essay about evolution

Introductory essay

Written by the educator who created What Makes Us Human?, a brief look at the key facts, tough questions and big ideas in his field. Begin this TED Study with a fascinating read that gives context and clarity to the material.

As a biological anthropologist, I never liked drawing sharp distinctions between human and non-human. Such boundaries make little evolutionary sense, as they ignore or grossly underestimate what we humans have in common with our ancestors and other primates. What's more, it's impossible to make sharp distinctions between human and non-human in the paleoanthropological record. Even with a time machine, we couldn't go back to identify one generation of humans and say that the previous generation contained none: one's biological parents, by definition, must be in the same species as their offspring. This notion of continuity is inherent to most evolutionary perspectives and it's reflected in the similarities (homologies) shared among very different species. As a result, I've always been more interested in what makes us similar to, not different from, non-humans.

Evolutionary research has clearly revealed that we share great biological continuity with others in the animal kingdom. Yet humans are truly unique in ways that have not only shaped our own evolution, but have altered the entire planet. Despite great continuity and similarity with our fellow primates, our biocultural evolution has produced significant, profound discontinuities in how we interact with each other and in our environment, where no precedent exists in other animals. Although we share similar underlying evolved traits with other species, we also display uses of those traits that are so novel and extraordinary that they often make us forget about our commonalities. Preparing a twig to fish for termites may seem comparable to preparing a stone to produce a sharp flake—but landing on the moon and being able to return to tell the story is truly out of this non-human world.

Humans are the sole hominin species in existence today. Thus, it's easier than it would have been in the ancient past to distinguish ourselves from our closest living relatives in the animal kingdom. Primatologists such as Jane Goodall and Frans de Waal, however, continue to clarify why the lines dividing human from non-human aren't as distinct as we might think. Goodall's classic observations of chimpanzee behaviors like tool use, warfare and even cannibalism demolished once-cherished views of what separates us from other primates. de Waal has done exceptional work illustrating some continuity in reciprocity and fairness, and in empathy and compassion, with other species. With evolution, it seems, we are always standing on the shoulders of others, our common ancestors.

Primatology—the study of living primates—is only one of several approaches that biological anthropologists use to understand what makes us human. Two others, paleoanthropology (which studies human origins through the fossil record) and molecular anthropology (which studies human origins through genetic analysis), also yield some surprising insights about our hominin relatives. For example, Zeresenay Alemsegad's painstaking field work and analysis of Selam, a 3.3 million-year old fossil of a 3-year-old australopithecine infant from Ethiopia, exemplifies how paleoanthropologists can blur boundaries between living humans and apes.

Selam, if alive today, would not be confused with a three-year-old human—but neither would we mistake her for a living ape. Selam's chimpanzee-like hyoid bone suggests a more ape-like form of vocal communication, rather than human language capability. Overall, she would look chimp-like in many respects—until she walked past you on two feet. In addition, based on Selam's brain development, Alemseged theorizes that Selam and her contemporaries experienced a human-like extended childhood with a complex social organization.

Fast-forward to the time when Neanderthals lived, about 130,000 – 30,000 years ago, and most paleoanthropologists would agree that language capacity among the Neanderthals was far more human-like than ape-like; in the Neanderthal fossil record, hyoids and other possible evidence of language can be found. Moreover, paleogeneticist Svante Pääbo's groundbreaking research in molecular anthropology strongly suggests that Neanderthals interbred with modern humans. Paabo's work informs our genetic understanding of relationships to ancient hominins in ways that one could hardly imagine not long ago—by extracting and comparing DNA from fossils comprised largely of rock in the shape of bones and teeth—and emphasizes the great biological continuity we see, not only within our own species, but with other hominins sometimes classified as different species.

Though genetics has made truly astounding and vital contributions toward biological anthropology by this work, it's important to acknowledge the equally pivotal role paleoanthropology continues to play in its tandem effort to flesh out humanity's roots. Paleoanthropologists like Alemsegad draw on every available source of information to both physically reconstruct hominin bodies and, perhaps more importantly, develop our understanding of how they may have lived, communicated, sustained themselves, and interacted with their environment and with each other. The work of Pääbo and others in his field offers powerful affirmations of paleoanthropological studies that have long investigated the contributions of Neanderthals and other hominins to the lineage of modern humans. Importantly, without paleoanthropology, the continued discovery and recovery of fossil specimens to later undergo genetic analysis would be greatly diminished.

Molecular anthropology and paleoanthropology, though often at odds with each other in the past regarding modern human evolution, now seem to be working together to chip away at theories that portray Neanderthals as inferior offshoots of humanity. Molecular anthropologists and paleoanthropologists also concur that that human evolution did not occur in ladder-like form, with one species leading to the next. Instead, the fossil evidence clearly reveals an evolutionary bush, with numerous hominin species existing at the same time and interacting through migration, some leading to modern humans and others going extinct.

Molecular anthropologist Spencer Wells uses DNA analysis to understand how our biological diversity correlates with ancient migration patterns from Africa into other continents. The study of our genetic evolution reveals that as humans migrated from Africa to all continents of the globe, they developed biological and cultural adaptations that allowed for survival in a variety of new environments. One example is skin color. Biological anthropologist Nina Jablonski uses satellite data to investigate the evolution of skin color, an aspect of human biological variation carrying tremendous social consequences. Jablonski underscores the importance of trying to understand skin color as a single trait affected by natural selection with its own evolutionary history and pressures, not as a tool to grouping humans into artificial races.

For Pääbo, Wells, Jablonski and others, technology affords the chance to investigate our origins in exciting new ways, adding pieces into the human puzzle at a record pace. At the same time, our technologies may well be changing who we are as a species and propelling us into an era of "neo-evolution."

Increasingly over time, human adaptations have been less related to predators, resources, or natural disasters, and more related to environmental and social pressures produced by other humans. Indeed, biological anthropologists have no choice but to consider the cultural components related to human evolutionary changes over time. Hominins have been constructing their own niches for a very long time, and when we make significant changes (such as agricultural subsistence), we must adapt to those changes. Classic examples of this include increases in sickle-cell anemia in new malarial environments, and greater lactose tolerance in regions with a long history of dairy farming.

Today we can, in some ways, evolve ourselves. We can enact biological change through genetic engineering, which operates at an astonishing pace in comparison to natural selection. Medical ethicist Harvey Fineberg calls this "neo-evolution". Fineberg goes beyond asking who we are as a species, to ask who we want to become and what genes we want our offspring to inherit. Depending on one's point of view, the future he envisions is both tantalizing and frightening: to some, it shows the promise of science to eradicate genetic abnormalities, while for others it raises the specter of eugenics. It's also worth remembering that while we may have the potential to influence certain genetic predispositions, changes in genotypes do not guarantee the desired results. Environmental and social pressures like pollution, nutrition or discrimination can trigger "epigenetic" changes which can turn genes on or off, or make them less or more active. This is important to factor in as we consider possible medical benefits from efforts in self-directed evolution. We must also ask: In an era of human-engineered, rapid-rate neo-evolution, who decides what the new human blueprints should be?

Technology figures in our evolutionary future in other ways as well. According to anthropologist Amber Case, many of our modern technologies are changing us into cyborgs: our smart phones, tablets and other tools are "exogenous components" that afford us astonishing and unsettling capabilities. They allow us to travel instantly through time and space and to create second, "digital selves" that represent our "analog selves" and interact with others in virtual environments. This has psychological implications for our analog selves that worry Case: a loss of mental reflection, the "ambient intimacy" of knowing that we can connect to anyone we want to at any time, and the "panic architecture" of managing endless information across multiple devices in virtual and real-world environments.

Despite her concerns, Case believes that our technological future is essentially positive. She suggests that at a fundamental level, much of this technology is focused on the basic concerns all humans share: who am I, where and how do I fit in, what do others think of me, who can I trust, who should I fear? Indeed, I would argue that we've evolved to be obsessed with what other humans are thinking—to be mind-readers in a sense—in a way that most would agree is uniquely human. For even though a baboon can assess those baboons it fears and those it can dominate, it cannot say something to a second baboon about a third baboon in order to trick that baboon into telling a fourth baboon to gang up on a fifth baboon. I think Facebook is a brilliant example of tapping into our evolved human psychology. We can have friends we've never met and let them know who we think we are—while we hope they like us and we try to assess what they're actually thinking and if they can be trusted. It's as if technology has provided an online supply of an addictive drug for a social mind evolved to crave that specific stimulant!

Yet our heightened concern for fairness in reciprocal relationships, in combination with our elevated sense of empathy and compassion, have led to something far greater than online chats: humanism itself. As Jane Goodall notes, chimps and baboons cannot rally together to save themselves from extinction; instead, they must rely on what she references as the "indomitable human spirit" to lessen harm done to the planet and all the living things that share it. As Goodall and other TED speakers in this course ask: will we use our highly evolved capabilities to secure a better future for ourselves and other species?

I hope those reading this essay, watching the TED Talks, and further exploring evolutionary perspectives on what makes us human, will view the continuities and discontinuities of our species as cause for celebration and less discrimination. Our social dependency and our prosocial need to identify ourselves, our friends, and our foes make us human. As a species, we clearly have major relationship problems, ranging from personal to global scales. Yet whenever we expand our levels of compassion and understanding, whenever we increase our feelings of empathy across cultural and even species boundaries, we benefit individually and as a species.

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Zeresenay Alemseged

The search for humanity's roots, relevant talks.

Spencer Wells

A family tree for humanity.

Svante Pääbo

Dna clues to our inner neanderthal.

Nina Jablonski

Skin color is an illusion.

We are all cyborgs now

Harvey Fineberg

Are we ready for neo-evolution.

Frans de Waal

Moral behavior in animals.

Jane Goodall

What separates us from chimpanzees.

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• Introduction to Human Evolution

Human evolution

Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.

One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language -- developed more recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.

Humans are primates. Physical and genetic similarities show that the modern human species, Homo sapiens , has a very close relationship to another group of primate species, the apes. Humans and the great apes (large apes) of Africa -- chimpanzees (including bonobos, or so-called “pygmy chimpanzees”) and gorillas -- share a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 6 million years ago. Humans first evolved in Africa, and much of human evolution occurred on that continent. The fossils of early humans who lived between 6 and 2 million years ago come entirely from Africa.

Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans. Scientists do not all agree, however, about how these species are related or which ones simply died out. Many early human species -- certainly the majority of them – left no living descendants. Scientists also debate over how to identify and classify particular species of early humans, and about what factors influenced the evolution and extinction of each species.

Early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia probably between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They entered Europe somewhat later, between 1.5 million and 1 million years. Species of modern humans populated many parts of the world much later. For instance, people first came to Australia probably within the past 60,000 years and to the Americas within the past 30,000 years or so. The beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the first civilizations occurred within the past 12,000 years.

Paleoanthropology

Paleoanthropology is the scientific study of human evolution. Paleoanthropology is a subfield of anthropology, the study of human culture, society, and biology. The field involves an understanding of the similarities and differences between humans and other species in their genes, body form, physiology, and behavior. Paleoanthropologists search for the roots of human physical traits and behavior. They seek to discover how evolution has shaped the potentials, tendencies, and limitations of all people. For many people, paleoanthropology is an exciting scientific field because it investigates the origin, over millions of years, of the universal and defining traits of our species. However, some people find the concept of human evolution troubling because it can seem not to fit with religious and other traditional beliefs about how people, other living things, and the world came to be. Nevertheless, many people have come to reconcile their beliefs with the scientific evidence.

