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Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Descriptive Research Design

Definition:

Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that aims to describe or document the characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, opinions, or perceptions of a group or population being studied.

Descriptive research design does not attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables or make predictions about future outcomes. Instead, it focuses on providing a detailed and accurate representation of the data collected, which can be useful for generating hypotheses, exploring trends, and identifying patterns in the data.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

Types of Descriptive Research Design are as follows:

Cross-sectional Study

This involves collecting data at a single point in time from a sample or population to describe their characteristics or behaviors. For example, a researcher may conduct a cross-sectional study to investigate the prevalence of certain health conditions among a population, or to describe the attitudes and beliefs of a particular group.

Longitudinal Study

This involves collecting data over an extended period of time, often through repeated observations or surveys of the same group or population. Longitudinal studies can be used to track changes in attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes over time, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

This involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or situation to gain a detailed understanding of its characteristics or dynamics. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and business to explore complex phenomena or to generate hypotheses for further research.

Survey Research

This involves collecting data from a sample or population through standardized questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be used to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographic characteristics of a group, and can be conducted in person, by phone, or online.

Observational Research

This involves observing and documenting the behavior or interactions of individuals or groups in a natural or controlled setting. Observational studies can be used to describe social, cultural, or environmental phenomena, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

Correlational Research

This involves examining the relationships between two or more variables to describe their patterns or associations. Correlational studies can be used to identify potential causal relationships or to explore the strength and direction of relationships between variables.

Data Analysis Methods

Descriptive research design data analysis methods depend on the type of data collected and the research question being addressed. Here are some common methods of data analysis for descriptive research:

Descriptive Statistics

This method involves analyzing data to summarize and describe the key features of a sample or population. Descriptive statistics can include measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (e.g., range, standard deviation).

Cross-tabulation

This method involves analyzing data by creating a table that shows the frequency of two or more variables together. Cross-tabulation can help identify patterns or relationships between variables.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing qualitative data (e.g., text, images, audio) to identify themes, patterns, or trends. Content analysis can be used to describe the characteristics of a sample or population, or to identify factors that influence attitudes or behaviors.

Qualitative Coding

This method involves analyzing qualitative data by assigning codes to segments of data based on their meaning or content. Qualitative coding can be used to identify common themes, patterns, or categories within the data.

Visualization

This method involves creating graphs or charts to represent data visually. Visualization can help identify patterns or relationships between variables and make it easier to communicate findings to others.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing data across different groups or time periods to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help describe changes in attitudes or behaviors over time or differences between subgroups within a population.

Applications of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the common applications of descriptive research design are:

• Market research: Descriptive research design is widely used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes. This helps companies to develop new products and services, improve marketing strategies, and increase customer satisfaction.
• Health research: Descriptive research design is used in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population. This helps healthcare providers to develop prevention and treatment strategies.
• Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs. This helps educators to improve teaching methods and develop effective educational programs.
• Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs. This helps researchers to understand social behavior and develop effective policies.
• Public opinion research: Descriptive research design is used in public opinion research to understand the opinions and attitudes of the general public on various issues. This helps policymakers to develop effective policies that are aligned with public opinion.
• Environmental research: Descriptive research design is used in environmental research to describe the environmental conditions of a particular region or ecosystem. This helps policymakers and environmentalists to develop effective conservation and preservation strategies.

Descriptive Research Design Examples

Here are some real-time examples of descriptive research designs:

• A restaurant chain wants to understand the demographics and attitudes of its customers. They conduct a survey asking customers about their age, gender, income, frequency of visits, favorite menu items, and overall satisfaction. The survey data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to describe the characteristics of their customer base.
• A medical researcher wants to describe the prevalence and risk factors of a particular disease in a population. They conduct a cross-sectional study in which they collect data from a sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to identify patterns in the prevalence and risk factors of the disease.
• An education researcher wants to describe the learning outcomes of students in a particular school district. They collect test scores from a representative sample of students in the district and use descriptive statistics to calculate the mean, median, and standard deviation of the scores. They also create visualizations such as histograms and box plots to show the distribution of scores.
• A marketing team wants to understand the attitudes and behaviors of consumers towards a new product. They conduct a series of focus groups and use qualitative coding to identify common themes and patterns in the data. They also create visualizations such as word clouds to show the most frequently mentioned topics.
• An environmental scientist wants to describe the biodiversity of a particular ecosystem. They conduct an observational study in which they collect data on the species and abundance of plants and animals in the ecosystem. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics to describe the diversity and richness of the ecosystem.

How to Conduct Descriptive Research Design

To conduct a descriptive research design, you can follow these general steps:

• Define your research question: Clearly define the research question or problem that you want to address. Your research question should be specific and focused to guide your data collection and analysis.
• Choose your research method: Select the most appropriate research method for your research question. As discussed earlier, common research methods for descriptive research include surveys, case studies, observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and longitudinal studies.
• Design your study: Plan the details of your study, including the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis plan. Determine the sample size and sampling method, decide on the data collection tools (such as questionnaires, interviews, or observations), and outline your data analysis plan.
• Collect data: Collect data from your sample or population using the data collection tools you have chosen. Ensure that you follow ethical guidelines for research and obtain informed consent from participants.
• Analyze data: Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods to analyze your data. As discussed earlier, common data analysis methods for descriptive research include descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation, content analysis, qualitative coding, visualization, and comparative analysis.
• I nterpret results: Interpret your findings in light of your research question and objectives. Identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data, and describe the characteristics of your sample or population.
• Draw conclusions and report results: Draw conclusions based on your analysis and interpretation of the data. Report your results in a clear and concise manner, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to present your findings. Ensure that your report follows accepted research standards and guidelines.

When to Use Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used in situations where the researcher wants to describe a population or phenomenon in detail. It is used to gather information about the current status or condition of a group or phenomenon without making any causal inferences. Descriptive research design is useful in the following situations:

• Exploratory research: Descriptive research design is often used in exploratory research to gain an initial understanding of a phenomenon or population.
• Identifying trends: Descriptive research design can be used to identify trends or patterns in a population, such as changes in consumer behavior or attitudes over time.
• Market research: Descriptive research design is commonly used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes.
• Health research: Descriptive research design is useful in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population.
• Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs.
• Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs.

Purpose of Descriptive Research Design

The main purpose of descriptive research design is to describe and measure the characteristics of a population or phenomenon in a systematic and objective manner. It involves collecting data that describe the current status or condition of the population or phenomenon of interest, without manipulating or altering any variables.

The purpose of descriptive research design can be summarized as follows:

• To provide an accurate description of a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research design aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate description of a population or phenomenon of interest. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon.
• To identify trends and patterns: Descriptive research design can help researchers to identify trends and patterns in the data, such as changes in behavior or attitudes over time. This can be useful for making predictions and developing strategies.
• To generate hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
• To establish a baseline: Descriptive research design can establish a baseline or starting point for future research. This can be useful for comparing data from different time periods or populations.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several key characteristics that distinguish it from other research designs. Some of the main characteristics of descriptive research design are:

• Objective : Descriptive research design is objective in nature, which means that it focuses on collecting factual and accurate data without any personal bias. The researcher aims to report the data objectively without any personal interpretation.
• Non-experimental: Descriptive research design is non-experimental, which means that the researcher does not manipulate any variables. The researcher simply observes and records the behavior or characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Quantitative : Descriptive research design is quantitative in nature, which means that it involves collecting numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical techniques. This helps to provide a more precise and accurate description of the population or phenomenon.
• Cross-sectional: Descriptive research design is often cross-sectional, which means that the data is collected at a single point in time. This can be useful for understanding the current state of the population or phenomenon, but it may not provide information about changes over time.
• Large sample size: Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
• Systematic and structured: Descriptive research design involves a systematic and structured approach to data collection, which helps to ensure that the data is accurate and reliable. This involves using standardized procedures for data collection, such as surveys, questionnaires, or observation checklists.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several advantages that make it a popular choice for researchers. Some of the main advantages of descriptive research design are:

• Provides an accurate description: Descriptive research design is focused on accurately describing the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the subject of interest.
• Easy to conduct: Descriptive research design is relatively easy to conduct and requires minimal resources compared to other research designs. It can be conducted quickly and efficiently, and data can be collected through surveys, questionnaires, or observations.
• Useful for generating hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
• Large sample size : Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
• Can be used to monitor changes : Descriptive research design can be used to monitor changes over time in a population or phenomenon. This can be useful for identifying trends and patterns, and for making predictions about future behavior or attitudes.
• Can be used in a variety of fields : Descriptive research design can be used in a variety of fields, including social sciences, healthcare, business, and education.

Limitation of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design also has some limitations that researchers should consider before using this design. Some of the main limitations of descriptive research design are:

• Cannot establish cause and effect: Descriptive research design cannot establish cause and effect relationships between variables. It only provides a description of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Limited generalizability: The results of a descriptive study may not be generalizable to other populations or situations. This is because descriptive research design often involves a specific sample or situation, which may not be representative of the broader population.
• Potential for bias: Descriptive research design can be subject to bias, particularly if the researcher is not objective in their data collection or interpretation. This can lead to inaccurate or incomplete descriptions of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Limited depth: Descriptive research design may provide a superficial description of the population or phenomenon of interest. It does not delve into the underlying causes or mechanisms behind the observed behavior or characteristics.
• Limited utility for theory development: Descriptive research design may not be useful for developing theories about the relationship between variables. It only provides a description of the variables themselves.
• Relies on self-report data: Descriptive research design often relies on self-report data, such as surveys or questionnaires. This type of data may be subject to biases, such as social desirability bias or recall bias.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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• What is descriptive research?

Last updated

5 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

Descriptive research is a common investigatory model used by researchers in various fields, including social sciences, linguistics, and academia.

Read on to understand the characteristics of descriptive research and explore its underlying techniques, processes, and procedures.

Analyze your descriptive research

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Descriptive research is an exploratory research method. It enables researchers to precisely and methodically describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon.

As the name suggests, descriptive research describes the characteristics of the group, situation, or phenomenon being studied without manipulating variables or testing hypotheses . This can be reported using surveys , observational studies, and case studies. You can use both quantitative and qualitative methods to compile the data.

Besides making observations and then comparing and analyzing them, descriptive studies often develop knowledge concepts and provide solutions to critical issues. It always aims to answer how the event occurred, when it occurred, where it occurred, and what the problem or phenomenon is.

• Characteristics of descriptive research

The following are some of the characteristics of descriptive research:

Quantitativeness

Descriptive research can be quantitative as it gathers quantifiable data to statistically analyze a population sample. These numbers can show patterns, connections, and trends over time and can be discovered using surveys, polls, and experiments.

Qualitativeness

Descriptive research can also be qualitative. It gives meaning and context to the numbers supplied by quantitative descriptive research .

Researchers can use tools like interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic studies to illustrate why things are what they are and help characterize the research problem. This is because it’s more explanatory than exploratory or experimental research.

Uncontrolled variables

Descriptive research differs from experimental research in that researchers cannot manipulate the variables. They are recognized, scrutinized, and quantified instead. This is one of its most prominent features.

Cross-sectional studies

Descriptive research is a cross-sectional study because it examines several areas of the same group. It involves obtaining data on multiple variables at the personal level during a certain period. It’s helpful when trying to understand a larger community’s habits or preferences.

Carried out in a natural environment

Descriptive studies are usually carried out in the participants’ everyday environment, which allows researchers to avoid influencing responders by collecting data in a natural setting. You can use online surveys or survey questions to collect data or observe.

Basis for further research

You can further dissect descriptive research’s outcomes and use them for different types of investigation. The outcomes also serve as a foundation for subsequent investigations and can guide future studies. For example, you can use the data obtained in descriptive research to help determine future research designs.

• Descriptive research methods

There are three basic approaches for gathering data in descriptive research: observational, case study, and survey.

You can use surveys to gather data in descriptive research. This involves gathering information from many people using a questionnaire and interview .

Surveys remain the dominant research tool for descriptive research design. Researchers can conduct various investigations and collect multiple types of data (quantitative and qualitative) using surveys with diverse designs.

You can conduct surveys over the phone, online, or in person. Your survey might be a brief interview or conversation with a set of prepared questions intended to obtain quick information from the primary source.

Observation

This descriptive research method involves observing and gathering data on a population or phenomena without manipulating variables. It is employed in psychology, market research , and other social science studies to track and understand human behavior.

Observation is an essential component of descriptive research. It entails gathering data and analyzing it to see whether there is a relationship between the two variables in the study. This strategy usually allows for both qualitative and quantitative data analysis.

Case studies

A case study can outline a specific topic’s traits. The topic might be a person, group, event, or organization.

It involves using a subset of a larger group as a sample to characterize the features of that larger group.

You can generalize knowledge gained from studying a case study to benefit a broader audience.

This approach entails carefully examining a particular group, person, or event over time. You can learn something new about the study topic by using a small group to better understand the dynamics of the entire group.

• Types of descriptive research

There are several types of descriptive study. The most well-known include cross-sectional studies, census surveys, sample surveys, case reports, and comparison studies.

Case reports and case series

In the healthcare and medical fields, a case report is used to explain a patient’s circumstances when suffering from an uncommon illness or displaying certain symptoms. Case reports and case series are both collections of related cases. They have aided the advancement of medical knowledge on countless occasions.

The normative component is an addition to the descriptive survey. In the descriptive–normative survey, you compare the study’s results to the norm.

Descriptive survey

This descriptive type of research employs surveys to collect information on various topics. This data aims to determine the degree to which certain conditions may be attained.

You can extrapolate or generalize the information you obtain from sample surveys to the larger group being researched.

Correlative survey

Correlative surveys help establish if there is a positive, negative, or neutral connection between two variables.

Performing census surveys involves gathering relevant data on several aspects of a given population. These units include individuals, families, organizations, objects, characteristics, and properties.

During descriptive research, you gather different degrees of interest over time from a specific population. Cross-sectional studies provide a glimpse of a phenomenon’s prevalence and features in a population. There are no ethical challenges with them and they are quite simple and inexpensive to carry out.

Comparative studies

These surveys compare the two subjects’ conditions or characteristics. The subjects may include research variables, organizations, plans, and people.

Comparison points, assumption of similarities, and criteria of comparison are three important variables that affect how well and accurately comparative studies are conducted.

For instance, descriptive research can help determine how many CEOs hold a bachelor’s degree and what proportion of low-income households receive government help.

