10_15–16_ F3).

YouTube is seen as a social media platform on which people can find less invasive spaces and activities supportive of the manifest need to improve self-esteem and build a more empowered attitude. On two separate occasions, 12-year-old girls explicitly mention an empowering movement, “Love in positive” and, from a feminist perspective, “Me too.”

“I have watched a YouTuber who I think is a good influence, there are a lot of people now who say they feel insecure because of their body, but this influencer was about “Love in positive,” love yourself as you are, and I think that a very good thing about social media is people like that who are trying to boost your self-esteem, make you feel confident” (G11_12–13_F).

Self-confidence, related to satisfaction with a person’s own body, is shown on social media through the control of image, posture, and esthetics. Young people subject themselves to those mechanisms depending on what is trending. No comments were collected, however, in which male participants acknowledge the influence of social media on their image. In contrast to females, their attitude appears distanced or rebellious.

“I like to be happy, and fashion is the last thing that interests me, for example, if everyone is wearing Nike, I’ll still wear Adidas (…) I’m fine with my 80s hairstyle” (G10_15–16_M).

4.2 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by type of content consumed

Generally speaking, the discourse of both male and female participants shows that the content consumed is highly gender specific.

“Do boys and girls follow the same things at this age? (Moderator 1, G1_12–13).

• No (G1_12–13_F&M).

• Some things Yes and some things No (G1_12–13_F).

• Sometimes maybe, what we have most in common is series, films…(G1_12–13_F2).

• Him and me do not share any content, he’s more into sports and I’m more into languages, travel…” (G1_12–13_F).

Comments about entertainment in terms of watching series and films come equally from male and female participants. There are differences in which types of content are most frequently mentioned: Beauty/fashion and Videogames. Dance is only commented on by male participants (“usually the dances on TikTok are by girls”), in contrast to current affairs. This confirms earlier results on gender specific preferences for content types ( Fernández-de-Arroyabe-Olaortua et al., 2018 ; García-Jiménez et al., 2021 ), and about motivation, where boys and young men express a preference for entertainment ( Lozano-Blasco et al., 2023 ). In this study, entertainment and strengthening friendships are positively rated by both genders. For example:

“(On Youtube), but I think my friends are more on Instagram, they make stories and I see what happened to them during the day, we talk and you can also go to the entertainment area…” (G11_12–13_M).

4.3 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by influencer

Basque streamer Ibai Llanos is most recognized for his positivity – acknowledging his personal and financial interests – and for his friendly personality. Consequently, he is the influencer who has the most followers, both male and female.

“And we are talking about YouTube, Instagram and TikTok, which are, like, social media, at the end of the day kids are searching for tutorials on how to play Minecraft, they are searching Ibai, because a lot of boys, and some girls of course, are obsessed with Ibai. I see Ibai as everything, super-responsible and very incisive. There are many others who aren’t, but Ibai just is. At the end of the day, if you upload content, you are going to influence those children through that content” (G6_18–19_M).

The participants associate the term influencer more with women who are successful on social media (Dulceida and Paula Gonu, two Catalan bloggers seen as celebrities, clearly figure in that role in the comments). The association between girl or woman and influencer is much more apparent as perceived by the participants, and is attributed to fame (celebrities, It Girls) and to so-called posing, which does not seem to apply to boys or young men.

“There are also influencers, boys, (…) but I have not seen a boy say he is an influencer, or that he uploads that type of content” (G6_18–19_F).

Some girls, especially older girls, explicitly express pleasure in displaying themselves, in line with the style of some influencers. For instance:

“I really like influencers, seeing how they dress, to keep up to date with fashion and I also really like to display my life, especially for the people around me to see what I do, I like them knowing about it” (G4_18–19_F).

At the opposite end of the spectrum to popular influencers, there is universal criticism of Naim Darrechi, a TikToker from Mallorca, known for his controversial sexist remarks, which have even led him to be accused of seeking to justify rape and sexual abuse.

“He is a sexist and has done a lot of bad shit” (G7_15–16_ M).

“There are people who follow him and the worst thing is that he’s proud of what he says and even has a lot of followers” (G2_15–16_F).

4.4 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by transmedia competence

The vast majority of comments linking the gender perspective to transmedia competencies ( Scolari, 2018 ) refer to the dimension of Ideology and Rigorousness, which by definition includes stereotyping, emotional identification mechanisms and recognition of manipulation (e.g., fakes). Comments, especially from female participants, reflect participants’ awareness of the need to (self-)regulate their media diet and of the risk of becoming addicted, even though a number of participants, particularly younger participants, explicitly state that they have been given cybersafety training at school.

“Right, I think it’s the typical thing that you say to everyone “Instagram is bad, do not be on it so much”, but I know that there are things that you cannot watch and I do not watch them, but my parents aren’t on my case the whole time” (G1_12–13_F).

The rest of the (trans)media competencies identifiable in the discourse of the young participants from a gender perspective were only commented on by the female participants. In descending order, comments fall under Language and Esthetics, Technology, and Production and Dissemination, where female participants comment on aspects such as the algorithm used.

“It’s that TikTok gets you addicted, you say you are going to watch it for 5 min and then a whole day goes by (…) with Instagram it’s harder to get addicted, because on TikTok you scroll down and more and more videos come up, and on Instagram there’s a moment when there’s nothing else to see” (G1_12–13_F2).

4.5 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by age

In the results, the gender perspective also appears to be related to age, expressed as a concern for children.

“There are a lot of 11 and 12-year-old girls (…) most of them are girls (…) who join a fan club, whatever. And they do not stop to think what nonsense the people are talking. And I think so much freedom has been given to those content creators that they think they have the right to publish whatever they want, without thinking that their fame is due to people who aren’t mature enough to think and weigh opinions, and to see what’s right (…) your followers are at an age when if you tell them something, they’ll believe you, it’s like you are indoctrinating them, they are so young that they’ll believe anything you say” (G10_15–16_M).

5 Discussion and conclusions

The presence and use of social media by young people requires a debate in wider society and the academic community around the opportunities and risks that social media present in the construction of young people’s identities. Of particular importance is the analysis of the gender perspective that emerges in the context of digital empowerment, since it reflects the expression by young people of differing levels of awareness of their responsibility for progress toward a just society, free (among other things) of gender-based prejudice and inequality.

