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How to Write an Index

Last Updated: January 25, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,999,936 times.

An index is an alphabetical list of keywords contained in the text of a book or other lengthy writing project. It includes pointers to where those keywords or concepts are mentioned in the book—typically page numbers, but sometimes footnote numbers, chapters, or sections. The index can be found at the end of the work, and makes a longer nonfiction work more accessible for readers, since they can turn directly to the information they need. Typically you'll start indexing after you've completed the main writing and research. [1] X Research source

Preparing Your Index

• Typically, if you index from a hard copy you'll have to transfer your work to a digital file. If the work is particularly long, try to work straight from the computer so you can skip this extra step.

• If footnotes or endnotes are merely source citations, they don't need to be included in the index.
• Generally, you don't need to index glossaries, bibliographies, acknowledgements, or illustrative items such as charts and graphs.
• If you're not sure whether something should be indexed, ask yourself if it contributes something substantial to the text. If it doesn't, it typically doesn't need to be indexed.

• In most cases, if you have a "works cited" section appearing at the end of your text you won't need to index authors. You would still include their names in the general index, however, if you discussed them in the text rather than simply citing their work.

• For example, if you're writing a book on bicycle maintenance, you might have index cards for "gears," "wheels," and "chain."
• Put yourself in your reader's shoes, and ask yourself why they would pick up your book and what information they would likely be looking for. Chapter or section headings can help guide you as well.

• For example, a dessert cookbook that included several types of ice cream might have one entry for "ice cream," followed by subentries for "strawberry," "chocolate," and "vanilla."
• Treat proper nouns as a single unit. For example, "United States Senate" and "United States House of Representatives" would be separate entries, rather than subentries under the entry "United States."

• Stick to nouns and brief phrases for subentries, avoiding any unnecessary words.
• For example, suppose you are writing a book about comic books that discusses Wonder Woman's influence on the feminist movement. You might include a subentry under "Wonder Woman" that says "influence on feminism."

• For example, if you were writing a dessert cookbook, you might have entries for "ice cream" and "sorbet." Since these frozen treats are similar, they would make good cross references of each other.

Formatting Entries and Subentries

• The style guide provides specifics for you in terms of spacing, alignment, and punctuation of your entries and subentries.

• For example, an entry in the index of a political science book might read: "capitalism: 21st century, 164; American free trade, 112; backlash against, 654; expansion of, 42; Russia, 7; and television, 3; treaties, 87."
• If an entry contains no subentries, simply follow the entry with a comma and list the page numbers.

• People's names typically are listed alphabetically by their last name. Put a comma after the last name and add the person's first name.
• Noun phrases typically are inverted. For example, "adjusting-height saddle" would be listed in an index as "saddle, adjusting-height." [8] X Research source

• Avoid repeating words in the entry in the subentries. If several subentries repeat the same word, add it as a separate entry, with a cross reference back to the original entry. For example, in a dessert cookbook you might have entries for "ice cream, flavors" and "ice cream, toppings."
• Subentries typically are listed alphabetically as well. If subentry terms have symbols, hyphens, slashes, or numbers, you can usually ignore them.

• If a proper name, such as the name of a book or song, includes a word such as "a" or "the" at the beginning of the title, you can either omit it or include it after a comma ("Importance of Being Earnest, The"). Check your style guide for the proper rule that applies to your index, and be consistent.

• When listing a series of pages, if the first page number is 1-99 or a multiple of 100, you also use all of the digits. For example, "ice cream: vanilla, 100-109."
• For other numbers, you generally only have to list the digits that changed for subsequent page numbers. For example, "ice cream: vanilla, 112-18."
• Use the word passim if references are scattered over a range of pages. For example, "ice cream: vanilla, 45-68 passim . Only use this if there are a large number of references within that range of pages.

• Place a period after the last page number in the entry, then type See also in italics, with the word "see" capitalized. Then include the name of the similar entry you want to use.
• For example, an entry in an index for a dessert cookbook might contain the following entry: "ice cream: chocolate, 4, 17, 24; strawberry, 9, 37; vanilla, 18, 25, 32-35. See also sorbet."

• For example, a beginning cyclist may be looking in a manual for "tire patches," which are called "boots" in cycling terms. If you're writing a bicycle manual aimed at beginners, you might include a "see" cross reference: "tire patches, see boots."

Editing Your Index

• You'll also want to search for related terms, especially if you talk about a general concept in the text without necessarily mentioning it by name.

• If you have any entries that are too complex or that might confuse your readers, you might want to simplify them or add a cross reference.
• For example, a bicycle maintenance text might discuss "derailleurs," but a novice would more likely look for terms such as "gearshift" or "shifter" and might not recognize that term.

• For example, you might include an entry in a dessert cookbook index that read "ice cream, varieties of: chocolate, 54; strawberry, 55; vanilla, 32, 37, 56. See also sorbet."

• Generally, an entry should occur on two or three page numbers. If it's only found in one place, you may not need to include it at all. If you decide it is necessary, see if you can include it as a subentry under a different entry.
• For example, suppose you are indexing a dessert cookbook, and it has ice cream on two pages and sorbet on one page. You might consider putting these together under a larger heading, such as "frozen treats."

• You may want to run searches again to make sure the index is comprehensive and includes as many pointers as possible to help guide your readers.

• Make sure any cross references match the exact wording of the entry or entries they reference.

• Indexes are typically set in 2 columns, using a smaller font than that used in the main text. Entries begin on the first space of the line, with the subsequent lines of the same entry indented.

Expert Q&A

• If creating an index seems like too large of a task for you to complete on your own by the publisher's deadline, you may be able to hire a professional indexer to do the work for you. Look for someone who has some knowledge and understanding about the subject matter of your work. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Make the index as clear and simple as you can. Readers don't like looking through a messy, hard-to-read index. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• If you're using a word processing app that has an indexing function, avoid relying on it too much. It will index all of the words in your text, which will be less than helpful to readers. [15] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://ugapress.org/resources/for-authors/indexing-guidelines/
• ↑ https://www.hup.harvard.edu/resources/authors/pdf/hup-author-guidelines-indexing.pdf
• ↑ https://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/CHIIndexingComplete.pdf
• ↑ https://edinburghuniversitypress.com/publish-with-us/from-manuscript-to-finished-book/preparing-your-index

About This Article

An index is an alphabetical list of keywords found in a book or other lengthy writing project. It will have the chapters or page numbers where readers can find that keyword and more information about it. Typically, you’ll write your index after you’ve completed the main writing and research. In general, you’ll want to index items that are nouns, like ideas, concepts, and things, that add to the subject of the text. For example, a dessert cookbook might have an entry for “ice cream” followed by subentries for “strawberry,” “chocolate,” and “vanilla.” To learn how to format your index entries, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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What is an index and do you need one?

Want to know former US president Bill Clinton’s thoughts on the Watergate scandal? The 1993 World Trade Center bombing? Monica Lewinsky? There’s no need to read all 957 pages of his autobiography,  My Life . Simply flick to the back of the book and check the index for the page number.

An index is a list of all the names, subjects and ideas in a piece of written work, designed to help readers quickly find where they are discussed in the text. Usually found at the end of the text, an index doesn’t just list the content (that’s what a table of contents is for), it analyses it.

Where are indexes used?

In addition to back-of-the-book indexes found in non-fiction books and technical reports, indexes are also used to make other sources of information – including journal articles, maps and atlases, art collections, online databases and websites – easier to navigate. Where books are published online, in PDF or e-book format, indexes link directly to points in the text.

Indexes are a common inclusion in many annual reports and are mandatory for annual reports produced by Australian Government departments, executive agencies and other non-corporate Commonwealth agencies.

What makes a good index?

An index provides a map to a report’s content. It does this through identifying key themes and ideas, grouping similar concepts, cross-referencing information and using clear formatting. A good index will:

• be arranged in alphabetical order
• include accurate page references that lead to useful information on a topic
• avoid listing every use of a word reor phrase
• be consistent across similar topics
• use sub-categories to break up long blocks of page numbers
• use italics for publications and Acts
• cross-reference information to point to other headings of interest or preferred terms.

For example, a back-of-the-book index might read:

sales, sales process, 147, 149, 158,  see also  strategy  (directs the reader to a related term)

scripts, 56–59  (grouping term)

podcasts, 56–57  (sub-term)

video, 58–59

search engine optimisation, 100, 156

Security Analysis  (David Dodd and Benjamin Graham), 89–90  (reference to a book)

spelling,  see  proofreading  (directs the reader to the word or phrase used in the text)

While software is available to help indexers arrange, format and edit entries, indexers will also use their judgement when deciding what to put into an index, what to leave out and how to organise it.

Don’t forget to add a table of contents

A good index may be the difference between people referring to a report regularly and it gathering dust on the bookshelf. If you don’t have an index, it’s important to at least have a good table of contents.

Located at the front of a report, a table of contents allows readers to easily see what the report is about and how sections of the text are arranged, in the order they appear.

A good table of contents will include headings, outlining the main sections or themes; sub-headings that indicate what each section of copy is about; and the page numbers they appear on. Additional content such as tables and boxes can also be added.

Want to make your report as easy to navigate as possible? Bookend it with a table of contents and an index – readers will have no excuse for not being able to find the information they’re after.

We can help create a roadmap for your reports, books and other larger documents. Learn more about  indexing  or  contact us here .

