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Methodology

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
How is anxiety experienced around the world?
How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square goodness of fit test
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

Prepare and organize your data.
Review and explore your data.
Develop a data coding system.
Assign codes to the data.
Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

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Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 4, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/

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Pritha Bhandari

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Research Paper Guide

Qualitative Research Method

Qualitative Research - Methods, Types, and Examples

16 min read

What is Qualitative Research - Definition

Qualitative research is a research methodology that aims to explore and understand the complexities of human behavior, emotions, and experiences through non-numerical data.

Unlike quantitative research, which deals in numbers and statistics, qualitative research is all about revealing the stories, and perspectives that make us uniquely human.

Let's dive deeper and discover why it's a powerful tool in the researcher's arsenal.

Purpose of Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research simplifies the understanding of complex human behavior and experiences. Its purpose is to:

Explore Complex Phenomena: Qualitative research allows us to delve deep into intricate human experiences and behaviors.
Understand Motivations: It helps uncover the 'whys' behind actions, shedding light on underlying motivations.
Capture Richness: By collecting narratives and stories, qualitative research captures the richness of human life.
Generate Hypotheses: It often serves as a foundation for hypothesis generation in further quantitative studies.
Inform Decision-Making: Qualitative findings guide decisions in fields like psychology, sociology, and market research.
Contextualize Quantitative Data: It provides context to quantitative data, explaining the 'how' and 'why' behind the numbers.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

The following are the main characteristics of qualitative research.

The real-world setting is the first important characteristic. It involves various qualitative research methods to study the behavior of participants.
Researchers play an essential role in choosing a method and making a plan for conducting research.
All qualitative approaches have their significance and are used for different scenarios.
Qualitative research questions are beneficial for complex reasoning to get the right results.
It is also used to explain the outcome of quantitative research methods.
The role of participants is essential as it brings meaning to the study.
Qualitative research is flexible and can be changed at any stage of the research work.
It also describes the research problem by developing a complex cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.
Data analysis in qualitative research is an ongoing process.
Conclusions can be drawn based on the outcomes of the research process.
Participants are selected from a particular and relevant group.

Qualitative Research Methods

A detailed description of the major qualitative approaches to collecting data is given below.

In-depth Interview

In-depth interviews involve one-on-one conversations to gather detailed information about a specific topic. This method allows researchers to explore participants' motivations, inspirations, and body language.

Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, via email, or over the phone for flexibility.

Focus Groups

Focus groups consist of small group discussions (5-15 participants) on specific topics, ideal for 'what,' 'why,' and 'how' questions about society and the environment. They can be conducted in-person or online, offering versatility in data collection.

Direct Observation

Direct observation collects subjective data through the five senses without interference. It focuses on characteristics, not measurements, often in public settings where privacy isn't a concern.

Open-Ended Surveys

Open-ended surveys use structured or unstructured questions to collect information on respondents' opinions and beliefs, providing insights into their perspectives.

Participant Observation

Participant observation involves researchers actively participating in events while observing people in natural settings, offering firsthand experience and insights.

Literature Review

The literature review method interprets words and images from published works to analyze social life. It examines word usage in context to draw inferences and identify meanings.

Types of Qualitative Research

The following is a comprehensive overview of the types of qualitative research methods.

The case study research method has now become the most valuable method of conducting research. It has evolved in recent years and is used to explain an entity in detail.

Moreover, it also involves a thorough understanding of different types of data sources. These include interviews, documents, reports, and observations. Mainly, this research type is used in different areas like education, social sciences, etc.

Ethnographic Research

The ethnographic research method is the most familiar and in-depth observational method. It focuses on people and their behaviors in the natural environment.

Here, a researcher needs to adapt to the environment and society of the target audience to conduct better research. It helps to get a first-hand experience of the natural setting, including the customs, traditions, and culture of the subjects.

This type of research is a challenging and time-consuming process as it can last from days to years. However, geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

Grounded Theory

While other methods discuss and focus on an event or activity. The grounded theory method deeply looks into the explanation and the main theory behind the event.

It requires the researcher to observe the interviews and documents to build a theory. Moreover, it usually starts with a question or collection of data. However, the sample sizes in this method are usually larger than in other methods.

Phenomenological Method

This type is used in the description of an event, phenomenon, and activity. Here, methods like interviews, reading documents, visiting places, and watching videos are used.

