literature review on classroom management

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• Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation

Classroom management: Creating and maintaining positive learning environments

This literature review was originally published 09 January 2020.

• 2020 classroom management literature review (PDF 2279 KB)
• 2020 classroom management infographic (PDF 44 KB)

The literature review defines classroom management and provides a brief overview of classroom management research. It also describes the characteristics of effective classroom management strategies and how schools can best support teachers when implementing them.

Classroom management refers to the strategies teachers use to support and facilitate learning in the classroom. Effective classroom management is important for student achievement because it creates an environment that minimises disruptions, maximises instruction time, and encourages students to engage in learning.

The evidence suggests that classroom management requires both preventative and responsive strategies, with an emphasis on preventative strategies.

Preventative strategies are proactive and encourage students to be on-task, motivated to learn, and prosocial. Effective preventative strategies include:

• creating and maintaining a positive classroom climate
• using structured instruction to engage students in learning
• explicitly teaching students rules and routines
• offering pre-corrections to remind students of expectations
• using active supervision in the classroom.

Responsive strategies include corrective responses to inappropriate behaviours. They support students to re-engage in learning. Effective corrective practices:

• identify why the student is disengaged or being disruptive
• ensure the student understands the corrective response
• are consistent and expected
• are given calmly
• are proportionate to the level of behaviour displayed.

How to use this resource

Purpose of resource.

The Classroom management: Creating and maintaining positive learning environments resource provides a brief overview of classroom management research. It describes the characteristics of effective classroom management strategies and how schools can best support teachers when applying them.

When and how to use

The resource is a literature review and is accompanied by a discussion guide. School leaders and teachers can read, reflect on, discuss and implement themes and strategies highlighted in the literature review as part of school-developed High Impact Professional Learning (HIPL) .

The appropriate time to use this resource may differ for each school, leader and teacher.

School leaders can:

• unpack the literature review, using the discussion guide , as part of whole-school professional development and/or stage or grade team meetings
• encourage teachers to share key findings during professional development
• reflect on strategies, policies or practices currently in place to create and maintain positive learning environments
• lead discussions with staff about areas to improve across the school · display the Classroom management poster
• support staff to find connections between What works best, the School Excellence Framework and the strategies contained in the literature review.

Teachers can:

• read the literature review or summary and reflect on current practice · unpack the literature review, using the accompanying discussion guide , in a group setting
• identify strategies and practices in the literature review to apply that will improve classroom management and student learning
• reflect on the impact of the applied strategies.

Email feedback about this resource to [email protected] using subject line ‘Re: Classroom management: Creating and maintaining positive learning environments’. You can also subscribe to the CESE newsletter and connect with us on Yammer .

Alignment to system priorities and/or needs: NSW Department of Education Strategic Plan 2018-2023 – ‘Every student is engaged and challenged to continue to learn, and every student, every teacher, every leader and every school improves every year’

Alignment to School Excellence Framework: Teaching domain – effective classroom practice (classroom management); Learning domain – wellbeing (a planned approach to wellbeing, behaviour)

Alignment with existing frameworks: Australian Professional Standards for Teachers – Standard 4: Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments

What works best – classroom management NSW Wellbeing Framework for Schools – Thrive: ‘Student learning takes place in an environment which fosters and develops choice, accomplishment, positive relationships, enjoyment, growth, health and safety’

Reviewed by: Learning and Teaching, Learning and Wellbeing, and Teaching Quality directorates; directors, educational leadership (DELs)

Created/last updated: Originally published 9 January 2020

To be reviewed: CESE publications are prepared through a rigorous process. Resources are reviewed periodically as part of an ongoing evaluation plan.

Related resources

• Classroom management: professional learning discussion guide
• Classroom management: poster
• Literature review
• Teaching and learning practices

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Teachers’ views on effective classroom management: a mixed-methods investigation in Western Australian high schools

• Original Article
• Open access
• Published: 30 June 2020
• Volume 20 , pages 107–124, ( 2021 )

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• Helen Egeberg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9907-8593 1 ,
• Andrew McConney 2 &
• Anne Price 2  

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Teachers’ views about teaching, learning and school experiences are important considerations in education. As the central participants in classroom interactions, students and teachers naturally have strong views about what it takes to manage learning and surrounding behaviours effectively. With this in mind and because we believe that ignoring the thinking of either of these stakeholders would be to the detriment of teaching and teacher education, we focused on hearing and understanding teachers’ voices about teaching, learning and classroom management. Our aim was to further clarify teachers’ perspectives on how educators create quality learning environments as well as gathering their views of various disciplinary interventions, their perceptions of challenging students and their sense of efficacy for classroom management in order to inform both policy and practice in teacher education. A survey was conducted with 50 secondary school teachers to capture their views on their classroom experiences. Follow up interviews with teachers identified by students as effective in their classroom management provided consistent reports that effective classroom managers build positive relationships with their students, manage their classrooms by establishing clear boundaries and high expectations, and engage students in their learning.

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1 Introduction

Classroom management is universally seen as a key dimension of teachers’ work as reflected in research that places it among the most required teaching skills (Huntly 2008 ; Jones 2006 ; McKenzie et al. 2011 ). Teachers’ skill in classroom management is often cited as the dimension of teachers’ work that is the most challenging and the area of training that many beginning and pre-service teachers feel is lacking (Australian Education Union 2009 ; Evertson and Weinstein 2006 ; Kafman and Moss 2010 ; Peters 2012 ; Putman 2009 ; Ritter and Hancock 2007 ; Romano 2008 ). In order to enhance or transform these skills, as well as inform policy and practice with regard to classroom management it is important to investigate and understand teachers’ views and beliefs, as their “philosophy about the nature of teaching, learning and students determines the type of instruction and discipline we have in schools and classrooms” (Freiberg 1999 , p. 14).

As the central participants in classroom interactions, students and teachers naturally have strong views about what it takes to manage learning and surrounding behaviours effectively (Lewis 2001 ; Lewis et al. 2008 ; Roache and Lewis 2011 ; Sullivan et al. 2014 ; Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein 2006 ) With this in mind and because we believe that ignoring the thinking of either of these stakeholders would be to the detriment of teaching and teacher education, we focused on hearing and understanding teachers’ voices about teaching, learning and classroom management. Our aim is to further clarify teachers’ perspectives on how educators create quality learning environments as well as gathering their views of various disciplinary interventions, their perceptions of challenging students and their sense of efficacy for classroom management, in order to inform both policy and practice in teacher education.

Students’ perceptions of teachers who create and maintain safe and supportive learning environments, and their classroom experiences, have been previously examined (Egeberg and McConney 2017 ). Despite varying school contexts, students identified effective classroom managers as teachers who meet students’ needs by developing caring relationships and controlling the classroom environment while fostering student responsibility and engaging students in their learning (Egeberg and McConney 2017 ). Few researchers, however, have investigated the views of both students and teachers in the same study, ensuring that setting and context are similar (Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein 2006 ; Roache and Lewis 2011 ). In the current research, teachers at the same schools as the student participants in our 2017 study were surveyed about their views on classroom management, including those identified by their students as being effective managers. Teachers in this smaller group were also subsequently interviewed. Previous studies have reported teachers’ perceptions about education and teaching practices; the significance of this research, however, is that it examines the views and beliefs of teachers who previously had been identified by their students as effective in creating and maintaining quality learning environments.

2 Literature review

The term classroom management is a conceptual umbrella, one that is often used interchangeably with discipline , but is also seen as distinct from classroom instruction (Egeberg et al. 2016 ). Research in the 1980s, however, argued that teachers’ management and instruction are not separate, but are inextricably interwoven and complex. “Classroom management is certainly concerned with behaviour, but it can also be defined more broadly as involving the planning, organization and control of learners, the learning process and the classroom environment to create and maintain an effective learning experience” (Doyle 1986 , p. 396). It is this definition, as well as the view provided in the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers that we subscribe to here (AITSL 2011 ). Using Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein’s ( 2006 ) three interwoven aspects of teacher practice: classroom management (actions to create a productive, orderly learning environment); discipline (actions to elicit change in students’ behaviour); and, socialization (actions to help students fulfil their responsibilities) we aimed to examine high school teachers’ views and beliefs to better understand what teachers do to create and maintain safe and supportive learning environments.