Early human fossils and archeological remains offer the most important clues about this ancient past. These remains include bones, tools and any other evidence (such as footprints, evidence of hearths, or butchery marks on animal bones) left by earlier people. Usually, the remains were buried and preserved naturally. They are then found either on the surface (exposed by rain, rivers, and wind erosion) or by digging in the ground. By studying fossilized bones, scientists learn about the physical appearance of earlier humans and how it changed. Bone size, shape, and markings left by muscles tell us how those predecessors moved around, held tools, and how the size of their brains changed over a long time. Archeological evidence refers to the things earlier people made and the places where scientists find them. By studying this type of evidence, archeologists can understand how early humans made and used tools and lived in their environments.

The process of evolution

The process of evolution involves a series of natural changes that cause species (populations of different organisms) to arise, adapt to the environment, and become extinct. All species or organisms have originated through the process of biological evolution. In animals that reproduce sexually, including humans, the term species refers to a group whose adult members regularly interbreed, resulting in fertile offspring -- that is, offspring themselves capable of reproducing. Scientists classify each species with a unique, two-part scientific name. In this system, modern humans are classified as Homo sapiens .

Evolution occurs when there is change in the genetic material -- the chemical molecule, DNA -- which is inherited from the parents, and especially in the proportions of different genes in a population. Genes represent the segments of DNA that provide the chemical code for producing proteins. Information contained in the DNA can change by a process known as mutation. The way particular genes are expressed – that is, how they influence the body or behavior of an organism -- can also change. Genes affect how the body and behavior of an organism develop during its life, and this is why genetically inherited characteristics can influence the likelihood of an organism’s survival and reproduction.

Evolution does not change any single individual. Instead, it changes the inherited means of growth and development that typify a population (a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular habitat). Parents pass adaptive genetic changes to their offspring, and ultimately these changes become common throughout a population. As a result, the offspring inherit those genetic characteristics that enhance their chances of survival and ability to give birth, which may work well until the environment changes. Over time, genetic change can alter a species' overall way of life, such as what it eats, how it grows, and where it can live. Human evolution took place as new genetic variations in early ancestor populations favored new abilities to adapt to environmental change and so altered the human way of life.

Dr. Rick Potts provides a video short introduction to some of the evidence for human evolution, in the form of fossils and artifacts.

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‘Living Fossil’ Lizards Are Constantly Evolving—You Just Can’t See It

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21.1: Evidence of Evolution

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The evidence for evolution is compelling and extensive. Looking at every level of organization in living systems, biologists see the signature of past and present evolution. Darwin dedicated a large portion of his book, On the Origin of Species , to identifying patterns in nature that were consistent with evolution, and since Darwin, our understanding has become clearer and broader.

Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found today, and fossils show a progression of evolution. Scientists determine the age of fossils and categorize them from all over the world to determine when the organisms lived relative to each other. The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form over millions of years. For example, scientists have recovered highly detailed records showing the evolution of humans and horses (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)).

Anatomy and Embryology

Another type of evidence for evolution is the presence of structures in organisms that share the same basic form. For example, the bones in the appendages of a human, dog, bird, and whale all share the same overall construction (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) resulting from their origin in the appendages of a common ancestor. Over time, evolution led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these bones in different species, but they have maintained the same overall layout. Scientists call these synonymous parts homologous structures .

Some structures exist in organisms that have no apparent function at all and appear to be residual parts from a past common ancestor. These unused structures without function are called vestigial structures . Other examples of vestigial structures are wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, and hind leg bones in whales.

Another evidence of evolution is the convergence of form in organisms that share similar environments. For example, species of unrelated animals, such as the arctic fox and ptarmigan, living in the arctic region have been selected for seasonal white phenotypes during winter to blend with the snow and ice (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). These similarities occur not because of common ancestry, but because of similar selection pressures—the benefits of not being seen by predators.

Embryology , the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form, also provides evidence of relatedness between now widely divergent groups of organisms. Mutational tweaking in the embryo can have such magnified consequences in the adult that embryo formation tends to be conserved. As a result, structures that are absent in some groups often appear in their embryonic forms and disappear by the time the adult or juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits and tails at some point in their early development. These disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups but are maintained in adult forms of aquatic groups such as fish and some amphibians. Great ape embryos, including humans, have a tail structure during their development that is lost by the time of birth.

Biogeography

The geographic distribution of organisms (referred to as biogeography ) on the planet follows patterns that are best explained by evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over geological time. Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed worldwide. Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions of the planet, such as the unique flora and fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent Gondwana . The presence of members of the plant family Proteaceae in Australia, southern Africa, and South America is best explained by their presence prior to the southern supercontinent Gondwana breaking up.

The great diversification of marsupials in Australia and the absence of other mammals reflect Australia’s long isolation. Australia has an abundance of endemic species—species found nowhere else—which is typical of islands whose isolation by expanses of water prevents species from migrating. Over time, these species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very different from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. The marsupials of Australia, the finches on the Galápagos, and many species on the Hawaiian Islands are all unique to their one point of origin, yet they display distant relationships to ancestral species on mainlands.

Molecular Biology

Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with modification. Evidence of a common ancestor for all of life is reflected in the universality of DNA as the genetic material and in the near universality of the genetic code and the machinery of DNA replication and expression. Fundamental divisions in life between the three domains are reflected in major structural differences in otherwise conservative structures such as the components of ribosomes and the structures of membranes. In general, the relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected in the similarity of their DNA sequences—exactly the pattern that would be expected from descent and diversification from a common ancestor.

DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms of evolution. For example, it is clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly occurs after gene duplication events that allow the free modification of one copy by mutation, selection, or drift (changes in a population’s gene pool resulting from chance), while the second copy continues to produce a functional protein.

Misconceptions of Evolution

Although the theory of evolution generated some controversy when it was first proposed, it was almost universally accepted by biologists, particularly younger biologists, within 20 years after the publication of On the Origin of Species . Nevertheless, the theory of evolution is a difficult concept, and misconceptions about how it works abound.

Evolution Is Just a Theory

Critics of the theory of evolution dismiss its importance by purposefully confounding the everyday usage of the word “theory” with the way scientists use the word. In science, a “theory” is understood to be a body of thoroughly tested and verified explanations for a set of observations of the natural world. Scientists have a theory of the atom, a theory of gravity, and the theory of relativity, each of which describes understood facts about the world. In the same way, the theory of evolution describes facts about the living world. As such, a theory in science has survived significant efforts to discredit it by scientists. In contrast, a “theory” in common vernacular is a word meaning a guess or suggested explanation; this meaning is more akin to the scientific concept of “hypothesis.” When critics of evolution say evolution is “just a theory,” they are implying that there is little evidence supporting it and that it is still in the process of being rigorously tested. This is a mischaracterization.

Individuals Evolve

Evolution is the change in the genetic composition of a population over time, specifically over generations, resulting from differential reproduction of individuals with certain alleles. Individuals do change over their lifetime, obviously, but this is called development and involves changes programmed by the set of genes the individual acquired at birth in coordination with the individual’s environment. When thinking about the evolution of a characteristic, it is probably best to think about the change of the average value of the characteristic in the population over time. For example, when natural selection leads to a beak size change in medium-ground finches in the Galápagos, this does not mean that individual beaks on living finches are changing. Instead, it means that if one measures the average beak size among all individuals in the population at one time and then measures the average beak size in the population several years later, the average value will be different as a result of evolution. Although some individuals may survive from the first time to the second, they will still have the same beak size; however, there will be many new individuals that contribute to the shift in average beak size.

Evolution Explains the Origin of Life

It is a common misunderstanding that evolution includes an explanation of life’s origins . The theory does not try to explain the origin of life. The theory of evolution explains how populations change over time and how life diversifies. It does not shed light on the beginnings of life including the origins of the first cells, which is how life is defined. The mechanisms of the origin of life on Earth are a particularly difficult problem because it occurred a very long time ago, and presumably, it just occurred once.

However, once a mechanism of inheritance was in place in the form of a molecule like DNA either within a cell or pre-cell, these entities would be subject to the principle of natural selection. More effective reproducers would increase in frequency at the expense of inefficient reproducers. So while evolution does not explain the origin of life, it may have something to say about some of the processes operating once pre-living entities acquired certain properties.

Organisms Evolve on Purpose

Statements such as “organisms evolve in response to a change in an environment” are quite common, but such statements can lead to two types of misunderstandings. First, the statement must not be understood to mean that individual organisms evolve. The statement is shorthand for “a population evolves in response to a changing environment.” However, a second misunderstanding may arise by interpreting the statement to mean that evolution is somehow intentional . A changed environment results in some individuals in the population, those with particular phenotypes, benefiting and therefore producing proportionately more offspring than other phenotypes. This results in a change in the population if the characteristics are genetically determined.

It is also important to understand that the variation that natural selection works on is already in a population and does not arise in response to an environmental change. For example, applying antibiotics to a population of bacteria will, over time, select a population of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics. The resistance, which is caused by a gene, did not arise by mutation because of the application of the antibiotic. The gene for resistance was already present in the gene pool of the bacteria, likely at a low frequency. The antibiotic, which kills the bacterial cells without the resistance gene, strongly selects individuals that are resistant, since these would be the only ones that survived and divided. Experiments have demonstrated that mutations for antibiotic resistance do not arise as a result of antibiotics.

In a larger sense, evolution is not goal-directed. Species do not become “better” over time; they simply track their changing environment with adaptations that maximize their reproduction in a particular environment at a particular time. Evolution has no goal of making faster, bigger, more complex, or even smarter species, despite the commonness of this kind of language in popular discourse. What characteristics evolve in a species are a function of the variation present and the environment, both of which are constantly changing in a non-directional way. What trait is fit in one environment at one time may well be fatal at some point in the future. This holds equally well for a species of insect as it does the human species.

Evolution is the process of adaptation through mutation which allows more desirable characteristics to be passed to the next generation. Over time, organisms evolve more characteristics that are beneficial to their survival. For living organisms to adapt and change to environmental pressures, genetic variation must be present. With genetic variation, individuals have differences in form and function that allow some to survive certain conditions better than others. These organisms pass their favorable traits to their offspring. Eventually, environments change, and what was once a desirable, advantageous trait may become an undesirable trait and organisms may further evolve. Evolution may be convergent with similar traits evolving in multiple species or divergent with diverse traits evolving in multiple species that came from a common ancestor. Evidence of evolution can be observed by means of DNA code and the fossil record, and also by the existence of homologous and vestigial structures.

OpenStax , Biology. OpenStax CNX. June 23, 2020. https://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:noBcfThl@7/Understanding-Evolution .

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Understanding Evolution

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Found 6 resources:

Evidencias de la Evolución: La ciencia de la evolución

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• UC Museum of Paleontology

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Time: 30-40 minutes

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Similarities and differences: Understanding homology and convergent evolution

• Online activity or lab

Time: 30 minutes

This interactive investigation explains what homologies are, how to recognize them, and how convergent traits evolve.

Lines of evidence: The science of evolution

The theory of evolution is broadly accepted by scientists — and for good reason! Learn about the diverse and numerous lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution.