This will help to add new insights to the existing data analysis by checking its reliability and validity.

Check out the video to learn more about the phenomenological method of qualitative research!

Narrative Method

The narrative method is used to gather data from subjects through interviews or documents. Later, the gathered information is used to derive answers and suggestions for future research.

Historical Method

The historical method involves the examination of past events to draw conclusions and predictions about the future. The steps included in the method are formulating a plan, gathering data, and analyzing the sources.

Steps in Conducting Qualitative Research

Conducting qualitative research is a systematic process that involves several key steps to ensure the collection of meaningful data.

Here's a chronological guide to conducting qualitative research:

Step 1: Define Research Objectives

Begin by clearly defining the research objectives and questions. What do you want to learn, explore, or understand through your qualitative research? This step sets the direction for your study.

Step 2: Select a Research Design

Choose an appropriate research design based on your objectives. Common designs include case studies, ethnography, grounded theory, or phenomenology. The design informs your data collection and analysis methods.

Step 3: Sampling Methods

Decide on your sampling strategy. Will you use purposive sampling to select specific participants who are most relevant to your research question? Or will you employ snowball sampling to find participants through referrals?

Step 4: Data Collection Techniques

Determine the data collection techniques that align with your research design. Depending on your approach, this may involve conducting in-depth interviews, facilitating focus groups, observing participants, or analyzing existing documents and content.

Step 5: Plan Interviews and Questions

If conducting interviews, create interview guides with open-ended questions. These questions should allow participants to share their thoughts, experiences, and perspectives freely. Ensure that questions are related to your research objectives.

Step 6: Conducting Data Collection

Collect data according to your chosen methods. For interviews, arrange and conduct interviews with participants, ensuring a comfortable and open environment. If using other techniques, follow the procedures outlined in your research design.

Step 7: Data Recording and Management

Record data meticulously. This may involve audio or video recordings, note-taking, or transcribing interviews. Organize and store data securely to maintain confidentiality.

Step 8: Data Analysis

Qualitative data can be in the form of interviews, transcripts, surveys, videos, audio, etc. The steps involved in qualitative data analysis are given below.

Organize the Data: This can be done by transcribing interviews or making detailed notes.
Review the Data: Examine the data, ideas, and patterns.
Establish a Data Coding System: Generate a set of codes that you can apply to classify your data.
Assign Codes to the Data: For qualitative survey analysis, create codes, and add them to your system.
Identify Themes: Link the codes together into cohesive themes.

Similarly, the following are different approaches to analyzing qualitative data.

Content Analysis – It is used to categorize common words and ideas.
Thematic Analysis – thematic analysis in qualitative research is used to identify and interpret different themes and patterns.
Textual Analysis – This type of analysis is used to examine the structure, content, and design of text.
Discourse Analysis – It is used to study how a language is used to achieve specific results.

Step 9: Validity and Reliability

Ensure the validity and reliability of your findings. Consistently apply your chosen analysis methods and cross-check interpretations with colleagues or participants to validate your results.

Step 10: Ethical Considerations

Throughout the research process, uphold ethical principles. Protect the privacy and anonymity of participants, obtain informed consent, and address any ethical concerns that may arise.

Qualitative Research vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative and quantitative research are two distinct approaches to conducting research. Here are the main differences between qualitative vs. quantitative research.

Looking for a more detailed comparison between these 2 types of research? Check out our qualitative vs. quantitative research blog.

Qualitative Research Topics

To write an amazing qualitative research paper, here are some interesting topics for you.

The Impact of Parental Involvement on Children's Education
Social Isolation and Loneliness Among the Elderly
Factors Influencing Consumer Choices in Sustainable Fashion
Coping Mechanisms for Stress Among College Students
Experiences of Immigrant Workers in Low-Wage Jobs
The Role of Music in Expressing Emotions and Well-being
Perceptions of Mental Health Stigma in Ethnic Communities
Exploring the Transition to Parenthood: Challenges and Joys
How Cultural Differences Influence Conflict Resolution Styles
The Influence of Family Dynamics on Eating Habits and Nutrition in Children

We have also compiled a list of research paper topics in case you need more unique ideas.

Qualitative Research Examples

Check out the examples of qualitative research to get a better idea of writing a qualitative research study.

Qualitative Research Example

Qualitative Research Paper Sample

Qualitative Research Limitations

The following discussed are the qualitative research limitations.