In relation to the first research question, whether young people of both sexes consider gender in their assessments of social media – such as YouTube and Instagram -, the results show that it is principally females who refer to gender in their comments. They associate gender with the importance of image and appearances on social media, principally on Instagram and TikTok. Our results are partially consistent with a focus group study with 15 to 19-year-old teenagers in Finland ( N = 35) and provided understanding of the important role of commercial social media in young people’s consumption styles. While in the Finnish study boys appeared more materialistic and interested in luxury and sustainable consumption seemed to be a more “girly” thing ( Wilska et al., 2023 ), in our research boys do not acknowledge the influence of social media on their image. Female participants perceive that they are more exposed and under greater pressure than boys and young men, a perception also reflected in the comments of male participants. They also associate that pressure mostly with fashion and, to a lesser extent, with trends in consumer or capitalist society. Among male participants, there are more expressions of self-assertion and self-judgment. Both genders express concern about the effects of this body-image pressure on young girls. There is no mention of other possible gender identities beyond male and female (non-binary, gender-fluid…).

The obsession with image as a way of making visible the self is part of a generational culture of appearance and public approval ( Guardiola, 2018 ), which is acknowledged with critical reflection by both male and female participants. Sexualization is associated with certain influencers.

In relation to the second research question, whether the perception of male and female social media users can be seen as empowering for them, most of the positive comments from both genders in discourse concerning YouTube and Instagram refer to entertainment and the strengthening of friendships and the sense of belonging to a peer group. This feeling of belonging, which is reinforced by influencers, can be recognized in a small-scale qualitative research work in Germany: adolescents are often particularly attracted to influencers they believe themselves to have things in common with, such as around gender/sex, hobbies, and geographical location [ Bamberger et al., 2022 , cited in Pérez-Torres et al. (2018) , Diepeveen (2024) ].

The results allow us to identify comments that include some sensitizing concepts ( Gill, 2017 ) articulated around the construction of gender on social media, such as comments on the “Me too” movement. However, as noted, the importance of image is mentioned to a greater extent by female participants and in relation to material on social media directed at girls and women, while male participants particularly mention having fun and success or social status. Explicit references to self-esteem are also more common among female participants, especially among young girls, in the form of concern about low self-esteem due to the influence of ideal bodies, as often displayed by influencers. In fact, there are no comments from male participants that acknowledge the influence of social media on their self-image, rather the reverse. This may suggest less external oversight and greater self-confidence than among female participants. The spontaneous expressions of such views may reflect the internalization of personal empowerment among male participants.

On the other hand, some of the youngest girls (aged 13–14) demand fairer treatment on social media and that demand is based on the rejection of censorship of their bodies by social media platforms. As Caballero-Gálvez et al. (2017) point out, we can reconcile the apparent paradox of freedom of choice and the forcefully expressed demands of young girls for the recognition of an (idealized) image rather than gender equality. In relation to the characteristics of postfeminist discourse ( Gill, 2017 ), we saw this emphasis on bodily self-monitoring, especially among female participants, related to the management of the individual’s own image and perceived sexualization in some representations.

The contribution of this study is to attend to the voices of adolescents and young people, providing them with a platform to express their views freely in focus groups. This approach offers valuable insights into their perceptions and experiences with social media and gender. Focusing on young people’s perception of gender issues on social media is a critical additional layer in the discussion around the potential consequences for young adults and adolescents of content, use and engagement in social media. For adolescents, social media constitute a new arena in which they can express themselves and explore, but they are also to a significant forum for the dissemination of certain beauty standards that may represent a risk to adolescents in relation to their body image ( Arab and Díaz, 2015 ; Segovia Aguilar et al., 2016 ; Malo-Cerrato et al., 2018 ; Shah et al., 2019 ). One can find on social media content related to the human body that may influence adolescents and cause them to obsess about their appearance and the photos that they post ( Goodyear, 2020 ). In that sense, the risk resides in interiorization of such messages, especially by girls, which may have significant repercussions on their body image and mental health ( Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997 ; Karsay et al., 2018 ). Given differences in gender roles and societal pressure, there is a need to display an image that society considers acceptable. In that sense, social media and mass communication media play a fundamental role in objectification, and may have a significant impact on self-esteem, self-image, body positivity and psychological wellbeing ( Aydm and San, 2011 ; Shah et al., 2019 ). In short, this research shows how the digital empowerment of young people is constructed through the dominant paradigm of image in its presence and representation on social media.

However, from a gender perspective, female participants perceive the negative dimension of this (false) empowerment more than males. Across social media platforms, as also noted by Scharrer et al. (2023) , our results show that YouTube is perceived to give more equal prominence to the genders and to have more balanced activities and content suitable for each gender relative to Instagram and Tiktok. In our results, the impression predominates that YouTube is where males contribute more content. On Instagram, on the other hand, the importance of body image is clearly recognized by young people, especially females, in consequence of the centrality of (self-)image on Instagram, which in turn reflects the logic of today’s society of (hyper) visibility ( Imbert, 2004 ).

Finally, we have identified tensions that could even be seen as contradictions in the perceptions of young users of social media, in relation to life offline. The blurring of the boundaries between intimacy and extimacy may be a cause for more hope than might appear: Sabich and Steinberg (2017) believe that, although the discourse of YouTubers is trapped in a consumer culture, those online spaces for interaction allow the construction of symbolic bonds of belonging, that are particularly propitious for young people.

“The evidence indicates there is not a simple cause and effect relationship between social media use and (harmful) gender attitudes” ( Diepeveen, 2024 , p. 9). Part of the context for our research is the fact that the relationship between use of social media and gender equality is not simple and involves at least three different elements: personal experience and social context, i.e., individual perceptions; platform design, and online experience, especially the types of relationship built with social media ( Diepeveen, 2024 ). Our study highlights different aspects in relation to those different elements, based on the perceptions of our young participants. The limitations of our study include that the sample was drawn from a specific geographic area and culture in Spain. Some prior research in Spain (e.g., García-Jiménez et al., 2021 ; Herrero-Curiel and La-Rosa, 2022 ; Serrate-González et al., 2023 ) studied the behavior of adolescents on social media in general, “but so far as we have been able to confirm there has been no research looking at their preferences in relation to the content generated specifically by their favorite influencers” ( Martín-Cárdaba et al., 2024 , p. 83). Another limitation is that the study coincided with the Covid-19 pandemic. This exceptionality meant that the importance of social media was increasing ( Wilska et al., 2023 ).

The results of our research are consistent with other works in expressing concern about gender differences that go beyond differences in degree of participation and topics engaged with on social media. Our data align with findings in Europe [EU Kids online 2020 in Smahel et al. (2020) ] that show that the digital gender divide does not reflect a significant difference among European youth in terms of access. It rather betokens prevalent differences in the modalities of use and consequently in the skills deployed ( Masanet et al., 2021 ). Processes of socialization reflect the structural inequality fostered by, among other agents, the media system itself. That seems to be a persisting historical issue rather than a contemporary anomaly and entails a so-called cognitive cost for the most disadvantaged, including women ( Benesch, 2012 ).