How to create an award-winning annual report

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How to Write the Perfect Essay

06 Feb, 2024 | Blog Articles , English Language Articles , Get the Edge , Humanities Articles , Writing Articles

You can keep adding to this plan, crossing bits out and linking the different bubbles when you spot connections between them. Even though you won’t have time to make a detailed plan under exam conditions, it can be helpful to draft a brief one, including a few key words, so that you don’t panic and go off topic when writing your essay.

If you don’t like the mind map format, there are plenty of others to choose from: you could make a table, a flowchart, or simply a list of bullet points.

Discover More

Thanks for signing up, step 2: have a clear structure.

Think about this while you’re planning: your essay is like an argument or a speech. It needs to have a logical structure, with all your points coming together to answer the question.

Start with the basics! It’s best to choose a few major points which will become your main paragraphs. Three main paragraphs is a good number for an exam essay, since you’ll be under time pressure. 

If you agree with the question overall, it can be helpful to organise your points in the following pattern:

• YES (agreement with the question)
• AND (another YES point)
• BUT (disagreement or complication)

If you disagree with the question overall, try:

• AND (another BUT point)

For example, you could structure the Of Mice and Men sample question, “To what extent is Curley’s wife portrayed as a victim in Of Mice and Men ?”, as follows:

• YES (descriptions of her appearance)
• AND (other people’s attitudes towards her)
• BUT (her position as the only woman on the ranch gives her power as she uses her femininity to her advantage)

If you wanted to write a longer essay, you could include additional paragraphs under the YES/AND categories, perhaps discussing the ways in which Curley’s wife reveals her vulnerability and insecurities, and shares her dreams with the other characters. Alternatively, you could also lengthen your essay by including another BUT paragraph about her cruel and manipulative streak.

Of course, this is not necessarily the only right way to answer this essay question – as long as you back up your points with evidence from the text, you can take any standpoint that makes sense.

Step 3: Back up your points with well-analysed quotations

You wouldn’t write a scientific report without including evidence to support your findings, so why should it be any different with an essay? Even though you aren’t strictly required to substantiate every single point you make with a quotation, there’s no harm in trying.

A close reading of your quotations can enrich your appreciation of the question and will be sure to impress examiners. When selecting the best quotations to use in your essay, keep an eye out for specific literary techniques. For example, you could highlight Curley’s wife’s use of a rhetorical question when she says, a”n’ what am I doin’? Standin’ here talking to a bunch of bindle stiffs.” This might look like:

The rhetorical question “an’ what am I doin’?” signifies that Curley’s wife is very insecure; she seems to be questioning her own life choices. Moreover, she does not expect anyone to respond to her question, highlighting her loneliness and isolation on the ranch.

Other literary techniques to look out for include:

• Tricolon – a group of three words or phrases placed close together for emphasis
• Tautology – using different words that mean the same thing: e.g. “frightening” and “terrifying”
• Parallelism – ABAB structure, often signifying movement from one concept to another
• Chiasmus – ABBA structure, drawing attention to a phrase
• Polysyndeton – many conjunctions in a sentence
• Asyndeton – lack of conjunctions, which can speed up the pace of a sentence
• Polyptoton – using the same word in different forms for emphasis: e.g. “done” and “doing”
• Alliteration – repetition of the same sound, including assonance (similar vowel sounds), plosive alliteration (“b”, “d” and “p” sounds) and sibilance (“s” sounds)
• Anaphora – repetition of words, often used to emphasise a particular point

Don’t worry if you can’t locate all of these literary devices in the work you’re analysing. You can also discuss more obvious techniques, like metaphor, simile and onomatopoeia. It’s not a problem if you can’t remember all the long names; it’s far more important to be able to confidently explain the effects of each technique and highlight its relevance to the question.

Step 4: Be creative and original throughout

Anyone can write an essay using the tips above, but the thing that really makes it “perfect” is your own unique take on the topic. If you’ve noticed something intriguing or unusual in your reading, point it out – if you find it interesting, chances are the examiner will too!

Creative writing and essay writing are more closely linked than you might imagine. Keep the idea that you’re writing a speech or argument in mind, and you’re guaranteed to grab your reader’s attention.

It’s important to set out your line of argument in your introduction, introducing your main points and the general direction your essay will take, but don’t forget to keep something back for the conclusion, too. Yes, you need to summarise your main points, but if you’re just repeating the things you said in your introduction, the body of the essay is rendered pointless.

Think of your conclusion as the climax of your speech, the bit everything else has been leading up to, rather than the boring plenary at the end of the interesting stuff.

To return to Of Mice and Men once more, here’s an example of the ideal difference between an introduction and a conclusion:

Introduction

In John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men , Curley’s wife is portrayed as an ambiguous character. She could be viewed either as a cruel, seductive temptress or a lonely woman who is a victim of her society’s attitudes. Though she does seem to wield a form of sexual power, it is clear that Curley’s wife is largely a victim. This interpretation is supported by Steinbeck’s description of her appearance, other people’s attitudes, her dreams, and her evident loneliness and insecurity.

Overall, it is clear that Curley’s wife is a victim and is portrayed as such throughout the novel in the descriptions of her appearance, her dreams, other people’s judgemental attitudes, and her loneliness and insecurities. However, a character who was a victim and nothing else would be one-dimensional and Curley’s wife is not. Although she suffers in many ways, she is shown to assert herself through the manipulation of her femininity – a small rebellion against the victimisation she experiences.

Both refer back consistently to the question and summarise the essay’s main points. However, the conclusion adds something new which has been established in the main body of the essay and complicates the simple summary which is found in the introduction.

Hannah is an undergraduate English student at Somerville College, University of Oxford, and has a particular interest in postcolonial literature and the Gothic. She thinks literature is a crucial way of developing empathy and learning about the wider world. When she isn’t writing about 17th-century court masques, she enjoys acting, travelling and creative writing. 

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How to Write an Essay

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Essay Writing Fundamentals

How to prepare to write an essay, how to edit an essay, how to share and publish your essays, how to get essay writing help, how to find essay writing inspiration, resources for teaching essay writing.

Essays, short prose compositions on a particular theme or topic, are the bread and butter of academic life. You write them in class, for homework, and on standardized tests to show what you know. Unlike other kinds of academic writing (like the research paper) and creative writing (like short stories and poems), essays allow you to develop your original thoughts on a prompt or question. Essays come in many varieties: they can be expository (fleshing out an idea or claim), descriptive, (explaining a person, place, or thing), narrative (relating a personal experience), or persuasive (attempting to win over a reader). This guide is a collection of dozens of links about academic essay writing that we have researched, categorized, and annotated in order to help you improve your essay writing. 

Essays are different from other forms of writing; in turn, there are different kinds of essays. This section contains general resources for getting to know the essay and its variants. These resources introduce and define the essay as a genre, and will teach you what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab

One of the most trusted academic writing sites, Purdue OWL provides a concise introduction to the four most common types of academic essays.

"The Essay: History and Definition" (ThoughtCo)

This snappy article from ThoughtCo talks about the origins of the essay and different kinds of essays you might be asked to write. 

"What Is An Essay?" Video Lecture (Coursera)

The University of California at Irvine's free video lecture, available on Coursera, tells  you everything you need to know about the essay.

Wikipedia Article on the "Essay"

Wikipedia's article on the essay is comprehensive, providing both English-language and global perspectives on the essay form. Learn about the essay's history, forms, and styles.

"Understanding College and Academic Writing" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This list of common academic writing assignments (including types of essay prompts) will help you know what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Before you start writing your essay, you need to figure out who you're writing for (audience), what you're writing about (topic/theme), and what you're going to say (argument and thesis). This section contains links to handouts, chapters, videos and more to help you prepare to write an essay.

How to Identify Your Audience

"Audience" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This handout provides questions you can ask yourself to determine the audience for an academic writing assignment. It also suggests strategies for fitting your paper to your intended audience.

"Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

This extensive book chapter from Writing for Success , available online through Minnesota Libraries Publishing, is followed by exercises to try out your new pre-writing skills.

"Determining Audience" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This guide from a community college's writing center shows you how to know your audience, and how to incorporate that knowledge in your thesis statement.

"Know Your Audience" ( Paper Rater Blog)

This short blog post uses examples to show how implied audiences for essays differ. It reminds you to think of your instructor as an observer, who will know only the information you pass along.

How to Choose a Theme or Topic

"Research Tutorial: Developing Your Topic" (YouTube)

Take a look at this short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to understand the basics of developing a writing topic.

"How to Choose a Paper Topic" (WikiHow)

This simple, step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through choosing a paper topic. It starts with a detailed description of brainstorming and ends with strategies to refine your broad topic.

"How to Read an Assignment: Moving From Assignment to Topic" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Did your teacher give you a prompt or other instructions? This guide helps you understand the relationship between an essay assignment and your essay's topic.

"Guidelines for Choosing a Topic" (CliffsNotes)

This study guide from CliffsNotes both discusses how to choose a topic and makes a useful distinction between "topic" and "thesis."

How to Come Up with an Argument

"Argument" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

Not sure what "argument" means in the context of academic writing? This page from the University of North Carolina is a good place to start.

"The Essay Guide: Finding an Argument" (Study Hub)

This handout explains why it's important to have an argument when beginning your essay, and provides tools to help you choose a viable argument.

"Writing a Thesis and Making an Argument" (University of Iowa)

This page from the University of Iowa's Writing Center contains exercises through which you can develop and refine your argument and thesis statement.