The qualitative research data involve fewer expenses and time.
It does not have large-scale data.
It requires a lot of time to manage, gather, and analyze data.
It is not possible to verify the results as it is open-ended research.
It is difficult to analyze the credibility and validity of data because of its subjective nature.
Expert knowledge of the area is necessary to understand the collected information.

In Conclusion, the qualitative research method shows the idea and perception of your targeted audience. However, not every student is able to choose the right approach while writing a research paper. It requires a thorough understanding of both qualitative research and quantitative research methods.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What are the two methods in research study.

There are two types of studies that involve observing people during a study, participant observation and non-participant observation.

Why is qualitative research better?

Because qualitative research includes the ability to gain unique insights through deep exploration. Survey respondents are able to disclose their experiences, thoughts, and feelings without constraint or influence from an outside source.

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Knowledge Base
Methodology
What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
How is anxiety experienced around the world?
How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

Prepare and organise your data.
Review and explore your data.
Develop a data coding system.
Assign codes to the data.
Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, January 30). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 2 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/introduction-to-qualitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

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J Pediatr Psychol

Commentary: Writing and Evaluating Qualitative Research Reports

Yelena p. wu.

1 Division of Public Health, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah,

2 Cancer Control and Population Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute,

Deborah Thompson

3 Department of Pediatrics-Nutrition, USDA/ARS Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Baylor College of Medicine,

Karen J. Aroian

4 College of Nursing, University of Central Florida,

Elizabeth L. McQuaid

5 Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University, and

Janet A. Deatrick

6 School of Nursing, University of Pennsylvania

Objective To provide an overview of qualitative methods, particularly for reviewers and authors who may be less familiar with qualitative research. Methods A question and answer format is used to address considerations for writing and evaluating qualitative research. Results and Conclusions When producing qualitative research, individuals are encouraged to address the qualitative research considerations raised and to explicitly identify the systematic strategies used to ensure rigor in study design and methods, analysis, and presentation of findings. Increasing capacity for review and publication of qualitative research within pediatric psychology will advance the field’s ability to gain a better understanding of the specific needs of pediatric populations, tailor interventions more effectively, and promote optimal health.

The Journal of Pediatric Psychology (JPP) has a long history of emphasizing high-quality, methodologically rigorous research in social and behavioral aspects of children’s health ( Palermo, 2013 , 2014 ). Traditionally, research published in JPP has focused on quantitative methodologies. Qualitative approaches are of interest to pediatric psychologists given the important role of qualitative research in developing new theories ( Kelly & Ganong, 2011 ), illustrating important clinical themes ( Kars, Grypdonck, de Bock, & van Delden, 2015 ), developing new instruments ( Thompson, Bhatt, & Watson, 2013 ), understanding patients’ and families’ perspectives and needs ( Bevans, Gardner, Pajer, Riley, & Forrest, 2013 ; Lyons, Goodwin, McCreanor, & Griffin, 2015 ), and documenting new or rarely examined issues ( Haukeland, Fjermestad, Mossige, & Vatne, 2015 ; Valenzuela et al., 2011 ). Further, these methods are integral to intervention development ( Minges et al., 2015 ; Thompson et al., 2007 ) and understanding intervention outcomes ( de Visser et al., 2015 ; Hess & Straub, 2011 ). For example, when designing an intervention, qualitative research can identify patient and family preferences for and perspectives on desirable intervention characteristics and perceived needs ( Cassidy et al., 2013 ; Hess & Straub, 2011 ; Thompson, 2014 ), which may lead to a more targeted, effective intervention.

Both qualitative and quantitative approaches are concerned with issues such as generalizability of study findings (e.g., to whom the study findings can be applied) and rigor. However, qualitative and quantitative methods have different approaches to these issues. The purpose of qualitative research is to contribute knowledge or understanding by describing phenomenon within certain groups or populations of interest. As such, the purpose of qualitative research is not to provide generalizable findings. Instead, qualitative research has a discovery focus and often uses an iterative approach. Thus, qualitative work is often foundational to future qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods studies.

At the time of this writing, three of six current calls for papers for special issues of JPP specifically note that manuscripts incorporating qualitative approaches would be welcomed. Despite apparent openness to broadening JPP’s emphasis beyond its traditional quantitative approach, few published articles have used qualitative methods. For example, of 232 research articles published in JPP from 2012 to 2014 (excluding commentaries and reviews), only five used qualitative methods (2% of articles).