From a developmental perspective, here we take up Kabeer's (1999) idea of trajectory, describing a notion of transmedia education that engages with new technologies and social realities, with empowerment as an individual process leading to greater autonomy and capacity to make life choices; and as a collective process of the development of a group’s capacity to drive social change so as to create a just, fair society, particularly in terms of relationships between men and women ( Charlier and Caubergs, 2007 , p. 6). In other words, empowerment here means achieving not power over but power to, power with and power within, as described by those authors ( Charlier and Caubergs, 2007 , p. 10).

The fact that the study’s sample was drawn from three Autonomous Communities increases the diversity of perspectives and enriches the data collected. While it limits the extent to which the findings can be generalized to other cultural or geographical contexts, it opens avenues for future research.

Despite the limitations of extrapolating qualitative data to adolescents and young people in Spain more widely, this study allows us to hear the participants and so develop greater understanding of digital empowerment from an edu-communication and gender perspective. The interpretation of the results points to the need for transmedia education that promotes reflection and critical production among adolescents and young people, specifically from the perspective of their as-yet only partially constructed identities that pays greater heed to the importance of aspects of their lives beyond conventional ideas of physical beauty. In that area, users need to become more aware of the influence of social media in the construction of notions of gender and to develop their capacity to engage critically with such notions in both formal and informal settings. That will enable them to engage with postfeminist perspectives in the context of the dominant values of today’s neoliberal society ( Medina, 2021 ), particularly as concerns the internalization of rigid beauty standards in relation to the bodies of women and girls especially, through (for example) programs to make people more aware of their own stereotyped beliefs around gender ( Panerati et al., 2023 ). The journey is for both boys and girls, men and women, toward greater empowerment of women and girls and a respectful, fair system that embraces diversity.

Although this study acknowledges gender disparities in social media, to delve deeply into the potential causes or solutions would strengthen the impact of future works. The evolving nature of social media platforms and research with “big data” in the field of perceptions and sexist content is still limited, not only because of the role of algorithms, but also because of aspects such as pseudonymization ( Lozano-Blasco et al., 2023 ) or because of adolescents’ own search for an ideal representation of themselves ( Stockdale and Coyne, 2020 ). Moreover, adding a comparative analysis with older age groups or with data from other countries could offer a broader perspective on how these perceptions might vary across different demographics or cultural contexts.

Based on our findings, we provide specific considerations for educators, policymakers, and social media platforms on how to address the identified issues. Furthermore, future works should develop, implement and evaluate edu-communicative and media education initiatives to develop critical reflection on the influence of social media, given that the results of this study underline the importance of a respectful and equitable environment in relation to gender equality in digital spaces, which helps to implement educational measures for working with esthetic and erotic body image ( Pires et al., 2021 ), to develop self-awareness and self-regulation ( Mirgos et al., 2023 ) and to deepen protective factors against the risks online ( Ramos-Soler et al., 2018 ). Along those lines, the sessions focused on the responsible critical use of the Internet and digital devices for adolescents aged 13–15 developed by Cuervo et al. (2022a) , and aged 12–17 by Medrano et al. (2019) and Cuervo et al. (2022b) ; the classes put forward by Mirgos et al. (2023) around hate speech, privacy, digital intoxication, and perceived values on social media; the digital interactive tool to develop and assess the media competence of European students aged 14–18 ( Ferrés et al., 2022 ); the worksheets in Scolari (2018) ; and the use of Service Learning proposed by Villacampa et al. (2020) for collaboration to eradicate gender violence through online behaviors deserve special attention. Moreover, we consider that in this process both teachers and families should be involved together with students, to educate in the ethical and responsible use of social networks, for example using the guides developed by Martínez Ten (2021) .

As discussed above, future works should address the role of digital platforms in highlighting stereotypical representations of men and women ( Bernárdez, 2015 ) could lead people to internalize inequality, due that evolving nature of social media platforms and research with “big data” in the field of perceptions and sexist content is still limited.

Policy makers should consider the importance of promoting a respectful and equitable environment in relation to gender equality within digital spaces, in order to provide support for the need to develop and implement edu-communicative initiatives to foster critical thinking around the influence of social media in this context and the evaluation of the impact of such initiatives in future research.

Data availability statement

The anonymised raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the project’s coordinating University (Blanquerna School of Communication and International Relations, Ramon Llull University, Barcelona, Spain). The studies were conducted in accordance with laws applying throughout Spain and locally to the research institutions and the requirements of those institutions. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants and/or their legal guardians/next of kin. Online written and paper written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) and/or participants’ legal guardians/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable data included in this article.

Author contributions

SA-R: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. OK-A: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. IE-A: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. ÁM-I: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. IB-G: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The research reported in this article has been financed with public funds from the National Plan financed by the Spanish State Research Agency, Project Reference/AEI/10.13039/501100011033. Ministry of Science and Innovation.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no commercial or financial relationships connected with this research that could be constitute a conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: gender, social media, adolescence, youth, edu-communication, empowerment, perception, media literacy

Citation: Aran-Ramspott S, Korres-Alonso O, Elexpuru-Albizuri I, Moro-Inchaurtieta & and Bergillos-García I (2024) Young users of social media: an analysis from a gender perspective. Front. Psychol . 15:1375983. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1375983

Received: 24 January 2024; Accepted: 06 May 2024; Published: 30 May 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Aran-Ramspott, Korres-Alonso, Elexpuru-Albizuri, Moro-Inchaurtieta and Bergillos-García. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Oihane Korres, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

US public opinion on social media is warming to nuclear energy, but concerns remain

300,000 x posts show 48 of 50 states have a more positive than negative tone about nuclear energy, with a national average at 54% positive.

The U.S. public displays more positive than negative sentiment toward nuclear energy but concerns remain about waste, cost and safety, according to an analysis of 300,000 posts on X (formerly Twitter) by University of Michigan researchers.

The study was recently published in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.

Identifying public concerns and misconceptions about nuclear energy can target efforts to bridge these gaps as nuclear energy will play a large role in goals to decarbonize by 2050, replacing oil and gas as a stable baseload electricity source.

"Understanding and addressing how the public feels about nuclear energy is essential for a just transition to clean energy," said Majdi Radaideh, U-M assistant professor of nuclear engineering and radiological sciences and corresponding author of the study.

While surveys can gather detailed information from specific locations -- such as community attitudes near a proposed nuclear facility -- social media data vastly expands sample size while cutting costs and time.

Using an extensive list of keywords related to nuclear energy topics, the researchers compiled 1.26 million X posts from 2008 to 2023 and leveraged large language models, or LLMs, to annotate posts as positive, negative or neutral and summarize text.