Historically, teacher education has relied on scales focused on a narrower concept of discipline (Glickman and Tamashiro 1980 ; Wolfgang and Glickman 1986 ), rather than the broader concept of classroom management that encompasses both behaviour management (BM) and instructional management (IM). “Examination of the literature on teacher knowledge, beliefs, and perceptions indicates that we have potentially valuable scales and inventories that have rarely been used in research” (Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein 2006 , p. 211). One of the scales that these authors refer to is Martin, Yin and Baldwin’s Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control, which was later revised as the Behavior and Instructional Management Scale (BIMS) (Martin et al. 1998 ; Martin and Sass 2010 ). The BIMS is important in the study of differences that may exist between teachers’ beliefs and their capacity to implement them within the classroom (Martin et al. 1998 , 2007 ; Martin and Sass 2010 ). This, we believe, provides an appropriate starting point from which to examine teachers’ beliefs and perspectives of the more encompassing construct of “classroom management”. Although the BIMS is based on the Beliefs on Discipline Inventory developed by Wolfgang and Glickman ( 1986 ), it nevertheless reflects a broader concept encompassing teachers’ perceptions of their classroom management, in terms of both BM and IM around which Martin and her colleagues developed and validated the BIMS (Martin and Sass 2010 ). Teachers’ efforts aimed at preventing misbehaviour, along with how a teacher responds to misconduct, are related to BM, whereas IM includes the plans, goals, and tactics teachers use to deliver instruction in a classroom.

Research shows that teachers’ interactions with students are often linked to their beliefs about young people and how they develop (Erden and Wolfang 2004 ). Glickman and Tamashiro ( 1980 ) and Wolfgang ( 1995 ) conceptualized a framework to explain teacher beliefs and approaches along a control continuum, with relationship-listening beliefs and non-interventionist approaches at the least controlling end, rules/rewards-punishment beliefs and interventionist approaches at the most controlling end, and confronting-contracting beliefs and interactionalist approaches in the middle. A more recent conceptual framework clusters discipline theories across a similar continuum from autocratic through authoritative and mixed to egalitarian. This continuum also varies according to distribution of power in classrooms, from teacher-centred, to shared, to student-centred, and from a focus on student behaviour only, to a compound focus on behaviour, cognition, emotion and relationships (Porter 2007 ).

In the past, various studies had shown that many teachers and even some policies, reflected very traditional views about discipline (Adey et al. 1991 ; Oswald et al. 1991 , 1994 ). These studies identified four orientations to classroom discipline: traditional, liberal progressive, socially critical, and laissez-faire. Teachers who hold a traditional orientation have many beliefs in common with an interventionist rules-rewards philosophy as depicted in Wolfgang’s ( 1995 ) framework. Teachers with a liberal progressive orientation believe in a democratic approach in which students share power, are part of decision-making, and cooperation and social skills are essential for participation. Teachers who hold a socially critical stance see student misbehaviour as resistance against an unfair system with repressive and at times inappropriate practices. The laissez faire stance is essentially congruent with the non-interventionist, described in Wolfgang’s framework. Although few teachers adhered completely to one type of view, nearly 70% of secondary teachers identified as traditionalist, with the remainder mainly liberal progressive.

In a 2001 study, over 3500 students from years 6, 7, 9 and 11 in Australian schools were asked to complete a questionnaire that documented the extent to which their teachers used various discipline strategies. The students’ responses were used to conceptualise teachers’ classroom discipline behaviour in terms of three styles: influence which includes the use of listening and clarifying techniques to negotiate solutions; group management which includes class meetings, agreed management of behaviour and non-punitive teacher responses to enable students to make better choices; and, control which involves rules, rewards and a clear hierarchy of increasingly severe punishments for misbehaviour (Lewis 2001 ). Secondary students reported that even though some teachers used techniques such as hints and discussion, (aligned with an influence, relationship-based approach), many teachers tended toward the use of punishment. This suggested that most teachers held a controlling or coercive style of management. The study also showed that “students who receive more relationship-based discipline are less disrupted when teachers deal with misbehaviour and generally act more responsibly in that teacher’s class. In contrast, the impact of coercive discipline appears to be more student distraction from work and less responsibility” (Lewis 2001 , p. 315).

In a 2014 study, Sullivan, Johnson, Owens and Conway, asked 1380 Year 12 teachers in South Australia to identify the range and frequency of student behaviours requiring disciplinary response and to explain how they responded. Analysis of responses to the web-based survey showed that low-level disruptive behaviours occurred most frequently with very little aggressive or antisocial behaviour. The study showed that disengaged behaviours were the most prevalent suggesting that these “have more to do with factors within a teacher’s control than with those located within the student” (Sullivan et al. 2014 , p. 53). Instead of using responses that may address the underlying cause of the misbehavior, such as ways to engage students positively in their learning, the study found that teachers tended to implement a “stepped approach” involving increasingly severe coercive techniques. As Maguire et al. ( 2010 ) argued, moving the focus from controlling discipline approaches to ways of engaging students offers opportunities for teachers to preclude or divert unproductive student behaviour and reduce their reliance on punitive intervention strategies.

Thus, it is clear that determining what (typically) is and what is not effective classroom management is a complex issue (De Jong 2005 ). Many researchers have attempted to conceptualise guiding principles and practices that could be used to support the development of appropriate approaches to managing student behaviour (McLeod et al. 2003 ). In essence, “teachers who approach classroom management as a process of establishing and maintaining effective learning environments tend to be more successful than teachers who place more emphasis on their roles as authority figures or disciplinarians” (Brophy 1988 , p. 1). It is the ability of a teacher to know not only what they want to teach, but also how they will organise and structure it for their students and their circumstances that makes all the difference, creating a healthy, caring classroom culture where all students, and teachers, can thrive (Bennett and Smilanich 2012 ).

The current study investigates this broader view of classroom management. It encompasses both behaviour management (BM) which includes pre-planned efforts to prevent misbehavior as well as teachers’ response to it, specifically establishing expectations, monitoring and teaching behaviour and providing opportunities for student input and, instructional management (IM), which addresses teachers’ pedagogical aims and methodologies and includes aspects such as planning and structuring routines as well as the use of various instructional techniques to enable active participation and engagement. Consequently, this research gives voice to the views and experiences of not just teachers, but teachers who have been nominated by their students as being effective in creating and maintaining quality learning environments, centered on effective classroom management. The overarching question that frames the study is, “What are effective teachers’ views of classroom management?” Component research questions include:

What are secondary teachers’ orientations toward classroom management?

To what extent do teachers’ classroom management views differ according to school sector, school socioeconomic status (SES) or gender? and

How do teachers, who have been identified by their students as being effective, manage their classrooms?

3.1 Research design

The purpose of this study is to examine the perceptions of secondary school teachers about their classroom management, at a variety of high schools in Western Australia. For educational researchers holding a pragmatic worldview, the choice of research design is guided by the research question(s) asked, rather than epistemology, with a view to further understanding the phenomenon being studied and to add value, in a practical sense. In this study, our key aim is to advance our collective understanding of effective classroom management and to broaden the perspective with which it is viewed, thereby facilitating translation into practice. In achieving this, both description and explanation are important. Descriptions involve drawing a picture of what is happening, and “attempting to make complicated things understandable” (Punch 2000 , p. 15). Explanation involves examining the ‘how’, as well as describing the ‘what’ because this has the potential to influence our future practice. An increasingly used research approach to achieving both description and explanation is to employ both quantitative and qualitative perspectives on the phenomenon of interest—in this case teachers’ classroom management. For this reason, a mixed methods research design was chosen—with one type of data collection (e.g., qualitative) offsetting potential limitations or lack of depth in the other, and vice versa. Specifically, this study used a sequential explanatory design, with two distinct phases, quantitative followed by qualitative (Creswell 2014 ). As Greene et al. ( 1989 ) have explained, a mixed methods approach provides depth and detail to a study and potentially uncovers new insights into participant experiences. While a quantitative method allows stronger generalisability and comparability, and better accommodates investigating the ‘what’, a qualitative approach allows deeper examination to build a more complete picture of effective classroom management, and better accommodates answering ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions. In addition to its mixed methods design, the study was also interpretive in that high school teachers described their views through surveys (quantitative) and interviews (qualitative); we summarized, analyzed and interpreted these views to advance our understanding of effective classroom management.

Previously, in an earlier phase of this research, 360 students from a variety of public and private secondary schools had participated in a study that catalogued and examined students’ views of effective classroom management. Students were recruited from metropolitan high schools in Perth, Western Australia (WA), and comprised Year 9 and 10 students (255 males and 105 females) ranging in age between 14 and 16 years. The overarching intention of that study was to better understand, from the perspective of their students, what teachers do to create and sustain safe and supportive learning environments. In this earlier phase, we used the Students Perceptions Survey (SPS) from Cambridge Education and Tripod Survey Assessments that allowed students to characterise what it is that teachers do in effectively managing their classrooms, and to nominate some teachers they believed did this well (Egeberg and McConney 2017 ).