"Developing a Thesis" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page from Harvard's Writing Center collates some helpful dos and don'ts of argumentative writing, from steps in constructing a thesis to avoiding vague and confrontational thesis statements.

"Suggestions for Developing Argumentative Essays" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

This page offers concrete suggestions for each stage of the essay writing process, from topic selection to drafting and editing. 

How to Outline your Essay

"Outlines" (Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill via YouTube)

This short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill shows how to group your ideas into paragraphs or sections to begin the outlining process.

"Essay Outline" (Univ. of Washington Tacoma)

This two-page handout by a university professor simply defines the parts of an essay and then organizes them into an example outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL gives examples of diverse outline strategies on this page, including the alphanumeric, full sentence, and decimal styles. 

"Outlining" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Once you have an argument, according to this handout, there are only three steps in the outline process: generalizing, ordering, and putting it all together. Then you're ready to write!

"Writing Essays" (Plymouth Univ.)

This packet, part of Plymouth University's Learning Development series, contains descriptions and diagrams relating to the outlining process.

"How to Write A Good Argumentative Essay: Logical Structure" (Criticalthinkingtutorials.com via YouTube)

This longer video tutorial gives an overview of how to structure your essay in order to support your argument or thesis. It is part of a longer course on academic writing hosted on Udemy.

Now that you've chosen and refined your topic and created an outline, use these resources to complete the writing process. Most essays contain introductions (which articulate your thesis statement), body paragraphs, and conclusions. Transitions facilitate the flow from one paragraph to the next so that support for your thesis builds throughout the essay. Sources and citations show where you got the evidence to support your thesis, which ensures that you avoid plagiarism. 

How to Write an Introduction

"Introductions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page identifies the role of the introduction in any successful paper, suggests strategies for writing introductions, and warns against less effective introductions.

"How to Write A Good Introduction" (Michigan State Writing Center)

Beginning with the most common missteps in writing introductions, this guide condenses the essentials of introduction composition into seven points.

"The Introductory Paragraph" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming focuses on ways to grab your reader's attention at the beginning of your essay.

"Introductions and Conclusions" (Univ. of Toronto)

This guide from the University of Toronto gives advice that applies to writing both introductions and conclusions, including dos and don'ts.

"How to Write Better Essays: No One Does Introductions Properly" ( The Guardian )

This news article interviews UK professors on student essay writing; they point to introductions as the area that needs the most improvement.

How to Write a Thesis Statement

"Writing an Effective Thesis Statement" (YouTube)

This short, simple video tutorial from a college composition instructor at Tulsa Community College explains what a thesis statement is and what it does. 

"Thesis Statement: Four Steps to a Great Essay" (YouTube)

This fantastic tutorial walks you through drafting a thesis, using an essay prompt on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter as an example.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through coming up with, writing, and editing a thesis statement. It invites you think of your statement as a "working thesis" that can change.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (Univ. of Indiana Bloomington)

Ask yourself the questions on this page, part of Indiana Bloomington's Writing Tutorial Services, when you're writing and refining your thesis statement.

"Writing Tips: Thesis Statements" (Univ. of Illinois Center for Writing Studies)

This page gives plentiful examples of good to great thesis statements, and offers questions to ask yourself when formulating a thesis statement.

How to Write Body Paragraphs

"Body Paragraph" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course introduces you to the components of a body paragraph. These include the topic sentence, information, evidence, and analysis.

"Strong Body Paragraphs" (Washington Univ.)

This handout from Washington's Writing and Research Center offers in-depth descriptions of the parts of a successful body paragraph.

"Guide to Paragraph Structure" (Deakin Univ.)

This handout is notable for color-coding example body paragraphs to help you identify the functions various sentences perform.

"Writing Body Paragraphs" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

The exercises in this section of Writing for Success  will help you practice writing good body paragraphs. It includes guidance on selecting primary support for your thesis.

"The Writing Process—Body Paragraphs" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

The information and exercises on this page will familiarize you with outlining and writing body paragraphs, and includes links to more information on topic sentences and transitions.

"The Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post discusses body paragraphs in the context of one of the most common academic essay types in secondary schools.

How to Use Transitions

"Transitions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill explains what a transition is, and how to know if you need to improve your transitions.

"Using Transitions Effectively" (Washington Univ.)

This handout defines transitions, offers tips for using them, and contains a useful list of common transitional words and phrases grouped by function.

"Transitions" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This page compares paragraphs without transitions to paragraphs with transitions, and in doing so shows how important these connective words and phrases are.

"Transitions in Academic Essays" (Scribbr)

This page lists four techniques that will help you make sure your reader follows your train of thought, including grouping similar information and using transition words.

"Transitions" (El Paso Community College)

This handout shows example transitions within paragraphs for context, and explains how transitions improve your essay's flow and voice.

"Make Your Paragraphs Flow to Improve Writing" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post, another from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming, talks about transitions and other strategies to improve your essay's overall flow.

"Transition Words" (smartwords.org)

This handy word bank will help you find transition words when you're feeling stuck. It's grouped by the transition's function, whether that is to show agreement, opposition, condition, or consequence.

How to Write a Conclusion

"Parts of An Essay: Conclusions" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course explains how to conclude an academic essay. It suggests thinking about the "3Rs": return to hook, restate your thesis, and relate to the reader.

"Essay Conclusions" (Univ. of Maryland University College)

This overview of the academic essay conclusion contains helpful examples and links to further resources for writing good conclusions.

"How to End An Essay" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) by an English Ph.D. walks you through writing a conclusion, from brainstorming to ending with a flourish.

"Ending the Essay: Conclusions" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page collates useful strategies for writing an effective conclusion, and reminds you to "close the discussion without closing it off" to further conversation.

How to Include Sources and Citations

"Research and Citation Resources" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL streamlines information about the three most common referencing styles (MLA, Chicago, and APA) and provides examples of how to cite different resources in each system.

EasyBib: Free Bibliography Generator

This online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. Be sure to select your resource type before clicking the "cite it" button.

CitationMachine

Like EasyBib, this online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. 

Modern Language Association Handbook (MLA)

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of MLA referencing rules. Order through the link above, or check to see if your library has a copy.

Chicago Manual of Style

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of Chicago referencing rules. You can take a look at the table of contents, then choose to subscribe or start a free trial.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

"What is Plagiarism?" (plagiarism.org)

This nonprofit website contains numerous resources for identifying and avoiding plagiarism, and reminds you that even common activities like copying images from another website to your own site may constitute plagiarism.

"Plagiarism" (University of Oxford)

This interactive page from the University of Oxford helps you check for plagiarism in your work, making it clear how to avoid citing another person's work without full acknowledgement.

"Avoiding Plagiarism" (MIT Comparative Media Studies)

This quick guide explains what plagiarism is, what its consequences are, and how to avoid it. It starts by defining three words—quotation, paraphrase, and summary—that all constitute citation.

"Harvard Guide to Using Sources" (Harvard Extension School)

This comprehensive website from Harvard brings together articles, videos, and handouts about referencing, citation, and plagiarism. 

Grammarly contains tons of helpful grammar and writing resources, including a free tool to automatically scan your essay to check for close affinities to published work. 

Noplag is another popular online tool that automatically scans your essay to check for signs of plagiarism. Simply copy and paste your essay into the box and click "start checking."

Once you've written your essay, you'll want to edit (improve content), proofread (check for spelling and grammar mistakes), and finalize your work until you're ready to hand it in. This section brings together tips and resources for navigating the editing process. 

"Writing a First Draft" (Academic Help)

This is an introduction to the drafting process from the site Academic Help, with tips for getting your ideas on paper before editing begins.

"Editing and Proofreading" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page provides general strategies for revising your writing. They've intentionally left seven errors in the handout, to give you practice in spotting them.

"How to Proofread Effectively" (ThoughtCo)

This article from ThoughtCo, along with those linked at the bottom, help describe common mistakes to check for when proofreading.

"7 Simple Edits That Make Your Writing 100% More Powerful" (SmartBlogger)

This blog post emphasizes the importance of powerful, concise language, and reminds you that even your personal writing heroes create clunky first drafts.

"Editing Tips for Effective Writing" (Univ. of Pennsylvania)

On this page from Penn's International Relations department, you'll find tips for effective prose, errors to watch out for, and reminders about formatting.

"Editing the Essay" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This article, the first of two parts, gives you applicable strategies for the editing process. It suggests reading your essay aloud, removing any jargon, and being unafraid to remove even "dazzling" sentences that don't belong.

"Guide to Editing and Proofreading" (Oxford Learning Institute)

This handout from Oxford covers the basics of editing and proofreading, and reminds you that neither task should be rushed. 

In addition to plagiarism-checkers, Grammarly has a plug-in for your web browser that checks your writing for common mistakes.

After you've prepared, written, and edited your essay, you might want to share it outside the classroom. This section alerts you to print and web opportunities to share your essays with the wider world, from online writing communities and blogs to published journals geared toward young writers.

Sharing Your Essays Online

Go Teen Writers

Go Teen Writers is an online community for writers aged 13 - 19. It was founded by Stephanie Morrill, an author of contemporary young adult novels. 

Tumblr is a blogging website where you can share your writing and interact with other writers online. It's easy to add photos, links, audio, and video components.

Writersky provides an online platform for publishing and reading other youth writers' work. Its current content is mostly devoted to fiction.