Of the 300,000 nuclear energy posts geotagged to the U.S., neutral sentiments -- those that present facts without advocating for or against the use of nuclear technology -- were the most common at about 50%, followed by posts with a positive tone at 30% and a negative tone at roughly 23%. When breaking down the ratio of positive to negative posts by state, 48 of 50 states displayed more positive sentiment with the national average at 54% positive.

Technology themes fueled positive sentiment, with users citing innovations as making nuclear energy safer, more reliable and economical, noting nuclear power's high energy density and ability to operate reliably 24/7. Positive posts also highlighted job creation and the necessity of transitioning to clean energy production.

Waste, cost and safety hazards dominated negative sentiment themes. Users expressed concern about how radioactive waste will be handled, noting that waste remains dangerous for thousands of years and creates challenges in disposal.

"These valid concerns stress that entities establishing nuclear energy systems must be transparent with local communities about safe nuclear waste storage and recycling to avoid continued public mistrust," Radaideh said.

In addition to a deeper understanding of U.S. public opinion on nuclear energy, the study developed a method for using AI to label data with reduced bias.

Rather than relying on a single data labeling tool, the researchers used seven data labeling programs and chose the final label of positive, negative or neutral based on a majority rules approach.

"Labeling with multiple tools reduces bias as each tool struggles with certain types of texts and tones," said Katie Vu, an undergraduate majoring in electrical engineering and computer science and co-author of the study.

The labels were scored as high confidence if five or more programs agreed and low confidence if only three or four programs agreed. Notably, LLMs trained with exclusively high-confidence posts experienced a 15% increase in model accuracy, reaching 96% accuracy.

"We finetuned our LLMs to perform well on nuclear power sentiment analysis while leveraging their exceptional understanding of language structure and semantics," said Naman Bhargava, a master's student of data science and co-author of the study.

For this initial analysis, the researchers selected X over social media platforms like Instagram, Facebook or LinkedIn because of its succinct, text-based format. As a next project, the research team plans to create a near real-time dashboard of nuclear sentiment aggregated from several social media platforms and news headlines.

"With nuclear energy, we have to work a bit harder because of the historical baggage that comes with it," Radaideh said. "We are working toward scaling this methodology to real-time, open-source sentiment tracking, viewable by stakeholders like government officials, national labs and the industry that could give voice to public concerns in the coming years."

This work is sponsored by the Fastest Path to Zero Initiative and the Department of Energy Office, and it used computing resources at the Idaho National Laboratory.

• Nuclear Energy
• Weapons Technology
• Energy Technology
• Energy Issues
• Security and Defense
• STEM Education
• Surveillance
• Public health
• Effects of nuclear explosions
• Nuclear fission
• Nuclear fusion
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Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Michigan . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• O. Hwang Kwon, Katie Vu, Naman Bhargava, Mohammed I. Radaideh, Jacob Cooper, Veda Joynt, Majdi I. Radaideh. Sentiment analysis of the United States public support of nuclear power on social media using large language models . Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 2024; 200: 114570 DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2024.114570

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2024 primary election: Research the 2 Republican candidates for 16th Circuit Solicitor

T wo Republican candidates are running in the June 11 primary for 16th Circuit Solicitor, the top prosecutor for York and Union counties.

The candidates are incumbent Kevin Brackett and Tyler Bratton. There is no Democratic primary for solicitor.

Early voting began May 28, and runs through June 7. In South Carolina, any registered voter can vote in one party primary. Voters do not register by political party in South Carolina.

Check your registration, see your sample ballot and find where to vote at scvotes.gov .

For questions, contact the York County Voter Registration and Elections Office at 803-684-1242.

In preparation for the election, The Herald sent surveys to both candidates asking questions about their backgrounds and platforms.

Both candidates running for solicitor responded to The Herald’s questionnaire. Their answers are below in alphabetical order by last name.

Kevin Brackett

Age as of Nov. 5, 2024:

Campaign website or social media page:

www.brackettforsolicitor.com

Party affiliation and office you’re seeking:

Republican candidate for 16th Circuit Solicitor

Occupation:

BA, International Studies and Juris Doctorate

Have you run for elected office before? (Please list previous offices sought or held):

Solicitor, 2008, 2012, 2016, 2020

Please list your highlights of civic involvement:

Prosecutor in the 16th Circuit Solicitors Office since 1991; Board of York County Boys Home and Sexual Assault Resource Center, York County All On Board; active supporter of local charities including Safe Passage, Keystone, Children’s Attention Home, Boys and Girls Club and numerous others.

What is the most important issue facing prosecutors in handling criminal cases and seeking justice for victims and the public, while at the same time maintaining public trust in a fair judicial process?

For some time now I have been advocating for changes to how judges are selected in South Carolina. Currently the legislature hires, funds and can dismiss judges when they come up for reappointment. One branch of our government should not so thoroughly dominate another. The authority for selection should be divided between the Executive and Legislative branches and the citizenry should have the ability to remove underperforming judges in non-partisan, uncontested retention referendums.

How will you and your prosecutors work with law enforcement to seek successful prosecution of cases filed by police to enhance public safety?

I am proud of the record our office has established in this area over the last two decades. We have excellent relationships built on open and honest communication. Law enforcement involves our office early in major or complex cases. We always work together to identify all the relevant evidence available. We include law enforcement during the course of the prosecution so they can assist us and give input. All of this translates into a tremendous amount of trust between the agencies.

How can your office best be accountable and transparent to the public in handling cases that impact the public perception of a fair judicial system for all, such as officer involved shootings, police powers and use of force complaints, and public corruption allegations?

If the criminal justice system is to be respected by the citizens it protects it must be open and transparent to the greatest extent possible. When public officials are the subject of inquiry great care must be taken to ensure the public has access to not only the decisions made but the facts and evidence that justify those decisions and the applicable law. In any instance where the impartiality of the prosecutor can be reasonably questioned, cases should be assigned to another prosecutor.

Tyler Bratton

www.brattonforsolicitor.com

Republican, Solicitor for the 16th Circuit

Public Defender

BA Clemson University, JD Charleston School of Law

Member of the Board of Directors for Bethelwoods, Ruling Elder in the Presbyterian Church, member of a task force to educate school children on the criminal justice system in an effort to ensure they stay out of it in the future. Mental Health court liaison.

The criminal justice system will crumble and fail without the communities belief that it works and is working for them. Therefore, communication and transparency with victims, police agencies, and the community is the most critical aspect of running a great Solicitor’s Office.

Communication and education. Law enforcement needs their voices heard before a case is disposed of in court. Their voices are important to understanding the gravity of the situation because they are the boots on the ground. Law enforcement also needs periodic education, with local examples if errors are made, on how to make a good case that prosecutors feel confident with winning at trial.