3.2 Participants

In the current study, we invited teacher-participants via email asking them to take part in a survey and follow up interview. Participants comprised 50 secondary school teachers, (23 males and 27 females), working in six schools representing the three school sectors in Western Australia (WA)—the Association of Independent Schools of WA (AISWA), the WA Department of Education (DOE) and Catholic Education (CEWA). Of the 50 teachers who completed the first phase (survey), their students had nominated 25 (10 male and 15 female) as effective classroom managers. Twenty-two of these teachers (9 male and 13 female) were subsequently available for individual interviews. Across the six schools involved, between 3 and 5 teachers were interviewed from each school, ranging in age from 26 to 62 years. Table  1 provides a breakdown of this study’s teacher participants by school characteristics and gender. For the purpose of this study we combined AISWA and CEWA schools into one group and classified these as “Private”. School socioeconomic status (SES) was determined via the Index of Community Socio-Educational Advantage (ICSEA) which uses two data sources: student enrolment records including information relating to parent occupation, school education, non-school education and language background (direct data) and Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) census data (indirect data). ICSEA values range from around 500 (extremely socio-educationally disadvantaged) to about 1300 (very advantaged) (ACARA 2012 ). Any particular school’s ICSEA is the averaged value representing all students in the school. For this study, schools with an average ICSEA above 1100 were considered higher SES , and those with ICSEA values less than 1100 were considered lower SES .

3.3 Instruments

Two instruments were used for data collection: the first was a survey that allowed teachers to describe how frequently they use particular classroom management strategies or techniques. The Behaviour and Instructional Management Survey (BIMS) is a relatively brief, psychometrically validated instrument that measures how frequently teachers report using particular techniques, both behavioural and instructional. Martin and Sass ( 2010 ) used exploratory factor analysis (EFA) in validating the BIMS. Analysis of the Behavior Management subscale showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α  = 0.8), with an average inter-item correlation of 0.377 (SD .091). The average corrected item-total correlation for this subscale was 0.5 (SD .071), suggesting good item discrimination. Results for the Instructional Management subscale also showed good internal consistency ( α  = 0.8), with an average inter-item correlation of 0.365 (SD .092). The average corrected item-total correlation for this subscale was also 0.5 (SD .086), again suggesting good item discrimination (Martin and Sass 2010 ). Overall, Martin and Sass’s ( 2010 ) EFA results provided solid evidence of discriminant and convergent validity, good internal consistency and strong item discrimination. Using the BIMS as an inventory, we sought to determine the frequency with which 50 teachers-participants reported engaging in various classroom management behaviours. We emphasize that using the BIMS as a definitive assessment of teachers’ approach to classroom management was not the main purpose; rather, our intention was to “warm up” teacher-participants in articulating or focusing their views about classroom management during individual interviews.

Item 25, the last item on the teacher survey, was an open-ended question that asked teachers what they do that helps to create and maintain safe and supportive learning environments. This aspect of our data collection and analysis, and that of the ensuing teacher-participant interviews, centered on a qualitative approach, enabling further exploration of these teachers’ perspectives. We employed an inductive process of gathering detailed information from participants, in this case teachers, and then formed this into themes (Creswell 2014 ). The data were first coded thematically using NVivo, a qualitative analysis software that provides word frequencies and key words in the context of concepts like classroom management, caring relationships, behaviour and instruction. Using text search and word frequency queries we added annotations to record our insights and this in turn assisted with identifying patterns across the responses to identify connections and themes that informed our development of answers to the research questions posed.

The second phase of data collection comprised individual interviews with 22 selected teacher participants. These participants were chosen from those who had volunteered via the survey and who also had been selected by their students as effective in creating and maintaining safe and supportive learning environments. The interview topics were developed from research into effective classroom management (Ferguson 2010 ; Garza et al. 2010 ; Lewis 2001 ; Lewis et al. 2008 ; Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein 2006 ). The topics were also used as the basis for further clarifying teachers’ perspectives about effective classroom management as well as their perceptions of the frequency, efficacy and acceptability of various disciplinary interventions. The interviews were semi-structured, audio taped with consent for future transcription, and about 30 min in duration.

4.1 Phase 1: survey

This study posed the following questions:

The BIMS provides a framework that allows characterisation and summarization of the strategies or techniques teachers use in managing their classrooms. On the BIMS, teachers report the frequency with which they use each of 24 briefly described strategies, as shown in Table  2 for the 50 teacher-participants in this study.

In answering research question 1, of the classroom management techniques used by teachers, the four that showed the highest frequency of use, across all teachers, were: I use whole class instruction to ensure a structured classroom (IM #2); I redirect students back to the topic when they get off task (BM #15); I direct the students’ transition from one learning activity to another (IM #16 ) ; and, I use a teaching approach that encourages interaction among students (IM #24). As shown in Table  2 , for these four items, all teachers (100%) reported using the strategy sometimes, often or always. Only one of the 24 strategies suggested a low proportion of teachers using the technique frequently. Specifically, 44% of teachers indicated that when a student talks to a neighbour, they would move the student away from other students (BM #7), sometimes (36%) or often (8%). This type of control or compliance strategy would seem not to be a major aspect of these teachers’ approaches to classroom management. In another example, only a small majority (56%) indicated that if a student’s behaviour is defiant, I demand that they comply with my rules (BM #23) sometimes (20%), often (26%) or always (10%).

Using the scoring system that Martin and Sass designed for the BIMS, with Always allocated a “5” to Never receiving a “1”, and scoring for some items being reversed, we examined responses for items aligned with three key approaches to classroom management: a controlling, interventionist approach; an interactionalist, needs-based approach, and; a less controlling non-interventionist approach. It is important to note that there are no specific cut scores for identifying teachers as interventionist, interactionalist, or non-interventionist, and this was certainly not our intention. It was also the case, however, that we viewed higher scores on the combined scales of the BIMS as indicative of a tendency toward a more controlling approach, lower scores suggestive of a less controlling approach and those centrally located indicative of an interactionalist approach, as had been the case in Martin and Sass’ classroom management research ( 2010 ). In this, we found that all of the 25 teachers identified by students as creating and maintaining effective learning environments most frequently used an interactionalist approach, whereas a more modest 74% of teachers not nominated by students indicated that they most frequently use this approach.

In answering research question 2 (To what extent do teachers’ classroom management views differ according to school sector, school socioeconomic status (SES) or gender?) we compared BIMS response distributions from teachers across school sectors (public and private), school SES (higher and lower ICSEA) and teacher gender. Very little difference was evident between groups of teachers in terms of what techniques they would use frequently in their classrooms. Female teachers comprised 52% of the teachers surveyed and 60% of the teacher cohort identified as effective by students. The largest group-based difference noted was for item BM#3: I limit student chatter in the classroom with 96% of female teachers suggesting they would use this strategy frequently in comparison to 75% of male teachers. Two other items showed a notably higher proportion of female teachers indicating frequent use as compared to males: 96% of female teachers indicated they establish a teaching daily routine in their classroom and stick to it (IM #8) compared to 79% of male teachers; and, 81% of female teachers indicated that they use input from students to create classroom rules (BM #9) compared to 63% of males. In contrast 71% of male teachers said they allow students to get out of their seat without permission (BM #11 ) in comparison to 58% of female teachers.

Similarly, to examine potential differences between teachers nominated by their students as effective classroom managers, and those not, and to answer research question 3 “How do teachers, who have been identified by their students as being effective, manage their classrooms?” we also conducted two statistical tests, the results of which are given in Table  3 . We conservatively used non - parametric statistical tests as the data provided via the BIMS are ordinal data. We used Pearson’s Chi Squared test to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between expected and observed frequencies between teachers “nominated as effective” and those “not nominated”. On the other hand, Mann–Whitney U is a nonparametric test of the null hypothesis that it is equally likely that a randomly selected value from one population will be statistically different than a value from a second population. Mann–Whitney U can be used to investigate whether two samples were selected from populations having the same distribution. As detailed in Table  3 , we found that in no case were teacher-participants nominated as effective classroom managers by their students statistically different from teachers not nominated, in terms of the frequencies with which they used the management strategies reflected in the 24 items of the BIMS.

In further examining BIMS responses from the 25 teachers nominated by students as effective classroom managers, compared against the responses of 25 teachers not nominated however, it was the areas of control and interaction that showed some differences in approach between the two groups. Differences in the frequency with which the teachers frequently use a strategy between those nominated and those not are graphically depicted in Fig.  1 .

Differences in percentages of nominated and non-nominated groups of teachers who use BIMS strategies frequently in classroom management. Note : Positive differences (bars to the right) indicate that nominated teachers use a BIMS strategy more frequently; negative differences (bars to the left) mean that non-nominated teachers use the strategy more frequently

As shown in Fig.  1 , for example, 28% of nominated teachers indicated that they would frequently move a child for talking to their neighbor (BM #7), compared to 60% of teachers who were not nominated by their students. (Hence, 28% minus 60% results in a negative difference of 32% suggesting that teachers nominated by their students as effective managers, less frequently use punitive strategies. Nominated teachers more frequently took, it would seem, a flexible approach and less frequently demanded compliance (IM #22 & BM #23). Nominated teachers also more frequently used group work (IM #10), inquiry - based learning (IM #14) and student input when creating projects (IM#12) and also more frequently limited chatter in the classroom (BM #3).