Evo in the news: What has the head of a crocodile and the gills of a fish?

• Evo in the News article

Time: 15 minutes

This news brief, from May 2006, reviews what is likely to be the most important fossil find of the year: Tiktaalik helps us understand how our own ancestors crawled out of the water and began to walk on dry land.

Born to Run: Artificial Selection Lab

• Garland, Theodore
• Classroom activity

Time: Four 45-minute periods

Students are introduced to the field of experimental evolution by evaluating skeletal changes in mice that have been artificially selected over many generations for the behavioral trait of voluntary exercise wheel running.

Webcast: Fossils, genes, and embryos

• Howard Hughes Medical Institute
• Video Lecture

Time: 60 minutes

In lecture three of a four part series, evolutionary biologist David Kingsley examines the original objections to Darwin's theory and shows how modern evidence supports the theory.

This lecture is available from Howard Hughes' BioInteractive website.

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100 Evolution Essay Topics + Essay Writing Guide

Even though most of us know enough about evolution, finding a good and a unique topic can quickly become a challenge! The trick here is to determine a unique framework for your future paper, so you know what structure to follow to keep up with all the essay writing rules. Looking through the countless Biology and Life Sciences essays of the actual students and reading through essay revisions of college and university professors in our time, I have made a list of 100 excellent evolution essay topics and wrote down all the “Do’s” and “Don’t’s” of evolution essay writing.

Trust me, choosing a good topic becomes much easier when you understand how the evolution works and realize that it deals with much more than explaining how we all got here. It is not only about us, human beings, as evolution also deals with all flora and fauna and the changes that take place in our society. As you read through the topics below, think of evolution as of diversity in nature that provides a framework for the determination of the ways how the species develop their distinguishable differences!

Contents (Clickable)

      What is an Evolution Essay?

Evolution essay is a paper that focuses on any aspect related to the evolution theory and diversity in nature. Since it is a scientific theory that is fundamental for the modern biological theory, an evolution essay also includes the facts, theories, hypotheses, and the history of the evolution theory among other topics. Evolution essay is first and foremost, a scientific work, therefore, it is extremely important to include verified facts, backed up with the help of academic journals and the books with a correct format and the references.

      Evolution and Theory of Evolution

A bit more theory that will help you to understand the topics in a better way! Trust me; I’ll keep it short!

Evolution refers to changes in heritable characteristics in species over successive generations. This process ultimately results in the occurrence of biodiversity (this is the reason why the presence of Biodiversity in your research paper is so important!). In basic terms, evolution is a process that occurs in all species on Earth, which are currently estimated at mind-blowing 2 million . In other words, it means all the species, starting with miniscule bacteria and up to the evolution of human beings.

Theory of evolution refers to a scientific theory that explains the origin of different species by evolution. Charles Darwin is considered to be the father of the theory of evolution and the one behind the foundation of the theory explained in the famous On the Origin of Species book published in 1859.

      Actual Research Essay Examples on Topic!

Before we move on to the list of 100 evolution essay topics, I want to share four actual essay examples related to evolution, biology, and the life sciences, so you can get a better idea about how particular ideas can be implemented in practice for the best results. Looking through our vast essay database written and shared by students, I came up with these diverse examples:

• Global Warming: Fact or Fiction? – Evolution explored through the phenomenon of global warming. Is it a fact or a fiction? This essay’s author came up with an excellent research topic and argumentation!
• Environmental Science Q&A – Here we have an example of environmental issues related to evolution and the changes that we can observe. See how the questions are addressed and how the structure is kept.
• Genetically Modified Food – As surprising as it may be, it is also an issue related to evolution because the microorganisms and the species go through mutation, which is, essentially, an evolution process and a relevant social issue.
• Geographical Characteristics of the Streams in Urban Areas and Forested Areas – see how the changes of evolution impact the geographical aspect in both urban and the forested areas.

As you can see from the examples, evolution is an expansive concept and a field of research, so you do not have to limit yourself with a strict list of biology or microorganisms-related topics. Be creative and try to make your evolution essay feel interesting and inspiring!

     100 Evolution Essay Topics

Let us start with the human evolution, so we can see how broad and many-sided the evolution essay writing can be!

      Human Evolution Essay Topics

• Why do human beings laugh?
• Why did human species develop to be dominant on the planet?
• What distinguishes human brain from the other species?
• Evolution of human eye.
• Why do human beings perceive beauty?
• How does evolution theory explain the existence of language and speech?
• Recent mutations the humans underwent.
• The current mutations humans are going through.
• Geodakyan evolutionary theory of sex.
• Evolution of sexual reproduction.
• Red Queen hypothesis.
• Evolution of human intelligence.
• Evolution of monogamy.
• Evolutionary medicine.
• Social effects of evolutionary theory.
• Evolution of immunity.
• Evolution of the human nervous system.
• Evolution of sex differences in cognition.
• Sexual selection.
• Sexual conflict.
• Host-parasite coevolution in human malaria.
• Variation in evolution.
• Evolutionary stance on art.
• Why did humans start walking on two feet?
• What is the evolutionary benefit of forming the society?
• As you can see from these examples, evolution is not only about biology and the life sciences!

Okay, so you want something more traditional? Here we go below:

      Evolution of Flora and Fauna Essay Topics

• Evolution of dogs/cats/whales/ or any other species of your choice.
• Parallel evolution in the animal kingdom.
• Earliest life forms.
• Cladistics in the animal kingdom.
• Evolutionary ecology of parasites.
• Host-parasite coevolution in animals.
• Evolution of birds.
• An impact of climate on evolution.
• Evolution of fungi.
• The hair evolution.
• Notable cases of adaptation.
• Evolution of mimicry.
• Natural selection in the animal kingdom.
• Co-operation development.
• Early animal evolution.
• Polyps and medusas evolution.
• “Savannah” hypothesis of early bilateral evolution.
• Why the invertebrates became more complex?
• Evolution of the animal genome.
• Early evolution of neurons.
• Plant population genetics and evolution.
• Reconstruction of sexual modes throughout evolution.
• The role of chromosomal change in plant evolution.
• Evolution during the domestication of animals.

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Let’s continue with more biology-related topics!

      Evolutionary Biology Essay Topics

• Gene-centered view.
• Theory of stellar evolution.
• The social impact of evolutionary biology.
• Evolution of multicellular organisms.
• Genetic architecture of adaptation.
• Evolutionary robotics.
• Evolution of cooperation.
• Paleobiology.
• Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its impact on evolutionary biology.
• Evolutionary biology of aging.
• Neuroscience in evolutionary biology.
• Optimality theory.
• Morphometrics.
• Biological conservation.
• Evolutionary biology and ecology.
• Evolutionary biology and immunology.
• Conceptual issues in evolutionary biology.
• Evolutionary biology and population genetics.
• Evolutionary biology and phylogenetics.
• Mathematical models in evolutionary biology.
• The evolutionary perspective on sperm biology.
• Plant speciation.
• Marine speciation.
• Morphological evolution.

      Theory of Evolution Essay Topics

• How did Darwin come up with his theory?
• Theories that can potentially debunk an evolution theory.
• Common misconceptions about evolution that everyone still believes.
• Influence of Darwin’s theory on the science.
• History of evolutionary thought.
• Theories about evolution that existed before Darwin’s “ The Origin of Species”
• Essentialism.
• Tree of Life Concept.
• Are we all related?
• Adaptation theory.
• Lamarck’s theory of evolution.
• Evolution as fact and the theory.
• Somatic selection.
• Synthetic theory of evolution.
• Why is evolution still considered a theory?
• Evolution theory of a social change.
• Evolutionary psychology.
• Mutation theory by De Vries.
• Neo-Darwinism.
• The types of evolutionary theories.
• The contribution of Alfred Wallace in the evolution theory.
• Who should be credited for evolution theory – Wallace or Darwin?
• Objections to evolution theory.
• Proof of evolution.
• How does evolution explain morality?

      How to Write an Evolution Essay

1 Evolution Essay Structure

The structure of an evolution essay is what you should know even before you decide on a topic and there is a good reason for that! There are three major elements that your essay structure should include to make sure that your professor will not decrease your future grade:

• Introduction . It provides the readers with a brief outlook on your topic, your essay structure, the elements included, and the main idea that you want to communicate. It is where your strong thesis statement or an argument go to! Make sure your introduction contains the following:
• A strong hook sentence – an attention-grabbing element that is usually in the first 1-2 sentences of the essay. Since we have to write an essay about the evolution theory, we will choose a scientific fact or refer to an impressive discovery that refers to evolution. A reason why hook should be there is to capture your reader’s interest and attention!
• Overview of your major argument and topic – let the readers know what they are about to find out and learn as they read your evolution essay!
• A brief overview of the essay structure – explain how and in what order you are planning to develop each part of your paper.
• Thesis statement – the main idea or the quintessence of your essay. Make sure to write several thesis statements and choose the one that not only sounds best but the one that you can back up and explain with the help of scientific data and credible references.
• Body paragraph includes the consistent and logical sequence of paragraphs that reveal all the facts and arguments that you use to support your thesis statement.

Make sure to:

• Use verified sources – evolution theory is a scientific theory that has plenty of evidence, so make sure that you include as many credible references as necessary!
• Be logical and consistent – let your readers follow your logic easily. Remember that your audience may differ, so make sure to write a sentence or two that explains your vision and the concepts you are discussing. If it requires more work or a reference to a case study, make sure to include it in your paper.
• Start every paragraph with a topic sentence – it will be much easier for you to write each section if you start writing them with a thesis that reflects the content of the paragraph.
• Explain the facts included in the essay – demonstrate your understanding of the facts you use in the essay and their relevance to the main topic and thesis statement
• Avoid plagiarism – copying someone else’s work without reference is not cool while using numerous sources to support your thought with an academic claim is entirely another thing that makes your essay look credible and professional!
• Conclusion part is where you summarize the whole essay without the introduction of any new ideas . Remind your readers of the most important facts and the findings they should remember when they are done reading your essay. Restate your thesis statement in other words to make the essay sound logical and integrated.

2 Argumentative Essay on Evolution Writing Tricks

When you have to write an argumentative essay on evolution, there are some writing tricks that you should mind to avoid trouble with your paper and impress your college or university professor.

• Include your own opinion on an issue that you discuss – an argumentative essay requires having your own stance on a problem or what most college professors call “a voice of the writer.” Ask yourself about how can YOU contribute to the issue since it is your paper and it has to stand out!
• Defend your view on the issue using as many verified facts as you can!
• Include the viewpoints that oppose yours – and prove them wrong . Do so with the facts and use strong reasoning.
• Do not simply restate thesis statement in conclusion , but readdress it using the evidence you accumulated through the body paragraphs.
• Use classic 5-paragraph essay format (if you are not required to do otherwise) – Introduction, 3 Body Paragraphs, and Conclusion. Such an approach will help you to see where all that information belongs!

      Evolution Essay “Do’s and Dont’s”

• Research your facts, the background of the issue, and the case studies (if relevant) as you choose your future topic and read the list of topic examples below.
• Include scientific facts in your essay and use professional language.
• Start your introduction with an interesting hook by stating why is the topic of choice relevant to you and society.
• Use strong thesis statement as your guideline to make sure that you don’t deviate from the topic.
• Double-check your facts and always back up your paper with academic journals and credible references.
• Do not underestimate the use of drafts as you write the paper.
• Do not use the same wording for the thesis statement as for your hook sentence. These are two different matters where one of them is an introduction, and the other one is the reason for your research.
• Do not simply copy scientific information without your personal comment and consideration. If it has to be there, explain how and why.
• Do not underestimate the importance of an outline, format, and the body structure.
• Do not ignore the importance of proofreading because it will help you to eliminate typos, grammar mistakes, and accidental repeating of the same sentence.