Availability, communication, and admitting mistakes while learning from them. Being available to talk to the public when they request a discussion. Communicating on why issues are handled like they are. Admitting mistakes when law enforcement or the Solicitor’s Office makes mistakes. There was only one perfect man to walk the earth and we are all called to try to be like him.

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Why people are becoming addicted to social media: A qualitative study

Maryam chegeni.

1 Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Institute for Futures Studies in Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

2 Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

Parvin Mangolian Shahrbabaki

3 Nursing Research Center, Razi Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Department of Critical Care Nursing, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

Mahin Eslami Shahrbabaki

4 Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Shahid Beheshti Hospital, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

Nouzar Nakhaee

5 Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

Aliakbar Haghdoost

6 Modeling in Health Research Center, Institute for Futures Studies in Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

BACKGROUND:

Social media addiction (SMA) led to the formation of health-threatening behaviors that can have a negative impact on the quality of life and well-being. Many factors can develop an exaggerated tendency to use social media (SM), which can be prevented in most cases. This study aimed to explore the reasons for SMA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

This qualitative study was conducted using content analysis. A total of 18 SM addicted subjects were included through purposive sampling. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed using the Lundman and Graneheim qualitative content analysis method. A total of 18 SM addicted subjects were included through purposive sampling. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed using the Lundman and Graneheim qualitative content analysis method.

The main category of “weakness in acquiring life skills” was extracted with three themes: “problems in socializing” (including communicating and escaping loneliness), “problems in resiliency” (including devastation in harsh conditions and inability to recover oneself and “lack of problem-solving skills” (including weaknesses in analysis and decision making and disorganization in planning).

CONCLUSIONS:

Weakness in life skills plays an important role in individuals’ addiction to SM and formation of the health-threatening behaviors. Since SMA can affect behavioral health, policymakers must adopt educational and preventive programs to increase the knowledge and skills of individuals in different societies in the modern world.

Introduction

Today, social media (SM) (e.g., WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook, etc.) have enjoyed such rapidly-growing popularity[ 1 ] that around 2.67 billion users of social networks have been estimated worldwide.[ 2 ] After China, India, and Indonesia, Iran ranks fourth in terms of using SM, having approximately 40 million active online social network users over the past decade, these networks have become part of daily lives,[ 3 ] in a way that people can use them to meet any kind of their daily needs.[ 4 ] Despite their benefits, social networks act as a double-edged sword and can lead to behavioral addiction and irreparable negative effects if their users are unaware and if they are used improperly and purposelessly.[ 5 ] In recent years, excessive and compulsory use of SM has been considered as a behavioral addiction.[ 6 , 7 ] This type of behavioral addiction leads to the formation of health-threatening behaviors and serious harm to physical and mental health.[ 8 ] These health threats include: Dysfunction,[ 9 , 10 ] psychological and well-being disorders,[ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ] loss of positive emotions,[ 10 ] loneliness, and decreased social communications,[ 15 ] which may reduce the life quality of users and even their families.

Given the extent and significance of the damages caused by SM addiction (SMA), it is essential to identify experienced reasons and conditions for dependency to prevent possible complications and promote healthy behaviors. On the other hand, trying to change the behavior of others without understanding their underlying causes is doomed to fail.

Thus, investigating the experiences of SM addicts can open a new horizon for policymakers. On the other hand, so far, no study has examined these factors in Iranian culture as well as in the general population of all groups in society. Therefore, based on the views and experiences of people having an addiction to SM, this study aimed to explore factors which increase the likelihood of individuals to indulge in social networks. The results of this study can help develop effective prevention programs.

Materials and Methods

Design and participants.

This study is a qualitative research which builds on conventional content analysis. To gain a deeper understanding of SMA, researchers have immersed themselves in data by gaining direct information from participants.

Using purposive sampling, 18 participants were selected from several prominent psychiatric clinics in Kerman, a city in the South Eastern of Iran. These participants had been diagnosed with an addiction to SM and had experienced its related negative effects. It was attempted to consider the maximum diversity in terms of age, sex, duration of addiction, marital status, education, and family support. The general characteristics of participants in the study are presented in Table 1 .

Demographic characteristics of the study participants

All participants were able to communicate face to face in Farsi. The time and place of the interviews were arranged with participants beforehand, and each interview took about 45–60 min in average.

Semi-structured interviews were performed by the first author in 2019. The participants were requested to answer the questions based on their experiences. Questions included, “What factors made you to tend toward SM?,” “What motivated you into using these social networks?” and “What kind of needs do these networks meet?” During the interviews, it was tried to write down those ambiguities and triggers that came to the researchers’ minds in the form of interview memos to be asked in the subsequent interviews and to clarify the related concepts. All the interviews were recorded. Data collection was continued till a saturation point was reached; that is, a moment when the additional sources of data did not give new information.

Data analysis

The data were analyzed using Graneheim and Lundman's approach. The recorded voices of all interviews were typed verbatim. They were then read several times and coded after extracting semantic units. The semantic units were short and meaningful phrases that were extracted from the participants’ responses. These codes were refined; that is, the similar codes were put together or merged. Thus, a number of subcategories and categories were formed and the hidden content and concepts were extracted. Ultimately, the main meaning of the data was derived, and the themes were arranged to show the hidden content of the data. An example of the developed categories and subcategories based on the refined codes is given in Table 2 .

Example of qualitative content analysis process

The Guba and Lincoln criteria were used to ensure the accuracy and strength of the data.[ 16 ] The researchers’ interpretations of the participants’ responses were shared with them during the interviews to ensure their accuracy as well as to increase data credibility. Further, to evaluate the reliability of the collected data, some parts of the interviews alongside the developed codes were returned to the participants to check the consistency of the ideas extracted by the researchers and the participants. The categories and subcategories extracted from the data were also sent to some experts in the field of qualitative studies to be revised, if required, and agreed upon.

This study was approved by the relevant Ethics Committee (IR.KMU.REC.1397.338). The participants were assured that their information would remain confidential and that, if not further interested, they could leave the interview and refuse to collaborate any longer. After obtaining the written consents, the interviews were conducted individually and at a convenient time and place for the participants.

The 18 participants recruited for the study included, half of whom were women. Their ages ranged between 16 and 41 years. Most of them were single and educated.

The results of the data analysis showed one main theme entitled Weakness in Life Skills, from which three themes were extracted: (1) Problems in socializing including the subthemes of problems in communicating and escaping loneliness; (2) Problems in Resiliency including the subthemes of devastation in harsh conditions and inability to recover oneself (inner distress); and (3) Weakness in Problem-Solving Skills, including the two subthemes of weakness in analysis and decision-making and disorganization in planning [ Table 3 ]. Furthermore, predisposing factors in family and society and attractions of SM extracted of interviews was shown in Figure 1 .