In reviewing the comments made by teachers in response to Question 25 (an open-ended question that asked teachers what they do that helps to create and maintain safe and supportive learning environments), a third construct of classroom management other than the two already determined emerged, that of care . We therefore categorised teachers’ responses into one of three emergent themes—instructional management, behaviour management and care—with some comments appearing in more than one category as shown in Table  4 .

Teachers’ building of positive relationships with their students received the greatest proportion of responses, with nearly 43% of 50 teachers surveyed suggesting this a key strategy. Teachers specified that building positive relationships by showing genuine care and listening to student voices is important in being an effective manager. For example:

Taking the time to get to know your students and build that relationship on a daily basis is, in my opinion, the most important thing a teacher can do.

Coupled with this, the teacher’s ability to listen to students and to confer with them on various elements of their learning and school experience was also seen as important:

Positive accountability; the students knowing that they are valued, that they have a voice that is heard.

4.1.2 Behaviour management

For many of the teachers nominated as effective by students, care and concern were also manifested in the way they managed the class, and in high expectations. Thirty-nine percent of teachers’ responses could be categorized as focused on behaviour management , their ability to establish clear boundaries and high expectations without being rigid, threatening or punitive. For example:

Have high expectations of students in all aspects of their classroom conduct and effort. Treat all students with respect when dealing with them individually or in a group/class situation.

For those teachers not nominated by students a consistent comment was the need for consistency, consequences for all actions and follow - through, seeming to suggest a somewhat more authoritarian view of how student behaviours should be managed.

4.1.3 Instructional management

Thirty two percent of the responses could be categorized as related to the theme of instructional management; that is, teachers’ ability to engage their students by creating interest, clarifying students’ understandings of various concepts and consolidating this understanding especially through the use of formative assessment with useful and appropriate feedback. Those teachers nominated by students considered engaging teaching and clear explanation as paramount in their management of the class:

Show a willingness to be flexible in interpreting and delivering the curriculum in a way that students will find engaging. Make the learning intentions clear. Encourage questions and make mistakes part of learning.

In contrast, those not nominated by students seemed more focused on detailed subject knowledge as opposed to how that subject knowledge was delivered. Teachers also used words like clear, effective, humour, relationship, understanding, interesting, and respect to describe what they do to create and maintain safe and supportive learning environments.

4.2 Phase 2: interviews

In further answering research question 3, and indeed the overarching question of this study, the teachers who participated in the interviews were 22 of the 25 nominated by their students as being effective classroom managers. The interviewer posed a series of questions aimed at creating a mental set for participants around student behaviour and effective classroom management. All of the teachers agreed that students choose to behave well in some classes and not so well in others with one surmising what most had suggested: ‘how much of that is a conscious choice or a learned response to the context could be different’. A variety of reasons for students’ misbehaviour in school were suggested. Many were seen as ‘factors outside the teacher’s control. It can be the temperature, it can be what they’re doing at night, it can be the relationship with their family and it can be problems with their friends.’ Two key factors were dominant in the responses given by these teachers:

I think relationship is the main thing. I think kids find it really hard to misbehave when they have a really good relationship with the teacher but I also think that lack of engagement plays a key factor. Some kids will misbehave if they’re bored or something’s too difficult for them and they’re frustrated and they can’t do it.

Discipline was not so much about punishing students for infractions as it was teaching them how to behave appropriately and therefore disciplinary interventions needed to be both preventative and corrective.

Discipline is really all about getting the kids to control themselves and to make better choices. Discipline, I suppose, is about teaching discipline.

In discussion of key techniques used or required to manage classrooms a number of concepts were mentioned, all of which fell into the three key themes developed through analysis of the survey data, and well-articulated by one teacher who said, “look after me, manage my room, and do stuff that’s interesting. I think if we’ve got those three happening, we’re in a pretty good situation.” The use of various reminders and redirects such as eye contact, minimal use of verbal responses, use of students’ names and proximity were considered the “best way to go. Give them chances, keep it low key, scan the class, proximity, body language, all of that is crucial.”

The teachers interviewed had mixed opinions on involving students in classroom discipline decisions including creating rules with the students or talking with students to discuss the impact of their behaviours. One teacher explained, “we’re not a democracy, we’re a benevolent dictatorship.” But, others were quick to advocate otherwise:

At the beginning of the year that’s what we should all do. I do it by asking kids what they expect in the classroom, if we’re going to be productive, what do they expect from me as a teacher, what do they expect from other kids in the room, what do they expect from themselves. Then, based on that, if you had to put some guidelines in place what would they be for this to be a place of work?

When it came to the use of punishment all of the teachers interviewed agreed:

It’s such a negative thing to do. There’s no relationship-building aspect to it either. You’ve sort of lost what you’ve built. Obviously, there has to be consequences if you did something wrong. But punishing and being aggressive, handing out detentions and “scab” duty, it’s ineffective because you separate the consequence, not only from the behavior but separate it from yourself. It doesn’t do anything, it makes them angry and it doesn’t change their behavior. It doesn’t teach them, it doesn’t encourage them to a better way of behaving.

Encouraging students to a better way of behaving was important amongst all participants.

I don’t bribe them with anything. Sometimes it’s just a comment or bit of encouragement, or even a call home to say doing well. I often will say things like “It’s been a really great lesson today, we’ve had some really great input, everyone’s been focused, I thought the group work was fantastic” that kind of lay it on a bit thick and so it’s been really good, and try to mention a few names of, that comment that Susie said, you know that really generated some interesting discussion… rewarding them for their learning.

All teachers interviewed agreed that, “90% of it [effective classroom management] is building a rapport. Once I’ve built a rapport then I can train them, both academically and socially. I think if you are engaging and interactive and actually show that you care about them and about their progress. That goes a long way into establishing a successful classroom.”

5 Discussion

Effective classroom management is a key dimension of teacher preparation and practice, and an important factor in early-career teacher retention or attrition (Buchanan et al. 2013 ). In an effort to improve teachers’ classroom management and its development within Initial Teacher Education (ITE) programs, it seems important to take strong consideration of teachers’ views of the practices that comprise positive learning environments. Recognizing the equal importance and value of students’ views about what happens in the classrooms (OECD 2014 ), this study investigates the beliefs and self-reported actions of teachers that students nominated as effective in creating and maintaining quality learning environments.

The aim of this study was to examine the views of teachers that students suggest manage their classes well to ascertain what their approaches are and how they manage the behaviours of the students in their classrooms. Our analysis of teachers’ survey responses showed that the two constructs of effective classroom management, instructional and behavioural management, were certainly evident in all teachers’ classrooms with most indicating their preference for techniques that are more consistent with an interactionalist approach. However, 16% of teacher-participants also suggested a preference for a more corrective and controlling approach in their classroom management. In comparing the views of those nominated by students with those not, teachers’ use of compliance and coercion strategies showed the largest differences between the two groups, despite not being statistically different . However, all teachers nominated by students as effective reflected a largely interactionalist rather than interventionist approach to classroom management. This would seem to be consistent with research that suggests that most success comes from those teachers who exhibit interactionalist traits (Brophy 1988 ; Lewis 2001 ; Maguire et al. 2010 ).

In analysing the open-ended question that asked teachers what they do that helps to create and maintain safe and supportive learning environments, the differences between those nominated by students and those not became wider and clearer. Responses from those teachers not nominated by students show a much greater reliance on imposing and maintaining control, with 20% of their comments referring to the need to regulate and enforce rules through the use of consequences such as detentions or time out. Interestingly, over 20% of those nominated by students referred instead to building caring relationships as a key element in effective classroom management. This led us to suggest a third key construct of classroom management needing attention, that of care for students .

Interviews with teachers nominated by students further consolidated the three constructs of effective classroom management: caring relationships, behaviour management and instructional management. Participant-teachers believe building rapport through caring for their students’ well-being, as the key to building positive relationships. They indicated that trust and encouragement were fundamental aspects of their relationships with students in addition to high expectations and appropriate challenges. These teachers held students accountable but also fostered student responsibility with support and structure. They firmly believed in creating learning experiences for their students that were varied and engaging.

A limitation of this study was not being able to verify the views of these teachers in observed practice. An obvious extension of this research would be to observe some of these teachers in the classroom, to further develop and highlight key practices that effectively manage students and their learning environment. Core findings from this study, however, re-affirm that effective classroom management is multidimensional including caring relationships, high expectations and opportunities for engagement, participation and contribution. This has important implications for how we prepare new teachers, for supporting early career teachers and for teachers’ ongoing professional learning. Do we attend sufficiently to the multidimensionality of classroom management in our initial teacher education programs? Are we providing impactful, research based professional learning for teachers, that offers support and mentoring as well as skills-based training?