• Pros and cons

The primary advantage of descriptive research designs is that researchers can create a reliable and beneficial database for additional study. To conduct any inquiry, you need access to reliable information sources that can give you a firm understanding of a situation.

Quantitative studies are time- and resource-intensive, so knowing the hypotheses viable for testing is crucial. The basic overview of descriptive research provides helpful hints as to which variables are worth quantitatively examining. This is why it’s employed as a precursor to quantitative research designs.

Some experts view this research as untrustworthy and unscientific. However, there is no way to assess the findings because you don’t manipulate any variables statistically.

Cause-and-effect correlations also can’t be established through descriptive investigations. Additionally, observational study findings cannot be replicated, which prevents a review of the findings and their replication.

The absence of statistical and in-depth analysis and the rather superficial character of the investigative procedure are drawbacks of this research approach.

• Descriptive research examples and applications

Several descriptive research examples are emphasized based on their types, purposes, and applications. Research questions often begin with “What is …” These studies help find solutions to practical issues in social science, physical science, and education.

Here are some examples and applications of descriptive research:

Determining consumer perception and behavior

Organizations use descriptive research designs to determine how various demographic groups react to a certain product or service.

For example, a business looking to sell to its target market should research the market’s behavior first. When researching human behavior in response to a cause or event, the researcher pays attention to the traits, actions, and responses before drawing a conclusion.

Scientific classification

Scientific descriptive research enables the classification of organisms and their traits and constituents.

Measuring data trends

A descriptive study design’s statistical capabilities allow researchers to track data trends over time. It’s frequently used to determine the study target’s current circumstances and underlying patterns.

Conduct comparison

Organizations can use a descriptive research approach to learn how various demographics react to a certain product or service. For example, you can study how the target market responds to a competitor’s product and use that information to infer their behavior.

• Bottom line

A descriptive research design is suitable for exploring certain topics and serving as a prelude to larger quantitative investigations. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the “what” of the group or thing you’re investigating.

This research type acts as the cornerstone of other research methodologies . It is distinctive because it can use quantitative and qualitative research approaches at the same time.

What is descriptive research design?

Descriptive research design aims to systematically obtain information to describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More specifically, it helps answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding the research problem rather than the why.

How does descriptive research compare to qualitative research?

Despite certain parallels, descriptive research concentrates on describing phenomena, while qualitative research aims to understand people better.

How do you analyze descriptive research data?

Data analysis involves using various methodologies, enabling the researcher to evaluate and provide results regarding validity and reliability.

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Bridging the Gap: Overcome these 7 flaws in descriptive research design

Descriptive research design is a powerful tool used by scientists and researchers to gather information about a particular group or phenomenon. This type of research provides a detailed and accurate picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or subject. By observing and collecting data on a given topic, descriptive research helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of a specific issue and provides valuable insights that can inform future studies.

In this blog, we will explore the definition, characteristics, and common flaws in descriptive research design, and provide tips on how to avoid these pitfalls to produce high-quality results. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or a student just starting, understanding the fundamentals of descriptive research design is essential to conducting successful scientific studies.

Table of Contents

What Is Descriptive Research Design?

The descriptive research design involves observing and collecting data on a given topic without attempting to infer cause-and-effect relationships. The goal of descriptive research is to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the population or phenomenon being studied and to describe the relationships, patterns, and trends that exist within the data.

Descriptive research methods can include surveys, observational studies , and case studies, and the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative . The findings from descriptive research provide valuable insights and inform future research, but do not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of Descriptive Research in Scientific Studies

1. understanding of a population or phenomenon.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or phenomenon, allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the topic.

2. Baseline Information

The information gathered through descriptive research can serve as a baseline for future research and provide a foundation for further studies.

3. Informative Data

Descriptive research can provide valuable information and insights into a particular topic, which can inform future research, policy decisions, and programs.

4. Sampling Validation

Descriptive research can be used to validate sampling methods and to help researchers determine the best approach for their study.

5. Cost Effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods , making it a cost-effective way to gather information about a particular population or phenomenon.

6. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is straightforward to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

Key Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

The primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon.

2. Participants and Sampling

Descriptive research studies a particular population or sample that is representative of the larger population being studied. Furthermore, sampling methods can include convenience, stratified, or random sampling.

3. Data Collection Techniques

Descriptive research typically involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data through methods such as surveys, observational studies, case studies, or focus groups.

4. Data Analysis

Descriptive research data is analyzed to identify patterns, relationships, and trends within the data. Statistical techniques , such as frequency distributions and descriptive statistics, are commonly used to summarize and describe the data.

5. Focus on Description

Descriptive research is focused on describing and summarizing the characteristics of a particular population or phenomenon. It does not make causal inferences.

6. Non-Experimental

Descriptive research is non-experimental, meaning that the researcher does not manipulate variables or control conditions. The researcher simply observes and collects data on the population or phenomenon being studied.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Descriptive Research?

A researcher can conduct descriptive research in the following situations:

• To better understand a particular population or phenomenon
• To describe the relationships between variables
• To describe patterns and trends
• To validate sampling methods and determine the best approach for a study
• To compare data from multiple sources.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. survey research.

Surveys are a type of descriptive research that involves collecting data through self-administered or interviewer-administered questionnaires. Additionally, they can be administered in-person, by mail, or online, and can collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

2. Observational Research

Observational research involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without manipulating variables or controlling conditions. It can be conducted in naturalistic settings or controlled laboratory settings.

3. Case Study Research

Case study research is a type of descriptive research that focuses on a single individual, group, or event. It involves collecting detailed information on the subject through a variety of methods, including interviews, observations, and examination of documents.

4. Focus Group Research

Focus group research involves bringing together a small group of people to discuss a particular topic or product. Furthermore, the group is usually moderated by a researcher and the discussion is recorded for later analysis.

5. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research involves conducting detailed observations of a particular culture or community. It is often used to gain a deep understanding of the beliefs, behaviors, and practices of a particular group.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. provides a comprehensive understanding.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon, which can be useful in informing future research and policy decisions.

2. Non-invasive

Descriptive research is non-invasive and does not manipulate variables or control conditions, making it a suitable method for sensitive or ethical concerns.

3. Flexibility

Descriptive research allows for a wide range of data collection methods , including surveys, observational studies, case studies, and focus groups, making it a flexible and versatile research method.

4. Cost-effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods. Moreover, it gives a cost-effective option to many researchers.

5. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is easy to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

6. Informs Future Research

The insights gained from a descriptive research can inform future research and inform policy decisions and programs.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. limited scope.

Descriptive research only provides a snapshot of the current situation and cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Dependence on Existing Data

Descriptive research relies on existing data, which may not always be comprehensive or accurate.

3. Lack of Control

Researchers have no control over the variables in descriptive research, which can limit the conclusions that can be drawn.

The researcher’s own biases and preconceptions can influence the interpretation of the data.

5. Lack of Generalizability

Descriptive research findings may not be applicable to other populations or situations.

6. Lack of Depth

Descriptive research provides a surface-level understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a deep understanding.

7. Time-consuming

Descriptive research often requires a large amount of data collection and analysis, which can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

7 Ways to Avoid Common Flaws While Designing Descriptive Research

1. Clearly define the research question

A clearly defined research question is the foundation of any research study, and it is important to ensure that the question is both specific and relevant to the topic being studied.

2. Choose the appropriate research design

Choosing the appropriate research design for a study is crucial to the success of the study. Moreover, researchers should choose a design that best fits the research question and the type of data needed to answer it.

3. Select a representative sample

Selecting a representative sample is important to ensure that the findings of the study are generalizable to the population being studied. Researchers should use a sampling method that provides a random and representative sample of the population.

4. Use valid and reliable data collection methods

Using valid and reliable data collection methods is important to ensure that the data collected is accurate and can be used to answer the research question. Researchers should choose methods that are appropriate for the study and that can be administered consistently and systematically.

5. Minimize bias

Bias can significantly impact the validity and reliability of research findings.  Furthermore, it is important to minimize bias in all aspects of the study, from the selection of participants to the analysis of data.

6. Ensure adequate sample size

An adequate sample size is important to ensure that the results of the study are statistically significant and can be generalized to the population being studied.

7. Use appropriate data analysis techniques

The appropriate data analysis technique depends on the type of data collected and the research question being asked. Researchers should choose techniques that are appropriate for the data and the question being asked.

Have you worked on descriptive research designs? How was your experience creating a descriptive design? What challenges did you face? Do write to us or leave a comment below and share your insights on descriptive research designs!

extremely very educative

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Descriptive research: what it is and how to use it.

8 min read Understanding the who, what and where of a situation or target group is an essential part of effective research and making informed business decisions.

For example you might want to understand what percentage of CEOs have a bachelor’s degree or higher. Or you might want to understand what percentage of low income families receive government support – or what kind of support they receive.

Descriptive research is what will be used in these types of studies.

In this guide we’ll look through the main issues relating to descriptive research to give you a better understanding of what it is, and how and why you can use it.

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What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method used to try and determine the characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon.

Using descriptive research you can identify patterns in the characteristics of a group to essentially establish everything you need to understand apart from why something has happened.

Market researchers use descriptive research for a range of commercial purposes to guide key decisions.

For example you could use descriptive research to understand fashion trends in a given city when planning your clothing collection for the year. Using descriptive research you can conduct in depth analysis on the demographic makeup of your target area and use the data analysis to establish buying patterns.

Conducting descriptive research wouldn’t, however, tell you why shoppers are buying a particular type of fashion item.

Descriptive research design

Descriptive research design uses a range of both qualitative research and quantitative data (although quantitative research is the primary research method) to gather information to make accurate predictions about a particular problem or hypothesis.

As a survey method, descriptive research designs will help researchers identify characteristics in their target market or particular population.

These characteristics in the population sample can be identified, observed and measured to guide decisions.

Descriptive research characteristics

While there are a number of descriptive research methods you can deploy for data collection, descriptive research does have a number of predictable characteristics.

Here are a few of the things to consider:

Measure data trends with statistical outcomes

Descriptive research is often popular for survey research because it generates answers in a statistical form, which makes it easy for researchers to carry out a simple statistical analysis to interpret what the data is saying.

Descriptive research design is ideal for further research

Because the data collection for descriptive research produces statistical outcomes, it can also be used as secondary data for another research study.

Plus, the data collected from descriptive research can be subjected to other types of data analysis .

Uncontrolled variables

A key component of the descriptive research method is that it uses random variables that are not controlled by the researchers. This is because descriptive research aims to understand the natural behavior of the research subject.

It’s carried out in a natural environment

Descriptive research is often carried out in a natural environment. This is because researchers aim to gather data in a natural setting to avoid swaying respondents.

Data can be gathered using survey questions or online surveys.

For example, if you want to understand the fashion trends we mentioned earlier, you would set up a study in which a researcher observes people in the respondent’s natural environment to understand their habits and preferences.

Descriptive research allows for cross sectional study

Because of the nature of descriptive research design and the randomness of the sample group being observed, descriptive research is ideal for cross sectional studies – essentially the demographics of the group can vary widely and your aim is to gain insights from within the group.

This can be highly beneficial when you’re looking to understand the behaviors or preferences of a wider population.

Descriptive research advantages

There are many advantages to using descriptive research, some of them include:

Cost effectiveness

Because the elements needed for descriptive research design are not specific or highly targeted (and occur within the respondent’s natural environment) this type of study is relatively cheap to carry out.

Multiple types of data can be collected

A big advantage of this research type, is that you can use it to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. This means you can use the stats gathered to easily identify underlying patterns in your respondents’ behavior.

Descriptive research disadvantages

Potential reliability issues.

When conducting descriptive research it’s important that the initial survey questions are properly formulated.

If not, it could make the answers unreliable and risk the credibility of your study.

Potential limitations

As we’ve mentioned, descriptive research design is ideal for understanding the what, who or where of a situation or phenomenon.

However, it can’t help you understand the cause or effect of the behavior. This means you’ll need to conduct further research to get a more complete picture of a situation.

Descriptive research methods

Because descriptive research methods include a range of quantitative and qualitative research, there are several research methods you can use.

Use case studies

Case studies in descriptive research involve conducting in-depth and detailed studies in which researchers get a specific person or case to answer questions.

Case studies shouldn’t be used to generate results, rather it should be used to build or establish hypothesis that you can expand into further market research .

For example you could gather detailed data about a specific business phenomenon, and then use this deeper understanding of that specific case.

Use observational methods

This type of study uses qualitative observations to understand human behavior within a particular group.

By understanding how the different demographics respond within your sample you can identify patterns and trends.

As an observational method, descriptive research will not tell you the cause of any particular behaviors, but that could be established with further research.

Use survey research

Surveys are one of the most cost effective ways to gather descriptive data.

An online survey or questionnaire can be used in descriptive studies to gather quantitative information about a particular problem.

Survey research is ideal if you’re using descriptive research as your primary research.

Descriptive research examples

Descriptive research is used for a number of commercial purposes or when organizations need to understand the behaviors or opinions of a population.

One of the biggest examples of descriptive research that is used in every democratic country, is during elections.

Using descriptive research, researchers will use surveys to understand who voters are more likely to choose out of the parties or candidates available.

Using the data provided, researchers can analyze the data to understand what the election result will be.

In a commercial setting, retailers often use descriptive research to figure out trends in shopping and buying decisions.

By gathering information on the habits of shoppers, retailers can get a better understanding of the purchases being made.

Another example that is widely used around the world, is the national census that takes place to understand the population.

The research will provide a more accurate picture of a population’s demographic makeup and help to understand changes over time in areas like population age, health and education level.

Where Qualtrics helps with descriptive research

Whatever type of research you want to carry out, there’s a survey type that will work.

Qualtrics can help you determine the appropriate method and ensure you design a study that will deliver the insights you need.

Our experts can help you with your market research needs , ensuring you get the most out of Qualtrics market research software to design, launch and analyze your data to guide better, more accurate decisions for your organization.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

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• Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when , and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when, and where it happens.

• How has the London housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product Y or product Z?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural, and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analysed for frequencies, averages, and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organisation’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social, and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models, or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event, or organisation). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalisable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

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McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 25 March 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/descriptive-research-design/

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Home Market Research

Descriptive Research: Definition, Characteristics, Methods + Examples

Suppose an apparel brand wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York’s buyers, then it must conduct a demographic survey of the specific region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.

The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but will not cover any investigative information about “ why ” the patterns exist. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s main goal. Let’s talk about it.

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method describing the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the research subject without covering “why” it happens.