Themes and subthemes extracted from data of participants’ experiences

The categories and subcategories of the causes of social media addict subjects

Problems in socializing

For many participants, weakness in social interactions is a factor that leads them to use SM. Two forms of problems in communicating and escaping loneliness were extracted using this approach.

Problems in communicating

According to the participants’ experiences, one of the reasons for their addictive tendency to SM is their inability to communicate properly. They have trouble even in establishing a simple relationship, avoid face-to-face communication, and often fail to gain experience in social activities. Thus, harmful social behaviors and beliefs replace learning useful social behaviors and beliefs. In order to make up for the lack of real-world effective and useful relationships, they become more inclined to SM and indulge themselves in unreasonable tendencies and hence suffer a great deal of damages. A participant said:

We were a large family and I did not get enough attention. I have very limited social relations. I have an introverted personality and I find SM interesting, because I do not see the other person and I can easily talk (P1) .

Escaping loneliness

Another important reason for most participants was feeling loneliness. Being the only child of a family, being the last child of a family, immigrating, divorcing, and so on were among the factors for their feeling lonely. They were looking for an easy and convenient solution to save themselves from loneliness. Since SM was easily accessible and did not require any specific planning, it was the best available way for them to escape loneliness. A participant said:

I’m living alone and have no siblings. The age difference between my parents and I is too much. So I prefer to go to social networks to fill my time. SM have become part of my life (P10) .

Problems in resiliency

Based on the experiences of the participants, problems in resiliency was another major reason for addiction to tending towards SM and getting addicted to it. The bulk of the problems and the lack of proper support, on the one hand, and the ease of access to SM, on the other hand, have made SM a haven of safety to escape from the crises and to continue their activities there. The use of this reason is examined in two forms: Devastation in harsh conditions and inability to recover oneself.

Devastation in harsh conditions

Participants’ experiences showed that because they lacked self-management skills, they were vulnerable to adverse conditions and get devastated quickly. Most of these participants cannot properly manage their problems and do not succeed in maintaining their bio-psychological balance. Hence, they commit more mistakes in escaping the crises. A participant said:

The love failure that I went through in the SM was unbearable. Just to see if I could forget the previous one, I entered another relationship and hence this vicious cycle was repeated (P7) .

Inability to recover oneself (inner distress)

Most SM addicts have failed in dealing properly with their life problems. They could not recover from those difficulties and could not heal themselves. Such failure has prevented them from successfully going through adverse events and attaining social, educational, and occupational achievements. Most of them have not been able to properly recover from their lives’ adverse events and heal their wounds. Hence, they have succumbed to social harms and may undergo serious hurts such as poor health behaviors. A participant said:

I fell in love with a girl on Instagram. But we broke up after a while. I was seriously hurt. Although I loved football, I didn’t go to work out anymore and I wasn’t selected in talent competitions anymore. I got used to smoking and drinking. Although I’m only 17 years old, I’ve committed suicide twice (P8) .

Lack of problem-solving skills

According to participants’ experiences, lack of problem-solving skills has been one of the key factors in individuals’ addiction to SM. These individuals could not easily solve their problems and consequently suffered from other problems such as depression, lack of concentration and attention, anxiety, and the like. These problems made them more likely to become addicted to SM. The use of this reason is examined in two forms: Weaknesses in analysis and disorganization in planning.

Weaknesses in analysis and decision making

Based on the experiences of the participants, they seemed to lack mature defense mechanisms to defend themselves against life crises. As they were unable to analyze them and find logical solutions, they preferred to choose the easiest way to forget and solve their problems. That is why they went into SM. However, the easiest way is not always the best. As being already vulnerable, they were easily hurt by their wrong decisions. A participant said:

My husband had betrayed me, so I got terribly upset. Instead of finding a wise way, I decided to retaliate. I met a guy in the online SM and got addicted to him. So I was always online. Through these networks, this gentleman came into my life. But he suddenly went away and devastated me. I became inflicted with depression and so I had to see psychiatrist and take medication (P5) .

Disorganization in planning

Based on the experiences of the participants, disorganization in life has been one of their major reasons for addiction to SM. Most of them stated that not only have they been purposeless in their lives, but they have been unable to plan properly and rescue themselves from their problems. Hence, they prefer to go aimlessly into OSM. This has caused them to not only lag behind their daily lives but also to undergo numerous negative effects. A participant said:

I do not have any plan for my future, so I do not see a need for it, why should I work? Why should I study? Having fun is the best plan for me. Many guys are like me; they go online without any purpose, and I spend my time with them (P12) .

The findings showed that one of the main reasons for SMA was a lack of life skills. According to the experiences of the participants, the three most important skills were problems in socialization, problems in resiliency, and lack of problem-solving skills.

The problem in socialization is one of the leading factors in SMA that impede people from receiving enough emotional support and acquiring appropriate social-communicative skills. As a result, their relationships with others decrease and to cope with their sense of loneliness and to get sufficient approval and support from others, they start looking for a place to feel calm. SM, due to their easy access and expansive and variable content, persuade these individuals to go more online. Poor communication skills are one of the most important reasons for spending too much time on social networks. These individuals due to get rid of anxiety and stress of face-to-face interactions, they prefer to use the Internet instead of offline communications to meet their interpersonal needs and relationships.[ 17 , 18 ] In line with the results of the present study, numerous studies have also showed that there is a negative relationship between the level of interpersonal communication skills and Internet addiction and have identified shyness and quality of social communications as strong predictors of Internet addiction, in particular, SMA.[ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ] In fact, individuals who have communication problems are less sociable and thus spend many hours on the Internet to communicate with others and prove themselves.[ 25 ]

The participants of the study repeatedly stated that escaping loneliness is a major motivation for their continued presence in online social networks. They are looking for a convenient solution to feel less alone, SM provides them with such opportunity, and they do not even need to take on any commitment and responsibility. To ease their discomforts and compensate for their lack of social interactions, these individuals indulge themselves in social networks and hence lose enough social support in the real world.[ 25 ]

A number of researchers consider resilience as one of the effective factors in preventing addiction to SM.[ 26 , 27 ] This was clearly stated by the participants of the present study. Individuals who are less resilient to problems seem more susceptible to SMA. Because these individuals cannot easily accept and endure griefs and sufferings, they are more likely to be in SM. Hence, they use social networks as a defense mechanism for more comfortable tolerance. However, participants stated that if they had exciting entertainment facilities, exciting entertainments, and a secure and well-paid job, they could easily cope with their problems.