Furthermore, at the macro policy level, these findings should be used to inform standards–setting authorities such as the Australian Institute for Teaching and Leadership (AITSL) as part of ongoing reviews of policy instruments, including the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL 2011 ) and Initial Teacher Education mandated program accreditation standards (AITSL 2018 ). Any such reviews would greatly benefit from considering the views of teachers identified by students as effective classroom managers. As many of the teachers in this study suggested that students themselves had been a great influence on their knowledge and understanding of how to effectively manage their classrooms, perhaps greater value could be placed on the views of those we seek to most influence—the students themselves. It seems important to also note that while building positive relationships and having high expectations may be more difficult to regulate, measure and quantify than some other pedagogical practices, they were nevertheless considered by both students and teachers in this study to be of central and critical importance.

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Egeberg, H., McConney, A. & Price, A. Teachers’ views on effective classroom management: a mixed-methods investigation in Western Australian high schools. Educ Res Policy Prac 20 , 107–124 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-020-09270-w

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Classroom Management by Carol Simon Weinstein , Nancy Jo Schafer LAST REVIEWED: 21 April 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 30 August 2016 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0155

Classroom management can be defined as the actions teachers take to establish and sustain an environment that fosters students’ academic achievement as well as their social, emotional, and moral growth. In other words, the goal of classroom management is not order for order’s sake, but order for the sake of learning. Teachers, administrators, parents, students, and the general public all view classroom management as a critical component of teaching, but becoming an effective classroom manager is not a simple endeavor. Research has documented the fact that problems with classroom management often lead to teacher stress, anxiety, burnout, and even the decision to leave the profession. Beginning teachers consistently perceive student behavior as one of their most serious challenges, and even experienced teachers can have difficulties—especially given today’s larger classes, increasing cultural and linguistic diversity, the inclusion of children with disabilities, and the narrowing of the curriculum to prepare for high-stakes standardized tests. Unfortunately, despite the complexity and importance of classroom management, teacher preparation programs tend to provide only minimal instruction in this area. Such neglect is at least partly due to the fact that research relevant to classroom management has been conducted by persons in different disciplines working within different research traditions; thus research reports appear in a wide variety of journals and may not even be identified as “classroom management research.” This situation can lead teacher educators to conclude (mistakenly) that a coherent body of research does not exist and can reinforce the view that classroom management is merely a set of tips passed down from teacher to teacher (like “Don’t smile until Christmas”). Another complicating factor is that the very term “classroom management” defies easy definition. For a long time, classroom management was equated with “discipline,” the ways teachers respond to problematic behavior. It is now generally recognized, however, that discipline is only one part of classroom management. In addition to correcting inappropriate behavior, classroom management includes a wide range of tasks designed to prevent inappropriate behavior—designing a physical setting that supports instructional goals, establishing positive teacher–student and teacher–parent relationships, building community among students, creating and enforcing expectations for behavior, and managing instruction in a way that helps students to stay engaged. This broader definition of classroom management is reflected in the references included in this bibliography.

The works in this section provide introductions to classroom management. Brophy 1999 summarizes the development of research-based knowledge of classroom management and examines the relationship between management styles and approaches to instruction. Brophy 2006 provides a comprehensive review of the history of research on classroom management as it developed across the 20th century. Marzano, et al. 2003 reviews research on classroom management and suggest specific evidence-based “action steps” that teachers can use to establish and maintain a positive learning environment. Shimahara 1998 explores classroom management in six countries, documenting the effects of the political, social, and cultural context. Wang, et al. 1993 examines three previous reviews of variables that have an effect on student achievement and show that classroom management has more impact on student achievement than any other variable.

Brophy, Jere. 1999. Perspectives of classroom management: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. In Beyond behaviorism: Changing the classroom management paradigm . Edited by H. Jerome Freiberg, 43–56. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Traces the evolution of research on classroom management and points out that most of these studies were conducted in classrooms featuring transmission approaches to teaching. Brophy contrasts these approaches with more recent social constructivist approaches and shows how established management principles can be adapted to social constructivist teaching.

Brophy, Jere. 2006. History of research on classroom management. In Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues . Edited by Carolyn M. Evertson and Carol S. Weinstein, 17–43. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Reviews the history of research on classroom management as it developed across the 20th century. Consider its substance, design, and methodology. Highlights major influences and trends and concludes that “the work on classroom management can be counted among the major success stories of educational research in the 20th century.”

Marzano, Robert J., with Jana S. Marzano, and Debra J. Pickering. 2003. Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for every teacher . Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

After discussing the critical role of effective classroom management in student achievement, this very readable book addresses various aspects of classroom management, such as classroom rules and procedures, disciplinary interventions, and teacher-student relationships. Each chapter begins with a discussion of research, theory, and programs relevant to the particular topic and then suggests specific “action steps” that classroom teachers can take.

Shimahara, Nobuo K., ed. 1998. Politics of classroom life: Classroom management in international perspective . New York: Taylor & Francis.

Focusing mainly on the elementary level, this book examines classroom management in six countries: the United States, Britain, Sweden, Japan, China, and Israel. Argues that the ideology of classroom management and its strategies vary considerably across the cultures or countries where they have been developed.

Wang, Margaret C., Geneva D. Haertel, and Herbert J. Walberg. 1993. Toward a knowledge base for school learning. Review of Educational Research 63.3: 249–294.

A widely cited meta-analysis of learning factors gleaned from educational research experts, quantitative research synthesis, and handbook chapters, resulting in more than eleven thousand statistical relationships. Identifies classroom management as being first in a list of five factors that influence student achievement.

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Investigating the teacher’s perceptions of classroom management and teaching self-efficacy during Covid-19 pandemic in the online EFL courses

Zahra akbarzade farkhani.

1 Islamic Azad University, Quchan Branch, Quchan, Iran

Ghazal Badiei

2 Islamic Azad University, West Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran

Farzad Rostami

3 Islamic Azad University, Baneh Branch, Baneh, Iran

Associated Data

The data will be available upon request.

During the coronavirus pandemic, online education continued to expand across varied educational factors. Therefore, the teachers had to develop and change some of the strategies used in their classes previously. Online classroom management is a synchronous-based online learning environment in education that is worthwhile to modify. For this purpose, the current study sought to understand the perceptions of classroom management and teaching self-efficacy by Iranian EFL teachers during the Covid-19 pandemic. Concerning sampling, 100 male and female English teachers constituted the study sample. Data were collected via Online Teaching Self–Efficacy Inventory questionnaire through different online platforms. The findings reflected that EFL teachers could select appropriate classroom management during online and face-to-face classes. In addition, the teachers had a positive attitude toward managing the classroom during the Covid-19 pandemic. The implications of this study may open up new perspectives into successful pedagogy for, teachers and students in outbreak days.

Introduction

Classroom management is one of the most critical issues in educational settings (Yilmaz & Cavas, 2008 ) and vital in constructing effective learning environments (Akar et al., 2010 ). The emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic made countries change their instructional system. Traditional face-to-face teaching, that was using for many years, was replaced by entirely online e-learning courses. In the meanwhile, the management of the online courses changed, and new strategies were adopted. Several studies supported that classroom management has correlations with some variables including self-control, responsibility, psychological well-being, and discipline, influencing academic outcomes (Bean, 2007 ; Brophy, 1988 ; Fareh, 2018 ; Jones & Jones, 2004 ; Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003 ; Savage & Savage, 2009 ; Wang et al., 1993 ). Moreover, evidence suggests that teachers with professional classroom skills impact learners’ behaviors positively (Emmer & Emertson, 2013 ; Fareh, 2018 ; Raider-Roth, 2005 ; Walker, Ramsey, & Gresham, 2004 ).

Although many studies have been carried out about classroom management, few papers directly investigate the potential role of technology in online classes (Cho et al., 2020 ). In an online educational setting, recently teachers have been able to practice classroom management in computer-simulated classes- rooms (Judge, Bobzien; Maydosz, Gear, & Katsioloudis, 2013 ) or connect with classroom management coaches online (Rock et al., 2013 ). However, the investigation of teachers’ insights of classroom management during online classes has been less exported particularly in EFL Iranian context. Acquiring such information will provide a deeper understanding of challenges related to classroom management and online courses to find an advanced solution and improve a well-adjusted educational system that is forced to be integrated with technology. Hence, the current research addresses the following research questions.

• What are the EFL teachers' views on online classroom management?
• How confident do EFL teachers feel in preparing, conducting, and managing online courses?
• What are teachers’ perceptions toward the kind of applications used during online courses?