Publishing Your Essays Online

This teen literary journal publishes in print, on the web, and (more frequently), on a blog. It is committed to ensuring that "teens see their authentic experience reflected on its pages."

The Matador Review

This youth writing platform celebrates "alternative," unconventional writing. The link above will take you directly to the site's "submissions" page.

Teen Ink has a website, monthly newsprint magazine, and quarterly poetry magazine promoting the work of young writers.

The largest online reading platform, Wattpad enables you to publish your work and read others' work. Its inline commenting feature allows you to share thoughts as you read along.

Publishing Your Essays in Print

Canvas Teen Literary Journal

This quarterly literary magazine is published for young writers by young writers. They accept many kinds of writing, including essays.

The Claremont Review

This biannual international magazine, first published in 1992, publishes poetry, essays, and short stories from writers aged 13 - 19.

Skipping Stones

This young writers magazine, founded in 1988, celebrates themes relating to ecological and cultural diversity. It publishes poems, photos, articles, and stories.

The Telling Room

This nonprofit writing center based in Maine publishes children's work on their website and in book form. The link above directs you to the site's submissions page.

Essay Contests

Scholastic Arts and Writing Awards

This prestigious international writing contest for students in grades 7 - 12 has been committed to "supporting the future of creativity since 1923."

Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest

An annual essay contest on the theme of journalism and media, the Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest awards scholarships up to $1,000.

National YoungArts Foundation

Here, you'll find information on a government-sponsored writing competition for writers aged 15 - 18. The foundation welcomes submissions of creative nonfiction, novels, scripts, poetry, short story and spoken word.

Signet Classics Student Scholarship Essay Contest

With prompts on a different literary work each year, this competition from Signet Classics awards college scholarships up to $1,000.

"The Ultimate Guide to High School Essay Contests" (CollegeVine)

See this handy guide from CollegeVine for a list of more competitions you can enter with your academic essay, from the National Council of Teachers of English Achievement Awards to the National High School Essay Contest by the U.S. Institute of Peace.

Whether you're struggling to write academic essays or you think you're a pro, there are workshops and online tools that can help you become an even better writer. Even the most seasoned writers encounter writer's block, so be proactive and look through our curated list of resources to combat this common frustration.

Online Essay-writing Classes and Workshops

"Getting Started with Essay Writing" (Coursera)

Coursera offers lots of free, high-quality online classes taught by college professors. Here's one example, taught by instructors from the University of California Irvine.

"Writing and English" (Brightstorm)

Brightstorm's free video lectures are easy to navigate by topic. This unit on the parts of an essay features content on the essay hook, thesis, supporting evidence, and more.

"How to Write an Essay" (EdX)

EdX is another open online university course website with several two- to five-week courses on the essay. This one is geared toward English language learners.

Writer's Digest University

This renowned writers' website offers online workshops and interactive tutorials. The courses offered cover everything from how to get started through how to get published.

Writing.com

Signing up for this online writer's community gives you access to helpful resources as well as an international community of writers.

How to Overcome Writer's Block

"Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block" (Purdue OWL)

Purdue OWL offers a list of signs you might have writer's block, along with ways to overcome it. Consider trying out some "invention strategies" or ways to curb writing anxiety.

"Overcoming Writer's Block: Three Tips" ( The Guardian )

These tips, geared toward academic writing specifically, are practical and effective. The authors advocate setting realistic goals, creating dedicated writing time, and participating in social writing.

"Writing Tips: Strategies for Overcoming Writer's Block" (Univ. of Illinois)

This page from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's Center for Writing Studies acquaints you with strategies that do and do not work to overcome writer's block.

"Writer's Block" (Univ. of Toronto)

Ask yourself the questions on this page; if the answer is "yes," try out some of the article's strategies. Each question is accompanied by at least two possible solutions.

If you have essays to write but are short on ideas, this section's links to prompts, example student essays, and celebrated essays by professional writers might help. You'll find writing prompts from a variety of sources, student essays to inspire you, and a number of essay writing collections.

Essay Writing Prompts

"50 Argumentative Essay Topics" (ThoughtCo)

Take a look at this list and the others ThoughtCo has curated for different kinds of essays. As the author notes, "a number of these topics are controversial and that's the point."

"401 Prompts for Argumentative Writing" ( New York Times )

This list (and the linked lists to persuasive and narrative writing prompts), besides being impressive in length, is put together by actual high school English teachers.

"SAT Sample Essay Prompts" (College Board)

If you're a student in the U.S., your classroom essay prompts are likely modeled on the prompts in U.S. college entrance exams. Take a look at these official examples from the SAT.

"Popular College Application Essay Topics" (Princeton Review)

This page from the Princeton Review dissects recent Common Application essay topics and discusses strategies for answering them.

Example Student Essays

"501 Writing Prompts" (DePaul Univ.)

This nearly 200-page packet, compiled by the LearningExpress Skill Builder in Focus Writing Team, is stuffed with writing prompts, example essays, and commentary.

"Topics in English" (Kibin)

Kibin is a for-pay essay help website, but its example essays (organized by topic) are available for free. You'll find essays on everything from  A Christmas Carol  to perseverance.

"Student Writing Models" (Thoughtful Learning)

Thoughtful Learning, a website that offers a variety of teaching materials, provides sample student essays on various topics and organizes them by grade level.

"Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

In this blog post by a former professor of English and rhetoric, ThoughtCo brings together examples of five-paragraph essays and commentary on the form.

The Best Essay Writing Collections

The Best American Essays of the Century by Joyce Carol Oates (Amazon)

This collection of American essays spanning the twentieth century was compiled by award winning author and Princeton professor Joyce Carol Oates.

The Best American Essays 2017 by Leslie Jamison (Amazon)

Leslie Jamison, the celebrated author of essay collection  The Empathy Exams , collects recent, high-profile essays into a single volume.

The Art of the Personal Essay by Phillip Lopate (Amazon)

Documentary writer Phillip Lopate curates this historical overview of the personal essay's development, from the classical era to the present.

The White Album by Joan Didion (Amazon)

This seminal essay collection was authored by one of the most acclaimed personal essayists of all time, American journalist Joan Didion.

Consider the Lobster by David Foster Wallace (Amazon)

Read this famous essay collection by David Foster Wallace, who is known for his experimentation with the essay form. He pushed the boundaries of personal essay, reportage, and political polemic.

"50 Successful Harvard Application Essays" (Staff of the The Harvard Crimson )

If you're looking for examples of exceptional college application essays, this volume from Harvard's daily student newspaper is one of the best collections on the market.

Are you an instructor looking for the best resources for teaching essay writing? This section contains resources for developing in-class activities and student homework assignments. You'll find content from both well-known university writing centers and online writing labs.

Essay Writing Classroom Activities for Students

"In-class Writing Exercises" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page lists exercises related to brainstorming, organizing, drafting, and revising. It also contains suggestions for how to implement the suggested exercises.

"Teaching with Writing" (Univ. of Minnesota Center for Writing)

Instructions and encouragement for using "freewriting," one-minute papers, logbooks, and other write-to-learn activities in the classroom can be found here.

"Writing Worksheets" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

Berkeley offers this bank of writing worksheets to use in class. They are nested under headings for "Prewriting," "Revision," "Research Papers" and more.

"Using Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism" (DePaul University)

Use these activities and worksheets from DePaul's Teaching Commons when instructing students on proper academic citation practices.

Essay Writing Homework Activities for Students

"Grammar and Punctuation Exercises" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

These five interactive online activities allow students to practice editing and proofreading. They'll hone their skills in correcting comma splices and run-ons, identifying fragments, using correct pronoun agreement, and comma usage.

"Student Interactives" (Read Write Think)

Read Write Think hosts interactive tools, games, and videos for developing writing skills. They can practice organizing and summarizing, writing poetry, and developing lines of inquiry and analysis.

This free website offers writing and grammar activities for all grade levels. The lessons are designed to be used both for large classes and smaller groups.

"Writing Activities and Lessons for Every Grade" (Education World)

Education World's page on writing activities and lessons links you to more free, online resources for learning how to "W.R.I.T.E.": write, revise, inform, think, and edit.

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Index of English Essay Writing (Techniques & FAQ)

Index of English Essay Writing. An essay is a short piece of writing on one particular subject. That is, an essay is an article written in prose on a specific and obvious subject and is complete in discussion. However, if you know the features of Essay, different parts and their functions, you can get a clear idea about Essay.

Table of Contents

Index of English Essay Writing?

What is essay.

An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author’s own argument, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of a letter, a paper, an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. Essays have been sub-classified as formal and informal: formal essays are characterized by “serious purpose, dignity, logical organization, length,” whereas the informal essay is characterized by “the personal element (self-revelation, individual tastes and experiences, confidential manner), humor, graceful style, rambling structure, unconventionality or novelty of theme,” etc.

Features of a standard essay:

To write a quality essay, it is essential to know the features of a good essay. A quality essay has many features. E.g .:

1. Definite Subject:

Before writing an essay, its subject must be fixed and this subject must be precise and clear.

2. Transition:

A paragraph consists of multiple sentences and an essay consists of multiple paragraphs. Each paragraph again discusses a unique point or idea and all the points together highlight the main subject of the essay. As a result, a sentence should have the same continuity as another sentence, just as a paragraph should have the same continuity of another paragraph so that all of them seem to be different relevant parts of an essay.