Characteristics of descriptive research

The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, the design of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitative research: It is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In it, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
• Cross-sectional studies: It is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting into any survey , though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:

• Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understand millennials and the hours per week they spend browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.
• Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.
• Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, geographic segmentation , etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high-growth potential groups.
• Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation , researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis . Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.
• Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

• Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even for developing a hypothesis for your research object.
• Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
• Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
• Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score question .

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.

Survey research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls . They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions . The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.

Examples of descriptive research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

• A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
• Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Some other research problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

• Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.
• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
• A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.
• To understand if its wellness questionnaire programs enhance the overall health of the employees.

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• Descriptive Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods

One of the components of research is getting enough information about the research problem—the what, how, when and where answers, which is why descriptive research is an important type of research. It is very useful when conducting research whose aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.

This research method takes a problem with little to no relevant information and gives it a befitting description using qualitative and quantitative research method s. Descriptive research aims to accurately describe a research problem.

In the subsequent sections, we will be explaining what descriptive research means, its types, examples, and data collection methods.

What is Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how, what, when, and where questions If a research problem, rather than the why.

This is mainly because it is important to have a proper understanding of what a research problem is about before investigating why it exists in the first place. 

For example, an investor considering an investment in the ever-changing Amsterdam housing market needs to understand what the current state of the market is, how it changes (increasing or decreasing), and when it changes (time of the year) before asking for the why. This is where descriptive research comes in.

What Are The Types of Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is classified into different types according to the kind of approach that is used in conducting descriptive research. The different types of descriptive research are highlighted below:

• Descriptive-survey

Descriptive survey research uses surveys to gather data about varying subjects. This data aims to know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained among these subjects.

For example, a researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed professionals in Maryland. He uses a survey as his research instrument , and each item on the survey related to qualifications is subjected to a Yes/No answer. 

This way, the researcher can describe the qualifications possessed by the employed demographics of this community. 

• Descriptive-normative survey

This is an extension of the descriptive survey, with the addition being the normative element. In the descriptive-normative survey, the results of the study should be compared with the norm.

For example, an organization that wishes to test the skills of its employees by a team may have them take a skills test. The skills tests are the evaluation tool in this case, and the result of this test is compared with the norm of each role.

If the score of the team is one standard deviation above the mean, it is very satisfactory, if within the mean, satisfactory, and one standard deviation below the mean is unsatisfactory.

• Descriptive-status

This is a quantitative description technique that seeks to answer questions about real-life situations. For example, a researcher researching the income of the employees in a company, and the relationship with their performance.

A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the income of the employees, then their performance will be evaluated and compared to their income. This will help determine whether a higher income means better performance and low income means lower performance or vice versa.

• Descriptive-analysis

The descriptive-analysis method of research describes a subject by further analyzing it, which in this case involves dividing it into 2 parts. For example, the HR personnel of a company that wishes to analyze the job role of each employee of the company may divide the employees into the people that work at the Headquarters in the US and those that work from Oslo, Norway office.

A questionnaire is devised to analyze the job role of employees with similar salaries and who work in similar positions.

• Descriptive classification

This method is employed in biological sciences for the classification of plants and animals. A researcher who wishes to classify the sea animals into different species will collect samples from various search stations, then classify them accordingly.

• Descriptive-comparative

In descriptive-comparative research, the researcher considers 2 variables that are not manipulated, and establish a formal procedure to conclude that one is better than the other. For example, an examination body wants to determine the better method of conducting tests between paper-based and computer-based tests.

A random sample of potential participants of the test may be asked to use the 2 different methods, and factors like failure rates, time factors, and others will be evaluated to arrive at the best method.

• Correlative Survey

Correlative surveys are used to determine whether the relationship between 2 variables is positive, negative, or neutral. That is, if 2 variables say X and Y are directly proportional, inversely proportional or are not related to each other.

Examples of Descriptive Research

There are different examples of descriptive research, that may be highlighted from its types, uses, and applications. However, we will be restricting ourselves to only 3 distinct examples in this article.

• Comparing Student Performance:

An academic institution may wish 2 compare the performance of its junior high school students in English language and Mathematics. This may be used to classify students based on 2 major groups, with one group going ahead to study while courses, while the other study courses in the Arts & Humanities field.

Students who are more proficient in mathematics will be encouraged to go into STEM and vice versa. Institutions may also use this data to identify students’ weak points and work on ways to assist them.

• Scientific Classification

During the major scientific classification of plants, animals, and periodic table elements, the characteristics and components of each subject are evaluated and used to determine how they are classified.

For example, living things may be classified into kingdom Plantae or kingdom animal is depending on their nature. Further classification may group animals into mammals, pieces, vertebrae, invertebrae, etc. 

All these classifications are made a result of descriptive research which describes what they are.

• Human Behavior

When studying human behaviour based on a factor or event, the researcher observes the characteristics, behaviour, and reaction, then use it to conclude. A company willing to sell to its target market needs to first study the behaviour of the market.

This may be done by observing how its target reacts to a competitor’s product, then use it to determine their behaviour.

What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research?  

The characteristics of descriptive research can be highlighted from its definition, applications, data collection methods, and examples. Some characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitativeness

Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. This is very common when dealing with research in the physical sciences.

• Qualitativeness

It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to properly describe the research problem. This is because descriptive research is more explanatory than exploratory or experimental.

• Uncontrolled variables

In descriptive research, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in experimental research.

• The basis for further research

The results of descriptive research can be further analyzed and used in other research methods. It can also inform the next line of research, including the research method that should be used.

This is because it provides basic information about the research problem, which may give birth to other questions like why a particular thing is the way it is.

Why Use Descriptive Research Design?  

Descriptive research can be used to investigate the background of a research problem and get the required information needed to carry out further research. It is used in multiple ways by different organizations, and especially when getting the required information about their target audience.

• Define subject characteristics :

It is used to determine the characteristics of the subjects, including their traits, behaviour, opinion, etc. This information may be gathered with the use of surveys, which are shared with the respondents who in this case, are the research subjects.

For example, a survey evaluating the number of hours millennials in a community spends on the internet weekly, will help a service provider make informed business decisions regarding the market potential of the community.

• Measure Data Trends

It helps to measure the changes in data over some time through statistical methods. Consider the case of individuals who want to invest in stock markets, so they evaluate the changes in prices of the available stocks to make a decision investment decision.

Brokerage companies are however the ones who carry out the descriptive research process, while individuals can view the data trends and make decisions.

Descriptive research is also used to compare how different demographics respond to certain variables. For example, an organization may study how people with different income levels react to the launch of a new Apple phone.

This kind of research may take a survey that will help determine which group of individuals are purchasing the new Apple phone. Do the low-income earners also purchase the phone, or only the high-income earners do?

Further research using another technique will explain why low-income earners are purchasing the phone even though they can barely afford it. This will help inform strategies that will lure other low-income earners and increase company sales.

• Validate existing conditions

When you are not sure about the validity of an existing condition, you can use descriptive research to ascertain the underlying patterns of the research object. This is because descriptive research methods make an in-depth analysis of each variable before making conclusions.

• Conducted Overtime

Descriptive research is conducted over some time to ascertain the changes observed at each point in time. The higher the number of times it is conducted, the more authentic the conclusion will be.

What are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?  

• Response and Non-response Bias

Respondents may either decide not to respond to questions or give incorrect responses if they feel the questions are too confidential. When researchers use observational methods, respondents may also decide to behave in a particular manner because they feel they are being watched.

• The researcher may decide to influence the result of the research due to personal opinion or bias towards a particular subject. For example, a stockbroker who also has a business of his own may try to lure investors into investing in his own company by manipulating results.
• A case-study or sample taken from a large population is not representative of the whole population.
• Limited scope:The scope of descriptive research is limited to the what of research, with no information on why thereby limiting the scope of the research.

What are the Data Collection Methods in Descriptive Research?  

There are 3 main data collection methods in descriptive research, namely; observational method, case study method, and survey research.

1. Observational Method

The observational method allows researchers to collect data based on their view of the behaviour and characteristics of the respondent, with the respondents themselves not directly having an input. It is often used in market research, psychology, and some other social science research to understand human behaviour.

It is also an important aspect of physical scientific research, with it being one of the most effective methods of conducting descriptive research . This process can be said to be either quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative observation involved the objective collection of numerical data , whose results can be analyzed using numerical and statistical methods. 

Qualitative observation, on the other hand, involves the monitoring of characteristics and not the measurement of numbers. The researcher makes his observation from a distance, records it, and is used to inform conclusions.

2. Case Study Method

A case study is a sample group (an individual, a group of people, organizations, events, etc.) whose characteristics are used to describe the characteristics of a larger group in which the case study is a subgroup. The information gathered from investigating a case study may be generalized to serve the larger group.

This generalization, may, however, be risky because case studies are not sufficient to make accurate predictions about larger groups. Case studies are a poor case of generalization.

3. Survey Research

This is a very popular data collection method in research designs. In survey research, researchers create a survey or questionnaire and distribute it to respondents who give answers.

Generally, it is used to obtain quick information directly from the primary source and also conducting rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In some cases, survey research uses a blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies.

Survey research can be carried out both online and offline using the following methods

• Online Surveys: This is a cheap method of carrying out surveys and getting enough responses. It can be carried out using Formplus, an online survey builder. Formplus has amazing tools and features that will help increase response rates.
• Offline Surveys: This includes paper forms, mobile offline forms , and SMS-based forms.

What Are The Differences Between Descriptive and Correlational Research?  

Before going into the differences between descriptive and correlation research, we need to have a proper understanding of what correlation research is about. Therefore, we will be giving a summary of the correlation research below.

Correlational research is a type of descriptive research, which is used to measure the relationship between 2 variables, with the researcher having no control over them. It aims to find whether there is; positive correlation (both variables change in the same direction), negative correlation (the variables change in the opposite direction), or zero correlation (there is no relationship between the variables).

Correlational research may be used in 2 situations;

(i) when trying to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, and

(ii) when a causal relationship is suspected between two variables, but it is impractical or unethical to conduct experimental research that manipulates one of the variables. 

Below are some of the differences between correlational and descriptive research:

• Definitions :

Descriptive research aims is a type of research that provides an in-depth understanding of the study population, while correlational research is the type of research that measures the relationship between 2 variables. 

• Characteristics :

Descriptive research provides descriptive data explaining what the research subject is about, while correlation research explores the relationship between data and not their description.

• Predictions :

 Predictions cannot be made in descriptive research while correlation research accommodates the possibility of making predictions.

Descriptive Research vs. Causal Research

Descriptive research and causal research are both research methodologies, however, one focuses on a subject’s behaviors while the latter focuses on a relationship’s cause-and-effect. To buttress the above point, descriptive research aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena of a particular or specific population or situation. 

It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of an already existing state of affairs between variables. Descriptive research answers the questions of “what,” “where,” “when,” and “how” without attempting to establish any causal relationships or explain any underlying factors that might have caused the behavior.

Causal research, on the other hand, seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It aims to point out the factors that influence or cause a particular result or behavior. Causal research involves manipulating variables, controlling conditions or a subgroup, and observing the resulting effects. The primary objective of causal research is to establish a cause-effect relationship and provide insights into why certain phenomena happen the way they do.

Descriptive Research vs. Analytical Research

Descriptive research provides a detailed and comprehensive account of a specific situation or phenomenon. It focuses on describing and summarizing data without making inferences or attempting to explain underlying factors or the cause of the factor. 

It is primarily concerned with providing an accurate and objective representation of the subject of research. While analytical research goes beyond the description of the phenomena and seeks to analyze and interpret data to discover if there are patterns, relationships, or any underlying factors. 

It examines the data critically, applies statistical techniques or other analytical methods, and draws conclusions based on the discovery. Analytical research also aims to explore the relationships between variables and understand the underlying mechanisms or processes involved.

Descriptive Research vs. Exploratory Research

Descriptive research is a research method that focuses on providing a detailed and accurate account of a specific situation, group, or phenomenon. This type of research describes the characteristics, behaviors, or relationships within the given context without looking for an underlying cause. 

Descriptive research typically involves collecting and analyzing quantitative or qualitative data to generate descriptive statistics or narratives. Exploratory research differs from descriptive research because it aims to explore and gain firsthand insights or knowledge into a relatively unexplored or poorly understood topic. 

It focuses on generating ideas, hypotheses, or theories rather than providing definitive answers. Exploratory research is often conducted at the early stages of a research project to gather preliminary information and identify key variables or factors for further investigation. It involves open-ended interviews, observations, or small-scale surveys to gather qualitative data.

Read More – Exploratory Research: What are its Method & Examples?

Descriptive Research vs. Experimental Research

Descriptive research aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena of a particular population or situation. It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of the existing state of affairs. 

Descriptive research typically involves collecting data through surveys, observations, or existing records and analyzing the data to generate descriptive statistics or narratives. It does not involve manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Experimental research, on the other hand, involves manipulating variables and controlling conditions to investigate cause-and-effect relationships. It aims to establish causal relationships by introducing an intervention or treatment and observing the resulting effects. 

Experimental research typically involves randomly assigning participants to different groups, such as control and experimental groups, and measuring the outcomes. It allows researchers to control for confounding variables and draw causal conclusions.

Related – Experimental vs Non-Experimental Research: 15 Key Differences

Descriptive Research vs. Explanatory Research

Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed and accurate account of a specific situation, group, or phenomenon. It aims to describe the characteristics, behaviors, or relationships within the given context. 

Descriptive research is primarily concerned with providing an objective representation of the subject of study without explaining underlying causes or mechanisms. Explanatory research seeks to explain the relationships between variables and uncover the underlying causes or mechanisms. 

It goes beyond description and aims to understand the reasons or factors that influence a particular outcome or behavior. Explanatory research involves analyzing data, conducting statistical analyses, and developing theories or models to explain the observed relationships.

Descriptive Research vs. Inferential Research

Descriptive research focuses on describing and summarizing data without making inferences or generalizations beyond the specific sample or population being studied. It aims to provide an accurate and objective representation of the subject of study. 

Descriptive research typically involves analyzing data to generate descriptive statistics, such as means, frequencies, or percentages, to describe the characteristics or behaviors observed.

Inferential research, however, involves making inferences or generalizations about a larger population based on a smaller sample. 

It aims to draw conclusions about the population characteristics or relationships by analyzing the sample data. Inferential research uses statistical techniques to estimate population parameters, test hypotheses, and determine the level of confidence or significance in the findings.