Review of literature

One of the key factors of professional teacher competence, and effective learning in face-to-face or online classrooms is classroom management. There are multiple definitions of classroom management. Brophy ( 1996 ) introduced it as “actions taken to create and maintain a learning environment conducive to successful instruction” (p. 5). In addition, Marzano ( 2003 ) proposed “establishing and reinforcing rules and procedures, carrying out disciplinary actions, maintaining effective teacher and student relationships, and maintaining an appropriate mental set for management” (p. 88). Later Weber et al. ( 2018 ) noted crucial variables underlying classroom management including monitoring, which refers to keeping teachers’ awareness of events continuously that may happen in the classroom (Gold & Holodynski, 2017 ; Kounin, 1970 ; Wolff, 2015 ). For example, feedback, appreciation, and prompt responses to misbehaviors are included in this component (Doyle, 2006 ; Evertson & Emmer, 2013 ; Little & Akin-Little, 2008 ).

Another variable is how to manage momentum (Thiel et al., 2012 ). It refers to making a balance between little wasted time and activities in the class (Pianta et al., 2012 ). Also, it contains clarifying the instructions, fulfilling the purpose and the structure of the lesson, appropriate materials, providing group focus and classroom conditions (Doyle, 2006 ; Kounin, 1970 ). Another significant aspect of classroom management is establishing rules and regulations which can positively affect learners' behavior (Emmer & Emertson, 2013 ; Fareh, 2018 ; Raider-Roth, 2005 ; Walker, Ramsey, & Gresham, 2004 ). In 2004, Jones and Jones published a paper about classroom management in the context of three approaches entail counseling which focuses on maintaining learners under discipline, behaviorist approach which concentrates on modification techniques for learner’s undesirable behaviors, and preventive approach which emphasizes to hinder learners’ misbehaviors.

A large and growing body of literature has investigated the importance of classroom management. In this regard, Kounin, ( 1970 ) reported this factor increases learning, reduces interpretation, and maintains an influential environment. A positive correlation was identified between teachers ‘classroom management and learners’ achievement (Hattie, 2009 ) and academic optimism (Murray & Zvoch, 2011 ). This component creates an effective learning environment (Fareh, 2018 ) influences teachers’ mental health, and can keep them from burnout and stress (Friedman, 2006 ; López et al., 2008 ). Moreover, the role of teachers’ experience in providing effective classroom management has been investigated in different studies to emphasize the distinction between knowledge and vision of the classroom among experts and novice practitioners (Gold & Holodynski, 2017 ; Wolff et al., 2017 ). In this field of study, one of the scales of classroom management is the Behavior and Instructional Management Scale developed and validated by (Martin & Sass, 2010 ). Behavior management is associated with teachers’ attempts to prevent and respond to learners’ misbehavior, but instructional management comprises goals, plans, rules, that teachers apply to provide instructions in a class to engage learners.

Classroom management in EFL context

The evidence presented in literature manifested that “classroom management as inherently equal to all subject matter areas and so ignored the distinctive characteristics of classroom management for specific content areas” (Macías, 2018 , p. 155), whereas he believed that according to eleven language teachers’ characteristics introduced by Borg ( 2006 ), three dramatic factors including the use of target language, patterns of interaction, and communicative competence influence classroom management in EFL context. Macías ( 2018 ) elaborated that, In the EFL context, teachers should apply medium language to give them instruction when students might not understand by the term of interaction patterns or group work, which might not be essential in other subjects.

Different studies exist in the literature regarding classroom management. Lee and van Vlack’s ( 2018 ) research on 127 English south Korean teachers showed that “Enjoyment and, surprisingly, anger also correlated positively with classroom management self-efficacy, while frustration correlated negatively. This shows a significant relationship between teachers’ emotions and classroom management self-efficacy” (p. 12). They suggested that future studies could be done as longitudinal research or on a larger sample. Akman ( 2020 ) examined 608 secondary school students in Turkey and found that “classroom management was an important element influential in students’ perceptions of confidence and stress” (p. 341). The suggestions for future studies were conducting mixed-methods research and considering a larger sample. Egeberg et al.'s ( 2021 ) mixed-methods research investigated 50 Australian teachers’’ perceptions about classroom management. “Effective classroom management is multidimensional including caring relationships, high expectations, and opportunities for engagement, participation, and contribution (p. 121). It was not in the EFL context. Recently Traditional face-to-face teaching has been shifted into online courses. It is required to update teaching strategies in a virtual classroom context.

Online classroom

The characteristics of an online classroom identified by Lathifah et al. ( 2020 ) are as follows: (a) the class session must be in real-time connecting the teacher and the students synchronously, (b) the teacher and the students are distinguished by location, and (c) the class uses a platform closed for certain people (p. 264). Although virtual class lacks physical contact between teachers and learners and managing the rules is demanding, this sort of class is more flexible to attend and learner-based (Rufai et al., 2015 ). The term online classroom refers to the whole teaching–learning procedures carried out in online ways. According to Taghizadeh and Amirkhani ( 2022 ), online teaching includes planning, organizing, leading, controlling, and administering the online materials in the classroom; online courses can be as successful as face-to-face experiences with effective teachers' management. Ghateolbahra and Samimi, ( 2021 ) mentioned that "the professional development of online education, especially in the field of classroom management, requires a set of practical strategies, knowing how to communicate well with students, having an effective classroom management program, and managing asynchronous discussions and online teamwork" (p. 510). The study suggested that more research should focus on teachers' knowledge and skills in effective classroom management in other disciplines and at different levels.

Durak and Saritepeci’s ( 2017 ) mixed-method study, among 52 teachers as participants, found that technology use positively influenced classroom management. According to the results of these studies, teachers emphasized the level of their teacher's IT literacy as the most significant element of classroom management in technology-assisted courses. Durak and Saritepeci ( 2017 ) added although it seems that younger teachers could be better at using technology in classroom management, the result of their research was vice versa. The critical factor was that older teachers with higher experience had fewer problems managing their classrooms. Most of the previous studies related to classroom management were from the general perspective of teaching, and the investigation of the role of this factor in foreign language teaching context is missing and less explored (Macías, 2018 ). Although the vast amount of classroom management research was based on face-to-face classes, a systematic review conducted by (Cho et al., 2020 ) suggested that “there is a pressing need for scholars and practitioners to view the landscape of possibilities when it comes to classroom management and technological advancement” (p. 2). Evidence shows it is a need to investigate how teachers view the management of online classes in the EFL context that the current paper tries to cover this gap through a quantitative study.

Methodology

Participants.

It was difficult to find enough participants during the coronavirus pandemic. The survey was performed online and sent to 377 EFL teachers through some web-based platforms (Telegram 36%, WhatsApp 57%, and others about 7%). Among 339 teachers receiving the survey, only 100 answered the questionnaire. Among the participants completing the study, there were 65% females and 35% males, with an average allocated time of eleven minutes. The teaching experience ranged from novice researchers to those with more years of experience. All of the participants attending this study came from Iran, of whom 44.4% were teaching at intermediate to upper-intermediate levels of private language institutions, 45.5% at public education, and about 10% didn't mention their teaching place. Most of them held an MA or BA degree in different branches of English studies, including English literature, English teaching, English translation, and some teachers were Ph.D. candidates in English teaching. All of them had about three semesters teaching online. For non-probability sampling, the participants were selected based on convenience sampling.

The classroom management subcategory was extracted from Online Teaching Self-Efficiency Inventory (OTSEI) to answer the preceding research questions and collect the data from participants. The questionnaire is based on the work of Dr. Kevin P. Gosselin in Australia (Gosselin, 2009 ). It was the primary research questionnaire (See Appendix A). OTSEI is a Likert scale survey consisting of 46 items to assess online teaching, management, and efficacy of the teacher (Maddux & Gosselin, 2012 ). This questionnaire was used because classroom management is one of its categories. According to that, it was adopted and only nineteen related items were used in this study. These items examined teachers’ competence for online teaching, including how confident EFL teachers felt in preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses and whether they evaluated the learners in online classes, checked assignment, provided feedback, and set the learning goals in the online classroom. Also, there is a lack of domain-specific research instruments for measuring the online classroom management of EFL teachers. Data collected from OTSEI across each stage provided the necessary information for this quantitative research. Some online school teachers were supposed to answer the scale to indicate how confident they were in accomplishing the activities by selecting a number for each question on a scale ranging from 0 (No confidence) to 10 (Complete confidence). It is noteworthy that the questionnaire also included some subcategories. The sections include selection of technological resources, virtual interaction, unit content migration (the ability to successfully transfer instructional materials from face-to-face to online units), online courses alignment, online resources, and web-based unit structure (the ability to construct and design an online team including a clear organizational structure and facilitating software and communication guidelines). In addition to the information gathered in the survey, some demographic information such as the age of participants, gender, ethnic identity, current teaching position, years of experience, and online teaching experience was also collected (see Appendix A). Alpha reliabilities of the ranking scales ranged from 0.84 to 0.95, reflecting suitable internal consistency. The average variance accounted for the five single-factor scales ranged from 45.93 to 64.38%, with an average of 53.16% of explained variance, providing evidence for good factor validity (Stevens, 1996 ).