3. Grammatical Accuracy:

A standard essay has to be grammatically accurate. So when writing an essay, you must pay attention to the grammatical aspects like Correct spelling, Punctuation, Grammatical Structure, Word order or syntax. That is to make sure that the essay is Grammatically accurate. Because a quality essay is not only informative, it has to be grammatically and accurate।

4. The Arguments (Relevant issues of a topic):

A writer may have strong opinions about a topic or a question but he should also state the opposing arguments to show that he understands both sides of the problem. The details of the essay should be discussed in detail in the essay so that there is a completeness in the discussion of the subject. That is to say, when discussing the advantages or disadvantages of a subject, its disadvantages or disadvantages should also be discussed and only then will the discussion of the subject come to perfection. For example, when discussing the advantages or disadvantages of democracy, it should be discussed disadvantages or disadvantages.

Or when discussing the causes of a problem, one should also discuss ways or means to solve it. For example, when discussing the causes of unemployment, the way to solve the problem of unemployment should also be discussed.

5. Cohesion:

In a good essay, each sentence should be logically linked to the sentence before and the sentence after. E.g.- (i) Cause and effect, (ii) Contrast.

(i) Cause and Effect:

Cohesion can also be increased by logically expressing cause and effect. Such as –

I was ill so I could not attend the calls. Or, I was ill. Therefore I could not attend the class.

The first sentence here means the reason for the second sentence. When ‘So’ is used, the two sentences are joined together. But if you use it, the two sentences are written separately. The cause and effect can also be expressed by using Because or as. Such as –

I could not attend the class because I was ill.

Or. I could not attend the class as I was ill.

Here the result is meant by the first sentence and the cause by the second sentence.

Rule: (i) Cause + so / therefore + effect.

(ii) Effect + because / as + cause.

(ii) Contrast:

Cohesion can also be increased by using contrast, but, however to mean contrast. Such as –

Bangladesh is a small country but it has a huge population.

Or, Bangladesh is a small country. However, it has a huge population.

Or, Although Bangladesh is a small country, it has a huge population.

6. A Wide Variety of Sentence Structure:

If the structure of the essay-of-sentence is the same, the whole essay will feel monotonous. As a result, in order to make the essay interesting, there should be variety in the length and structure of the sentence. For example, sometimes Active voice, sometimes Passive voice, or Simple Complex and Compound sentence Assertive, Interrogative, Exclamatory sentence should be a combination.

7. Orderly Arrangement:

In order to write a successful paragraph, just as the various sentences under it have to be arranged in orderly order, in order to write a successful essay, the various paragraphs have to be arranged in orderly order. Since an essay is a collection of several paragraphs, it is essential to write a good paragraph to write a good essay.

8. Paragraph Development and its Structure:

To write a good paragraph, it is important to know the different parts of the paragraph, the sentences and their functions. A paragraph usually consists of three parts. E.g .:

(i) Paragraph Introducer or Topic Sentence:

The first sentence is a topic sentence and it tells the topic or main idea of the paragraph. It is the job of the Paragraph introducer or Topic Sentence to reveal the paragraph-Paragraph Introducer Topic Sentence and the main subject of the Paragraph.

(ii) Paragraph Developers:

The next few sentences that develop the theme of the topic sentence are called paragraph developers. Paragraph developers explain or prove the paragraph introducer and are joined by smooth transitions, In other words, the sentences that are used to explain or prove the topic of the topic sentence after the paragraph introducer are called paragraph developers and these sentences are logically connected with different transitional words.

(iii) Paragraph Terminator:

Paragraph Terminator is the concluding or the last sentence and it does three functions such as –

(a) To restate the paragraph introducer. (Paragraph-face )

(b) To summerize the paragraph. (Paragraph-f fate)

(c) To add a final comment 

But, in a good essay, the last sentence or paragraph terminator of a paragraph should logically lead into the next paragraph.

To write a good paragraph, you have to pay attention to its unity and coherence. Such as –

Unity of a paragraph means every paragraph must deal with only one idea and the best way to maintain unity is to pay close attention to the paragraph introducer. This means that the discussion of each paragraph must be limited to a single point and points that are not relevant to that point cannot be included.

Coherence is an important quality of a paragraph. It means sentences of a paragraph must follow one another without abrupt changes.

9. Different Parts of an Essay and their Functions:

Need to know different parts of Essay Gun and their Functions. An essay can usually be divided into three main parts. E.g .:

i. Introduction (1):

A good beginning or introduction attracts the attention of the reader Introduction will be attractive Interesting 20. Because if the introduction is not attractive and interesting, the whole essay will become lifeless and dull. The introduction should be such that if you read it, you can get an idea about the whole essay. As the morning shows the day, so the ‘introduction must show the development and structure of a good and successful essay. The introduction to be effective and indicative of a good essay must consist of the followings:

(a) A restatement of the question;

(b) Writer’s opinion;

(c) What and how the writer is going to discuss the question;

(d) An outline of the arguments the writer will use, etc.

But, writer should not

(i) Copy the question word for word or directly.

(ii) Give a lot of background information. ii. The body:

The body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the ideas presented in the introduction. In the body of an essay, the ideas are discussed in detail, with evidence to support these ideas.

iii. The conclusion:

The ‘conclusion’ is the concluding paragraph of an essay. In words, All is well that ends well. That is, the last one is good and all is good. So if you can’t make Conclusion interesting and effective then the whole Essay-tie is useless. A good ending or conclusion satisfies and stimulates the readers and brings all the ideas of the essay to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion. Usually, a conclusion does the foll functions such as –

(a) To summerize the ideas presented in the text

(b) To restate the writers opinion.

(c) To reach a final decision:

(d) To specify the most important ideas, etc.

If you want to write a good essay, you must reflect the above features in the essay.

More things to keep an eye on —

1. generating ideas or idea development essay:.

The first step in writing is to identify which ideas or points will be discussed in the essay. After specifying the main idea or points, they also need to specify the relevant subpoints and how to analyze or discuss the ideas or points also need to be identified.

Relevant ideas of Essay can be generated or developed by questioning or analyzing the subject of Essay from different perspectives and for this WH-word like- What (a), When (when), Why (why), Who (who) ), How (how); Use Analysis is the act of breaking down a substance or entity into its component parts. You can point out the various points and subpoints of the essay by emalysing the subject of the essay.

2. Structuring Ideas:

Your decision about the orderly arrangement of the materials (ideas) is crucial to the success of your writing. You have to decide how you will group your ideas and sequence them considering the priorities and your focal idea. After identifying the idea generation or points, they have to be arranged in Correct order.

In other words, you have to carefully decide which of the points will come after which in the essay. Because, just as different sentences of a good paragraph are arranged in the correct order, so it is essential that a good essay is arranged in different paragraphs and correct order and it has to be fixed before starting to write the essay.

3. To Start Writing :

After specifying the ideas and arranging them in the correct order, you have to start writing the essay. When writing an essay, you need to make sure that the features of a good essay are reflected in the essay.

Essay Examples:

Essay on days:.

• Independence Day Celebration | Essay Writing
• International Mother Language Day | Essay Writing
• Lists of poems

Essay on Bangladesh

• Education and Community Development : Perspective Bangladesh
• Quality of Education : How to Ensure it in Bangladesh
• Private University in Bangladesh
• English as a Second Language
• Globalization and our Culture
• Need of Vocational Education
• Our National Education Policy
• Mass Literacy Movement in Bangladesh
• Pre-Primary and Primary Education in Bangladesh
• Literature and National Consciousness
• Folklore in Bangladesh
• National Heritage in Bangladesh and How to Preserve It
• Good Governance in Bangladesh : Critical Issues and Concerns
• Local Self Government in Bangladesh : Problems and Issues
• Maritime Boundary: A Great Victory for Bangladesh | Essay Writing
• Rule of Law in Bangladesh
• Ombudsman, Constitution and Bangladesh Review
• The Role of Bureaucrats in Developing Countries
• Bangladesh Public Service Commission : An Evaluation
• The Trial of War Criminals in Bangladesh
• The Role of Civil Service in Administration
• National Unity for Development

How many pages is 1000 words?

The question of how many pages 1000 words will fill can be a common one, especially when it comes to academic assignments or writing projects. However, determining the exact number of pages can be a bit tricky, as it depends on various factors such as font size, spacing, margins, and formatting preferences. In this discussion, we’ll explore the general guidelines for estimating the number of pages 1000 words might occupy, while keeping in mind the flexibility and subjectivity of these estimates.

To get a rough idea, we can consider the standard formatting guidelines commonly used in academic writing. A commonly accepted format is the use of double spacing with 12-point Times New Roman font, along with one-inch margins. Under these specifications, an average word count of 250-300 words per page can be assumed.

Based on this estimation, a 1000-word document would be approximately 3-4 pages long. However, it is crucial to remember that this estimate is not an absolute measure, but a general approximation. Different factors, such as the complexity of the content, inclusion of diagrams or images, and variations in formatting, can significantly affect the final page count.

If the document requires single spacing instead of double spacing, the number of pages will naturally increase. In single spacing, an average of 500-600 words per page can be expected. Therefore, a 1000-word document with single spacing could fill approximately 2 pages.

It’s worth noting that font size also plays a role in determining page count. A larger font size will result in fewer words per page, while a smaller font size will allow for more words on each page. For instance, if a document is written using a larger font size like 14-point Arial, the word count per page may decrease, resulting in more pages for a given number of words.