The goal of the current article is to present considerations for writing and evaluating qualitative research within the context of pediatric psychology to provide a framework for writing and reviewing manuscripts reporting qualitative findings. The current article may be especially useful to reviewers and authors who are less familiar with qualitative methods. The tenets presented here are grounded in the well-established literature on reporting and evaluating qualitative research, including guidelines and checklists ( Eakin & Mykhalovskiy, 2003 ; Elo et al., 2014 ; Mays & Pope, 2000 ; Tong, Sainsbury, & Craig, 2007 ). For example, the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research checklist describes essential elements for reporting qualitative findings ( Tong et al., 2007 ). Although the considerations presented in the current manuscript have broad applicability to many fields, examples were purposively selected for the field of pediatric psychology.

Our goal is that this article will stimulate publication of more qualitative research in pediatric psychology and allied fields. More specifically, the goal is to encourage high-quality qualitative research by addressing key issues involved in conducting qualitative studies, and the process of conducting, reporting, and evaluating qualitative findings. Readers interested in more in-depth information on designing and implementing qualitative studies, relevant theoretical frameworks and approaches, and analytic approaches are referred to the well-developed literature in this area ( Clark, 2003 ; Corbin & Strauss, 2008 ; Creswell, 1994 ; Eakin & Mykhalovskiy, 2003 ; Elo et al., 2014 ; Mays & Pope, 2000 ; Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2013 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ; Saldaña, 2012 ; Sandelowski, 1995 , 2010 ; Tong et al., 2007 ; Yin, 2015 ). Researchers new to qualitative research are also encouraged to obtain specialized training in qualitative methods and/or to collaborate with a qualitative expert in an effort to ensure rigor (i.e., validity).

We begin the article with a definition of qualitative research and an overview of the concept of rigor. While we recognize that qualitative methods comprise multiple and distinct approaches with unique purposes, we present an overview of considerations for writing and evaluating qualitative research that cut across qualitative methods. Specifically, we present basic principles in three broad areas: (1) study design and methods, (2) analytic considerations, and (3) presentation of findings (see Table 1 for a summary of the principles addressed in each area). Each area is addressed using a “question and answer” format. We present a brief explanation of each question, options for how one could address the issue raised, and a suggested recommendation. We recognize, however, that there are no absolute “right” or “wrong” answers and that the most “right” answer for each situation depends on the specific study and its purpose. In fact, our strongest recommendation is that authors of qualitative research manuscripts be explicit about their rationale for design, analytic choices, and strategies so that readers and reviewers can evaluate the rationale and rigor of the study methods.

Summary of Overarching Principles to Address in Qualitative Research Manuscripts

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative methods are used across many areas of health research, including health psychology ( Gough & Deatrick, 2015 ), to study the meaning of people’s lives in their real-world roles, represent their views and perspectives, identify important contextual conditions, discover new or additional insights about existing social and behavioral concepts, and acknowledge the contribution of multiple perspectives ( Yin, 2015 ). Qualitative research is a family of approaches rather than a single approach. There are multiple and distinct qualitative methodologies or stances (e.g., constructivism, post-positivism, critical theory), each with different underlying ontological and epistemological assumptions ( Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011 ). However, certain features are common to most qualitative approaches and distinguish qualitative research from quantitative research ( Creswell, 1994 ).

Key to all qualitative methodologies is that multiple perspectives about a phenomenon of interest are essential, and that those perspectives are best inductively derived or discovered from people with personal experience regarding that phenomenon. These perspectives or definitions may differ from “conventional wisdom.” Thus, meanings need to be discovered from the population under study to ensure optimal understanding. For instance, in a recent qualitative study about texting while driving, adolescents said that they did not approve of texting while driving. The investigators, however, discovered that the respondents did not consider themselves driving while a vehicle was stopped at a red light. In other words, the respondents did approve of texting while stopped at a red light. In addition, the adolescents said that they highly valued being constantly connected via texting. Thus, what is meant by “driving” and the value of “being connected” need to be considered when approaching the issue of texting while driving with adolescents ( McDonald & Sommers, 2015 ).