      Help! I’m Still Stuck!!!

Sometimes even the list of helpful topic ideas and the essay writing guides are still not enough because the deadline is coming up and you have not yet started. In other cases, it is way too difficult to find the right sources, and you need just a bit of help to get your paper done. It is exactly the moment when you need professional help and someone who can help you get out of this “I’m Stuck!” mode.

The help is already here for you as our skilled team of biology and life sciences experts, as well as professionals in the other fields of science, are ready to help you work through the most complex assignments and be there to make you come up with a great topic idea! All you have to do is tell us of your homework task, fill in the simple form, and we shall connect you with a skilled geek who knows how to help and do so timely! It is absolutely safe and confidential, let alone that it is fine to ask for help when you need it! Our team knows how much challenging all of these tasks are, so it is guaranteed that you will be guided through each problem and issue that you have to deliver a great final paper. No matter what your problem may be, we are ready to help you identify and deal with it!

I am sincerely hoping that my 100 evolution essay topics and the writing guide article have helped you to get an idea of how to write your paper. If not, remember what I have mentioned in a paragraph above! 🙂 In case you have something to add or want to share something important, feel free to post in the comments below! I wish you the best of luck and let us make an evolution with a truly awesome paper!

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Everyday life and its variability influenced human evolution at least as much as rare activities like big-game  hunting

Professor and Chair of Biology at Seattle Pacific University and Affiliate Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of Washington

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Think about taking a walk: where you need to go, how fast you need to move to get there, and whether you need to bring something along to carry the results of your errand.

Are you going on this walk with someone else? Does walking with a friend change your preparation? If you’re walking with a child, do you remember to bring an extra sweater or a snack? You probably did – because people intuitively vary their plan depending on their current needs and situations.

In my research as an anthropologist , I’ve focused on the evolution of human walking and running because I love the flexibility people bring to these behaviors. Humans in all kinds of environments across space and time vary how far they go, when they go and what they go for – whether food, water or friends – based on a multitude of factors, including season, daylight, rituals and family.

Anthropologists split their studies of human activity into two broad categories: what people need to do – including eat, keep their kids alive and so on – and what solutions they come up with to accomplish these needs.

How people keep their children alive is a key issue in my research because it has a direct impact on whether a population survives. It turns out that kids stay alive if they’re with adults. To this end, it is a human universal that women carry heavy loads every day , including kids and their food. This needs-based behavior seems to have been an important part of our evolutionary history and explains quite a few aspects of human physiology and female morphology , such as women’s lower center of mass .

The solutions to other key problems, like specifically which food women will be carrying, vary across time and space. I suggest that these variations are as integral to explaining human biology and culture as the needs themselves.

Impacts of uncommon activities

Evolutionary scientists often focus on how beneficial heritable traits get passed on to offspring when they provide a survival advantage. Eventually a trait can become more common in a population when it provides a useful solution.

For example, researchers have made big claims about how influential persistence hunting via endurance running has been on the way the human body evolved. This theory suggests that taking down prey by running them to exhaustion has led to humans’ own abilities to run long distances – by increasing humans’ ability to sweat, strengthening our head support and making sure our lower limbs are light and elastic.

But persistence hunting occurs in fewer than 2% of the recorded instances of hunting in one major ethnographic database , making it an extremely rare solution to the need to find food. Could such a rare and unusual form of locomotion have had a strong enough impact to select for the suite of adaptive traits that make humans such excellent endurance athletes today?

Maybe persistence hunting is actually a fallback strategy, providing a solution only at key moments when survivorship is on the edge. Or maybe these capabilities are just side effects of the loaded walking done every day . I think a better argument is that the ability to predict how to move between common and uncommon strategies has been the driver of human endurance capacity.

Everyday life’s influence on evolution

Hunting itself, especially of large mammals, is hardly ubiquitous , despite how frequently it is discussed. For example, anthropologists tend to generalize that people who lived in the Arctic even up to a hundred years ago consumed only animal meat hunted by men. But actually, the original ethnographic work reveals a far more nuanced picture .

Women and children were actively involved in hunting, and it was a strongly seasonal activity. Coastal fishing, berry picking and the use of plant materials were all vital to Arctic people’s day-to-day sustenance. Small family groups used canoes for coastal foraging for part of the year.

During other seasons, the whole community participated in hunting large mammals by herding them into dangerous situations where they were more easily killed. Sometimes family groups were together, and sometimes large communities were together. Sometimes women hunted with rifles, and sometimes children ran after caribou.

The dynamic nature of daily life means that the relatively uncommon activity of hunting large terrestrial vertebrates is unlikely to be the main behavior that helps humans solve the key problems of food, water and keeping children alive.

Anthropologist Rebecca Bliege Bird has investigated how predictable food is throughout the day and the year . She’s noted that for most communities, big game is rarely caught, especially when a person is hunting alone. Even among the Hadza in Tanzania, generally considered a big-game hunting community, a hunter acquires 0.03 prey per day on average – essentially 11 animals a year for that person.

Bird and others clearly argue that the planning and flexible coordination done by females is the crucial aspect of how humans survive on a daily basis. It’s the daily efforts of females that allow people to be spontaneous a few times a year to accomplish high-risk activities such as hunting – persistence or otherwise. Therefore it is female flexibility that allows communities to survive between the rare big-game opportunities.

Changing roles and contributions

Some anthropologists argue that in some parts of the world, behavior varies more for cultural reasons , like what tools you make, than for environmental ones, such as how much daylight there is during winter. The importance of culture means that the solutions vary more than the needs.

One of the aspects of culture that varies is the role assigned to specific genders. Varying gender roles are related to the distribution of labor and when people take on certain solution-based tasks . In most cultures, these roles change across a female’s life span. In American culture, this would be like a grandparent going back to college to hone a childhood passion in order to take on a new job to send their grandchildren to college.

In many places, females go from youth when they might carry their siblings and firewood, to early parenthood where they might go hunting with a baby on their back , to older parenthood where they might carry water on their head, a baby on their back and tools in their hands, to postmenopausal periods when they might carry giant loads of mangoes and firewood to and from camp.

Even though always load carrying , our capacity to plan and change our behavior for diverse environments is part of what drives Homo sapiens ’ success, which means that the behavior of females across their different life stages has been a major driver of this capability.

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Essay on Human Evolution

Students are often asked to write an essay on Human Evolution in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Human Evolution

Introduction.

Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. It’s a fascinating journey that took millions of years.

The Beginning

Our story begins in Africa about 6 million years ago. The first humans were primates, similar to apes.

Walking Upright

Around 4 million years ago, early humans started walking upright. This trait, called bipedalism, set us apart from other apes.

Use of Tools

About 2.6 million years ago, humans started using tools. This was a major step in our evolution.

Development of Language

Language developed about 50,000 years ago. It allowed us to share knowledge and build societies.

Human evolution is a fascinating subject. It helps us understand where we come from and who we are.

250 Words Essay on Human Evolution

Introduction to human evolution.

Human evolution is an intriguing scientific concept that traces the progression of Homo sapiens from our early ancestors. It is a multidimensional process that has been shaped by natural selection, genetic drift, migration, and mutation over millions of years.

The Early Beginnings

The journey of human evolution began approximately 6 million years ago in Africa, with the emergence of the first hominins, our earliest ancestors. These hominins were distinguished from apes by their upright posture and bipedal locomotion.

The Genus Homo

Around 2 million years ago, the genus Homo appeared, characterized by a significant increase in brain size and the advent of tool use. Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and eventually Homo sapiens, our species, were part of this genus. Homo sapiens are unique in their capacity for complex language, abstract thought, and creativity.

The Role of Environment

Environmental changes played a critical role in human evolution. For instance, climate fluctuations led to the development of traits like bipedalism, which allowed early hominins to adapt to diverse habitats.

Modern Humans and Migration

Around 70,000 years ago, modern humans began migrating out of Africa, populating different parts of the world. This migration led to the development of diverse human populations with distinct genetic and cultural variations.

The story of human evolution is a testament to our species’ adaptability and resilience. It underscores the dynamic interplay between biology and environment, shaping our past and influencing our future. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of our evolution, we gain profound insights into what it means to be human.

500 Words Essay on Human Evolution

Human evolution is a fascinating and complex process that has shaped us into the beings we are today. It is a multidisciplinary field of science that encompasses biology, anthropology, archaeology, and genetics. The process of evolution involves a series of natural changes that cause species to arise, adapt to the environment, and eventually become extinct.

The Origins of Homo Sapiens

The journey of human evolution began approximately six million years ago in Africa, when the human lineage diverged from that of chimpanzees, our closest living relatives. The first species in the human lineage, known as hominins, were significantly different from modern humans. They had a combination of human-like traits such as upright walking, and traits we associate with other primates, such as a smaller brain size.

Over time, evolutionary pressures such as environmental changes and competition for resources led to the emergence of new hominin species. Around two million years ago, the genus Homo, which includes modern humans, emerged. The Homo species had larger brains and made sophisticated tools.

The Advent of Homo Sapiens

Approximately 300,000 years ago, Homo sapiens, our own species, appeared. Early Homo sapiens had a combination of physical traits from earlier hominin species and new traits that we still possess today, such as a high forehead and a chin. They also exhibited advanced behaviors, such as creating complex tools and engaging in symbolic behavior like art and burial rituals.

The Homo sapiens were not the only hominin species on Earth at that time. They coexisted, and sometimes interbred, with other species such as the Neanderthals. However, about 40,000 years ago, all other hominin species had become extinct, leaving Homo sapiens as the sole surviving species in the human lineage.

Migration and Modern Evolution

The Homo sapiens began to migrate out of Africa around 70,000 years ago, gradually populating the entire globe. They adapted to a variety of environments and developed diverse cultures. This migration and adaptation are reflected in the genetic diversity we see in modern humans.

Modern human evolution continues today. Humans are still evolving, with natural selection acting on traits such as resistance to diseases and the ability to digest certain foods. Furthermore, our cultural and technological advancements are now a significant driver of our evolution.

The journey of human evolution is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of our species. It is a complex process that has shaped our physical traits, behaviors, and cultures. As we continue to evolve and adapt to our changing world, we carry with us the legacy of millions of years of evolution. Understanding our evolutionary history not only helps us appreciate our place in the natural world but also sheds light on our future as a species.

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505 Evolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best evolution topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on evolution, ✅ simple & easy evolution essay titles, 🔍 good research topics about evolution, 🎓 writing prompts about evolution, 📌 interesting topics to write about evolution, ❓ evolution essay questions.