Related – Inferential Statistics: Definition, Types + Examples

Conclusion  

The uniqueness of descriptive research partly lies in its ability to explore both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Therefore, when conducting descriptive research, researchers have the opportunity to use a wide variety of techniques that aids the research process.

Descriptive research explores research problems in-depth, beyond the surface level thereby giving a detailed description of the research subject. That way, it can aid further research in the field, including other research methods .

It is also very useful in solving real-life problems in various fields of social science, physical science, and education.

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Descriptive Research 101: Definition, Methods and Examples

Parvathi vijayamohan.

18 October 2023

Table Of Contents

• Descriptive Research 101: The Definitive Guide

What is Descriptive Research?

Key characteristics of descriptive research.

• Descriptive Research Methods: The 3 You Need to Know!

Observation

Case studies, 7 types of descriptive research, descriptive research: examples to build your next study, tips to excel at descriptive research.

Imagine you are a detective called to a crime scene. Your job is to study the scene and report whatever you find: whether that’s the half-smoked cigarette on the table or the large “RACHE” written in blood on the wall. That, in a nutshell, is  descriptive research .

Researchers often need to do descriptive research on a problem before they attempt to solve it. So in this guide, we’ll take you through:

• What is descriptive research + characteristics
• Descriptive research methods
• Types of descriptive research
• Descriptive research examples
• Tips to excel at the descriptive method

Click to jump to the section that interests you.

Definition: As its name says, descriptive research  describes  the characteristics of the problem, phenomenon, situation, or group under study.

So the goal of all descriptive studies is to  explore  the background, details, and existing patterns in the problem to fully understand it. In other words, preliminary research.

However, descriptive research can be both  preliminary and conclusive . You can use the data from a descriptive study to make reports and get insights for further planning.

What descriptive research isn’t: Descriptive research finds the  what/when/where  of a problem, not the  why/how .

Because of this, we can’t use the descriptive method to explore cause-and-effect relationships where one variable (like a person’s job role) affects another variable (like their monthly income).

• Answers the “what,” “when,” and “where”  of a research problem. For this reason, it is popularly used in  market research ,  awareness surveys , and  opinion polls .
• Sets the stage  for a research problem. As an early part of the research process, descriptive studies help you dive deeper into the topic.
• Opens the door  for further research. You can use descriptive data as the basis for more profound research, analysis and studies.
• Qualitative and quantitative . It is possible to get a balanced mix of numerical responses and open-ended answers from the descriptive method.
• No control or interference with the variables . The researcher simply observes and reports on them. However, specific research software has  filters  that allow her to zoom in on one variable.
• Done in natural settings . You can get the best results from descriptive research by talking to people, surveying them, or observing them in a suitable environment. For example, suppose you are a website beta testing an app feature. In that case, descriptive research invites users to try the feature, tracking their behavior and then asking their opinions .
• Can be applied to many research methods and areas. Examples include healthcare, SaaS, psychology, political studies, education, and pop culture.

Descriptive Research Methods: The Top Three You Need to Know!

In short, survey research is a brief interview or conversation with a set of prepared questions about a topic.

So you create a questionnaire, share it, and analyze the data you collect for further action. Learn about the differences between surveys and questionnaires  here .

You can access free survey templates , over 20+ question types , and pass data to 1,500+ applications with survey software, like SurveySparrow . It enables you to create surveys, share them and capture data with very little effort.

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• Surveys can be hyper-local, regional, or global, depending on your objectives.
• Share surveys in-person, offline, via SMS, email, or QR codes – so many options !
• Easy to automate if you want to conduct many surveys over a period.

The observational method is a type of descriptive research in which you, the researcher, observe ongoing behavior.

Now, there are several (non-creepy) ways you can observe someone. In fact, observational research has three main approaches:

• Covert observation: In true spy fashion, the researcher mixes in with the group undetected or observes from a distance.
• Overt observation : The researcher identifies himself as a researcher – “The name’s Bond. J. Bond.” – and explains the purpose of the study.
• Participatory observation : The researcher participates in what he is observing to understand his topic better.
• Observation is one of the most accurate ways to get data on a subject’s behavior in a natural setting.
• You don’t need to rely on people’s willingness to share information.
• Observation is a universal method that can be applied to any area of research.

In the case study method, you do a detailed study of a specific group, person, or event over a period.

This brings us to a frequently asked question: “What’s the difference between case studies and longitudinal studies?”

A case study will go  very in-depth into the subject with one-on-one interviews, observations, and archival research. They are also qualitative, though sometimes they will use numbers and stats.

An example of longitudinal research would be a study of the health of night shift employees vs. general shift employees over a decade. An example of a case study would involve in-depth interviews with Casey, an assistant director of nursing who’s handled the night shift at the hospital for ten years now.

• Due to the focus on a few people, case studies can give you a tremendous amount of information.
• Because of the time and effort involved, a case study engages both researchers and participants.
• Case studies are helpful for ethically investigating unusual, complex, or challenging subjects. An example would be a study of the habits of long-term cocaine users.

1. Case Study: Airbnb’s Growth Strategy

In an excellent case study, Tam Al Saad, Principal Consultant, Strategy + Growth at Webprofits, deep dives into how Airbnb attracted and retained 150 million users .

“What Airbnb offers isn’t a cheap place to sleep when you’re on holiday; it’s the opportunity to experience your destination as a local would. It’s the chance to meet the locals, experience the markets, and find non-touristy places.

Sure, you can visit the Louvre, see Buckingham Palace, and climb the Empire State Building, but you can do it as if it were your hometown while staying in a place that has character and feels like a home.” – Tam al Saad, Principal Consultant, Strategy + Growth at Webprofits

2. Observation – Better Tech Experiences for the Elderly

We often think that our elders are so hopeless with technology. But we’re not getting any younger either, and tech is changing at a hair trigger! This article by Annemieke Hendricks shares a wonderful example where researchers compare the levels of technological familiarity between age groups and how that influences usage.

“It is generally assumed that older adults have difficulty using modern electronic devices, such as mobile telephones or computers. Because this age group is growing in most countries, changing products and processes to adapt to their needs is increasingly more important. “ – Annemieke Hendricks, Marketing Communication Specialist, Noldus

3. Surveys – Decoding Sleep with SurveySparrow

SRI International (formerly Stanford Research Institute) – an independent, non-profit research center – wanted to investigate the impact of stress on an adolescent’s sleep. To get those insights, two actions were essential: tracking sleep patterns through wearable devices and sending surveys at a pre-set time –  the pre-sleep period.

“With SurveySparrow’s recurring surveys feature, SRI was able to share engaging surveys with their participants exactly at the time they wanted and at the frequency they preferred.”

Read more about this project : How SRI International decoded sleep patterns with SurveySparrow

1: Answer the six Ws –

• Who should we consider?
• What information do we need?
• When should we collect the information?
• Where should we collect the information?
• Why are we obtaining the information?
• Way to collect the information

#2: Introduce and explain your methodological approach

#3: Describe your methods of data collection and/or selection.

#4: Describe your methods of analysis.

#5: Explain the reasoning behind your choices.

#6: Collect data.

#7: Analyze the data. Use software to speed up the process and reduce overthinking and human error.

#8: Report your conclusions and how you drew the results.

Wrapping Up

That’s all, folks!

Growth Marketer at SurveySparrow

Fledgling growth marketer. Cloud watcher. Aunty to a naughty beagle.

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Descriptive Research Design: Characteristics and Types

Imagine being able to carefully design studies that shed light on the who, what, where, and how of a particular phenomenon in your business.

With descriptive research design, you’ll learn how to gather and analyze data in a way that paints a vivid picture of the subject you’re investigating.

So, what exactly is descriptive research design?

It’s a powerful approach that allows you to observe and describe characteristics, behaviors, and trends without influencing or manipulating the variables.

Mastering descriptive research design is a game-changer if you’re a business professional looking to make informed decisions.

You’ll be equipped to gather reliable data, spot patterns, and draw meaningful conclusions.

In this blog, we’ll cover the following:

What is Descriptive Research?

Characteristics of descriptive research design, types of descriptive research design, what are the applications of descriptive research design, how to conduct a descriptive research design, how to analyze data for descriptive research design.

Before diving into the blog’s core, we’ll address the following question: What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research design allows you to observe and describe various aspects of a subject in your business without manipulating or influencing the variables involved.

It’s like taking a snapshot of the world as it is, providing you with a detailed picture of the who, what, where, and how.

In this type of research, the main goal is to capture accurate and reliable data for further analysis.

By collecting and analyzing data , you can identify patterns and uncover relationships that contribute to a deeper understanding of your business.

Use descriptive research design in various fields, such as psychology, sociology, business, and education.

Understanding and using descriptive research design is crucial if you’re a business owner or a professional seeking to make data-driven decisions .

By mastering this approach, you’ll be equipped with the tools to gather meaningful data and draw insightful conclusions.

When it comes to descriptive research design, several key characteristics set it apart.

Let’s dive into these distinctive features that shape the research method.

Descriptive research design is a quantitative approach.

It focuses on gathering quantifiable information that can be subjected to statistical analysis. By collecting numerical data, you can gain a deeper understanding of the characteristics and behaviors of your target market .

This makes it a valuable tool in market research , allowing you to describe and analyze different demographic segments.

Another important characteristic of descriptive research design is that it involves uncontrolled variables.

In other words, you don’t manipulate or influence any of the variables under study. Instead, you employ observational methods to observe and describe the subject of interest.

This ensures that the nature and behavior of the variables remain unaffected by external influences.

Descriptive research design often takes the form of cross-sectional studies.

This means that you examine different sections or groups within a population at a particular point in time.

By doing so, you can gain insights into the similarities, differences, and patterns among these sections.

Furthermore, the data collected through descriptive research design serves as a basis for further exploration. You can use the resulting insights to inform and guide subsequent research.

Let’s explore some of the common types of descriptive studies and how they contribute to our understanding of different phenomena.

Case reports and case series

In the healthcare and medical fields, case reports are instrumental in shedding light on uncommon illnesses.

These reports provide detailed accounts of individual cases, while case series compile related cases.

Together, they advance medical knowledge and diagnose and treat various conditions.

Normative surveys

Normative surveys complement descriptive surveys by comparing results to established norms.

This allows you to gauge the degree to which certain conditions can be achieved and identify deviations from the norm.

Descriptive surveys

Descriptive surveys involve collecting information through questionnaires or interviews to gather data on a range of topics.

The aim is to determine the prevalence and characteristics of specific conditions or behaviors.

Extrapolating the findings from sample surveys allows you to make inferences about the larger population being studied.

Correlative surveys

Correlative surveys examine the relationship between two variables to establish whether there’s a positive, negative, or neutral connection.

These surveys provide insights into the associations between different factors and help identify patterns or trends.

Census surveys

Census surveys involve gathering comprehensive data on various aspects of a specific population.

This can include individuals, families, you, objects, characteristics, and properties. You gain a comprehensive understanding of the population under study by conducting thorough census surveys.

Cross-sectional studies

Conduct Cross-sectional studies during descriptive research to capture a snapshot of a particular behavior or attribute within a population at a given time.

These studies provide valuable insights into the prevalence and features of the phenomenon. They’re straightforward to carry out, cost-effective, and seldom pose ethical challenges.

Comparative studies

Comparative studies involve comparing the conditions or characteristics of two subjects, such as research variables, you, plans, or individuals.

Key factors in conducting effective comparative studies include identifying comparison points, assuming similarities, etc.

Let’s explore some of the practical applications that are widely used today.

Define respondent characteristics

One of the primary uses of descriptive research design is to understand and define the characteristics of your target respondents.

You can draw concrete conclusions about your target audience by employing close-ended questions.

Measure data trends

Descriptive research design enables you to measure data trends over time.

Using this approach’s statistical capabilities, you can track changes and patterns in data and make informed decisions.

Conduct comparisons

Use descriptive research design to conduct comparisons among different groups.

This helps you understand how various population segments respond to your brand offers.

By analyzing these differences, you can tailor their strategies to better cater to each group’s needs.

Validate existing conditions

Use descriptive research to validate the prevailing conditions and underlying patterns related to your business.

By collecting and analyzing data, you gain a comprehensive understanding of the current state of affairs, enabling you to identify strengths, weaknesses, etc.

Conduct research at different times

Descriptive research design offers the flexibility to conduct research at different periods.

This allows you to explore changes or consistencies over time. By comparing data collected at different time points, you can identify any similarities or differences, providing valuable insights for decision-making processes.

Conducting a descriptive research design survey involves a series of important steps to ensure the success of your study. Let’s explore these steps.

Define the research objectives

Clearly articulate the goals and objectives of your research.

What specific information do you aim to gather?

What research questions or hypotheses are you trying to answer?

Defining your objectives will serve as a compass throughout the research process.

Determine the target population

Identify the specific population or group that you want to describe through your survey.

It could be your target market. Consider the characteristics and scope of the population to ensure it aligns with your research objectives.

Select the sampling method

Choose an appropriate sampling technique to select participants from your target market.

Options include random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, etc.

Your choice will depend on factors like population size and available resources.

Develop data collection instruments

Select the appropriate methods and tools to gather data for your survey.

This can include surveys, interviews, observations, or the extraction of information from existing records.

Ensure your instruments are reliable, valid, and suitable for achieving your research objectives.

Pilot test the instruments

Conduct a pilot test with a small sample before launching your survey on a larger scale.

This will help you identify any issues, such as unclear survey questions. Make necessary adjustments based on feedback.

Collect the data

Implement your data collection plan by administering surveys, conducting interviews, or carrying out observations.

Ensure that you follow ethical guidelines and respect participant confidentiality throughout the process.

Analyze the data

Organize and visualize your data using charts like the Likert Scale Chart and CSAT Score Survey Chart.

Interpret and report the findings

Interpret your results and draw conclusions.

Describe the characteristics, patterns, and relationships identified. Present your findings in a clear and concise manner using visuals like tables, graphs, or charts.

Validate the findings

Consider validating your findings through methods like peer review. This helps ensure the accuracy and reliability of your descriptive research.

Congratulations on successfully learning the tested and proven tips on how to set up descriptive research design.

Now, it’s time to unlock the true potential of your descriptive design data by analyzing it.

While tools like Excel help organize data, they lack descriptive research design survey-specific charts, like the Likert Scale Chart.

Don’t worry.

There’s an exciting solution that can take your descriptive research design to a whole new level. It’s called ChartExpo.

ChartExpo is a powerful Excel add-in that will revolutionize how you analyze your best survey questions .

With its user-friendly interface and a wide range of descriptive research design survey-based charts, ChartExpo effortlessly transforms descriptive research design data into actionable insights.