Qualitative methods are also distinct from a mixed-method approach (i.e., integration of qualitative and quantitative approaches; Creswell, 2013b ). A mixed-methods study may include a first phase of quantitative data collection that provides results that inform a second phase of the study that includes qualitative data collection, or vice versa. A mixed-methods study may also include concurrent quantitative and qualitative data collection. The timing, priority, and stage of integration of the two approaches (quantitative and qualitative) are complex and vary depending on the research question; they also dictate how to attend to differing qualitative and quantitative principles ( Creswell et al., 2011 ). Understanding the basic tenets of qualitative research is preliminary to integrating qualitative research with another approach that has different tenets. A full discussion of the integration of qualitative and quantitative research approaches is beyond the scope of this article. Readers interested in the topic are referred to one of the many excellent resources on the topic ( Creswell, 2013b ).

What Are Typical Qualitative Research Questions?

Qualitative research questions are typically open-ended and are framed in the spirit of discovery and exploration and to address existing knowledge gaps. The current manuscript provides exemplar pediatric qualitative studies that illustrate key issues that arise when reporting and evaluating qualitative studies. Example research questions that are contained in the studies cited in the current manuscript are presented in Table 2 .

Example Qualitative Research Questions From the Pediatric Literature

What Are Rigor and Transparency in Qualitative Research?

There are several overarching principles with unique application in qualitative research, including definitions of scientific rigor and the importance of transparency. Quantitative research generally uses the terms reliability and validity to describe the rigor of research, while in qualitative research, rigor refers to the goal of seeking to understand the tacit knowledge of participants’ conception of reality ( Polanyi, 1958 ). For example, Haukeland and colleagues (2015) used qualitative analysis to identify themes describing the emotional experiences of a unique and understudied population—pediatric siblings of children with rare medical conditions such as Turner syndrome and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Within this context, the authors’ rendering of the diverse and contradictory emotions experienced by siblings of children with these rare conditions represents “rigor” within a qualitative framework.

While debate exists regarding the terminology describing and strategies for strengthening scientific rigor in qualitative studies ( Guba, 1981 ; Morse, 2015a , 2015b ; Sandelowski, 1993a ; Whittemore, Chase, & Mandle, 2001 ), little debate exists regarding the importance of explaining strategies used to strengthen rigor. Such strategies should be appropriate for the specific study; therefore, it is wise to clearly describe what is relevant for each study. For example, in terms of strengthening credibility or the plausibility of data analysis and interpretation, prolonged engagement with participants is appropriate when conducting an observational study (e.g., observations of parent–child mealtime interactions; Hughes et al., 2011 ; Power et al., 2015 ). For an interview-only study, however, it would be more practical to strengthen credibility through other strategies (e.g., keeping detailed field notes about the interviews included in the analysis).

Dependability is the stability of a data analysis protocol. For instance, stepwise development of a coding system from an “a priori” list of codes based on the underlying conceptual framework or existing literature (e.g., creating initial codes for potential barriers to medication adherence based on prior studies) may be essential for analysis of data from semi-structured interviews using multiple coders. But this may not be the ideal strategy if the purpose is to inductively derive all possible coding categories directly from data in an area where little is known. For some research questions, the strategy may be to strengthen confirmability or to verify a specific phenomenon of interest using different sources of data before generating conclusions. This process, which is commonly referred to in the research literature as triangulation, may also include collecting different types of data (e.g., interview data, observational data), using multiple coders to incorporate different ways of interpreting the data, or using multiple theories ( Krefting, 1991 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). Alternatively, another investigator may use triangulation to provide complementarity data ( Krefting, 1991 ) to garner additional information to deepen understanding. Because the purpose of qualitative research is to discover multiple perspectives about a phenomenon, it is not necessarily appropriate to attain concordance across studies or investigators when independently analyzing data. Some qualitative experts also believe that it is inappropriate to use triangulation to confirm findings, but this debate has not been resolved within the field ( Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ; Tobin & Begley, 2004 ). More agreement exists, however, regarding the value of triangulation to complement, deepen, or expand understanding of a particular topic or issue ( Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). Finally, instead of basing a study on a sample that allows for generalizing statistical results to other populations, investigators in qualitative research studies are focused on designing a study and conveying the results so that the reader understands the transferability of the results. Strategies for transferability may include explanations of how the sample was selected and descriptive characteristics of study participants, which provides a context for the results and enables readers to decide if other samples share critical attributes. A study is deemed transferable if relevant contextual features are common to both the study sample and the larger population.