Another aspect to consider is the presence of headings, subheadings, and paragraph breaks within the document. These elements can help structure and organize the content, but they can also influence the final page count. Shorter paragraphs and frequent breaks can increase the number of pages, as compared to longer paragraphs that occupy more space on a single page.

Additionally, some writing projects may have specific formatting requirements that deviate from the standard guidelines. Academic institutions or publishers often provide their own guidelines for font size, spacing, and margins. In such cases, it is important to adhere to the specified instructions to ensure the desired page count.

In conclusion, while it is possible to estimate that a 1000-word document would generally fill around 3-4 pages using double spacing and 12-point Times New Roman font, it is important to remember that these estimates are approximate and can vary depending on various factors. The final page count may be influenced by formatting choices, font size, spacing, content complexity, and any additional elements within the document. When in doubt, it is always advisable to consult the specific guidelines provided for the writing project to ensure accurate formatting and page count.

How many pages is a 1500 word essay?

Read the above answer (“How many pages is 1000 words?”) we described all details technicality. The number of pages in a 1500-word essay can vary depending on various factors such as font size, font type, line spacing, and formatting. However, if we assume the essay is written in a standard font (e.g., Times New Roman) with a font size of 12 points and double spacing, a 1500-word essay would typically be around 6 pages. Keep in mind that this estimate is only a general guideline, and the actual page count may differ based on the specific formatting requirements set by your instructor or institution.

How many pages is a 2000 word essay?

Read the above answer (“How many pages is 1000 words?”) we described all details technicality. The number of pages in a 2,000-word essay can vary depending on several factors such as font size, font style, line spacing, and margins. However, assuming the essay is written in a standard font (e.g., Times New Roman) with a font size of 12, double spacing, and regular margins, an approximate estimate would be around 4 pages. Keep in mind that this is an estimate and the actual page count may differ slightly depending on the specific formatting requirements or variations in word length.

How many pages is a 500 word essay?

Read the above answer (“How many pages is 1000 words?”) we described all details technicality. The number of pages in a 500-word essay can vary depending on several factors, including the font size, font type, line spacing, and margins. However, in general, if you are using a standard font such as Times New Roman or Arial, with a font size of 12pt, and the essay is double-spaced with standard margins, a 500-word essay would typically be around 1 to 2 pages in length.

Please note that these estimates are approximate and can vary based on formatting choices and individual writing styles. It’s always a good idea to consult your specific assignment guidelines for any requirements regarding page length or word count.

During the revision process, which type of wording should a writer delete in a narrative essay?

During the revision process of a narrative essay, a writer should consider deleting the following types of wording:

Redundant or repetitive words:

Eliminate words or phrases that convey the same meaning or information more than once. This helps streamline the narrative and avoid unnecessary repetition.

Vague or ambiguous language:

Remove any unclear or imprecise wording that might confuse the reader or dilute the intended message. Replace it with specific and descriptive language to enhance clarity.

Filler words and phrases:

Delete unnecessary filler words such as “very,” “really,” “quite,” and “just.” These words often add little meaning to the sentence and can make the writing appear weak or bloated.

Wordy expressions:

Trim down wordy or long-winded expressions by using concise and direct language. Remove any unnecessary adjectives or adverbs that don’t contribute significantly to the narrative.

Clichés and clichéd language:

Avoid overused phrases or expressions that lack originality and impact. Deleting clichés can help make the writing more engaging and authentic.

Excessive qualifiers:

Delete excessive qualifiers like “probably,” “possibly,” or “maybe” if they weaken the writer’s point or dilute the confidence in the narrative. Use stronger language when appropriate.

Factual inaccuracies:

Remove any incorrect information or statements that cannot be supported by evidence. Accuracy is crucial in maintaining the credibility of the narrative.

Remember that the specific wording to delete may vary depending on the context and purpose of the essay. The aim is to refine the narrative, making it more concise, clear, and impactful while retaining the writer’s voice and intention.

How to Start an Essay: Crafting an Engaging Introduction

Starting an essay can sometimes be a daunting task. The introduction sets the tone for your entire piece of writing and can greatly influence the reader’s engagement. A compelling beginning can capture attention, provide context, and establish the main ideas of your essay. To help you get started on the right foot, here are some valuable tips on how to start an essay and make a lasting impression.

• Grab the reader’s attention with a hook: Begin your essay with a captivating hook that grabs the reader’s attention and compels them to continue reading. This can be achieved through various means, such as an intriguing question, a surprising fact or statistic, a vivid description, or a thought-provoking quote. The hook should be relevant to your topic and ignite curiosity in your reader.

For example, if you are writing an essay about the impact of climate change, you could start with a startling statistic like, “Did you know that the Earth’s average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius in the last century?”

• Provide necessary background information: After grabbing the reader’s attention, provide some background information to give context to your topic. This helps the reader understand the significance and relevance of your essay. However, be mindful of not going into excessive detail or overwhelming the reader with too much information. Keep it concise and focused on what is essential to set the stage for your main argument.

For instance, if your essay is about the history of the Internet, you might briefly mention key milestones or the initial purpose of its creation.

• State your thesis statement: One crucial element of an effective essay introduction is the thesis statement. The thesis statement presents the main argument or claim of your essay in a clear and concise manner. It serves as a roadmap for your entire essay, guiding both you and your reader through the logical progression of your ideas.

Make sure your thesis statement is specific, debatable, and well-defined. It should capture the essence of your essay and indicate the main points you will discuss in the body paragraphs. This enables the reader to anticipate what lies ahead and sets the direction for your entire essay.

• Outline the structure of your essay: In some cases, it can be helpful to provide a brief outline of the main points you will discuss in the body paragraphs. This acts as a preview for the reader and helps them understand the overall structure of your essay. By outlining your essay’s structure, you provide a clear roadmap that enhances the reader’s understanding and engagement.

For example, if you are writing an essay about the benefits of exercise, you could outline the main points as follows: “In this essay, I will discuss three key benefits of regular exercise: improved physical health, enhanced mental well-being, and increased longevity.”

• Transition smoothly to the body paragraphs: Lastly, ensure a smooth transition from the introduction to the body paragraphs of your essay. This can be achieved by using transitional words or phrases that link your introduction to the main content of your essay. The transition should be seamless, guiding the reader from the general context of the introduction to the specific points you will elaborate on in the body paragraphs.

By following these tips, you can start your essay with impact and engage your reader from the very beginning. Remember, a strong introduction sets the stage for a well-structured and compelling essay. So, take the time to craft a captivating opening that will grab your reader’s attention and make them eager to explore the rest of your work.

How does an effective argumentative essay address counterclaims?

An effective argumentative essay goes beyond presenting a one-sided perspective on a topic; it acknowledges and addresses counterclaims. By addressing counterclaims, the essay demonstrates a comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand and strengthens the overall argument. It shows the writer’s ability to anticipate and refute opposing viewpoints, providing a more convincing and well-rounded piece of writing.

To effectively address counterclaims in an argumentative essay, it is crucial to follow a structured approach. Here are some key strategies that can help achieve this:

Acknowledge the counterclaim: Begin by clearly acknowledging the opposing viewpoint or counterclaim. This demonstrates respect for different perspectives and establishes a fair tone for the essay. It is important to accurately represent the counterclaim to ensure credibility and avoid misinterpretation.

Present evidence and reasoning: Once the counterclaim has been acknowledged, provide evidence and reasoning to support your own argument. This evidence can be in the form of facts, statistics, expert opinions, or examples. By presenting strong evidence, you strengthen your position and highlight the weaknesses of the counterclaim.

Analyze the counterclaim: After presenting your evidence, analyze the counterclaim objectively. Examine its strengths and weaknesses, and consider the underlying assumptions or biases. By critically evaluating the counterclaim, you can identify potential flaws or inconsistencies that can be effectively addressed in your argument.

Refute the counterclaim: This is a crucial step in addressing counterclaims. Clearly and directly refute the opposing viewpoint using logical reasoning, evidence, and counterarguments. Anticipate the potential objections or alternative interpretations that may arise from the counterclaim and address them proactively. This demonstrates your ability to engage with opposing viewpoints and effectively dismantle them.

Provide supporting evidence: To further strengthen your argument, provide additional evidence that supports your position. Use relevant examples, case studies, or research studies to validate your claims. By presenting a robust body of evidence, you enhance the persuasiveness of your argument and diminish the impact of the counterclaim.

Address potential objections: Anticipate and address potential objections that may arise from your argument. By preemptively addressing these objections, you demonstrate that you have considered alternative perspectives and have solid responses to potential criticisms. This strengthens your credibility and portrays a thorough understanding of the topic.

Conclude with a strong summary: As you conclude your argumentative essay, summarize the main points and reiterate the strength of your position. Emphasize the weaknesses of the counterclaim and explain why your argument is more valid and persuasive. A strong conclusion leaves a lasting impression and reinforces the overall effectiveness of your argument.

By incorporating these strategies, an effective argumentative essay successfully addresses counterclaims, creating a balanced and convincing piece of writing. It showcases the writer’s ability to engage with different perspectives, analyze them critically, and construct a coherent and persuasive argument. Moreover, addressing counterclaims strengthens the essay’s credibility, as it demonstrates a willingness to consider opposing viewpoints and engage in a thoughtful and reasoned debate.

In a world where diverse opinions and conflicting viewpoints are prevalent, an argumentative essay that effectively addresses counterclaims not only presents a well-rounded perspective but also fosters intellectual growth and promotes constructive dialogue. By engaging with opposing arguments in a respectful and analytical manner, writers can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of complex issues and encourage open-mindedness among readers.