You don’t need to be a programming genius to use ChartExpo’s features.

One of ChartExpo’s standout features is the Likert Scale Chart . This chart acts as a magnifying glass, allowing you to dive deep into your descriptive research design data for hidden insights.

Try ChartExpo’s free 7-day trial and experience its full potential

How to Install ChartExpo in Excel

Let’s imagine you run an online business. You want to know whether your customers are satisfied with your brand offers.

You’ve organized a survey to gather feedback from your target customers using the sample questions below:

• Do you agree the price of our product is affordable?
• Do you agree the quality of the product is better than others?
• Do you agree our product is available in all stores in your city?

In the coming section, we’ll use ChartExpo, and sample data to demonstrate how you can leverage a Likert Scale Chart to visualize survey data for insights.

Before we dive into this, we’ll show you how to install ChartExpo in Excel.

To get started with ChartExpo in Excel, follow the steps below:

• Open your Microsoft Excel.
• Open the worksheet and click the Insert button to access the  My Apps

• Click the Insert button to initiate the ChartExpo engine.

• Click the Search box and type “Likert Scale Chart.”

• Highlight your data and click the Create Chart From Selection button, as shown below.

• Use the multiple-choice responses you deployed in your survey to gather responses to map your Likert Scale Chart.

In our case we’ll use the following multiple-choice responses:

• Strongly Disagree=1
• Neither agree nor disagree=3
• Strongly Agree=5

• Click the Create Chart button, as shown above.

• To add the chart header, click the Edit Chart
• Once the Chart Header Properties window shows, fill in your header in Line 1, as shown.

• Toggle the small button below Line 2 to the right side to activate the header.
• Click the Apply button, as shown above.

• To edit the legend properties, click the pencil-like icon on the X-axis.
• Once the Legend Properties window shows, fill in your legend below the Text
• Click the Apply All button, as shown above.
• Click the Save Changes button to preserve all the changes.
• Check out the final Likert Scale chart below.

• Out of the surveyed customers, 60% agreed that our product is available in all stores, while 40% disagreed.
• When it comes to product quality, 45% of customers agreed and 35% disagreed. 20% chose not to answer.
• Regarding product price, 55% of customers agreed and 25% disagreed. 20% remained neutral.
• In terms of overall survey responses, 54% of customers provided positive feedback, 34% gave negative responses, and 13% did not provide a response.

How is data collected in a descriptive research design?

Data in descriptive research design is collected through various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, and existing records.

Surveys are commonly used, employing questionnaires to gather information.

Interviews involve direct conversations, while observations involve watching and recording behaviors. Existing records provide valuable data for analysis.

What are the key differences between descriptive and experimental research design?

The key differences between descriptive and experimental research designs lie in their objectives and methodologies.

Descriptive research aims to describe and analyze existing phenomena, while experimental research seeks to establish cause-and-effect relationships through the manipulation of variables.

Descriptive research observes, while experimental research controls and manipulates variables.

In conclusion, descriptive research design offers valuable insights into the characteristics, behaviors, and trends of a particular subject, such as your target market.

By employing methods, such as surveys, interviews, and observations, you can gather comprehensive data to understand a phenomenon’s “what” and “how”.

ChartExpo, a user-friendly data visualization tool, can further enhance the power of descriptive research design.

Its intuitive charts and graphs allow you to present your findings in a visually appealing and easily understandable format.

By using ChartExpo, you can effectively communicate your research results and engage your audience.

The benefits of employing descriptive research design are numerous.

It enables you to describe and analyze real-world phenomena, identify patterns, and make informed decisions. More so, it provides a foundation for further research.

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Child Care and Early Education Research Connections

Descriptive research studies.

Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular population or group. For example, descriptive studies might be used to answer questions such as: What percentage of Head Start teachers have a bachelor's degree or higher? What is the average reading ability of 5-year-olds when they first enter kindergarten? What kinds of math activities are used in early childhood programs? When do children first receive regular child care from someone other than their parents? When are children with developmental disabilities first diagnosed and when do they first receive services? What factors do programs consider when making decisions about the type of assessments that will be used to assess the skills of the children in their programs? How do the types of services children receive from their early childhood program change as children age?

Descriptive research does not answer questions about why a certain phenomenon occurs or what the causes are. Answers to such questions are best obtained from  randomized and quasi-experimental studies . However, data from descriptive studies can be used to examine the relationships (correlations) among variables. While the findings from correlational analyses are not evidence of causality, they can help to distinguish variables that may be important in explaining a phenomenon from those that are not. Thus, descriptive research is often used to generate hypotheses that should be tested using more rigorous designs.

A variety of data collection methods may be used alone or in combination to answer the types of questions guiding descriptive research. Some of the more common methods include surveys, interviews, observations, case studies, and portfolios. The data collected through these methods can be either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are typically analyzed and presenting using  descriptive statistics . Using quantitative data, researchers may describe the characteristics of a sample or population in terms of percentages (e.g., percentage of population that belong to different racial/ethnic groups, percentage of low-income families that receive different government services) or averages (e.g., average household income, average scores of reading, mathematics and language assessments). Quantitative data, such as narrative data collected as part of a case study, may be used to organize, classify, and used to identify patterns of behaviors, attitudes, and other characteristics of groups.

Descriptive studies have an important role in early care and education research. Studies such as the  National Survey of Early Care and Education  and the  National Household Education Surveys Program  have greatly increased our knowledge of the supply of and demand for child care in the U.S. The  Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey  and the  Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Program  have provided researchers, policy makers and practitioners with rich information about school readiness skills of children in the U.S.

Each of the methods used to collect descriptive data have their own strengths and limitations. The following are some of the strengths and limitations of descriptive research studies in general.

Study participants are questioned or observed in a natural setting (e.g., their homes, child care or educational settings).

Study data can be used to identify the prevalence of particular problems and the need for new or additional services to address these problems.

Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research and relationships between variables that require future study. Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis generating research."

Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies can generate rich datasets on large and diverse samples.

Limitations:

Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and effect relationships.

Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey questions or may give socially desirable responses.

The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire may influence the descriptive findings.

Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings may not be generalizable or produce an accurate description of the population of interest.

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Descriptive Research Design

• September 29, 2021

Voxco’s Descriptive Research guide helps uncover the how, when, what, and where questions in a research problem

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When conducting a study, researchers generally try to find an explanation for the existence of a phenomenon. They want to understand “why” the phenomenon occurred. 

However, before identifying why a phenomenon occurred, it is integral to answer other questions first. You need to have answers to the “what,” “when,” “how,” and “where” before you can understand the “why.” This is where descriptive research comes in.

The descriptive research design involves using a range of qualitative and quantitative research methods to collect data that aids in accurately describing a research problem.

What is Descriptive Research Design?

Descriptive research design is a type of research design that aims to systematically obtain information to describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More specifically, it helps answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding the research problem rather than the why. 

A researcher can conduct this research using various methodologies. It predominantly employs quantitative data, although qualitative data is sometimes used for descriptive purposes. 

It is important to note that in the descriptive research method, the researcher does not control or manipulate any variables, unlike in experimental research. Instead, the variables are only identified, observed, and measured. 

Surveys and observation are the most used method to conduct this research design. You can leverage online survey tools or offline survey tools to gather data as per your research objective.

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What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design?

Let’s take a look at the defining characteristics of the descriptive research design:

1. Quantitative in nature 

Descriptive research involves the collection of quantifiable and systematic data that can be used for the statistical analysis of the research problem. 

2. Uncontrolled variables

One of the most prominent characteristics of descriptive research is that, unlike in experimental research, the variables are not controlled or manipulated. Instead, they are simply identified, observed, and measured.

3. A basis for further research

The data collected in descriptive research provides a base for further research as it helps obtain a comprehensive understanding of the research question so that it can be answered appropriately. 

4. Cross-sectional studies

The descriptive research method is generally carried out through cross-sectional studies. A cross-sectional study is a type of observational study that involves gathering information on various variables at the individual level at a given point in time.

Example of Descriptive Research Design

To gain a deeper understanding of the descriptive method of research, let’s consider the following descriptive design research example: 

Company XYZ is a girls’ shoe brand catering to girls, specifically between the ages of 4 to 14. 

They want to start selling shoes for boys of the same age group as well and therefore want to gather information on the kind of shoes boys want to wear. They decide to conduct market research & choose the observational method to learn about different shoes boys wear nowadays. 

Naturalistic observation can be conducted by observing boys’ shoes in schools, malls, playgrounds, and other public spaces. 

This will help company XYZ identify the kind of shoe boys wear nowadays so that they can create the kind of products that will appeal to this audience.

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Why use Descriptive Research Design?

A descriptive approach to research allows researchers to thoroughly investigate the background of a research problem before further research can be carried out. It can be used in social science research to explore and document the nature and scope of a problem, to identify trends and patterns, and to provide a basis for subsequent research. 

The findings of descriptive research can help inform decision-making, policy development, and program planning.

There are many different contexts in which the use of a descriptive research design is beneficial. Here are some important uses of descriptive research design:

1. To measure data trends 

The descriptive method of research can be used to measure changes in variables over a period of time, allowing trends to be identified and analyzed. 

2. To compare variables

Descriptive research can be used to compare different variables and how different demographics respond to different variables. 

3. To define the characteristics of subjects

It can also be used to determine the different characteristics of the subjects. This can include characteristics such as opinions, traits, behavior, etc. 

4. To verify or validate existing conditions 

Descriptive research can prove to be a useful tool when trying to test the validity of an existing condition as it involves conducting an in-depth analysis of every variable before drawing conclusions.

What Are Some Examples of Descriptive Research Questions?

Here are some examples of descriptive research questions that can be addressed using a descriptive research design include:

• What are the demographic characteristics of a particular population?
• What is the prevalence of a particular health condition or risk factor?
• What are the attitudes and beliefs of a particular group towards a particular issue?
• What are the behaviors and experiences of individuals who have been exposed to a particular intervention or treatment?

What Are the Advantages of Descriptive Research Design?

The following are a few advantages of using a descriptive research design: 

1. Multiple methods of data collection

Research can use a wide range of methods for data collection, such as case studies, observational, and survey methods. They can also decide how they want to collect the data, online, offline, or via phone. 

2. Fast and cost-effective

As the descriptive research design often employs the use of surveys, data can be collected from a very large sample size quickly and cost-effectively. 

Researchers aiming to conduct market research using this research design should leverage integrated market research software . It will enable them to conduct product, customer, brand, and market research using suitable channels. 

3. Comprehensive

Descriptive research often uses quantitative and qualitative research in amalgamation, providing a more holistic understanding of the research topic. 

4. External validity

Results obtained through the descriptive method of research often have high external validity as research is conducted in the respondent’s natural environment and no variables are manipulated.

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What Are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design?

The following are a few disadvantages of using a descriptive research design:

1. Cannot test or verify the research question

The descriptive method of research cannot be used to test or verify the research problem as the data collected does not help explain the cause of the phenomena being studied. 

2. Lack of reliability

If the research problem isn’t formulated well, then the data collected may not be entirely reliable. This also makes it more tedious to carry out a credible investigation. 

3. Risk of untrue responses

Descriptive research relies on the responses of people, especially when conducted using surveys. There may be instances when people provide false responses, compromising the validity of the data collected and the research results. 

4. Risk of sampling error

The descriptive research method generally employs random sampling while selecting a sample group. The randomness may lead to sampling error if the sample group isn’t representative of the larger population. Sampling error would lead to unreliable and inaccurate results.

What Are the Different Methods of Descriptive Research Design?

There are three most important descriptive research design methods:

In survey research, questionnaires or polls are used to collect information on a specific topic from respondents. Surveys should involve a mix of closed-ended and open-ended questions, as both have their own advantages. 

Online survey tools allow multiple data collection channels such as email, website, and SMS surveys. 

They are also popularly used in market research to collect customer feedback to optimize products and strategies and improve customer experience (CX). Some popular market research surveys are Net Promoter Score® (NPS®) surveys , brand tracking surveys , and conjoint analysis surveys . 

2. Case Studies 

The case study method involves the in-depth research of individuals or groups of individuals. Case studies involve gathering detailed data on a narrowly defined subject rather than gathering a large volume of data to identify correlations and patterns. 

Therefore, this method is often used to describe a specific subject’s different characteristics rather than generalizable facts. 

Case studies allow researchers to create hypotheses that can widen the scope of evaluation while studying the phenomenon. However, it is important to note that case studies cannot be used to outline the cause-and-effect relationship between variables as they cannot make accurate predictions due to the risk of researcher bias.

3. Observations method

In this method, researchers observe respondents in their natural environment, from a distance, and therefore do not influence the variables being studied. This allows them to gather information on the behaviors and characteristics being studied without having to rely on respondents for honest and accurate responses. 

The observational method is considered the most effective method for carrying out descriptive research. It involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data. You can leverage offline survey tools to gather data digitally, even without the Internet. 

Quantitative observation should be related to or understood in terms of quantity and can be analyzed with the use of statistical data analysis methods. A few examples of quantitative observations include age, weight, height, etc. 

Qualitative observations, on the other hand, involve monitoring variables whose values do not need to be related to numerical measurements. 

When employing this research method, the researcher can choose to be a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. 

The observational method is generally used in psychological, social, and market research to obtain data that explains how people behave in real-life settings.

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What Are the Types of Descriptive Research Design Surveys?

The following are the different types of descriptive survey studies:

1. Census survey

A census survey is a kind of survey where information is gathered from all units of a population. Data collected through a census study is highly generalizable to the population as all or most units of the population are sampled. 

2. Sample survey 

A sample survey involves gathering information from a small subgroup of the entire population. When selecting a sample, the aim is to select a group of individuals representing the target population so that the data collected can be generalized to the larger population. Sample groups allow research to be conducted in a fast and cost-effective way. 

3. Cross-sectional survey 

In this type of survey, standardized data is collected from a cross-section of the pre-determined population at a given point in time. There are two main types of cross-sectional surveys ; those with a single variable and those with two or more variables. 

4. Longitudinal survey

Longitudinal surveys are used in longitudinal studies where the same variables are observed over a long period of time. This allows researchers to investigate the status of variables at different points in time. There are three main types of longitudinal studies ; trend, panel, and cohort.

5. Comparative survey

Comparative surveys are used to compare the status of two or more variables. The variables are compared using specific criteria that must be delineated as criterion variables. 