Strategies to enhance rigor should be used systematically across each phase of a study. That is, rigor needs to be identified, managed, and documented throughout the research process: during the preparation phase (data collection and sampling), organization phase (analysis and interpretation), and reporting phase (manuscript or final report; Elo et al., 2014 ). From this perspective, the strategies help strengthen the trustworthiness of the overall study (i.e., to what extent the study findings are worth heeding; Eakin & Mykhalovskiy, 2003 ; Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ).

A good example of managing and documenting rigor and trustworthiness can be found in a study of family treatment decisions for children with cancer ( Kelly & Ganong, 2011 ). The researchers describe how they promoted the rigor of the study and strengthening its credibility by triangulating data sources (e.g., obtaining data from children’s custodial parents, stepparents, etc.), debriefing (e.g., holding detailed conversations with colleagues about the data and interpretations of the data), member checking (i.e., presenting preliminary findings to participants to obtain their feedback and interpretation), and reviewing study procedure decisions and analytic procedures with a second party.

Transparency is another key concept in written reports of qualitative research. In other words, enough detail should be provided for the reader to understand what was done and why ( Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). Examples of information that should be included are a clear rationale for selecting a particular population or people with certain characteristics, the research question being investigated, and a meaningful explanation of why this research question was selected (i.e., the gap in knowledge or understanding that is being investigated; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). Clearly describing recruitment, enrollment, data collection, and data analysis or extraction methods are equally important ( Dixon-Woods, Shaw, Agarwal, & Smith, 2004 ). Coherency among methods and transparency about research decisions adds to the robustness of qualitative research ( Tobin & Begley, 2004 ) and provides a context for understanding the findings and their implications.

Study Design and Methods

Is qualitative research hypothesis driven.

In contrast to quantitative research, qualitative research is not typically hypothesis driven ( Creswell, 1994 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). A risk associated with using hypotheses in qualitative research is that the findings could be biased by the hypotheses. Alternatively, qualitative research is exploratory and typically guided by a research question or conceptual framework rather than hypotheses ( Creswell, 1994 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). As previously stated, the goal of qualitative research is to increase understanding in areas where little is known by developing deeper insight into complex situations or processes. According to Richards and Morse (2013) , “If you know what you are likely to find, … you should not be working qualitatively” (p. 28). Thus, we do not recommend that a hypothesis be stated in manuscripts presenting qualitative data.

What Is the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research?

Consistent with the exploratory nature of qualitative research, one particular qualitative method, grounded theory, is used specifically for discovering substantive theory (i.e., working theories of action or processes developed for a specific area of concern; Bryant & Charmaz, 2010 ; Glaser & Strauss, 1967 ). This method uses a series of structured steps to break down qualitative data into codes, organize the codes into conceptual categories, and link the categories into a theory that explains the phenomenon under study. For example, Kelly and Ganong (2011) used grounded theory methods to produce a substantive theory about how single and re-partnered parents (e.g., households with a step-parent) made treatment decisions for children with childhood cancer. The theory of decision making developed in this study included “moving to place,” which described the ways in which parents from different family structures (e.g., single and re-partnered parents) were involved in the child’s treatment decision-making. The resulting theory also delineated the causal conditions, context, and intervening factors that contributed to the strategies used for moving to place.

Theories may be used in other types of qualitative research as well, serving as the impetus or organizing framework for the study ( Sandelowski, 1993b ). For example, Izaguirre and Keefer (2014) used Social Cognitive Theory ( Bandura, 1986 ) to investigate self-efficacy among adolescents with inflammatory bowel disease. The impetus for selecting the theory was to inform the development of a self-efficacy measure for adolescent self-management. In another study on health care transition in youth with Type 1 Diabetes ( Pierce, Wysocki, & Aroian, 2016 ), the investigators adapted a social-ecological model—the Socio-ecological Model of Adolescent and Young Adult Transition Readiness (SMART) model ( Schwartz, Tuchman, Hobbie, & Ginsberg, 2011 )—to their study population ( Pierce & Wysocki, 2015 ). Pierce et al. (2016) are currently using the adapted SMART model to focus their data collection and structure the preliminary analysis of their data about diabetes health care transition.