• The Rise and Evolution of the World of Islam Prophet Muhammad, who was was born and raised in Mecca, started spreading the teachings of Islam in Saudi Arabia and this marked the origin of Islam.
• International Organizations and Their Evolution In this context, it can be stated that this strategy of international politics recognizes the belief that organizations and institutions are key ways of promoting peace around the world.
• The History and Evolution of the Visual Basic Programming Language It is a specific language that is used by users to have a flexible environment in which they interact easily with the computer it is the best programming language and the easiest to use.
• The Stone Age Period and Its Evolution Therefore, the term is associated with the tools and the equipments that the ancient people made from the stones. In the Neolithic age, there was development of weaving, pottery and metal weapons and tools began […]
• Computer Technology: Evolution and Developments The development of computer technology is characterized by the change in the technology used in building the devices. The semiconductors in the computers were improved to increase the scale of operation with the development of […]
• Importance of History and Evolution of Businesses to Managers Business managers are expected to organize, plan, control and oversee the implementation of business plans and strategies with the ultimate aim of accomplishing the goals and objectives of the firm.
• Geography, its Evolution and Future Geography is the study of the earth and the natural features that characterize it. The revolution was related in some way, to the methods in which the researchers studied the earth and the processes occurring […]
• Evolution of Television Throughout the decade, the cable television was the means of transmission between the transmitters in television network premises and the receivers at the viewer’s home.
• “Why Evolution Is True?” by Jerry A. Coyne The reader is able to use this vivid substantiation of claims to understand the author’s need to introduce the aspect of God who is at the center of these natural happenings.
• The Evolution of the Automobile & Its Effects on Society This piece of work will give an exhaustive discussion of the evolution of the automobile and the effects it has had on the society.
• Principles & Concept of Total Quality Management Essay The second principle of TQM is that the problem in most companies is the processes but not the people. This was based on the fact that the quality of the products was determined by all […]
• Sports Photography and Its Evolution The death of Niepce was announced in 1833, but the experiment was still been performed by Daguerre and he succeeded in the development of the daguerreotype finally in 1837.
• English Language Evolution Because of the consolidation processes which England was experiencing in the course of the sixteenth century and the following strengthening of the empire, as well as the establishment of the relationships with other states of […]
• Evolution of the Clock In this light, the paper tracks changes in the operation mechanisms of the clock in the quest to provide theoretical records of evolution of engineering.
• Evolution of Fire Fighting Gear The traditional shape of the helmet was created with a short brim on the front and a long brim on the back to keep embers and hot water from going down the back of the […]
• The Times New Roman Font: Evolution and Readability The typography used in a newspaper represents a sample of the state of the medium. 7There is however, a strong tendency to ensure the legibility of the style and the readability of the writing, at […]
• History of Hunting: Evolution and Improvement Contrary to the modern trend of hunting being more of a sport, during the pre-civilization era hunting was one of the main means of survival.
• The Evolution of Behavioral and Cognitive Development Theories of Crime Behavioral theory is based upon the principles of behavioral psychology and is the basis for behavior modification and change. This theory is founded on the belief that the way in which people organize their thoughts […]
• The Importance of Teaching Alternative Evolution Theories The theory of evolution should be the basis of the entire course of biology at school. The general representation of the leading alternative evolution concepts should be provided before the arguments for these theories implementation […]
• Stellar Evolution The mass of the star is, however, the most essential and influential factor that determines its lifetime especially when other factors are kept to a constant.
• Creationism vs. Evolution A piece of art showcases the aptitude of an artist, so does the earth and the universe that imply the reality and the potentiality of its stylist.
• The Evolution of the Car Engine France and the Great Britain reinforced the notion of the electric powered cars in the late 1800s. At the beginning of the century, a number of 33,842 electric vehicles in the United States became registered.
• Artificial Intelligence: The Trend in the Evolution Thus, the lens of history is a great way to consider knowledge and understanding of society and technology from a different angle in terms of comprehending the dynamics of society and the importance of technology […]
• Nursing History and Theory Evolution This paper aims to offer a comprehensive view of the history of nursing, major influences on the profession, and the evolution of nursing theory.
• The American Military and the Evolution of Computer Technology From the Early 1940s to Early 1960s During the 1940s-1960, the American military was the only wouldriver’ of computer development and innovations.”Though most of the research work took place at universities and in commercial firms, military research organizations such as the Office […]
• Candy Evolution Through the History The evolution of candy similar to those of the organism, may explain the reason why candy has found a centre spot in celebrating Darwin’s days. Valentine candy was used in the past and presently with […]
• The Evolution of Electricity In one of her works Diana Bocce observes, “The kite experiment helped Franklin establish a relationship between lightening and electricity, which led to the invention of the lightning rod” This is considered one of the […]
• Hebrew Monotheism: Origins and Evolution In the book of Exodus, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God and one of the commandments was to worship one God only.
• The Evolution of Human Rights: France vs. America The Age of Enlightenment made human rights one of the major concerns of the world community, which led to the American and French Revolutions the turning points in the struggle for justice.
• Harry Winston Fashion Brand and Its Evolution Harry Winston Diamond Corporation was founded in the year 1932 and is headquartered in New York. Harry Winston has remained a powerful brand in the global jewelry industry.
• Earth Atmospheric Evolution It is believed that the different geological evolutions of the earth and the atmosphere have come up with very new species of animals following a transformation of the then existing animals, as well as extinction […]
• The Evolution of Nursing Overview When defining the notion of nursing in the context of the 21st century, many people fail to reflect on the historical precedents that contributed to the development of nursing as a separate qualification.
• Personal Computer Evolution Overview It is important to note that the first evolution of a personal computer occurred in the first century. This is because of the slowness of the mainframe computers to process information and deliver the output.
• Embedded Intelligence: Evolution and Future The importance of mobility in the current business context has motivated the use of embedded technology to design systems. It is used in the management of energy systems such as production, distribution, and optimization.
• Horse Family and Its Evolution Fossil records reveal a wide study of the evolution of the horse. This paper examines the evolutionary trend of the horse.
• The Evolution of Dragons in Fantasy Fiction One of the most significant figures among the range of the animals inhabiting the land of fantasy is a dragon, the symbol of wisdom and power.
• Urbanism in Architecture: Definition and Evolution In general urbanism is a very wide concept that is used to describe an urban centre architectural system in its totality beyond the mere building structures and includes a city’s infrastructure system, economy, geography, social-cultural […]
• Phonograph Invention and Evolution The time period the phonograph was invented and the circumstances that led to the invention. The invention and advancement of the phonograph and its operations has had a part to play on other inventions.
• The evolution of McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y in relation to the development of management theory The natural response of managers was to be more stringent and consequently the employees reacted to it, resulting in a viscous cycle.
• The Private Security’ History and Evolution However, it was after this era when the parliament in the United States organized a number of security studies in order to expand the scope of security channels in various institutions including the inclusion of […]
• Internet Evolution and Structure The creation of the network was meant to be a security measure to ensure that data and information belonging to ARPA remained within the system.
• The Evolution of Human Skin Color The amount of UV light depends on the latitude: the highest concentration is spread throughout the equator, while the areas close to the Earth’s poles had it in scarcity. Both folate and vitamin D contributed […]
• Co-Evolution: Angiosperms and Pollinating Animals The birds need nectar from the flowers, the plants that produce nectar consequently only do so to attract these birds and insects, for the process of drawing nectar from these plants to be possible, the […]
• Human Evolution and Animal Extinction The recent scholarly findings prove that invasions of Homo sapiens to the Austronesian and American continents were the major factors that conditioned the extinction of numerous animal species.
• Human Circulatory System and Evolution The coronary circulation involves the movement of blood through the tissues of the heart while the systemic circulation involves taking blood to all the rest of the body tissues and back to the heart”.
• The Evolution of the Chinese Brush Painting Other ritual vessels in the country were decorated using the brush and ink; resulting in the flourishing of the brush painting in the country.
• Music, Its Definition and Evolution It is in a romantic era when different types and functions of music were developed, followed by 20th-century music, where there was an increase in music listening and the emergence of new technology which made […]
• The FBI and Its Evolution Through the History To talk competently and properly about the start of the FBI, you need to know and understand the main purpose they are keeping to; “The mission of the FBI is to upload the law through […]
• Controversies on Darwin’s Theory of Evolution Although there are many theories which explain the origin of the earth, Darwin’s theory evokes strong responses due to the fact that it opposes religion and it does not meet all the requirements of a […]
• “The Facts of Evolution” by Michael Shermer The major theme of the article is the justification of Darwin’s evolution theory. The theory is based on the assumption that species are static, but the changes in species are very rapid, and, thus, the […]
• The Evolution of American Slavery Overall, it is possible for us to advance a thesis that the origins of black slavery should be sought in the economic development of American colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and especially the […]
• Creationism and Evolution The bible in the book of Genesis describes the origin of heaven and earth and everything that is in it; God created everything.
• Hominids and Stages of Human Evolution Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecines, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo Neanderthal are stages of human evolution with distinct physical appearances and behavior. The molars and premolars of Homo habilis were comparatively smaller than Ardipithecus and Australopithecus.
• The Evolution of the Greek Temple Admittedly, the architecture of ancient Greece had a great impact on the development of the architecture of the entire western civilization.
• Charles Darwin: Evolution Theory The naturalist of the time believed that everything in the world had a key role in the economic of nature and the credit was given to an intelligent creator.
• Neurophysiological and Evolutionary Theories While the brain plays a critical role in major processes of an individual, the concept of learning has occurred seamlessly throughout the lives of species. Hence, learning in this situation may depend on the power […]
• The Theory of Evolution It must be admitted that the theory of evolution has a number of legit points and has all the rights to be considered the most valid theory of all existing.
• Evolution of Construction Management From 1960s to Today Thus, the basic features of management within the scope of construction were visible already throughout the undertakings of the first people.
• American Popular Music and Its Evolution Compared to the country blues popular in the 1900s, classic female blues combines its features with urban theater music, and “Crazy Blues” is one of the first songs of this genre.
• Evolution of Clothes and Fashion in Twentieth Century The first half of the century was notable for the development of artistic movements, which contributed to the emergence of new elements in clothes.
• Soccer in America: Its History, Origin, Evolution, and Popularize This Sport Among Americans The coverage of the history of this game which is also popularly known as soccer is quite diverse and different ideas have been put across as to where the game originated and its evolution to […]
• Why Evolution Is True? A study of some of the fossil evidence using some of the modern tools shows a clear pattern of evolutionary change that make it easy to appreciate that evolution could be true.
• Evolution of Predator and Prey Pairings Given the fact that prey and predator pairings threatens the survival of the prey there are other external factors that contribute to the elimination of the prey species.
• Historical Evolution of Technology in Healthcare During the 18th century, the medical field was in disarray due to the lack of organization and deaths resulting from inefficiencies and negligence of doctors.
• Evolution of Makkah as a City The first pattern is a central business district, in this pattern the shape has been affected by the natural topography of the city of Makkah.
• Nursing as a Discipline: Evolution and Education This paper aims at discussing and describing the evolution of the nursing profession to date, its mode of conduct, and the differences between associate nurses and Baccalaureate nurses.
• The Evolution of Heavy Metal Rock Music in UK and US In the United States, the tempo of heavy metal music is slower than the heavy metal rock music in Great Britain.
• Scientist Charles Darwin & Evolution By the year 1846, Darwin had a number of publications relating to zoological and geological discoveries of his expedition works that catapulted him in the scientists front rank.
• Evolution: Primate Locomotion and Body Configuration The idea that mobility of upper limbs was least in prosimians, greater in monkeys, greater still in apes, and most in humans was a useful idea for viewing the primates in earlier times.
• Women’s Status in the Workforce and Its Evolution However, I was interested in taking a historical excursion into the evolution of the position of women in the labor market and understanding how women of the last century felt in the labor market and […]
• Tesla: Testing a Business Model at Its (R)Evolutionary Best To examine the sustainability of Tesla’s business model, one needs to get to the very core of what the company is actually doing on the market and in the business world.
• Ponyboy’s Evolution in Hinton’s “The Outsiders” Two of Ponyboy’s friends die, and he sees a lot of violence in the streets. He is still a part of the gang, and he thinks that violence is a part of their life.
• Graphic Card Industry and Evolution A graphic card, usually, referred to as a video card or a graphic accelerator card is an electronic circuit installed on the motherboard inside the central power unit, mostly on Laptops and desktop computers.
• Modern City and Human Society Evolution In this regard, it is possible to suggest that the evolution of the modern city will be conditioned by the blistering development of the business world and other tendencies related to the sphere of the […]
• The Evolution of Harriet Tubman When describing Harriet Tubman’s psychosocial development during the first stage, it is important to examine her relationship with the parents, especially with her mother.
• The Evolution of Philips Organization Reorganization in the 1990s demonstrated that the company’s effectiveness of Philips was earlier reduced due to the specific approach to the senior management selection.
• Distance Learning and Its Evolution Definitions of distance education are varied and diverse, but the main concept of distance learning can be summarized from the situation wherein the student and the educator are separated by distance and time and the […]
• The Evolution of Television The discovery of the photoconductive properties of selenium by Willoughby Smith and his assistant in 1873 completely changed the things in the history of television.
• Evolution of Amazon Business Model In this whole process, it will have to entice the customers to pay for the value and so it is a proposition of what the customer expects in terms of product, how they want it […]
• Evolution and Importance of Advertising in a Context of Modern Society It is difficult to overestimate the importance of advertising within the modern society as the main tool of persuasion of the audience and advancement of the companies and their products.Dr S.
• History and Evolution of the Guitar Instrument According to Scott, one final and significant development in the evolution of the guitar is the increasing attention given to musical composers.
• Money: Evolution, Functions, and Characteristics It acts as medium of exchange where it is accepted by both buyers and sellers; the buyer gives money to the seller in exchange of commodities.
• Parasite Toxicity: Parasite Evolution and Host Adaptation The most devastating effects of a parasite to the host are related to the toxicity of the parasite. The phenomenon of natural selection leads to the molecular evolution and ultimately changes the chemical and biological […]