Procedure and data analysis

This study was carried out among English teachers from different cities in Iran. The EFL teachers received the English version of the OTSEI questionnaire through a web-based platform. To keep themselves healthy and away from infection to Coronaviruses, the participants were reluctant to be interviewed face to face or observed. Thus, the questionnaire was the best choice to be sent out to the participants online and sent back to the authors. Although filling in the questionnaire was taking about ten minutes, some participants delivered the questionnaire late, about a week to ten days, because of different problems such as not having enough time or engaging in online classes. They answered the questionnaire anonymously, but each participant left an email address in their answer sheet for any other request in case of need. They sent a word document of the survey that they filled out for the authors.

When the schools closed their doors to face-to-face instruction, English language teachers had to manage their classrooms via online courses. Therefore, all the subjects had online teaching experience. After data collection, this questionnaire was addressed by calculating means and standard deviations of the teacher classroom management in online teaching courses through OTSEI survey scores for the five measures, including the selection of online resources, virtual interaction, and units content migration, online course alignment, and web-based unit structure. Descriptive statistics were applied to describe the collected data. Finally, SPSS software was used for analyses due to the normality of data.

Examining the first research question

The first research question of the current study aimed to investigate how EFL teachers viewed online classroom management. It means whether they could manage their online classes similar to face to face ones or they could adopt a teaching style that allowed for the facilitation of learning through guidance.

Table ​ Table1 1 displays the participants’ numbers and the respective percentages of responses for each questionnaire item related to online classroom management. Every item begins with (in the context of online units, I could …) for example, in the context of online units, I could get students to work together in my classes. The items are arranged on a scale ranging from 0 (No confidence) to 10 (Complete confidence).

The participants’ numbers and the respective percentages of responses for each item of the questionnaire related to online classroom management

0 = no confidence, 10 = complete confidence

As indicated in Table ​ Table1, 1 , the number of participants who responded to the items with an inclination towards the complete confidence end was substantially higher than those who responded to the items with a tendency towards the no-confidence. For instance, scrutiny of item 19 indicates that only 17 (17.3%) of the responses belonged to 0 while 82 (82.7%) of the answers belonged to the 10. Other items in the above table follow the similar pattern, and few participants checked 0 as no-confidence scale. Thus, it can be concluded that EFL teachers were confident in their online classroom management.

Examining the second research question

The second research question of the present study explored how confident EFL teachers felt in preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses. Whether or not they evaluate the learners in online classes, if they check assignment, get feedback, get the learning goals in the online classroom. Table ​ Table2 2 shows the participants’ numbers and the respective percentages of responses for each questionnaire item related to preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses.

The participants’ numbers and the respective percentages of responses for each item of the questionnaire related to preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses

As presented in Table ​ Table2, 2 , the number of participants who responded to the items with an inclination towards the complete confidence end was considerably higher than those who answered the items with a tendency towards 0. For example, a look at item 36 shows that only 19 (19.1%) of the responses belonged to 0, while 81 (82.9%) of the answers belonged to10. Other items in the above table follow a similar pattern. Thus, it can be concluded that EFL teachers in the current study were confident in preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses so that the online classroom could not affect the quality of classroom management and applying interaction strategies.

Examining the third research question

The third research question of this study explored teachers’ perceptions toward the kind of applications used during online courses and selecting the best one for their teaching. Also this question explored the way the teachers learned to use new technologies in their units. Table ​ Table3 3 depicts the participants’ numbers and the respective percentages of responses for each item of the questionnaire related to teachers’ perceptions toward the kind of applications used during online courses.

The participants’ numbers and the respective percentages of responses for each item of the questionnaire related to teachers’ perceptions toward the kind of applications used during online courses

As seen in Table ​ Table3, 3 , the number of participants who responded to the items with an inclination towards 10 was considerably higher than those who answered the items with a tendency towards 0. For instance, in item 11, only 16 (16.1%) of the responses belonged to the no-confidence end, while 83 (83.83%) of the answers belonged to the complete confidence end. Other items in the above table have a similar pattern. Thus, EFL teachers showed confidence in using the kind of applications in online courses. The results reflect that even though the teachers have difficulty with digital literacy and working with different platform in contraction with learners, they mediated various applications well to better control the class and qualify the online courses as they performed in face to face classes.

The present study sought to understand EFL teachers' perceptions towards classroom management during the Covid-19 pandemic. The first research question of this study concerned EFL teachers’ views on online classroom management. The results suggest that EFL teachers were confident in developing online courses and managing the online environment and instructions. They could adopt some teaching styles that allowed for the facilitation of learning through their guidance and conveyed their face-to-face class management strategies to online courses. This result confirms the finding of Diamond Hicks ( 2012 ), who explored the correlation between classroom management and some other influencing factors such as self-efficiency through the same questionnaire which authors applied in the current research paper. Moreover, the results of the present investigation are in accord with a recent qualitative study that performed by (Rufai, Alebious & Adeakin, 2015 ). The current paper indicated that although virtual classes lack physical interaction between learners and teachers, managing this sort of class is more flexible to attend. It can be also learner-based such as the typical situations of teaching in which EFL teachers are capable of establishing a positive social climate that engages students in learning via an online course. The other objective of this study was to explore how confident EFL teachers felt in preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses. In other words, this question aimed to see whether the teachers could effectively align learning objectives, unit assignments and learning activities, assessment strategies, and procedures with online courses. Examining the ten items of the OTSEI questionnaire exclusively concerned with this question showed that EFL teachers were confident in preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses. This means that in an online course, the EFL teachers can indicate their ability to manage the learning environment by providing whatever is necessary to have good teaching. On the other hand, when the online course alignment by the teacher is suitable, as Kirtman ( 2009 ) mentioned, there are similar learning outcomes whether the teacher teaches in a traditional or online class. In consistent with the findings of Francis and Oluwatoyin ( 2019 ), the results showed that online classroom management was easier and the class atomospher was cooler when teachers improved their various technological knowledge.

The last research question explored teachers’ perception toward the kind of applications used during online courses for managing the online classroom. In the context of online teaching, it is necessary to select appropriate technological resources. In other words, the teachers must have the ability to choose, utilize, and determine the appropriateness of technology for managing the classroom well in online courses to enhance the students' learning and enrich instruction. This study concluded that EFL teachers could select the appropriate software application to use in their classes to deliver materials to the students and develop their instruction despite the problems like internet speed and weak digital platforms that Iranian teachers have been encountered. This outcome agrees with a study (Bates and Poole, 2003 ), indicating that effective teaching enables the teachers to look at the use of technology to improve teaching and learning in complementary ways. As a result, they can make the right choices of using media and technology to enhance education significantly. In the same line, Graham et al. ( 2020 ) and Taghizadeh and Amirkhani ( 2022 ) conducted a research by means of questionnaire. They mentioned that teachers might view technology integration as beneficial when it increases productivity and social influence and fosters pedagogical changes. However, the results indicated the learners and teachers are required to improve their digital literacy and behavior to facilitate the management of online classes.

This study was an attempt to contribute to the effect of online teaching on classroom management by EFL teachers during the time that the way of teaching changed because of the coronavirus pandemic. The findings of the current study illustrated the importance of online courses and managing the classroom while showing that EFL teachers could select appropriate materials for teaching English and manage their classes even in the online teaching context. Furthermore, it showed that EFL teachers were confident in preparing, conducting, assessing, and aligning online courses. They could use technology and suitable software applications to develop their instruction and manage their online classes as they did in their face-to-face courses. In addition, there was no difference between male and female teachers in this procedure. It can be a good opportunity for teachers to improve their technical skills to use in their next face-to-face classes in the future. Thus, most teachers have no problems with managing the classroom in online courses.

One of the implications of the study can be for instructors and educators who may think to design the factors of online management classroom and other dimensions of education. The results of the present study contribute to directing teachers to consider potential strategies that fit online classes. In addition, it can help educators and other researchers to continue exploring the way technology and online platform affect how teachers can act in online classes and rethink some strategies that can help them to enrich their teaching and student learning. Moreover, according to the findings of this research and other similar projects, policy and curriculum makers must consider that there should be a review of teaching and its methods in the post-Corona era and some online teacher training courses can be held for teachers to be able to manage their online courses more efficiently because it seems students and teachers are interested in online education, although there are some problems in this area. One of the limitations of this study was utilizing one instrument to gather quantitative data. However, researchers could obtain more profound results by considering qualitative data. The same research can be carried out via a broader population, with more participants from different parts of the world. Moreover, future studies can use some other instruments such as observations, surveys, and other data analysis methods. The impacts of other variables such as age, gender, socio-economic status, technology importance, and distress of teachers were not studied in this research and need further investigation.