6. Evaluative survey

An evaluative survey is generally used to evaluate a program, policy, or curriculum. It involves gathering information that can be used to rate the effectiveness and worthwhileness of a program or policy, or institution. 

7. Documentary survey

A documentary survey involves gathering and analyzing information using pre-existing data that is already available. This data can be research papers, review articles, books, official records, etc. In documentary studies, the researcher evaluates the available literature on the research topic.

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How to Conduct a Descriptive Research Design

Use the following steps to conduct a study using the descriptive method of research:

Step-1: Outline the research objective

The first step is to identify and outline the objectives of your research and then translate these objectives into criteria of investigation. You must clearly identify the different issues and questions in the context of which the knowledge of the situation must be surveyed. 

This must be framed in the form of objectives. Once you’ve clearly stated your criteria and objectives, you must also specify the nature of the data that must be gathered. 

Step-2: Determine the tools and techniques to be used for data collection

In this step, you must determine the tools you will employ for the data collection process. Some examples of different tools that can be used are interviews, questionnaires, observation schedules, reaction scales, etc. 

In this stage, you will have to identify which tools and techniques are relevant and valid to your study. Leverage robust survey software that offers you multiple channels, thus enabling you to utilize various channels to gather insights. 

Step-3: Define​​ the target population and sample group

In the fourth step, you will have to outline your target population. The target population is the group of individuals that you are examining in your research study. Additionally, unless you are conducting a census study and collecting data from the entire population, you must select a sample group.

You can also use an audience panel to accelerate your research. A survey panel gives you access to diverse respondents so you can create your ideal panel. 

Additional read: Types of sampling methods .

Step-4: Select a method for data collection

In the data collection stage, you must have a clear plan of how your data will be collected. This involves clearly outlining the type of data you require, the tools that will be used to gather it, the level of training required by researchers to collect the data, the time required for data collection and fieldwork, and so on. 

As you collect data, keep your research question and objectives in mind and aim to gather authentic and objective data without personal bias. 

Step-5: Analyse the data collected

Once you’ve collected your data, you reach the sixth stage of descriptive research: data analysis. In this stage, you will have to evaluate all the data collected from all your different sources, quantify and qualify them, and then categorize them component-wise. 

If you are working with quantitative and qualitative data, you must employ a range of different quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques to analyze the data collected. 

Leverage survey analytics software that allows you to run statistical analysis and observe data on a live dashboard.  

Step-6: Write the report

The final step of survey research involves writing the report. As survey research involves working with extensive data, it is important to keep the focus of the investigation in mind. The report must be precise and objective-oriented.

Why Use Voxco for Descriptive Research Design?

Voxco being an omnichannel survey software , can be a valuable tool in descriptive research design. It can provide its users with a convenient and efficient means of collecting data from a large number of respondents. 

It allows researchers to design and distribute surveys to a targeted sample of participants, collect data in a standardized format, and analyze the results.

Here are some ways in which Voxco helps with descriptive research design:

• Customizable surveys: Voxco lets its users design surveys with a range of question types and themes. 
• Ease of distribution: With a range of distribution integration, Voxco makes it easy for users to distribute surveys easily via email, SMS, social media, etc. It helps the surveys reach a larger number of respondents. 
• Data analysis: Voxco not only helps researchers gather survey data but also analyzes the survey feedback, which allows researchers to get actionable insights on a visual dashboard. 

Overall, Voxco survey software is an effective tool for conducting descriptive research design, as it provides a streamlined and efficient way to gather, measure, and analyze survey data.

Wondering what will be the cost of conducting a survey using Voxco?

This sums up our article on descriptive research design. This research method helps uncover the hidden element of a customer’s behavior. It helps you create a foundation for your research by helping you create an outline of your research subject.

Begin your descriptive research with a free step-by-step guide to descriptive research

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that researchers mostly use to analyze and document the behaviors and characteristics of a particular group of people. It gives a detailed analysis of a situation to explore the relation between two variables.

What is descriptive research study used for?

A descriptive research study is a type of observational research and is used for exploring and documenting the nature and scope of a problem, identifying its trends and patterns, and providing a basis for subsequent research. The outcome of a descriptive study is helpful in making decisions, developing policies, and planning social programs.

It is primarily concerned with describing the current state of a given phenomenon rather than explaining why it exists or how it came to be.

Why is descriptive research design used?

Descriptive research design can be used for a variety of reasons, including

• To describe and document a phenomenon of a particular population
• To identify patterns and trends
• To generate hypotheses for further research
• To inform decision-making and policy development

What is an example of a descriptive method?

A case study that examines the experiences of a small business run by women can be an example of a descriptive method of research. Let’s 

For instance, a researcher may conduct a case study of a small business solely run by women that have successfully implemented sustainable business practices in their food cloth manufacturing business. 

The case study could involve interviews with the owners of the business, observation of their business practices, and analysis of their financial data to document the costs and benefits of sustainability initiatives.

The researchers can then use the findings of the case study to provide a detailed account of the business’s approach to sustainability and to identify best practices that could be applied to other businesses.

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• Research Process

Descriptive Research Design and Its Myriad Uses

• 3 minute read

Table of Contents

The design of a research study can be of two broad types—observational or interventional. In interventional studies, at least one variable can be controlled by the researcher. For example, drug trials that examine the efficacy of novel medicines are interventional studies. Observational studies, on the other hand, simply examine and describe uncontrollable variables¹ .   

What is descriptive research design?¹

Descriptive design is one of the simplest forms of observational study design. It can either quantify the distribution of certain variables (quantitative descriptive research) or simply report the qualities of these variables without quantifying them (qualitative descriptive research).   

When can descriptive research design be used?¹

It is useful when you wish to examine the occurrence of a phenomenon, delineate trends or patterns within the phenomenon, or describe the relationship between variables. As such, descriptive design is great for¹ :  

• A survey conducted to measure the changes in the levels of customer satisfaction among shoppers in the US is the perfect example of quantitative descriptive research.  
• Conversely, a case report detailing the experiences and perspectives of individuals living with a particular rare disease is a good example of qualitative descriptive research.  
• Cross-sectional studies : Descriptive research is ideal for cross-sectional studies that capture a snapshot of a population at a specific point in time. This approach can be used to observe the variations in risk factors and diseases in a population. Take the following examples:   
• In quantitative descriptive research: A study that measures the prevalence of heart disease among college students in the current academic year.  
• In qualitative descriptive research: A cross-sectional study exploring the cultural perceptions of mental health across different communities.  
• Ecological studies : Descriptive research design is also well-suited for studies that seek to understand relationships between variables and outcomes in specific populations. For example:  
• A study that measures the relationship between the number of police personnel and homicides in India can use quantitative descriptive research design  
• A study describing the impact of deforestation on indigenous communities’ cultural practices and beliefs can use qualitative descriptive research design.  
• Focus group discussion reports : Descriptive research can help in capturing diverse perspectives and understanding the nuances of participants’ experiences.   
• First, an example of quantitative descriptive research: A study that uses two focus groups to explore the perceptions of mental health among immigrants in London.  
• Next, an example of qualitative descriptive research: A focus group report analyzing the themes and emotions associated with different advertising campaigns.  

Benefits of descriptive research design¹  

• Easy to conduct: Due to its simplicity, descriptive research design can be employed by researchers of all experience levels.  
• Economical: Descriptive research design is not resource intensive. It is a budget-friendly approach to studying many phenomena without costly equipment.   
• Provides comprehensive and useful information: Descriptive research is a more thorough approach that can capture many different aspects of a phenomena, facilitating a wholistic understanding.  
• Aids planning of major projects or future research: As a tool for preliminary exploration, descriptive research guides can guide strategic decision-making and guide major projects.  

The Bottom Line  

Descriptive research plays a crucial role in improving our lives. Surveys help create better policies and cross-sectional studies help us understand problems affecting different populations including diseases. Used in the right context, descriptive research can advance knowledge and inform decision making¹ .  

We, at Elsevier Language Services, understand the value of your descriptive research, as well as the importance of communicating it correctly. If you have a manuscript based on a descriptive study, our experienced editors can help improve its myriad aspects. By improving the logical flow, tone, and accuracy of your writing, we ensure that your descriptive research gets published in a top tier journal and makes maximum impact in academia and beyond. Contact us for a comprehensive list of services!   

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References 

• Aggarwal, R., & Ranganathan, P. (2019). Study designs: Part 2 – Descriptive studies. Perspectives in Clinical Research , 10 (1), 34. https://doi.org/10.4103/picr.picr_154_18 .  

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Introduction to Descriptive Design Research 

• Author Survey Point Team
• Published September 4, 2023

Descriptive design research explains phenomena, populations, or situations through patterns of behavior. This is done through the collection of data via observation, surveys, interviews, and experiments. Descriptive design research answers questions about what is happening and why.  

In-depth research is conducted with the intent of learning as much as possible about a subject. Widely seen in the fields of social sciences and health sciences. Now seen in other areas such as business, education, and economics.  

According to Creswell , the descriptive research design is a study that describes the characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. Primarily used to gain an understanding of a group or phenomenon. This involves collecting data through surveys, interviews, or observation. Descriptive research designs answer “Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.” 

Table of Contents

Characteristics of Descriptive Design Research  

The descriptive design research would entail the following characteristics:  

• Usability:  The usability is by observing and describing the behavior of the subject. This is without influencing it in any way. 
• Non-Experimental:  This research is non-experimental in nature. It does not involve any manipulation of variables. 
• Process:  There is a collection of large amounts of data. These can be through interviews, observations, surveys, and/or questionnaires, and other sources. 
• Analysis:  Seeks to describe, analyze, and explain phenomena in detail. 
• Requirement:  This includes answering questions related to the characteristics of a population/phenomenon. 
• Control:  is usually used when a researcher has limited control over the variables of interest and can only observe them. 
• Aim:  is used to gain a better understanding of a phenomenon and to form hypotheses for further investigation. 

Descriptive Design Research Examples  

Let’s take an example where researchers use descriptive design research:  

Suppose a researcher surveys a sample of college students to know what influences their decision to attend college. The researcher would ask questions such as:  

Q. What led you to decide to attend college?  

Q. How supportive were your family and friends of your decision?  

Q. What do you aim to get out of college?  

The researcher would then analyze the responses. In an effort to learn what makes some pupils more likely to go to college than others, we conducted a survey. 

On the whole, a researcher can use descriptive design research, include: 

• A study that describes the prevalence of anxiety among college students. 
• A survey that describes the attitudes of employees towards their workplace. 
• An observational study that describes the behavior of customers in a retail store. 
• A cross-sectional study that describes the health behaviors of a particular population. 
• A longitudinal study that describes changes in cognitive function among older adults. 

Types of Descriptive Design Research Surveys   

Descriptive design research classifies into the following types: 

Census Survey    

A census survey collects data from every member of a population. In this research method, the researchers account for the whole population of a specific area. After which, they analyze age, gender, income, occupation, and other demographic information. 

Sample Survey   

A sample survey gathers data on a selected population. In effect, this is to gain a better understanding of its characteristics through questions. In this case, questions explore characteristics of the population like demographics, behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, etc.  

Comparative Survey  

A comparative survey involves the comparison of two or more entities. Therefore, this type of research identifies the similarities and differences between the entities. On the whole, to gain further insights into their respective characteristics.  

Comparative surveys explore topics such as customer satisfaction, product preferences, and employee attitudes. 

Longitudinal Survey   

A longitudinal survey is a collection of repeated observations on the same subjects. It identifies changes over a period of time. This survey explores the relationships between variables. These surveys often study the effects of aging, career development, and health outcomes. 

Cross-Sectional Survey   

In this research method, a sample from a population is taken and studied by the researchers at one specific time. It can be either single-variable or multivariable research .  

Cross-sectional surveys collect the population’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors at a particular time. 

When is it best to conduct a descriptive survey? 

Below is an example of a market research goal that can be met using a descriptive survey design. Survey research design provides researchers with the data they need to make educated judgments that will ultimately benefit the development of their organization. 

Define a distinct client type profile with the use of a descriptive survey design. For instance, a cosmetics business can use a descriptive survey to categorize customers into groups based on their characteristics. 

In order to learn how consumers feel about a given brand or product, one must: 

• Customers’ opinions on the unique selling proposition (USP) of your products and services can be gleaned through the usage of this research methodology . 
• You can conduct market research by asking customers what they like and don’t like about your product’s design, color scheme, packaging, etc. 
• A descriptive survey design can help you figure out what kind of customer acts in a certain way so you can better understand their motivations and preferences. For instance, a health drink manufacturer would inquire how many of their consumers also buy tea. Customers can be categorized in this way for more precise marketing. 
• Customers can shed light on shopping behaviors and the factors that influence purchases, which can be used to make educated predictions. 
• Customers are more likely to make purchases in November and December, according to surveys, because of the holidays and the approaching new year.  
• Companies can utilize the results of these surveys to anticipate sales and prepare for an influx of clients. 

Steps to Conduct Descriptive Design Research  

To list the steps involved in conducting descriptive design research: 

• Identify the question:  it is essential to identify the research problem or question. This is so that the researchers have clarity about the goal of the study.  
• Develop a research design:  The next step is to develop a research design. You should determine the data type you will collect and the methods you will use to analyze the data. 
• Collect the data:  Data collection methods include surveys, interviews, observations, or other methods. 
• Analyze the data:  The data analysis includes summarizing the data. For this, creating graphs or charts to visualize the data is mandatory. 
• Interpret the results:  The final step is to interpret the results of the study. That involves summarizing the findings and discussing the implications of the results. 

Advantages of Descriptive Design Research 

Descriptive design research has several advantages, including: 

• Provides a detailed and accurate description of a particular phenomenon or situation. 
• Generates hypotheses for future research. 
• Identify patterns or trends in the data. 

Limitations of Descriptive Design Research 

Descriptive design research also has some limitations, including: 

• Limited in its ability to identify causal relationships between variables. 
• It may not provide insight into why a particular phenomenon is occurring. 
• It may not be generalizable to other populations or situations. 

Conclusion  

In conclusion, descriptive design is an efficient method for performing research. It explores relationships between variables and draws meaningful conclusions from the data collected. The descriptive design provides an in-depth understanding of the hypothesis. This helps researchers get conclusive findings and make informed decisions.  

Descriptive design research is a valuable method because it analyzes a particular situation. Not to mention, it provides an accurate description of a particular population, behavior, or condition. Despite its drawbacks, this approach is a powerful means of discovering trends and gaining understanding. 

Is descriptive design research the same as qualitative research?  