• Charitable Organizations and Trust Models: Duties and Ethics The main objective of duty of obedience is to ensure and maintain that the performance of the trustee in so far as the usage of trust funds are concerned, are in line with the objectives […]
• Tracing Our Roots: Early Human Evolution and Socioeconomic Practices This was due to the need to know the past in order to understand the present and be able to predict the future as an effort to satisfy human curiosity through knowledge The socioeconomic practices […]
• Classical Symphonies: Investigating Style Evolution of Western Classical Music The formative period of classical music was between the 18th and 19th centuries. Beethoven wrote music slowly and purposely with the romantics’ guidance.
• Modernist Movement in Music: Investigating Style Evolution of Western Classical Music The modernist movement in music seems appropriate for this paper because of the unique and exciting styles of composing modern-era music, such as jazz, pop, and rock.
• Evolutionary Psychology and Christian Worldview Since psychology studies the human mind and behavior of people and thus it incorporates and implements various scientific fields and methods to do so.
• The Automotive Technology Evolution This marked the beginning of the car industry, which ultimately led to the development of modern automobiles and opened the way for their production. The reliability and safety of automobiles have increased due to technological […]
• Hominin Evolution: Biological and Cultural Aspects The brain capacity of Homo habilis creatures was greater compared to their ancestors enabling them to become more intelligent. The locomotion of Homo habilis was aided by their legs and forelimbs.
• The Evolution of Boy and Girl Characters Through the Decades That depiction of the boy character reflects the expectations for boys in the 1940s, which were heavily influenced by the traditional values of the time.
• The Juvenile Justice System Evolution Process The notion of due legal process, in turn, implies the maturity and autonomy of the person involved in the due process.
• Linguistic Evolution: Language Development The ability to acquire new things and keep the brain active and healthy is greatly enhanced by acquiring a second language other than one’s native tongue. Identifying language as a tool for forming connections and […]
• Unveiling the Evolution of Geography Much of the Middle Ages’ astronomy and geography may be traced back to the claims of Claudius Ptolemy, a Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He wrote about it in The Almagest, a book about the […]
• Transhumanism and Its Impact on Human Evolution The same thoughts began to spread within the framework of eugenics in the early 20th century in the form of various conferences and meetings.
• Human Evolution and Bio-Cultural Changes The concept of the human sphere was introduced in the 30s of the XX century simultaneously in different countries by several scientists.
• The Origin of Man and Primates’ Evolution However, one can merely comprehend the origin of man if one considers history from the beginning of the evolution of the order of primates. Primates are masters of living in the trees due to their […]
• The Evolution of Modern US Society: The US Foreign Policy The economy of the antebellum era was characterized by significant growth, which was attributed to the slave economy, which was common among the southerners and the family farms in the northern states, and the waged […]
• The Evolution and Impact of Advertising in the Medical Sector The negative impact of advertising has often been a myth and has not been adapted to the specific influence in the area under consideration.
• Telehealth’s Evolution: Navigating Health and Equality Across Pandemic Phases By offering estimates of the effect of improved access to telehealth services on the general public, this research adds to the larger body of work on telecare.
• Aspects of Human Evolution and Progress The concepts of human evolution and progress have evolved throughout history leading to different perspectives on the scientific, agricultural, and language themes resulting in universal similarities that have shaped the nature of the world today.
• The Evolution of Private and Public Unions Public sector unions first appeared in the 1900s, after private sector unions in the middle of the 1800s. Since the middle of the 20th century, the membership of unions in the public and commercial sectors […]
• Primal Vocal Communication and Evolution of Speech The focus on primate vocal communication and its significance to the evolution of speech, the main form of human communication, led to the selection of a paper by Fischer J, “Primate Vocal Communication and the […]
• Philosophizing About Music and Its Evolution Applying the cultural lens to the notion of music and the associated concepts implies revisiting the current understanding of the specified notions.
• Theories of Galaxy Evolution: Looking at the Bigger Picture From the point of galaxy evolution, it means that the stellar mass of the galaxy also intensifies with time due to the existence of trends in the spectral energy distribution.
• Evolution of Humans: The Main Theories The process of evolution is one of the closest to the human being as people constantly invent new technologies and expand their minds.
• Evolution of Political Philosophy: Smith & Arendt The flowering of the ideas of political economy in the historical sense came in the works of the eighteenth-century English economist Adam Smith.
• The Video Game Industry Evolution The first mention of the creation of such games dates back to the 1940s, but it was in 1952 that Alexander Shafto “Sandy” Douglas officially presented his dissertation at the University of Cambridge. One of […]
• Social Darwinism: Evolutionary Explanations in Sociology In order to understand the reasons behind the failure of social Darwinism to describe society objectively, it is essential to review this ideology’s common arguments.
• Hyper Evolution: The Rise of the Robots From the video, the robots look like real human beings, and they have been capacitated to act in a human way in what is known as machine learning technology powered by artificial intelligence. Hyper evolution […]
• Greek Sculpture and Its Evolution Over Time The shape of the hands was sculptured to be held close to the sides of the statue; their fists were clenched, their knees were rigid, and their hair was stylized.
• Analysis of Nursing Practice Evolution Nursing started as a profession in the middle of the 19th century, with most historians crediting Florence Nightingale as the person who founded nursing.
• Evolutionary and Revolutionary Models of Change in Management At the same time, the rush and the absence of back-and-forth communication usually mean that revolutionary change has to be maintained to prevent the company from reverting to the old ways.
• Technical Evolution of Automobiles In 1888, the practically of Benz’s car would come to test when his wife, Bertha, and their two sons embarked on a journey using a better version of the car.
• Creation and Evolution According to Holy Bible This doctrine has been validated by the Church, based on the first passage of the Bible: “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the world”. Overall, being in line with the biblical viewpoint, both […]
• Evolutionary Psychology and Psychological Anthropology Coupled with the tendency to avoid uncertainty and the positive activation of the emotional system by fantasies about winning, humans’ reliance on crude calculations of odds makes lottery gambling something attractive.
• Computer Usage Evolution Through Years In the history of mankind, the computer has become one of the most important inventions. The diagnostics and treatment methods will be much easier with the help of computer intervention.
• Aggression in Nonhuman Primates and Human Evolution Comparing and analyzing the sources of aggression among chimpanzees and bonobos revealed that environmental factors, such as food availability, determined key differences of social structure and aggression patterns in chimps and bonobos.
• The US Federal Authority: History and Evolution Moreover, according to Grodzins, the sheer force employed in persecuting African-Americans in their movements for Civil rights was also facilitated by Federalism.
• Evolutionary Biology and Darwin The lack of knowledge about the laws of heredity, the genetic and ecological structure of species, and the lack of experimental evidence of natural selection served as the basis for the growth of critical attitudes […]
• Early Evolution of Parole in the US In Chapter 3, there is a discussion on the early evolution of parole in the US, as well as its utilization in the current sentencing practices.
• Study About the Greek Evolution Following the development of the polis, the Greeks initiated the formation of different political structures in the country. Athens played a vital role in the Persian war by defeating the Persians in the salamis and […]
• Sociology: History, Early Theories, and Evolution In the middle of the first millennium BC, the awareness of the inevitability of social inequality resulted in a conceptual justification of its necessity.
• Healthcare Evolution and Its Effect on the US Thus, presuming inequality in the fabric of the nation and lack of the feeling of “sameness” is one part of the reason for the lack of unified healthcare.
• Materiality, Agency and Evolution of Lithic Technology The authors’ hypothesis is to conduct a re-assessment of materiality theory and to broadly re-articulate the debate about the evolution of the human species.
• The Historical Evolution of Perceptions Towards Gender Some of the main questions of what is appropriate to the people of certain gender have been present and debated about for a long time.
• Origin of the Earth: The Creation and Evolution Theory The Catholic Church believes in both the creation and evolution theory. According to the Catholics, all Christians believe in a unique creation carried out by God in six days, and there is a strong belief […]
• Racism Evolution: Experience of African Diaspora As a result, distinct foundations fostered the necessity of inequality to establish effectiveness of inferiority and superiority complexes. To determine the effect of slavery and racism to modern society.
• Emotional Evolution and Mental Problems in Postmodern Literature For the first time, the authors started talking about the horrors of war and the animal fear that a person experiences.
• Researching of Evolution of Love Intimacy, as a component of the triangular theory of love, is the feeling of bondedness, connectedness, and closeness in a relationship.
• Northwest Coast Masks: Evolution of Cultural Complexity According to Coupland, “the development of the Northwest Coast ethnographic pattern those uniquely complex ethnographic hunting-and-gathering societies has been the focus of many archaeological investigations on the Northwest Coast of North America”.
• The Evolutionary Theory in the Context of Modern Sociology A theory is a connected system of general concepts, constructs, or propositions presenting a systematic view of phenomena through the specification of variables to explain the phenomena.
• History: Evolution of Humans The first picture demonstrates the areas of the settlement of modern humans’ predecessors, namely, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens, as well as the times of the migration of Homo sapiens to different regions.
• Evolutionary Ethics vs. Belief in God In addition, the disadvantage of the evolutionary theory is that moral and ethical norms cannot be determined only to a biological degree.
• First Reptiles Adaptation: Amniotic Egg Evolution The amniotic egg evolution is an adaptation that allowed the first reptiles to thrive in a dry land the development occurred over 300 million years ago. The robust shell protects the egg from drying out, […]
• Lenski’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution An evaluation of the progression of crime, deviance, and social control through these stages is demonstrative of the theory’s applicability. The forms and means of crime and deviance were rudimentary during the pre-industrial age, and […]
• Categorizing Human-Made Objects: How It Shaped the Evolution of Display Spaces Due to the introduction of museums and display spaces in the 1500s-1830s, the opportunity to apply the historical lens to historical objects has emerged, helping to discover and appreciate the information about the specifics of […]
• The Evolution of Women’s Rights Through American History From the property-owning women of the late 18th century to the proponents of the women’s liberation in the 1960s, women always succeeded in using the influential political theories of their time to eventually make feminist […]
• Aspects of Evolution and Creationism The adheres to the theory of divine spark and pays special attention to the ability of organisms to adapt to various conditions and the complexity of their structure.
• Evolution: Natural Selection in Action The population of these moths will have both dark and white moths at the starting point. The dark moths reproduced successfully due to lack of predation.
• Evolution of Public Policies in Healthcare – Role and Impact of Nurses In California in the 1990s changes in health care delivery resulted in reduced nursing jobs and consequent higher stress for nurses, affecting the safety of patients.
• Evolutionary Changes of Animals and Plants This presentation will show how animals and plants evolved with time passing. It is critical to examine the factors that underlie these processes and their outcomes.
• Evolution of Autonomous Driving Technology The torpedo could travel hundreds of meters while maintaining underwater depth due to its pressurization system known as ‘The Secret.’ The Secret was a combination of hydrostatic and pendulum that gave the hydroplane stability to […]
• Anthropology: Evolution of Human Language and Tongue According to the anatomical characteristics of humans the ability to produce speech was pursuant to them. They lived among hominids which noise and sounds they tried to come after.
• Evolutionary and Socioemotional Selectivity Theories Namely, interpersonal relationships in the family are the basis of socialization and intellectual development as they connect a person with other people, allowing the developing of a personality and forming an identity.
• Evolution: Taxonomy, Primate Physiology The bones in the snake are the last remaining parts of the pelvis though the snake’s bones however, the snake does not have bones.
• Nigeria’s Economic Evolution and Future Growth The Federal Republic of Nigeria is a country located in the western part of the African Continent. The paper is going to tackle the economic evolution and the current economic status of Nigeria.
• On the Evolution of MTV and Music Videos The nature of the music industry had a great transformation with the birth of MTV and acquired a glory in the next several years.
• The Evolution Of Cell Types: Evolution of a Menace Antibiotic resistance The capability of a bacterial species to survive the impact of the administration of chemicals that are designed to induce death is known as antibiotic resistance.
• Organ System and Evolution The resistant bacteria can survive and continue to multiply even in the presence of the antibiotics that were once used to eradicate them.
• “Molecular Insights Into Classic Examples of Evolution” Current research, as discussed by the symposium speakers explicitly cited in this article, reveals that genetics plays a fundamental role in evolution science and it is indeed the mutation of genes that actually allows organisms […]
• Evolution of Community Correctional Programs One of the varieties of the sanctuary was applied to all members of the public while the other was reserved to the church members only.
• Evolution of Understanding of Medical Ethics From Past to the Present A look at the concern about the treatment of human subjects, the history of human subjects, the current treatment of human subjects and the real impact of the treatment of human subjects and research done […]
• Parasites and Hosts Relations Over Evolutionary Time Subsequently, within the secondary host, the behavior of the parasite that makes the secondary host more at vulnerable risk to being consumed by the primary host would be anticipated to evolve.
• How Biogeography Supports the Theory of Human Evolution This segment of the study reveals variation in biological communities of organisms in the lines of geographical gradients of elevation, habitat area, isolation, and latitude.
• Emerging Infectious Disease: Epidemiology and Evolution of Influenza Viruses The chain of infection of H1N1 influenza is hard to break because it is transmitted through the respiratory system and contact. When a human being is infected with the H1N1 virus, is mainly due to […]
• Humans Are Not the “Last Point” in the Evolution of Vertebrates This paper focuses on the evolution of animals and in precise the evolution of the vertebrates. It shows that the mammals were are not the highest evolution of the vertebrates but some more animals and […]
• Impact of Specialization and Evolution in Law These changes include increased demand for legal services from the ever-expanding corporate world and individuals who were previously underrepresented, an increase in the number of female lawyers, and an increase in the number of minorities […]
• “The Evolution of the New Environmental Metaparadigms of Nursing” by Kleffel Early nursing leaders such as Florence Nightingale and Lillian Wald had comprehensive perspectives of the environment and later on, their viewpoints on the impact of the environment of an individual helped to shape the nursing […]
• The Evolution of Probation, Parole, Prisons, Jails, and Sentencing
• Evidence for Biological Evolution
• The Theory of Evolution. Gene Responsible for Hairiness
• Structure and Evolution of Plants
• Evolution: Debunking Darwin’s and Lincoln’s Contributions
• Theories of Galaxy Formation and Evolution
• Biological Diversity Origin and Evolution Directionality
• Evolutionary Theory: Misconceptions Analysis
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution and Natural Selection
• Healthcare Evolution and Current Financial Decision-Making Situation
• Healthcare Facilities’ Design Evolution
• Summary Article and Video of Evolutionary Process
• The Role of Certain Genes in the Process of Evolution
• Evolution of Segmentation Among the Chordates, Annelids, and Arthropods
• The Origin and Evolution of Segmentation by Davis and Patel
• The Origin and Evolution of Segmentation: Analysis
• Origin and Evolution of Segmentation
• Finches and Worms’ Evolutionary Pattern
• Technological Evolution in the Financial Industry
• Evidence of the Evolutionary Process
• Evolution Development: Introducing New Species
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Thirteen Essays on Evolution and Creationism in Modern Debates