How long is the common app essay?

The length of the Common App essay can vary, but the word limit is typically between 250 and 650 words. The Common Application, which is widely used for college admissions in the United States, provides a platform for students to apply to multiple colleges and universities using a single application.

One of the requirements of the Common Application is the personal essay or personal statement, which allows students to showcase their unique experiences, perspectives, and goals to the admissions committees. While there is no strict word count requirement, most students aim to stay within the suggested range to effectively convey their ideas and experiences. It’s important to review the specific guidelines provided by each college or university you are applying to, as they may have additional or slightly different requirements for the essay.

How long should a college essay be?

The length of a college essay can vary depending on the specific guidelines provided by the college or university you are applying to. In general, there is no strict rule regarding the length of a college essay, but there are some common expectations.

Many colleges specify a word or character limit for essays, typically ranging from 250 to 650 words. This range allows applicants to provide a meaningful and concise response without going overboard or being too brief. It’s important to adhere to the specified limit as exceeding it may reflect negatively on your application.

If there is no specific word or character limit mentioned, a good guideline is to aim for an essay that is about 500 to 800 words in length. This length allows you to express your thoughts and ideas effectively while keeping the reader engaged. However, remember that quality is more important than quantity, so focus on crafting a well-written and compelling essay rather than trying to reach a certain word count.

Always refer to the application guidelines provided by the college or university to ensure you meet their requirements and expectations regarding the length of your essay.

How long should a paragraph be in an essay?

The length of a paragraph in an essay can vary depending on the context, purpose, and style of writing. While there are no strict rules dictating the exact length, it is generally recommended that a paragraph should be composed of a minimum of three to five sentences. This guideline ensures that each paragraph contains enough information to present a coherent idea or argument.

However, it’s important to note that longer paragraphs can become cumbersome and difficult to read, so it is generally advisable to keep paragraphs concise and focused. If a paragraph exceeds around eight to ten sentences, it might be worth considering breaking it into smaller paragraphs to enhance readability and clarity. Ultimately, the goal is to organize your thoughts logically and effectively convey your ideas to the reader.

How many paragraphs in an essay?

The number of paragraphs in an essay can vary depending on several factors, such as the length of the essay, the topic being discussed, and the specific requirements or guidelines given by the instructor or institution. However, a typical essay usually consists of three main sections: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

While there is no fixed rule for the exact number of paragraphs in an essay, a standard essay often consists of an introduction, a body with several paragraphs, and a conclusion.

How many sentences are in an essay?

The number of sentences in an essay can vary depending on the length and complexity of the essay, as well as the specific requirements or guidelines provided by the instructor or the organization requesting the essay.

In general, an essay consists of multiple paragraphs, each of which contains one or more sentences. A typical essay will have an introduction paragraph, several body paragraphs, and a conclusion paragraph. The number of sentences in each paragraph can vary, but it is common for paragraphs to have at least three to five sentences.

For a shorter essay, such as a five-paragraph essay, you can expect to have around 5-7 sentences in each paragraph, resulting in a total of around 25-35 sentences for the entire essay. However, for longer and more in-depth essays, the number of sentences can increase significantly.

It’s important to note that there are no strict rules regarding the exact number of sentences in an essay. The focus should be on effectively communicating your ideas, supporting them with evidence, and maintaining a coherent structure throughout the essay.

How many words are in an essay?

The number of words in an essay can vary widely depending on various factors such as the purpose, topic, and specific requirements of the assignment or academic institution. In general, essays typically range from 250 words for a short response or paragraph to several thousand words for a lengthy research or academic paper.

For academic essays, the word count often falls within the following ranges:

• Short Essay: Usually consists of 500-800 words.
• Standard Essay: Typically ranges from 1,000 to 2,500 words.
• Extended Essay: Can be 3,000 words or more, particularly in higher education or advanced research papers.

It’s important to note that word count requirements may be specified by the instructor or the institution, so it’s always advisable to follow the given guidelines for a particular assignment.

How to cite a source in an essay?

When citing a source in an essay, it’s important to follow the citation style specified by your instructor or the guidelines of the publication you are writing for. The most common citation styles are APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and Chicago/Turabian. Here’s a general guide on how to cite a source using APA and MLA styles:

• In-text citations: When paraphrasing or directly quoting a source within the text of your essay, include the author’s last name and the publication year in parentheses. For example: (Smith, 2020).
• If you mention the author’s name within the sentence, only include the publication year in parentheses. For example: According to Smith (2020), “quote.”
• If the source has multiple authors (up to 20), list all of their last names the first time you cite the source. For subsequent citations, include only the first author’s last name followed by “et al.” For example: (Smith, Johnson, & Brown, 2020) or (Smith et al., 2020).
• If you are directly quoting a source, include the page number or paragraph number after the publication year, separated by a comma. For example: (Smith, 2020, p. 45) or (Smith, 2020, para. 5).
• In-text citations: When paraphrasing or directly quoting a source within the text of your essay, include the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses. For example: (Smith 45).
• If you mention the author’s name within the sentence, only include the page number in parentheses. For example: According to Smith (45), “quote.”
• If the source has multiple authors, list all of their last names in the same order as they appear in the source.
• If you are directly quoting a source and there are no page numbers available, use other locators such as paragraph numbers or section headings to indicate the source of the quote.

Note: These guidelines provide a general overview of APA and MLA citation styles. It’s important to consult the specific style guide or manual for comprehensive and accurate instructions on citing different types of sources, including books, articles, websites, and more.

How to add a quote to an essay?

Adding a quote to an essay can help support your argument or provide additional insight from an authoritative source. Here are some steps to follow when incorporating a quote into your essay:

Select a relevant quote: Choose a quote that directly relates to your topic or supports the point you’re making in your essay. Make sure it adds value to your argument and enhances your overall message.

Introduce the quote: Before including the quote, provide some context or introduce it to your readers. This can be done by briefly explaining who the author is, the significance of the quote, or the context in which it was originally stated. This helps your readers understand the relevance and importance of the quote within your essay.

Use quotation marks: When you insert the quote into your essay, use quotation marks (“”) to indicate the exact words of the author. This makes it clear that the text is a direct quote and not your own words.

Cite the source: Immediately after the quote, include a proper citation to give credit to the author. This includes the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication or website it was taken from, and the year of publication. The citation style may vary depending on the formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or the style guide you’re using (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).

Provide analysis or explanation: After the quote, it’s essential to explain its significance and how it supports your argument. Analyze the quote, discuss its implications, and explain how it relates to the main points of your essay. This demonstrates your understanding of the quote and its relevance to your topic.

Connect the quote to your own writing: After analyzing the quote, connect it back to your own argument or thesis statement. Clearly explain how the quote reinforces or strengthens your position. This helps tie the quote into your overall essay and showcases its relevance to your argument.

Remember to use quotes sparingly and strategically. They should be used to enhance your own ideas, rather than replace or overpower them. Use quotes to provide evidence, support, or alternative perspectives, but always ensure they are properly integrated into your essay and properly cited.

Additionally, it’s important to follow any specific guidelines or requirements given by your instructor or the formatting style you’re using, as they may have their own rules for incorporating quotes into essays.

How to cite a book in an essay?

When citing a book in an essay, you typically need to include certain information about the book in your citation. The specific format of the citation depends on the citation style guide you are using, such as APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or Chicago Style. Here are examples of how to cite a book using APA, MLA, and Chicago Style formats:

APA Style: In-text citation: According to Smith (2010), “quote goes here” (p. 45).

Reference list entry: Smith, J. (2010). Title of Book. Publisher.

MLA Style: In-text citation: “Quote goes here” (Smith 45).

Works Cited entry: Smith, John. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.

Chicago Style: Note citation (footnote or endnote): John Smith, Title of Book (Place of Publication: Publisher, Year), page number(s).

Bibliography entry: Smith, John. Title of Book . Place of Publication: Publisher, Year.

Please note that the above examples provide a general framework for citing a book. It’s important to consult the specific guidelines of the style guide you are using for more detailed instructions, as different style guides have slight variations in formatting and punctuation. Additionally, ensure consistency in your citations throughout your essay by following the chosen style guide consistently.

How to cite a website in an essay?

When citing a website in an essay, you typically include the author (if available), the title of the page or article, the name of the website, the publication date or last updated date, the URL (web address), and the date you accessed the website. The specific citation style you’re using (such as MLA, APA, or Chicago) will determine the exact format. Here are examples in APA and MLA styles:

AuthorLastName, AuthorFirstNameInitial. (Year, Month Day). Title of the web page or article. Site Name. URL

Example: Smith, J. (2022, October 15). The Impact of Climate Change on Marine Life. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/impact-climate-change-marine-life

AuthorLastName, AuthorFirstNameInitial. “Title of the web page or article.” Site Name, Publication date (if available), URL. Accessed Day Month Year.

Example: Smith, John. “The Impact of Climate Change on Marine Life.” National Geographic, 15 Oct. 2022, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/impact-climate-change-marine-life . Accessed 27 June 2023.

Please note that these examples are general guidelines, and you should consult the specific citation style guide recommended by your educational institution or the requirements provided by your instructor for the essay you’re writing.

How to cite evidence in an essay?