No, descriptive design research is not the same as qualitative research. It can involve qualitative methods of collecting data, such as interviews or focus groups. In this case, descriptive design research also has quantitative methods, such as surveys or observational studies. 

How is descriptive design research different from experimental research?  

Descriptive design research focuses on analyzing a particular phenomenon or situation. Another key point, it focuses on identifying causal relationships between variables. 

Survey Point Team

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3 Descriptive Research Design

• Published: March 2018
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This chapter presents two of the most prominent approaches to the design of descriptive research in music education. Simply creating depictions of music teaching and learning experiences that are organized and illustrative of the variation that can exist in any given setting is a worthwhile scientific endeavor in and of itself. Descriptive research is most typically an exploration of what is, what exists, and/or the status of any given topic of interest. The first section deals with basic steps in observational research designs, and the second section outlines critical features of survey designs. These fundamental research design options are excellent entry points for emerging scholars and when employed imaginatively can yield many benefits for the profession.

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Examining characteristics of descriptive phenomenological nursing studies: A scoping review

Shefaly shorey.

1 Alice Lee Centre for Nursing Studies, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Esperanza Debby Ng

Associated data.

Data available in article supplementary material

To evaluate the characteristics and methodology consistency in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design.

Scoping review methodology.

Data sources

Three electronic databases (CINAHL, Embase, PubMed) were systematically searched for qualitative studies with a descriptive phenomenological design published in nursing journals between January 2021 and December 2021.

Review methods

Quality appraisal of each study was conducted using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme checklist. Data were extracted and presented narratively based on research objective, design justification and consistency, theoretical framework, sampling method and sample size, data collection method, data analysis approach and presentation of findings.

One hundred and three studies were included in the review. Overall, the characteristics of the studies are mostly consistent with Husserl's phenomenology approach in terms of research objectives, the use of other theoretical frameworks, sampling and data collection methods. However, the findings revealed several inconsistencies between research design and data analysis techniques, the lack of design justification and the lack of mention of bracketing.

Conclusions

Apart from the need for more research and standardized guidelines to clarify the various qualitative research methods, future nurse researchers are urged to provide more methodological details when publishing a descriptive phenomenological study so that readers can examine the effectiveness and quality of the method.

What problem did the study address?

Descriptive phenomenology is increasingly used in nursing research to answer ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions in nursing science, but it is uncertain whether nurse researchers who practice descriptive phenomenology share the same understanding of the research design used.

What were the main findings?

The methodology of nursing studies published in 2021 that self‐report a descriptive phenomenology design is mostly consistent with Husserl's described approach apart from several inconsistencies between research design and data analysis techniques, the lack of design justification and the lack of mention of bracketing.

Where and on whom will the research have an impact?

Nurse researchers are recommended to justify their research design used, provide more methodological details, including bracketing process when publishing a descriptive phenomenology study. Nursing research institutions are urged to update, clarify and standardized research guidelines for different qualitative research methods.

1. INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research methods have been receiving increasing recognition in healthcare and nursing research, as it seeks to understand a natural phenomenon through the emphasis on the meaning, views and experiences of participants (Al‐Busaidi,  2008 ). As nurse researchers strive to develop knowledge that embraces the ideals of holistic nursing, it is essential for nurse researchers to understand human experiences in health and illness and explore the needs of both nurses, patients and other stakeholders (Wojnar & Swanson,  2007 ). Learning from the experiences of others allows nurse researchers to glean insights about a particular phenomenon and maximizes the effectiveness of feedback and workplace learning (Neubauer et al.,  2019 ). In recent decades, ‘phenomenology’ has become a frequently used term in nursing research and phenomenology has become a key guiding philosophy in generating nursing‐related knowledge (Koivisto et al.,  2002 ; Moi & Gjengedal,  2008 ; Woodgate et al.,  2008 ). The phenomenological method, which emphasizes on lived experiences, has been deemed the closest fit conceptually to clinical nursing research as it provides a new way to interpret the nature of individual's consciousness and is commonly used to answer ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions in nursing science (Beck,  1994 ; Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Neubauer et al.,  2019 ).

1.1. Background

Phenomenology is rooted in the philosophical tradition developed by Edmund Husserl in the early 20th century which was later expanded on by his followers at the universities in Germany and subsequently spread to the rest of the world (Zahavi,  2003 ). Husserl's ideas about how science should be conducted resulted in the development of a descriptive phenomenological inquiry method (Cohen,  1987 ), which is aligned with the naturalism doctrine that denies a strong separation between scientific and philosophical methodologies and rejects logical positivism's focus on objective observations of external reality (Freeman,  2021 ; Neubauer et al.,  2019 ). However, Husserl's concept of phenomenology has been criticized by other existentialists and philosophers, resulting in a variation of phenomenology types, such as the more renowned Heidegger's ( 1988 ) transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology and Maurice Merleau‐Ponty's ( 1965 ) embodied phenomenology.

Husserl argued that the focus of a study should be the phenomenon perceived by the individual's consciousness and that consciousness was central to all human experience. Husserl posits that the events or life situations that humans live through are held within one's consciousness prereflectively and that humans are able to reflect, discover and access this consciousness, thus bringing forward one's lifeworld or lived experience (Willis et al.,  2016 ). The common features of lived experiences of people who underwent the same event or life situation are labelled as universal essences or eidetic structures (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). Therefore, the goal of descriptive phenomenology is to describe the universal essence of an experience as lived, which represents the true nature of the phenomenon (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Willis et al.,  2016 ).

Since the description of an individual's direct lived experience is central to Husserl's phenomenology, Husserl maintained that no assumptions, a priori scientific or philosophical theory, empirical science, deductive logic procedures should inform the phenomenology's inquiry (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Moran,  2002 ). Another tenet of Husserl's phenomenology is that humans are ‘free agents’ uninfluenced by the social and cultural environment they lived in, and thus nurse researchers should not pay attention to the socio‐cultural contexts of people being studied (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Matua & Van Der Wal,  2015 ; Wojnar & Swanson,  2007 ).

In descriptive phenomenology, the researcher's goal is to achieve transcendental subjectivity, described as a state where ‘the impact of the researcher on the inquiry is constantly assessed and biases and preconceptions neutralized, so that they do not influence the object of study’ (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). This state can be achieved through phenomenological reduction that is facilitated by epoche (the process of bracketing). Bracketing requires researchers to hold off one's ideas in abeyance or bracket off assumptions, past knowledge and understanding of a phenomenon (Ashworth,  1996 ). Various types of bracketing have been mentioned in Gearing's ( 2004 ) study, such as ideal, descriptive, existential, analytic, reflexive and pragmatic bracketing. In order to bracket off biases and preconceived notions, some researchers even suggested not conducting a literature review before the initiation of the study and not having specific research questions that could potentially be leading (Speziale & Carpenter,  2011 ). The specific process to analyse collected data varies across researchers, with the most commonly used method being Colaizzi's ( 1978 ) and Giorg’s (2003) phenomenological analysis. Colaizzi's seven‐step approach include familiarization, identifying significant statements, formulating meanings, clustering themes, developing an exhaustive description and seeking verification of the fundamental structure (Morrow et al.,  2015 ), whereas Giorgi's five‐step approach include contemplative dwelling on descriptions, identifying meaning units, identifying focal meaning, synthesize situated structural descriptions and synthesize a general structural description (Aldiabat et al.,  2021 ; Giorgi & Giorgi,  2003 ; Russell & Aquino‐Russell,  2011 ).

An issue with many qualitative studies is the lack of relationship between the methodology used and the philosophical underpinnings that are supposed to guide the process (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Stubblefield & Murray,  2002 ). Previous research has tried to distinguish the types of qualitative research methods by drawing theoretical and methodological comparisons between qualitative description, interpretive phenomenology, descriptive phenomenology and hermeneutic phenomenology (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ; Matua & Van Der Wal,  2015 ; Neubauer et al.,  2019 ; Reiners,  2012 ; Willis et al.,  2016 ; Wojnar & Swanson,  2007 ). While valuable, it is uncertain whether researchers who practice descriptive phenomenology share the same understanding of the research design used. Therefore, it is imperative to consolidate an updated overview and evaluate the methodological consistency of peer‐reviewed studies that claimed to have used a descriptive phenomenological approach in the nursing context. Such reviews have been done for descriptive qualitative studies (Kim et al.,  2017 ) and phenomenological studies in the nursing context (Beck,  1994 ; Norlyk & Harder,  2010 ) where methodological approaches are compared across nursing studies with the same research design. Given the constant evolution of phenomenological methods and the increasing interest in nursing research, this review aims to consolidate updated evidence and comprehensively map the characteristics and methodology used in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design to improve standardization and inform future nursing methodological research.

2. THE REVIEW

The aim of this review was to provide an overview and to evaluate the characteristics and methodology consistency in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design.

2.2. Design

A scoping review was conducted to identify and map all relevant evidence on the use of descriptive phenomenological design in nursing research. A scoping review design was deemed the most appropriate as it aims to ‘map the literature on a particular topic or research area and provide an opportunity to identify key concepts; gaps in the research and types and sources of evidence to inform practice, policymaking and research’ (Daudt et al.,  2013 ). This review was guided by Arksey and O′Malley's ( 2005 ) five‐stage framework: identifying the research question, identifying relevant studies, study selection, charting the data and collating, summarizing and reporting the results. This review is reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) Extension for Scoping Reviews (Tricco et al.,  2018 ). There is no registered protocol.

2.3. Search methods

In January 2022, three electronic databases (CINAHL, Embase and Pubmed) were searched for qualitative studies with a descriptive phenomenological design published between January 2021 and December 2021 in nursing journals. Given a large number of qualitative studies, we have narrowed the search to the most recent year, 2021, to include more updated and relevant research articles. Based on a research analytics tool, the 2021 Journal Citation Reports Science Edition (Clarivate Analytics, 2021 ), 181 journals were identified under the nursing category. In addition to the journal titles, search terms generated were derived from the concept ‘descriptive phenomenological’. The sample search strategy for PubMed is available in Material S1 and the representation of nursing journals indexed in each database is available in Material S2 .

Studies were included if they (i) explicitly mentioned using a descriptive phenomenological study design or analysis in the main text, (ii) published in 2021, (iii) published in the English language and (iv) published in one of the 181 nursing journals. Studies were excluded if they (i) were not of qualitative nature, or (ii) explicitly stated the use of an interpretive or hermeneutical phenomenological approach or other qualitative design. Ambiguous studies that have ‘descriptive qualitative phenomenological’ designs or ‘descriptive qualitative grounded in phenomenological approach’ were included. Online preprints that were available as of 31 December 2021 were included. Quantitative studies, reviews, pilot studies, protocols, editorials and conference abstracts were excluded.

2.4. Study selection

References and citations from the database search were exported into a reference management software, EndNote X9 (Clarivate Analytics), where duplicates were removed. Article titles and abstracts were then screened for relevance by two reviewers independently. The full texts of shortlisted articles were downloaded and assessed for eligibility against the inclusion and exclusion criteria by two reviewers. The interrater agreement was approximately 96% and any inconsistencies were resolved through discussions between both reviewers until a mutual consensus is reached

2.5. Quality appraisal

Quality appraisal of the finalized studies was conducted by two reviewers independently using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) qualitative checklist (CASP, 2019 ). The CASP tool is a generic and most used tool for quality appraisal in social and healthcare‐related qualitative evidence syntheses and is also endorsed by Cochrane and World Health Organization (Long et al.,  2020 ). Therefore, the CASP tool was chosen to appraise the rigour of the qualitative studies included in this study. The CASP tool consists of 10 main questions and several subquestions that examine the clarity and appropriateness of the study aim, research design (sampling, data collection, data analysis), and the presentation of results. As the CASP was used to gauge the overall rigour of included studies, no studies were excluded based on the CASP results.

2.6. Charting the data

A tabular data extraction form was created using Microsoft Excel with reference to a previous study (Kim et al.,  2017 ). The following data were extracted from each study: First author name, country of origin, research objective, design justification and consistency, theoretical framework, sampling method and sample size, data collection method, data analysis approach and presentation of findings. Data extraction was performed by one reviewer and cross‐checked with the second reviewer. Inconsistencies were resolved through discussion until a consensus is reached.

2.7. Collating, summarizing and reporting the results

The characteristics of the included studies are summarized in frequencies and percentages. Methodological consistency within and between studies and unique features observed from the extracted data will be discussed narratively. Extracted data from each study are presented in Table S1. Ethical approval and informed consent were not sought as no participants were recruited for this study. Given a large number of included studies, the references are provided in Material S3 .

3.1. Search outcomes

The initial search yielded 335 articles. After removal of duplicates, titles and abstracts of 154 articles were screened for relevance, and 124 full‐text articles were shortlisted and assessed for eligibility, resulting in 103 finalized articles being included in the study. The PRISMA diagram summarizing the screening process is found in Figure  1 .

PRISMA flow diagram

3.2. Characteristics of included studies

Of the 103 studies, the majority was conducted in Asia ( n  = 51, 50%), and North America ( n  = 27, 25%), followed by Europe ( n  = 15, 15%), Africa ( n  = 6, 6%), Oceania (i.e. Australia) ( n  = 3, 3%) and South America ( n  = 1, 1%). Six of the studies were post‐intervention studies (Ingersgaard et al.,  2021 ; Jensen et al.,  2021 ; Jerntorp et al.,  2021 ; Macapagal et al.,  2021 ; Mathews & Anderson,  2021 ; Schumacher et al.,  2021 ) and one was a part of a larger mix‐methods study (Mohaupt et al.,  2021 ).

3.3. Quality appraisal

All studies had a clear statement of research aims, but only 65 studies (63.1%) justified the use of a descriptive phenomenological research design and 78 (75.7%) studies elaborated on the participant selection process in addition to stating the sampling method and participant eligibility criteria. Although all studies clearly stated how data were collected, 74 (71.8%) did not justify the method chosen, and only 77 (74.8%) studies discussed data saturation. The examination of the relationship between researcher and participants for potential bias and influence was reported in 63 (61.2%) studies. Ethics approval was explicitly stated in 101 (98.1%) studies and 92 (89.3%) provided a detailed description of the data analysis process. All studies reported a clear statement of findings, but only 85 (82.5%) discussed the credibility, rigour or trustworthiness of their findings. The quality appraisal for each study is presented in Material S4 , whereas a summary of the quality appraisal is available in Table  1 .