Numerous studies have shown that resilience is an important protective factor against Internet addiction[ 28 , 29 ] SMA[ 26 ] and even drug addiction.[ 30 ] Loneliness is one of the factors leading to addiction. However, resilient people are able to cope with it.[ 31 ] It seems that online activities only reduce the negative emotions of escaping reality. While they do not reinforce social skills to solve relationship problems.[ 21 ]

The study findings showed that most individuals who were dependent on SM could not solve their problems well. For this reason, they suffer from anxiety, depression, and insufficient attention and concentration. To control their problems, they resort to poor solutions such as hanging out in SM, which as stated by themselves, act as a temporary remedy. Some of these individuals do not have any plan for their futures and suffer from disorganization in solving their lives’ problems. Thus, to escape such bitter realities, they become severely addicted to SM. These participants see social networks as a safe haven to forget their problems and sufferings. While they might entangle themselves into other problems. In fact, these networks are not always safe havens. According to a study conducted by Ekinci on Turkish students, individuals who had lower levels of problem-solving skills had higher levels of problematic use of Internet.[ 32 ] Furthermore, in a study conducted by Raiha Aftab, it was found that people who possess problem-solving and coping abilities were less likely to become addicted to Facebook.[ 33 ] Resilient individuals have good problem-solving social skills and adopt positive and rational approaches to problems. Therefore, teaching problem-solving skills can enhance resilience in individuals.[ 34 ]

Evidence obtained from the findings of this study shows the detail of the experiences of Iranian individuals who dependent to SM. Also, our researchers’ efforts was to select diverse groups from the general population. However, due to the limited number of participants in the study and the presence of merely Iranian individuals, it is not possible to examine all the factors affecting SMA. Thus, more expansive quantitative studies are suggested.

Conclusions

Since the present study investigated the factors leading to SMA from the experiences of those involved in these networks, its findings can be quite helpful for prevention and even treatment. It seems that improving the quality of social relationships, purposeful actions, and planning to reduce the sense of loneliness, training, and strengthening problem-solving and resiliency skills in families, schools, and universities can help prevent addiction to SM and subsequently to threatening behaviors physical and mental health.

Financial support and sponsorship

This work was funded by the Kerman University of Medical Sciences under the Research Grant 97000283.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgements

The authors extend their appreciation to the participants for their cooperation throughout the study. They also appreciate the assistance of Kerman University of Medical Sciences. This study was part of a Specialty Ph.D. dissertation in epidemiology.

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Fight against cancer brings experts together to discuss strategies, solutions

Symposium draws cancer research leaders to college station .

June 7, 2024 - by Paul Schattenberg

Investigating and accelerating cancer prevention and treatment was the goal when more than 90 people gathered to exchange ideas and learn about new and existing research toward fighting cancer at the Texas A&M Health Center of Excellence in Cancer Research symposium in College Station.

The second annual Cancer Research Symposium: Innovations in Cancer Research was supported by the Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas , CPRIT, which has the goal of facilitating and accelerating advancements in cancer prevention and cures.  

The event involved many from across The Texas A&M University System , including the Texas A&M College of Agriculture and Life Sciences , the Texas A&M Health Science Center and the Texas A&M School of Medicine . Distinguished speakers included experts in their respective fields who have contributed considerably to cancer treatment and prevention.

“We were fortunate to have these distinguished presenters share their work and insights with others who have an interest in and dedication to that purpose,” said David Threadgill, Ph.D., head of Department of Nutrition at Texas A&M.  

Leading the charge for cancer research at Texas A&M

In 2022, the Texas A&M Health Center of Excellence in Cancer Research was funded by a Texas Regional Excellence in Cancer , TREC, award from CPRIT. The center is designed to create a powerful collaborative environment that fuels innovation and accelerates breakthroughs.

Center director Kenneth Ramos, M.D., Ph.D., opened the symposium and set the tone for collaboration. Ramos is also associate vice president for research at the Texas A&M Health Science Center and assistant vice chancellor for health affairs with The Texas A&M University System.

An accomplished physician-scientist and transformational leader, Ramos and his research group were the first to establish a role for retinoblastoma proteins as master regulators of epigenetic signaling. They later characterized novel targets for the regulation of cancer cells.

Ramos is currently studying variations of LINE-1s in the human genome, a family of “jumping genes” that can move around in the genome and go into overdrive in cancer patients. Ramos’ research examines their functional genetic interactions and the utility of circulating LINE-1 proteins as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers of cancer.

Joining Ramos in presentations was center deputy director Robert Chapkin, Ph.D., William W. Allen Endowed Chair in Nutrition and Chronic Disease Prevention with appointments in the Texas A&M College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Department of Nutrition and Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics . Chapkin presented “Dysregulation of Cellular Membrane Lipid Homeostasis is a Crucial Modulator of Cancer Risk.”

Chapkin is a National Institutes of Health National Cancer Institute R35-Outstanding Investigator Awardee and Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and American Society for Nutrition .

Chapkin has made highly significant precision medicine-related contributions through the study of dietary and botanical modulators related to stem cell biology and chronic inflammatory diseases. His research centers on colon cancer prevention by investigating the impact of dietary fat, fiber and gut microbiota on chronic disease processes.

About the Texas A&M center of excellence in cancer

The center’s primary focus is mentoring early career investigators interested in cancer research. It supports four core services: a single-cell data science core, a cancer prevention clinical genomics core, an administrative core and an evaluation core.

“The center serves as a hub of innovative cancer research and resources to address cancer-related issues impacting the health and welfare of the people of Texas,” Ramos said.

The central theme of the center is the study of gene environment and lifestyle interactions.

“At the center, various cancer researchers from different disciplines come together to share knowledge and generate new ideas,” Chapkin said. “By supporting emerging researchers, the center helps foster a culture of innovation and ensures a sustainable pipeline of talent dedicated to curing cancer.”

The infrastructure created by TREC will be sustained with extramural and intramural resources that grow Texas A&M’s cancer research base and enhance its impact on the prevention and treatment of cancer in Texas and beyond.

Researchers and topics of interest

Among the symposium presenters was Jianxun “Jim” Song, Ph.D., a professor at Texas A&M’s School of Medicine. His presentation, “Empowering Antitumor Immunity via Engineered Microbes,” focused on T cells and their use in immunotherapy. Most of his research efforts are directed toward developing and optimizing strategies for utilizing highly reactive T lymphocytes for cell-based therapies.

Extramural presenters included Ken Chen, Ph.D., a professor in the Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology and director of bioinformatics at the MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, who discussed cellular-molecular signatures associated with cancer. Zhiqiang An, Ph.D., a professor and director of the Texas Therapeutics Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, presented “Antibodies Targeting the Leukocyte Immunoglobulin-like Family of Receptors for Cancer Therapy.”

The keynote speaker was John Quackenbush, Ph.D., Henry Pickering Walcott Professor of Computational Biology and Bioinformatics and director of the Harvard Health Data Science Center. His presentation was “Why Networks Matter: Embracing Biological Complexity.”