Stephen C. Barton and David Wilkinson (eds): Reading Genesis after Darwin. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. pp. xiv + 254. S/b $24.95

• Kim Paffenroth 1  

Evolution: Education and Outreach volume  3 ,  pages 297–299 ( 2010 ) Cite this article

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This anthology consists of 13 essays written by professors trained in biblical studies or theology, writing on the interpretation of Genesis (by which they almost exclusively mean the first chapter of Genesis) since Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859). After a brief Introduction by the editors, the book is then divided into three parts: “Engaging again with the Scriptures,” “Understanding the History,” and “Exploring the Contemporary Relevance.” It includes an index of modern authors and a subject index. References of works cited are included in the notes for each chapter, though a bibliography at the end would’ve been a welcome addition.

Section 1, “Engaging again with the Scriptures,” includes four essays. In “How Should One Read the Early Chapters of Genesis?” Walter Moberly discusses the implications of taking Genesis as “a literary phenomenon.” His conclusion is probably unremarkable to anyone trained in modern, liberal biblical criticism, and it will recur in similar terms in several of the other essays: Moberly challenges us to see in Genesis biblical ideas such as “wonder and delight of the world, creaturely contingency, creaturely responsibility, the gift of relationship between creature and Creator, and the difficulty that humans have in genuinely trusting God as a wise Creator and living accordingly”. I think he is quite correct that this view maintains the text’s meaning and relevance, without insisting on a literal reading of it.

Francis Watson takes the history of controversy much further back, in his essay, “Genesis before Darwin: Why Scripture Needed Liberating from Science.” He traces what he calls the “annexation” of the Bible by astronomy and geology in the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries: harmonization of the biblical account with scientific findings (e.g. the “days as eons” solution) was done to the detriment or obfuscation of both. Darwin put forth his theory with no reference to Genesis, and according to Watson, this shows a more fruitful and beneficial relationship between Genesis and science—separation or liberation from one another.

In “The Six Days of Creation according to the Greek Fathers,” Andrew Louth discusses the interpretation of Genesis by Theophilos of Antioch and Basil. Louth’s conclusions echo Moberly’s, in that he counsels some of the same attitudes toward creation, showing how ancient theologians regarded the created world with “wonder” and “humility” and were convinced of its “interconnectedness”.

In “The Hermeneutics of Reading Genesis after Darwin,” Richard S. Briggs examines the comparison of Genesis with other ancient Near Eastern texts (a method of biblical study that was coming into vogue contemporaneously with Darwin), concluding that the process and implications of such “triangulating” are similar, whether one is comparing Genesis to the Enuma Elish or to Darwin.

Section 2, “Understanding the History,” includes three essays. It starts with John Rogerson’s “What Difference Did Darwin Make?: The Interpretation of Genesis in the Nineteenth Century,” which examines some biblical commentaries published shortly before and shortly after Darwin’s work, to see what effect (if any) it had on their interpretation of the Genesis text. The examination does a good job of showing there was no unanimity among interpreters as to the meaning of Genesis, and a range of interpretations were advocated, both before and after Darwin. Perhaps even more interestingly, even within the group that rejected his theory, interpretations of Genesis often differed.

John Headley Brooke, in “Genesis and the Scientists: Dissonance among the Harmonizers,” returns to some of the scientific controversies already examined in Watson’s essay, concluding similarly that Darwin’s theory may be more amenable to Christianity than attempts at harmonizing Genesis with current scientific theories, since Darwin “purged it [Christianity] of a semi-deistic position”. This is an important distinction for those who would “defend” the Bible, who too often seem to be defending a deistic position that God created the universe and let it go on its own subsequently, rather than defending the idea of a God who wishes to be in communion with humans (the more narrowly biblical concept of God, in either Jewish or Christian interpretation). He also speaks in terms similar to Moberly and Louth, counseling a “nonliteral reading of the text”, and focusing on the text’s primary relevance to “our human existential condition”. David Brown concludes the section with a discussion of some paintings in his essay, “Science and Religion in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Landscape Art.” The most familiar of these to readers is probably Dali’s “The Sacrament of the Last Supper.”

Section 3, “Exploring the Contemporary Relevance,” includes six essays. David Wilkinson’s “Reading Genesis 1-3 in the Light of Modern Science” gives perhaps the fullest summary of the interpretive issues, compared to the other essays in this collection. He puts Darwin in the context of other, sometimes more fundamental and intractable controversies with the Bible; he briefly describes the creationist alternative (pp. 132-135); he traces the various attempts at harmonization, with their pros and cons; and he lays out possible points where Genesis may still speak to the human condition and understanding. Echoing previous essays in the volume, his conclusion is that a primarily literary approach is needed to understand or appreciate the text, and this will yield an interpretation that does not address cosmogonic or biological data, but rather our “unique conscious intimacy with God”.

In “All God’s Creatures: Reading Genesis on Human and Nonhuman Animals,” David Clough argues that in light of evolution (and other observations of animal consciousness and rationality), Christians should abandon anthropocentric readings of Genesis (what he calls “human-separatist” readings throughout). Jeff Astley argues in “Evolution and Evil: The Difference Darwinism Makes in Theology and Spirituality” that evolution exacerbates the problems of theodicy by making suffering (and large amounts of it) intrinsic to creation.