Overall frequency of CASP scoring ( N  = 103)

3.4. Research objective

Across all 103 studies, the most used verbs in research objectives or aims were “explore” ( n  = 66, 64%), “describe” ( n  = 14, 14%), “understand” ( n  = 12, 12%) and “investigate” ( n  = 10, 10%). Lesser used verbs include “assess”, “determine”, “examine”, “explain”, “highlight” and “illuminate”. Most studies focused on more generic “experiences” ( n  = 44, 43%), or “lived experiences ( n  = 36, 35%), whereas a few others looked at “perceptions”, “coping strategies”, “meaning”, “challenges”, “perspectives”, “motivations”, “needs”, “impact”, “behaviour”, “practices” and “factors” related to a certain phenomenon (e.g. Covid‐19, online learning, caregiving) ( n  = 89, 86%) or nursing interventions and practices ( n  = 6, 6%).

3.5. Research design

Out of 103 studies, 81 (79%) studies explicitly mentioned using a ‘descriptive phenomenological’ research design or approach. Four studies reported a generic phenomenological research design but used a descriptive phenomenological data analysis technique (Ghorbani et al.,  2021 ; HeydariKhayat et al.,  2021 ; Luo et al.,  2021 ; Sun et al.,  2021 ). Ten studies reported being a descriptive, qualitative, or descriptive qualitative study ‘with’ or ‘grounded in’ a phenomenological approach. Although seven studies reported adopting a qualitative or descriptive qualitative approach, they proceeded to describe a descriptive phenomenological data analysis technique by Giorgi, Colaizzi or Sundler (Al Gilani et al.,  2021 ; Macapagal et al.,  2021 ; Nuuyoma & Makhene,  2021 ; Olander et al.,  2021 ; Othman et al.,  2021 ; Ratnawati & Rizaldi,  2021 ; Sundler et al., 2021 ). However, one study (George et al.,  2021 ) used a ‘phenomenological approach with descriptive thematic analysis’ without providing references.

Although 58 nurse researchers provided a reference to justify the use of their stated research design, 64 researchers described the rationale behind their choice of research design. The length of rationale descriptions ranged from one‐liner to a full paragraph, with the gist of it being able to explore the essence of the lived experience of a specific phenomenon, especially when little is known about the phenomenon.

3.6. Theoretical framework

Nine studies had other theoretical underpinnings that are unrelated to the descriptive phenomenological design. Woodley et al. ( 2021 ) used Choi's Theory of Cultural Marginality in the conceptualization of the study's purpose and research question. Jensen et al. ( 2021 ) used the stress‐vulnerability model and transtheoretical model of change as a basis for the development of an intervention. Corcoran et al. ( 2021 ) used Benner's Novice to Expert theory to determine the inclusion criteria of the study. Two studies used Lawrence Green's Behaviour Causes theory (Ratnawati & Rizaldi,  2021 ) and the Disablement Process model to develop interview guides (Seyman & Ozcetin,  2021 ), and six studies related their findings to theoretical frameworks (continuity theory, Carper's ways of knowing theory, symptom management theory, Khantzian's self‐medication hypothesis, Habermas' system and lifeworld, theory of communicative action, behaviour causes theory, disablement process model) in the discussion section (Aldiabat et al.,  2021 ; Carrasco,  2021 ; Ghelani,  2021 ; Ratnawati & Rizaldi,  2021 ; Ravn Jakobsen et al.,  2021 ; Seyman & Ozcetin,  2021 ).

However, Seyman and Ozcetin ( 2021 ) stated that the theoretical framework ‘guided the data analysis procedure’ and ‘helped in the construction of themes and subthemes’, which may be problematic from a descriptive phenomenology standpoint. Only Ghelani ( 2021 ) provided a disclaimer that ‘preconceptions were minimized in the study design through asking open‐ended questions and using dispassionate probes which did not reflect researcher assumptions’.

3.7. Sampling

In 57 out of 103 studies (55%), researchers mentioned using a ‘purposive sampling’ method. Other researchers used snowball sampling ( n  = 5, 5%), convenience sampling ( n  = 5, 5%), criterion sampling ( n  = 3, 3%), maximum variation sampling ( n  = 2, 2%), or a combination of various sampling methods (purposive and snowball, n  = 14, 14%; purposive and criterion, n  = 1, 1%; purposive and convenience, n  = 1, 1%, purposive and systematic random sampling, n  = 1, 1%, purposive and maximum variation, n  = 1, 1%, referral sampling, n  = 1, 1%). Twelve studies did not explicitly state the sampling method used.

Overall, sample size ranged from four to 62, where focus group studies had a larger sample size range of 15–62, and studies with individual data collection methods had a sample size range of four to 43. Participant recruitment till data saturation was discussed in 77 studies.

3.8. Data collection

Data collection was primarily done through individual interviews ( n  = 89, 86%), where most were semi‐structured ( n  = 72, 70%) and some were open‐ended ( n  = 6, 6%), or unstructured ( n  = 6, 6%) interviews. The interview duration ranged from 15 to 153 min across 64 studies that reported them. Individual interviews were mainly conducted face‐to‐face ( n  = 49, 48%), through telephone calls ( n  = 9, 9%), online means ( n  = 4, 4%) or a combination of the above ( n  = 7, 7%). Twenty studies did not specify the mode of interview. Eight studies conducted focus groups which lasted between 60 and 150 min. Two focus groups were conducted face‐to‐face, two were conducted online, and four studies did not specify. Three studies had multiple data collection methods such as a combination of individual and dyadic interviews (Olander et al.,  2021 ), or individual interviews and focus groups (Mathews & Anderson,  2021 ; Othman et al.,  2021 ). Other online data collection methods included open‐ended questionnaires (Vignato et al.,  2021 ), written narrative reflective inquiry (Schuler et al.,  2021 ), written complaints documented in a report (Sundler et al., 2021 ), written descriptions and illustrative examples (Aldiabat et al.,  2021 ) sent through email.

3.9. Data analysis

For data analysis, studies often adopted Colaizzi's ( 1978 ) seven‐step phenomenological approach ( n  = 55, 53%) or Giorgi and Giorgi's ( 2003 ) five‐step phenomenological approach ( n  = 14, 14%). However, one study used a modified Colaizzi's approach (Walker et al.,  2021 ). Another study only followed four out of Giorgi's five‐step approach as its ‘overall aim was not to discover the structure of a phenomenon’ (von Essen,  2021 ). Hycner's and Moustaka's phenomenological methods were used in two studies (Makgahlela et al.,  2021 ; Rygg et al.,  2021 ). Thematic analysis procedures especially by Braun and Clark (2006), Sundler et al. ( 2019 ), Spielberg ( 1975 ) were also commonly used ( n  = 16, 16%). Other data analytical procedures used were content analysis ( n  = 3, 3%), constant comparative method ( n  = 3, 3%), framework analysis/approach ( n  = 2, 2%), discourse analysis ( n  = 1, 1%), Tsech's protocol of data analysis ( n  = 1, 1%) and Maltreud's ( 2012 ) systematic text condensation ( n  = 1, 1%). Only one study did not disclose their analysis strategy, but the data analysis process was detailed (Yildirim,  2021 ). Interpretive phenomenological approaches were described in two studies despite them stating having a descriptive phenomenological research design (Arikan Dönmez et al.,  2021 ; Kurevakwesu,  2021 ).

Bracketing or reflexivity was taken into consideration only in 47 (46%) studies, mainly through reflective journaling or taking field notes. The process of ensuring the trustworthiness and credibility of research findings was described in 82 (80%) studies.

3.10. Presentation of findings

The research findings from all studies were presented in themes and subthemes accompanied with verbatim texts. The findings were described extensively and were consistent with their research objectives.

4. DISCUSSION

This review examined the characteristics and methodology consistency in nursing research with descriptive phenomenological design through the articles published in nursing journals between January 2021 and December 2021. The consolidation of studies revealed that most studies have characteristics that adhered to key features of the Husserlian phenomenology approach. However, inconsistencies between the stated research design and data analysis technique were observed in several studies.

4.1. Consistency of characteristics with descriptive phenomenology

In general, most studies adhered to the goal of descriptive phenomenological research, to ‘explore’ and ‘describe’ the generic ‘lived experiences’ of participants, answering to the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of a phenomenon of interest (Beck,  1994 ; Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). The term ‘lived experience’ remains unique to phenomenological studies and it is recommended for researchers to use this term in their research objective.

The majority of included studies did not report the use of another theoretical framework, adhering to Husserl's stance that no a priori theoretical or phenomenological framework should inform the phenomenological inquiry (Lopez & Willis,  2004 ). A few studies reported using other theories to guide their research methodology (i.e. inclusion criteria, interview guide, data analysis) or simply discuss their findings in relation to the theory. According to Husserl, the use of other theories to translate findings into accessible disciplinary knowledge is possible, however, these theories must be bracketed during the interview process (Willis et al.,  2016 ). The bracketing of preconceptions derived from other theories was only reported by Ghelani ( 2021 ).

Most studies used a purposive sampling technique which was lauded by descriptive phenomenology researchers as it is crucial to select participants who have had rich experiences related to the phenomenon of interest and have the cognitive capacity and ability to self‐reflect and express oneself adequately either written or verbally (Groenewald,  2018 ; Kruger & Stones,  1981 ; Willis et al.,  2016 ).

In this review, the sample size of included studies ranged from four to 62. Interestingly, there are no specific guidelines for sample size in descriptive phenomenological research yet. Creswell and Miller ( 2000 ) recommended between five and 25 participants for a phenomenological study, whereas Giorgi and Giorgi ( 2008 ) recommended at least three participants. Since the aim of a descriptive phenomenological approach is to explore in‐depth individual lived experiences of a phenomenon, the sample size should be determined by the quality and completeness of the information provided instead of the number of participants (Malterud et al.,  2016 ; Todres,  2005 ). Therefore, sampling should continue until data saturation is reached, which was what 70% of the included studies had reported.

Phenomenological interviews either individually or in focus groups are the most common data collection method reported in 95% of included studies. In descriptive phenomenology, although face‐to‐face interview is preferred to elicit ‘rich first‐person accounts of experience’, various data collection tools such as written narrative, online interviews, research diaries, open‐ended interviews or open‐ended questionnaires can also be used (Elliott & Timulak,  2005 ; Marshall & Rossman,  2014 ; Morrow et al.,  2015 ). Therefore, there is no specific guideline for the type of data collection method used.

In terms of data analysis, 73% of the studies adhered to established descriptive phenomenological approaches by Colaizzi ( 1978 ), Giorgi and Giorgi ( 2003 ), Moustakas (Moustakas,  1994 ) or Hycner (Groenewald,  2018 ; Hycner,  1985 ). The thematic analysis procedure for general qualitative studies by Braun and Clarke ( 2006 ), or more recently for descriptive phenomenological studies, by Sundler et al. ( 2019 ), was second most popular. Further research is needed to validate the appropriateness of other analytical methods such as discourse analysis and framework analysis in the context of descriptive phenomenology. The downside of not using a descriptive‐phenomenology‐specific analytical approach is the potential to neglect phenomenological reduction or bracketing, which is a key feature in descriptive phenomenology research. Startlingly, only less than half of the included studies reported bracketing. Although Merleau‐Ponty ( 1965 ) argued that a complete reduction or ‘pure’ bracketing can never be fully completed, it is still a necessary and important step to enhance rigour and to enable researchers to look beyond one's preconceptions and tap directly into the essence of a phenomenon (Matua & Van Der Wal,  2015 ).

4.2. Inconsistency in research design and analysis

Although most of the included studies explicitly stated having a descriptive phenomenological design, some studies provided vague statements with undertones of other qualitative designs, such as ‘descriptive qualitative study grounded in phenomenological approach’. Apart from the lack of clarity in the stated research design, some studies that reported using a descriptive phenomenology design ended up using an interpretive phenomenological analysis, discourse analysis or framework analysis, which are not congruent to a descriptive phenomenological design. Conversely, some studies reported having a descriptive qualitative research design but adopted Giorgi's or Colaizzi's descriptive phenomenological analysis method. These inconsistencies highlighted the confusion and potential knowledge gap of nurse researchers in utilizing a descriptive phenomenological approach, which necessitates more updated research and clear guidelines for descriptive phenomenological and qualitative studies in the nursing context.

Additionally, the justification of why a descriptive phenomenological approach was appropriate was lacking in half of the included studies. It is crucial for researchers to clarify and justify their choice of approach especially when examining participants' experiences, as this can easily be addressed with other qualitative approaches as well. The justification of research design and methodology could also enhance the rigour of the study as it allows others to evaluate for the choice for internal consistency, provides transparency of choices and context to the findings (Carter & Little,  2007 ).

A summary of practical implications to promote a standardized reporting of descriptive phenomenological method in nursing research is presented in Table  2 .

Summary of practical implications on the use of descriptive phenomenology method

4.3. Limitations

Although this review was able to provide an updated overview of descriptive phenomenological methodology in nursing studies, a few limitations exist. First, the narrow inclusion of only studies written in English, the small number of databases searched and the identification of nursing journals through a research analytics tool might have limited potentially relevant nursing studies. Second, a single year limit was used due to overwhelming number of studies and to gather more updated evidence, but this may result in the omission of previous relevant studies and limit the transferability of the findings. Additionally, there was uncertainty in the inclusion of studies that were inferred as descriptive phenomenology based on the research description or data analytical methods, which may have affected the results. Lastly, our findings are highly reliant on what is reported in the published studies, therefore, the methodological data available may be limited by word limits, or specific journal specifications, leaving out certain characteristics that could affect our CASP appraisal.

5. CONCLUSION

This review examined the characteristics and methodological consistencies of descriptive phenomenological nursing studies published in the year 2021. Overall, the characteristics of the studies are mostly consistent with Husserl's phenomenology approach in terms of research objectives, the use of other theoretical frameworks, sampling and data collection methods. However, the findings revealed several inconsistencies between research design and data analysis techniques, the lack of design justification and the lack of mention of bracketing. Apart from the need for more research and standardized guidelines to clarify the various qualitative research methods, future nurse researchers are urged to provide more methodological details when publishing a descriptive phenomenological study, so that readers can examine the appropriateness of the method. We hope this scoping review will pave a path for more conscientious planning, conducting and reporting and in turn better understanding among nurse researchers while adopting a descriptive phenomenology research design.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

Author contributions.

Shefaly Shorey was involved in conceptualization, methodology and writing—reviewing and editing of the manuscript. Esperanza Debby Ng carried out investigation, data curation and writing—original draft of the manuscript.

PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/jan.15244 .

Supporting information

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