Quackenbush trained in theoretical physics and completed a fellowship with the Human Genome Project. These experiences led him to the Salk Institute at Stanford University and The Institute for Genomic Research before joining Harvard in 2005.

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• Cultural Issues and the 2024 Election

5. Gender identity, sexual orientation and the 2024 election

Table of contents.

• Voters’ views about race and society, the impact of the legacy of slavery
• Most voters, but not all, view the nation’s diversity as a strength
• How should the country handle undocumented immigrants currently in the U.S.?
• Attitudes toward hearing other languages in public places
• Biden and Trump supporters’ views about discussing America’s historical successes, failures
• How does the U.S. compare with other countries?
• Views of women’s progress
• How much of a priority should marriage and children be?
• Abortion, IVF access and birth control
• Views of gender identity
• Voters’ attitudes toward use of gender-neutral pronouns
• Societal impact of more social acceptance of lesbian, gay, bisexual people
• Religion and government policy
• How much influence should the Bible have on the nation’s laws, if any?
• Views on the federal government’s role in promoting Christian values
• Most voters say it is not necessary to believe in God to be moral
• Is the justice system too tough on criminals, or not tough enough?
• Policing and law enforcement
• How Trump, Biden supporters view gun rights and ownership
• Views on the increasing number of guns in the U.S.
• Acknowledgments
• The American Trends Panel survey methodology

Voters who support Joe Biden and Donald Trump have wide differences across a broad range of issues related to gender identity and sexual orientation.

Trump supporters overwhelmingly say a person’s gender is determined by the sex they were assigned at birth. A majority of Biden supporters, by a less one-sided margin, say someone can be a man or woman even if that is different from their sex at birth.

Biden’s supporters also are far more comfortable than Trump supporters with people using the pronouns “they” or “them” to describe themselves.

And two decades after the first same-sex marriages were legally performed in the U.S., Biden supporters are roughly five times as likely as Trump supporters to say legalizing same-sex marriage has been good for society.

Nearly two-thirds of registered voters (65%) say whether a person is a man or woman is determined by the sex assigned to them at birth. About a third (34%) say whether someone is a man or woman can be different from the sex at birth.

Nine-in-ten Trump supporters and about four-in-ten Biden supporters (39%) say sex at birth determines if someone is a man or a woman.

About six-in-ten Biden supporters (59%) say a person’s gender can be different from their sex at birth. Only about one-in-ten Trump supporters (9%) say this.

There are wider demographic differences in opinions about gender identity among Biden supporters than among Trump supporters.

Among Biden supporters

Nearly two-thirds of Black voters who support Biden (64%) say gender is determined by a person’s sex assigned at birth. That compares with 46% of Biden’s Hispanic supporters and smaller shares of his White (32%) and Asian supporters (27%).

Biden supporters without college degrees (47%) are more likely than those with college degrees or more education (30%) to say sex at birth determines someone’s gender.

Biden supporters under age 35 (29%) are less likely than older Biden supporters to say gender is determined by sex assigned at birth.

Among Trump supporters

Across demographic groups, wide majorities of Trump supporters say gender is determined by sex at birth.

However, there are some differences among these voters. Hispanic Trump supporters (79%) are less likely than White Trump supporters (92%) to say sex birth determines gender identity, and Trump supporters ages 18 to 34 (83%) are less likely to say this than older Trump supporters.

Changing views about gender identity

The share of voters who say that sex at birth determines whether someone is a man or a woman has increased since 2017, and this increase has occurred within both parties.

In 2017, 53% of voters said sex assigned at birth determines gender; 65% express this view today.

The share of Republican and Republican-leaning voters who say that sex at birth determines gender identity has grown from 79% in 2017 to 91% now.

In the same period, the share of Democratic and Democratic-leaning voters who say this has increased, from 30% to 39%.

Over half of voters (56%) say they are not comfortable with someone using the pronouns “they” or “them” to describe themselves, rather than “he” or “she.” Roughly four-in-ten (43%) are comfortable with the use of these pronouns.

Biden supporters are more than three times as likely as Trump supporters to say they are comfortable with the use of “they/them” pronouns (66% to 20%).

• Black voters who support Biden (55%) are less comfortable with the use of they/them pronouns than Biden’s White (69%), Hispanic (68%) and Asian (72%) backers.
• Hispanic Trump supporters (33%) are somewhat more likely than the former president’s White supporters (16%) to say they are comfortable.

Voters under 50 are more comfortable than those 50 and older with people using gender-neutral pronouns. There is an age gap on this question among both candidates’ supporters, but it is particularly stark among Biden voters: 79% of Biden’s supporters ages 18 to 49 say they are comfortable, compared with 56% of his supporters who are 50 and older.

Voters are divided over the societal effects of more people being comfortable with identifying as gay, lesbian or bisexual and same-sex marriages being legal in the U.S.

Roughly a third say each trend has been very or somewhat good for society, while about as many say the changes have been bad for society. The remainder say they have been neither good nor bad.

As with opinions about gender identity, there are sizable differences between Biden and Trump supporters.

About half of Biden supporters (51%) say more people being comfortable identifying as gay, lesbian or bisexual is good for society. And a majority of Biden supporters (57%) say legalization of same-sex marriage is good for society.

About half of Trump supporters say both changes are bad for society: 53% say this about increased comfort with people identifying as lesbian, gay or bisexual, and 51% say this about legalization of same-sex marriage.

There are age differences among both candidates’ supporters.

• Majorities of Biden supporters ages 18 to 49 view both trends positively: 63% say more people being comfortable identifying as lesbian, gay or bisexual is good for society, while 67% say the same of the legalization of same-sex marriage. About half or fewer of Biden supporters 50 and older share these views. (This group is more likely to instead say that these trends are neither good nor bad.)
• Older Trump supporters are more likely than his younger supporters to have a negative view of the impact of legalizing same-sex marriage (57% of those 50 and older say it is bad for society, compared with 41% of those younger than 50). There are no meaningful age differences in how Trump supporters assess the impact of more people being comfortable with identifying as lesbian, gay or bisexual.
• Black voters who support Biden are far less likely than Biden’s supporters in other racial and ethnic groups to say increased comfort with identifying as lesbian, gay or bisexual and legalized same-sex marriage are good for society. About a quarter of Black Biden supporters say these things are good, compared with about half or more among his White, Hispanic and Asian backers.

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More than half of Americans are following election news closely, and many are already worn out

Americans have mixed views about how the news media cover biden’s, trump’s ages, an early look at black voters’ views on biden, trump and election 2024, voters’ views of trump and biden differ sharply by religion, in tight presidential race, voters are broadly critical of both biden and trump, most popular, report materials.

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