In “’Male and Female He Created Them’ (Genesis 1:27): Interpreting Gender after Darwin,” Stephen C. Barton examines constructions of gender in the classical world, in the Bible, and in subsequent biblical interpretation, contrasting these with modern and postmodern analyses. Ellen F. Davis looks at how organisms fit into their environment in her essay, “Propriety and Trespass: The Drama of Eating,” drawing some conclusions for our current environmental situation and its (un)sustainability. Finally, Mathew Guest’s essay, “The Plausibility of Creationism: A Sociological Comment,” examines the current popularity of creationism in the USA (and to a much lesser degree in the UK), suggesting some sociological forces that may contribute to its acceptance, despite its logical or factual shortcomings.

Although I was excited when I first began reading this volume, this wore off in the course of study. I would single out three essays for praise. Moberly’s is a very helpful look at how believers could still maintain the importance and sacredness of the biblical text, without interpreting it literally. Rogerson’s is a wonderful and suggestive illustration of how Christian belief and interpretation are never monolithic, and never a matter of “good guys” versus “bad guys.” Wilkinson’s is a thorough and accessible discussion of the issues at stake. But overall, I was struck by how little the book deals with Darwin: it could be entitled “Reading Genesis in the Modern World” with little loss of focus. Several of the essays make only the barest nod toward Darwin before moving on to some topic only tangential to his work. The suggestions for the future interpretation of Genesis (literary criticism, a reading that encourages a sense of wonder and humility, the acknowledgment of human incompleteness and contingency, etc.), while sober and encouraging, are repeated by several contributors without much expansion or specificity (Moberly, Louth, Brooke, Wilkinson); such heuristic suggestions are also commonplace in biblical studies, so I found little new here that couldn’t be found in many introductory classes or texts on Genesis.

Several essays were much more deficient, in my estimation. Briggs’s idea that comparing Genesis to other, contemporaneous myths, and comparing it to a scientific treatise written 2,500 years later, are somehow similar comparisons, and the two interpretive acts can shed light on one another, struck me as odd, if not misleading. It overlooks the more fundamental difference in genre: comparing Genesis to other myths (contemporary with it or not) is probably more helpful to understanding it, than comparing it to scientific writings (from whatever time period, though especially a work that eschews teleological questions, and therefore has a completely different outlook than Genesis). Brown’s essay has little to do with the topic of this collection and barely mentions Darwin or Genesis: its observations would make a fine beginning to a chat about “art and spirituality,” but it has no place here. Clough’s essay doesn’t deal with “stewardship,” which many interpreters today would see as the crucial way to understand the biblical teaching on how humans differ from, and yet are immersed in, the created order. Neither Clough’s nor Barton’s essay deals with the differences between Genesis 1 and 2, again a crucial interpretive issue for understanding the text’s ambiguities (and discrepancies) on anthropocentrism and gender.

I say all this from the perspective of a biblical scholar of a decidedly liberal Protestant bent, for whom these issues are well-worn. Perhaps if I try to step outside of this context (and many of the essays in this collection properly remind us of how much context determines meaning), I might better see where some of these essays could fit into a useful discussion. I’d say that for someone who thinks (as many of my atheist and agnostic friends do) that all Christians are creationists, that all Christians immediately opposed Darwin’s ideas and continue to do so today, or that there is only one way to interpret Genesis—for a reader with such impressions, the better written, more thorough of these essays would prove enlightening, and might promote a dialogue that goes beyond secularists versus Biblicists, those who would discard the text versus those who cling to a literal interpretation of it. Such a dialogue might even become a mutual search for truth, conducted with real exchange, understanding, and respect.

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Theory of Evolution essay

Evolution as defined in biology, the continual process by which one form of life changes, or evolves, into another form. Some religious groups deny that evolution exists, but most scientists accept it as fact. The theory of evolution suggests that all plants and animals descended from one or several kinds of simple organisms. It also explains why there are so many different kinds of plants and animals. The inherited characteristics of nearly all living things change from generation to generation. In most cases, this change is so gradual that it is noticeable only after many years.

Eventually the accumulated changes may become so great that the descendant bears little likeness to its remote ancestor and may belong to different species. II. Discussion A. How evolution takes place? Natural selection. There are more plants and animals produced than can possibly survive, because there is not enough space and food to support them. The result is competition between living organisms in the struggle for survival. The individuals in each group are not all exactly alike. They have varying characteristics, and these variations may either help or hinder them in their struggle to live.

Organisms become extinct and die out, if they do not have enough of the kind of characteristic that enable them to get sufficient food and other necessities to withstand the climate, or to compete successfully with other forms of life. Mutation. To explain how plants and animals develop variations, biologists turn to genetics, the science of heredity. Genetics shows that characteristics are passed from parents to offspring by means of genes. When a gene is altered in anyway, the offspring acquires a new characteristic not possessed by either parent. This change in the genes is called mutation.

Sexual Recombination. The combining of genes from two parents is called sexual recombination and controls the rate at which variations occur. It permits enough variation to allow progressive evolution but not so much variation that the changes would be chaotic. The survival value of recombination is indicated by the fact that the large majority of plants and animals produce sexually. Isolation. New species of plants and animals can appear only when a genetically distinctive population is prevented from exchanging genes with closely related populations.

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Geographic isolation, or the separation of related groups by some kind of physical barrier such as mountain or desert, is the most usual type. Genetic isolation is the inability of the members of two related groups to bear fertile offspring when mated. B. History of the Theory of Evolution Many ancient myths were attempts to explain how the various plants and animals were created. Thales suggested that all life came from water. Aristotle believed that living things could arise out of non-living matter, and that more complex forms of life probably arose from simpler forms.

With spread of Christianity, men throughout the Western World accepted the story of Creation as told in Genesis, the first book of the Bible. For hundreds of years no further scientific though was devoted to the origin of life. By the 18th century scientists had again begun to investigate the development of living things. George Louis Buffon thought that environment acted directly to change the structure of plants and animals. Erasmus Darwin and Jean Baptiste Lamarck each advanced the now discredited theory that organisms inherit adaptations acquired during the lifetime of their parents.

The basis for the modern theory of evolution was formulated independently by Charles Darwin, grandson of Erasmus Darwin, and by Alfred Russel Wallace. They introduced their ideas about natural selection in joint papers read to a London learned society in 1858. Darwin’s Origin of Species in 18599, made the theory very famous. The Darwin- Wallace theory was incomplete, however, because neither man knew much about genetics. Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of heredity in the 1860’s, but his findings were neglected until 1900.

In 1937 the theories of natural selection and genetic variability were fused by Theodozius Dobhanzsky, a Russian born American biologist, in Genetics and Origin of Species. Dobhanzsky’s theory, called the Synthetic Theory, states that evolution is a two- step process. In the first step, genetic variations occur through mutations or by a chance combination of inherited genes. In the second step, desirable variations—those that produce traits that help the organism survive—are passed on to the next generation and become permanently established in the species.

When the theory of evolution first came to public attention in 1859 it was met with a storm protest and ridicule. Some people, misinterpreting the theory, thought it claimed that man was descended from apes. One religious objection to evolution was that it conflicted with the story of Creation as told in Genesis. In the United States some states passed laws making it illegal to teach evolution in public schools. Most religious denominations now accept the theory, but in varying degrees. Some see no conflict between evolution and theology.

Others accept the theory only as an unproved hypothesis still others accept only those parts that do not apply to man. A theory called Scientific Creationism states that scientific evidence points not to man’s evolution from lower species but to his creation by some external power or intelligence.

References: 1. Benton, Michael. The Story of Life on Earth. Watts, 1986. 2. Stein, Sara. The Evolution Book: the Story of 4000 Million Years of Life on Earth. Workman, 1986. 3. Whitcomb, J. C. , and H. M. Morris. The Genesis Flood: the Biblical Record and its Scientific Implications. Presbyterian & Reformed, 1982.

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Analysis: Everyday life and its variability influenced human evolution at least as much as rare activities like big-game hunting

Submitted by Arts & Sciences Web Team on May 8, 2024 - 7:59 am "In my research as an anthropologist, I’ve focused on the evolution of human walking and running because I love the flexibility people bring to these behaviors. Humans in all kinds of environments across space and time vary how far they go, when they go and what they go for – whether food, water or friends – based on a multitude of factors, including season, daylight, rituals and family," writes Cara Wall-Scheffler, affiliate assistant professor of anthropology at the UW. Featured on The Conversation   News Topic Research In the Press

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Century of statistical ecology reviewed

Crunching numbers isn't exactly how Neil Gilbert, a postdoctoral researcher at Michigan State University, envisioned a career in ecology.

"I think it's a little funny that I'm doing this statistical ecology work because I was always OK at math, but never particularly enjoyed it," he explained. "As an undergrad, I thought, I'll be an ecologist -- that means that I can be outside, looking at birds, that sort of thing."

As it turns out," he chuckled, "ecology is a very quantitative discipline."

Now, working in the Zipkin Quantitative Ecology lab, Gilbert is the lead author on a new article in a special collection of the journal Ecology that reviews the past century of statistical ecology .

Statistical ecology, or the study of ecological systems using mathematical equations, probability and empirical data, has grown over the last century. As increasingly large datasets and complex questions took center stage in ecological research, new tools and approaches were needed to properly address them.

To better understand how statistical ecology changed over the last century, Gilbert and his fellow authors examined a selection of 36 highly cited papers on statistical ecology -- all published in Ecology since its inception in 1920.

The team's paper examines work on statistical models across a range of ecological scales from individuals to populations, communities, ecosystems and beyond. The team also reviewed publications providing practical guidance on applying models. Gilbert noted that because, "many practicing ecologists lack extensive quantitative training," such publications are key to shaping studies.

Ecology is an advantageous place for such papers, because it is one of, "the first internationally important journals in the field. It has played an outsized role in publishing important work," said lab leader Elise Zipkin, a Red Cedar Distinguished Associate Professor in the Department of Integrative Biology.

"It has a reputation of publishing some of the most influential papers on the development and application of analytical techniques from the very beginning of modern ecological research."

The team found a persistent evolution of models and concepts in the field, especially over the past few decades, driven by refinements in techniques and exponential increases in computational power.

"Statistical ecology has exploded in the last 20 to 30 years because of advances in both data availability and the continued improvement of high-performance computing clusters," Gilbert explained.

Included among the 36 reviewed papers were a landmark 1945 study by Lee R. Dice on predicting the co-occurrence of species in space -- Ecology's most highly cited paper of all time -- and an influential 2002 paper led by Darryl MacKenzie on occupancy models. Ecologists use these models to identify the range and distribution of species in an environment.

Mackenzie's work on species detection and sampling, "played an outsized role in the study of species distributions," says Zipkin. MacKenzie's paper, which was cited more than 5,400 times, spawned various software packages that are now widely used by ecologists, she explained.

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Story Source:

Materials provided by Michigan State University . Original written by Caleb Hess. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Neil A. Gilbert, Bruna R. Amaral, Olivia M. Smith, Peter J. Williams, Sydney Ceyzyk, Samuel Ayebare, Kayla L. Davis, Wendy Leuenberger, Jeffrey W. Doser, Elise F. Zipkin. A century of statistical Ecology . Ecology , 2024; DOI: 10.1002/ecy.4283

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