Acknowledgements

I would like to appreciate the participants and editors of the study.

Author contributions

All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

No funding was available for the present study.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

All author has no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

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Contributor Information

Zahra Akbarzade Farkhani, Email: moc.oohay@75dijamidabarsan .

Ghazal Badiei, Email: moc.liamg@eeidabG .

Farzad Rostami, Email: moc.liamg@97rdazraF .

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Classroom Management in Primary and Secondary Education Literature Review

JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

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Vasiliki Ioannidi

Quite significant is the proportion of students who have behavioral problems and attend all school levels. The purpose of this work is to highlight, through recent bibliographical data, the basic framework of educational approaches with an emphasis on effective teaching within the classroom and on effective management of behavioral problems in the educational community. In order to successfully address the behavioral problems of students, it is necessary that teachers try to integrate them, use appropriate educational approaches and cooperate effectively between the school and the families of these students. The aim is to offer a brief overview of literature related to the key role of educational techniques in behavioral problems.

Berghahn Books

Leda Papastefanaki

With this edited volume we are pursuing the challenging task of connecting the labour histories and historiographies of Greece and Turkey. Our methodological point of departure is largely furnished by the conceptual framework of global labour history. We seek to connect labour history studies on both shores of the Aegean within the field of global labour history. In attempting to write a comparative labour history not only of the history of contact between two polities but also of their shared history, we follow the recent twofold critique and suggestion of Marcel van der Linden, which targets Eurocentrism and methodological nationalism. The seed of this volume was planted in Istanbul in November 2011, at the close of a conference entitled ‘Working in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey: Ottoman and Turkish Labour History within a Global Perspective’. We built upon the ideas and concepts presented there with the double aim, from the one side, to compare, contrast and position the findings and applied methodologies of Ottoman labour history with and within global labour historiography; and from the other side, to bring the labour histories conducted within some of the successor states of the Ottoman Empire into contact. We hope that we can thus contribute to the internationalization of Greek, Ottoman and Turkish labour history. On this basis we have prepared a historiographical essay based upon a detailed critical review of the current literature to start with.

Special Education and Training implements specially designed educational programs, which shall follow the objectives of the Analytical Program and shall aim at the inclusion of pupils. The transition of pupils from level to level of education is a difficult process which brings with it several problems, particularly for children with learning difficulties. In this work we will refer to the concept of transition and its importance for school inclusion. On this basis we will focus on good adaptation and school improvement practices.

Preschool and Primary Education

Sofia Chatzistefanidou

Kakana, D-M. & Manoli, P. (eds.) (2017). Digital Proceedings from the 3rd International Symposium on New Issues on Teacher Education-ISNITE 2015 (Volos, Greece, 11-13 September 2015). Volos: University of Thessaly Press

Olga Imellou

In order to raise achievement for all students in a Greek elementary school struggling to be inclusive, attempts are being made towards empowering teachers through short term in-service training programs. In the in-service training program described, a school advisor collaborates actively, as a designer and facilitator, with teachers who are responsible for data collecting and being reflective practitioners. The program involves teaching and learning writing skills and promoting student understanding in mathematics. The three-school-year program’s main goal is the promotion of teacher professional standards within a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) -like a framework with an emphasis on data and reflection.

3rd International Symposium on New Issues on Teacher Education - ISNITE 2015 (p. 164 - 168)

Konstantina Kotsari

The concept of this project is based on an educational scenario focused on primary school teachers’ needs. This scenario is structured into two core concepts: a) the way of using Logo – like digital environments and b) the implementation of these environments through building educational scenarios in classroom. In other words, we create a scenario to teach educators how to create their own scenarios by using logo – like environments of learning and how to use them during their educational practice, especially during teaching geometry.

University of Thessaly Press http://utpress.uth.gr

Domna Kakana

The amelioration of teacher education (for candidates and practicing teachers) is closely related to the improvement of the quality and the effectiveness of the education in general. The demand for quality improvement in teacher education and training has nowadays become even more important as it constitutes a significant challenge for the teachers in order to respond in a highly dynamic and constantly changing field. The changes occurring in the economic, political and social fields have a direct impact on teachers’ personal and professional development and, thus, affect their professional identity. Practicing teachers often try to cope with the new conditions as they attempt to manage a pristine and staggering framework of changes instead of acting as professionals with professional identity, knowledge and skills. The reflection on the appropriate model of teacher education that would enable them to respond adequately to new roles and responsibilities and face all the challenges and changes in their work is a continuous race both nationally and internationally. Several guidelines and directions have been developed in teacher education. These guidelines reflect the social, political, cultural and economic conditions that prevail at given times and the various advancements in the humanities and the social and technological sciences. Within this complex context, teachers are often asked to restructure their professional practices towards society and educational institutions, following formal and informal methods (Zeichner, 2005). Teachers’ effectiveness has been investigated systematically in recent years. In many parts of the world, the desire to ensure ‘quality’ teachers’ preparation has put emphasis on teacher preparation and professional development as well as the policies that measure their effectiveness (Korthagen, 2004). The principal goal is teachers’ constantly adaptive expertise consisting of efficiency and innovation. In particular, on the one hand, the expert teacher effectively accomplishes his/her tasks utilizing his/her knowledge and activating the most appropriate practices during teaching (reflection-in-action) and, on the other hand, reflects and redefines his/her action after teaching (reflection-on-action), which is a reflection process leading to improvement (Boud, Keogh, &Walker, 2002; Hammerness et al., 2005; Schön, 1990). Therefore, to secure teachers’ expertise emphasis should be put on their multiple skills and ability to analyze and reflect on the effect of teaching and learning, especially on their own pedagogical and didactic actions (Feiman- Nemser, 2001; Schön, 1990; Zeichner & Liston, 1996). Reinforcing their capacity of critical reflection on institutions and processes and aiding the acquisition of research skills to help them understand the educational process and develop their thinking seem to be the only solution in order to help future teachers and teachers in service cope with the problems and requirements of the modern social, political, economic, cultural and educational reality. These are the basic skills to effectively support teachers’ continuous improvement and change throughout their careers. Based on all the above, the 3rd International Symposium (ISNITE2015) – New Issues on Teacher Education, which was held in Volos, Greece, from 11th to 13th of September, 2015, intended to contribute to the dialogue, which is strongly growing on an international level, for the improvement of initial and continuous teacher education presenting studies on professionalism, professional identity, professional development as well as dimensions that compose teachers’ professional status and define their professional existence.

Technology, Knowledge and Learning

Ioanna Theodoropoulou , Konstantinos Lavidas , Vassilis Komis

Nowadays there is a growing research interest in the developments in the domain of Educational Robotics. The present paper is a systematic review of recently published Greek research pertaining to teaching interventions using robotic devices in order to present: a) a synthesis of the available results and the benefits from the utilization of educational robotics and b) a synthesis of research prospects for the educational utilization of robots. After a systematic online search, 54 relevant articles on Greek research approaches and published in conference proceedings were found and their content was analyzed by level of education (i.e., early childhood, primary, secondary). According to the findings of the published research, Educational Robotics appears to support the development of 21st century skills and can be utilized in teaching various subjects at the three levels of education. The conclusions of the present review could be used as reference for future research.

Giorgos Tsimouris

This paper concerns intercultural education in Greece at the level of implementation. I analyse qualitative interviews conducted among teachers in three schools of secondary education in Athens labelled as intercultural by the ministry of education. I discuss the curicculum content, teachers training and issues around religious education. I also examine teachers’ perceptions of intercultural education, the ways they react in unpredictable occasions and the strategies they undertake in their attempt to resolve the intercultural problems in the classroom. I draw on anthropological theory to analyze cultural misunderstandings with regard to the socio-historical context in which they occure. My point is that despite the official rhetorics of interculturalism the content of inercultural education in Greece is deeply assimilative. This is a very critical issue considering that more than 10% of the students in primary and secondary Greek schools are immigrants and more than 60% among them are coming from neigbouring Balkan countries.

Linking environmental education to the education of children with and without learning disabilities is also a challenge for education. The purpose of the present study was to explore student knowledge and attitudes in students with and without dyslexia, first and second gymnasium, in relation to environmental issues and sustainability. The research was conducted on an anonymous questionnaire, which was specifically created for the needs of this survey and included multiple-choice questions in relation to attitudes and knowledge of students in Environmental Education. The students who completed the questionnaire were 70, 35 of whom were non-dyslexic and 35 with dyslexia. The research was conducted in four Gymnasiums in the city of Rhodes. The findings show that students with and without learning difficulties have a differentiation, to the extent that the knowledge of students without dyslexia is more than that of students with dyslexia on Environment and Sustainability issues. In contrast, students' attitudes with dyslexia are more "friendly" to the environment and sustainability.

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