Citing evidence in an essay is an essential practice to support your arguments and provide credibility to your claims. Here are the steps to properly cite evidence in your essay:

Select relevant evidence: Choose evidence that directly supports your thesis or main argument. This can include quotations, paraphrases, statistics, examples, or research findings. Ensure that the evidence is credible and from reputable sources.

Determine the appropriate citation style: Check with your instructor or refer to the guidelines provided for your essay to determine the required citation style. Common styles include MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association), or Chicago/Turabian style. Each style has specific rules for formatting in-text citations and bibliographic entries.

Incorporate in-text citations: Within the body of your essay, include brief in-text citations to acknowledge the source of the evidence. These citations can be in the form of parenthetical citations (e.g., (Author’s Last Name, Year)) or in-text citations with the author’s name included in the sentence itself.

Provide bibliographic information: At the end of your essay, include a separate section titled “References,” “Works Cited,” or “Bibliography,” depending on the citation style. Here, you will list the full details of each source you cited in your essay, following the specific formatting guidelines for the chosen citation style. This information typically includes the author’s name, title of the source, publication date, publication title or source, and relevant page numbers.

Format the citations correctly: Pay close attention to the formatting rules specified by the chosen citation style. This includes rules for capitalization, punctuation, italics or quotation marks, and the order of information within the citation. Consistency is crucial, so make sure all citations follow the same format throughout your essay.

Use signal phrases and context: Integrate your evidence smoothly into your essay by using signal phrases to introduce the source. Signal phrases can include phrases like “According to,” “As stated by,” or “In a study conducted by.” Additionally, provide enough context and explanation after presenting evidence to help the reader understand its relevance to your argument.

Remember, proper citation not only demonstrates academic integrity but also allows readers to locate and evaluate your sources for themselves. Always consult the specific guidelines provided by your instructor or institution for any deviations from standard citation practices.

How to cite a poem in an essay?

When citing a poem in an essay, you typically follow specific formatting guidelines depending on the citation style required by your instructor or the academic institution you are affiliated with. The two most common citation styles for essays are MLA (Modern Language Association) and APA (American Psychological Association). Here are examples of how to cite a poem in each of these styles:

MLA Style: In MLA style, you generally provide the author’s name and the line numbers from the poem in parentheses within the body of your essay. Additionally, you may need to include the title of the poem, the name of the anthology or collection it’s from (if applicable), the name of the editor (if applicable), and the publication information. Here’s an example:

Quoting a poem in the essay:

In his poem “The Road Not Taken,” Robert Frost writes, “Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—I took the one less traveled by” (line 19).

APA Style: In APA style, you include the author’s name and the publication year of the anthology or collection (if applicable) in the in-text citation. For poems without a specific author, you can use the title of the poem instead. Here’s an example:

In the poem “The Road Not Taken,” it is stated, “Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—I took the one less traveled by” (Frost, 1916, line 19).

Remember to include a full reference to the poem in your list of references at the end of the essay, following the appropriate citation style’s guidelines.

Please note that these examples serve as general guidelines, and it’s important to consult the specific rules of the citation style required by your instructor or institution.

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Guest Essay

I Thought the Bragg Case Against Trump Was a Legal Embarrassment. Now I Think It’s a Historic Mistake.

By Jed Handelsman Shugerman

Mr. Shugerman is a law professor at Boston University.

About a year ago, when Alvin Bragg, the Manhattan district attorney, indicted former President Donald Trump, I was critical of the case and called it an embarrassment. I thought an array of legal problems would and should lead to long delays in federal courts.

After listening to Monday’s opening statement by prosecutors, I still think the Manhattan D.A. has made a historic mistake. Their vague allegation about “a criminal scheme to corrupt the 2016 presidential election” has me more concerned than ever about their unprecedented use of state law and their persistent avoidance of specifying an election crime or a valid theory of fraud.

To recap: Mr. Trump is accused in the case of falsifying business records. Those are misdemeanor charges. To elevate it to a criminal case, Mr. Bragg and his team have pointed to potential violations of federal election law and state tax fraud. They also cite state election law, but state statutory definitions of “public office” seem to limit those statutes to state and local races.

Both the misdemeanor and felony charges require that the defendant made the false record with “intent to defraud.” A year ago, I wondered how entirely internal business records (the daily ledger, pay stubs and invoices) could be the basis of any fraud if they are not shared with anyone outside the business. I suggested that the real fraud was Mr. Trump’s filing an (allegedly) false report to the Federal Election Commission, and only federal prosecutors had jurisdiction over that filing.

A recent conversation with Jeffrey Cohen, a friend, Boston College law professor and former prosecutor, made me think that the case could turn out to be more legitimate than I had originally thought. The reason has to do with those allegedly falsified business records: Most of them were entered in early 2017, generally before Mr. Trump filed his Federal Election Commission report that summer. Mr. Trump may have foreseen an investigation into his campaign, leading to its financial records. Mr. Trump may have falsely recorded these internal records before the F.E.C. filing as consciously part of the same fraud: to create a consistent paper trail and to hide intent to violate federal election laws, or defraud the F.E.C.

In short: It’s not the crime; it’s the cover-up.

Looking at the case in this way might address concerns about state jurisdiction. In this scenario, Mr. Trump arguably intended to deceive state investigators, too. State investigators could find these inconsistencies and alert federal agencies. Prosecutors could argue that New York State agencies have an interest in detecting conspiracies to defraud federal entities; they might also have a plausible answer to significant questions about whether New York State has jurisdiction or whether this stretch of a state business filing law is pre-empted by federal law.

However, this explanation is a novel interpretation with many significant legal problems. And none of the Manhattan D.A.’s filings or today’s opening statement even hint at this approach.

Instead of a theory of defrauding state regulators, Mr. Bragg has adopted a weak theory of “election interference,” and Justice Juan Merchan described the case , in his summary of it during jury selection, as an allegation of falsifying business records “to conceal an agreement with others to unlawfully influence the 2016 election.”

As a reality check, it is legal for a candidate to pay for a nondisclosure agreement. Hush money is unseemly, but it is legal. The election law scholar Richard Hasen rightly observed , “Calling it election interference actually cheapens the term and undermines the deadly serious charges in the real election interference cases.”

In Monday’s opening argument, the prosecutor Matthew Colangelo still evaded specifics about what was illegal about influencing an election, but then he claimed , “It was election fraud, pure and simple.” None of the relevant state or federal statutes refer to filing violations as fraud. Calling it “election fraud” is a legal and strategic mistake, exaggerating the case and setting up the jury with high expectations that the prosecutors cannot meet.

The most accurate description of this criminal case is a federal campaign finance filing violation. Without a federal violation (which the state election statute is tethered to), Mr. Bragg cannot upgrade the misdemeanor counts into felonies. Moreover, it is unclear how this case would even fulfill the misdemeanor requirement of “intent to defraud” without the federal crime.

In stretching jurisdiction and trying a federal crime in state court, the Manhattan D.A. is now pushing untested legal interpretations and applications. I see three red flags raising concerns about selective prosecution upon appeal.

First, I could find no previous case of any state prosecutor relying on the Federal Election Campaign Act either as a direct crime or a predicate crime. Whether state prosecutors have avoided doing so as a matter of law, norms or lack of expertise, this novel attempt is a sign of overreach.

Second, Mr. Trump’s lawyers argued that the New York statute requires that the predicate (underlying) crime must also be a New York crime, not a crime in another jurisdiction. The Manhattan D.A. responded with judicial precedents only about other criminal statutes, not the statute in this case. In the end, they could not cite a single judicial interpretation of this particular statute supporting their use of the statute (a plea deal and a single jury instruction do not count).

Third, no New York precedent has allowed an interpretation of defrauding the general public. Legal experts have noted that such a broad “election interference” theory is unprecedented, and a conviction based on it may not survive a state appeal.

Mr. Trump’s legal team also undercut itself for its decisions in the past year: His lawyers essentially put all of their eggs in the meritless basket of seeking to move the trial to federal court, instead of seeking a federal injunction to stop the trial entirely. If they had raised the issues of selective or vindictive prosecution and a mix of jurisdictional, pre-emption and constitutional claims, they could have delayed the trial past Election Day, even if they lost at each federal stage.

Another reason a federal crime has wound up in state court is that President Biden’s Justice Department bent over backward not to reopen this valid case or appoint a special counsel. Mr. Trump has tried to blame Mr. Biden for this prosecution as the real “election interference.” The Biden administration’s extra restraint belies this allegation and deserves more credit.

Eight years after the alleged crime itself, it is reasonable to ask if this is more about Manhattan politics than New York law. This case should serve as a cautionary tale about broader prosecutorial abuses in America — and promote bipartisan reforms of our partisan prosecutorial system.

Nevertheless, prosecutors should have some latitude to develop their case during trial, and maybe they will be more careful and precise about the underlying crime, fraud and the jurisdictional questions. Mr. Trump has received sufficient notice of the charges, and he can raise his arguments on appeal. One important principle of “ our Federalism ,” in the Supreme Court’s terms, is abstention , that federal courts should generally allow state trials to proceed first and wait to hear challenges later.

This case is still an embarrassment of prosecutorial ethics and apparent selective prosecution. Nevertheless, each side should have its day in court. If convicted, Mr. Trump can fight many other days — and perhaps win — in appellate courts. But if Monday’s opening is a preview of exaggerated allegations, imprecise legal theories and persistently unaddressed problems, the prosecutors might not win a conviction at all.

Jed Handelsman Shugerman (@jedshug) is a law professor at Boston University.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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