Regardless of whether theory is induced from data or selected in advance to guide the study, consistent with the principle of transparency , its role should be clearly identified and justified in the research publication ( Bradbury-Jones, Taylor, & Herber, 2014 ; Kelly, 2010 ). Methodological congruence is an important guiding principle in this regard ( Richards & Morse, 2013 ). If a theory frames the study at the outset, it should guide and direct all phases. The resulting publication(s) should relate the phenomenon of interest and the research question(s) to the theory and specify how the theory guided data collection and analysis. The publication(s) should also discuss how the theory fits with the finished product. For instance, authors should describe how the theory provided a framework for the presentation of the findings and discuss the findings in context with the relevant theoretical literature.

A study examining parents’ motivations to promote vegetable consumption in their children ( Hingle et al., 2012 ) provides an example of methodological congruence. The investigators adapted the Model of Goal Directed Behavior ( Bagozzi & Pieters, 1998 ) for parenting practices relevant to vegetable consumption (Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices; MGDVPP). Consistent with the adapted theoretical model and in keeping with the congruence principle, interviews were guided by the theoretical constructs contained within the MGDVPP, including parents’ attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control related to promoting vegetable consumption in children ( Hingle et al., 2012 ). The study discovered that the adapted model successfully identified parents’ motivations to encourage their children to eat more vegetables.

The use of the theory should be consistent with the basic goal of qualitative research, which is discovery. Alternatively stated, theories should be used as broad orienting frameworks for exploring topical areas without imposing preconceived ideas and biases. The theory should be consistent with the study findings and not be used to force-fit the researcher’s interpretation of the data ( Sandelowski, 1993b ). Divergence from the theory when it does not fit the study findings is illustrated in a qualitative study of hypertension prevention beliefs in Hispanics ( Aroian, Peters, Rudner, & Waser, 2012 ). This study used the Theory of Planned Behavior as a guiding theoretical framework but found that coding separately for normative and control beliefs was not the best organizing schema for presenting the study findings. When divergence from the original theory occurs, the research report should explain and justify how and why the theory was modified ( Bradbury-Jones et al., 2014 ).

What Are Typical Sampling Methods in Qualitative Studies?

Qualitative sampling methods should be “purposeful” ( Coyne, 1997 ; Patton, 2015 ; Tuckett, 2004 ). Purposeful sampling is based on the study purpose and investigator judgments about which people and settings will provide the richest information for the research questions. The logic underlying this type of sampling differs from the logic underlying quantitative sampling ( Patton, 2015 ). Quantitative research strives for empirical generalization. In qualitative studies, generalizability beyond the study sample is typically not the intent; rather, the focus is on deriving depth and context-embedded meaning for the relevant study population.

Purposeful sampling is a broad term. Theoretical sampling is one particular type of purposeful sampling unique to grounded theory methods ( Coyne, 1997 ). In theoretical sampling, study participants are chosen according to theoretical categories that emerge from ongoing data collection and analyses ( Bryant & Charmaz, 2010 ). Data collection and analysis are conducted concurrently to allow generating and testing hypotheses that emerge from analyzing incoming data. The following example from the previously mentioned qualitative interview study about transition from pediatric to adult care in adolescents with type 1 diabetes ( Pierce et al., 2016 ) illustrates the process of theoretical sampling: An adolescent study participant stated that he was “turned off” by the “childish” posters in his pediatrician’s office. He elaborated that he welcomed transitioning to adult care because his diabetes was discovered when he was 18, an age when he reportedly felt more “mature” than most pediatric patients. These data were coded as “developmental misfit” and prompted a tentative hypothesis about developmental stage at entry for pediatric diabetes care and readiness for health care transition. Examining this hypothesis prompted seeking study participants who varied according to age or developmental stage at time of diagnosis to examine the theoretical relevance of an emerging theme about developmental fit.

Not all purposeful sampling, however, is “theoretical.” For example, ethnographic studies typically seek to understand a group’s cultural beliefs and practices ( Creswell, 2013a ). Consistent with this purpose, researchers conducting an ethnographic study might purposefully select study participants according to specific characteristics that reflect the social roles and positions in a given group or society (e.g., socioeconomic status, education; Johnson, 1990 ).

Random sampling is generally not used in qualitative research. Random selection requires a sufficiently large sample to maximize the potential for chance and, as will be discussed below, sample size is intentionally small in qualitative studies. However, random sampling may be used to verify or clarify findings ( Patton, 2015 ). Validating study findings with a randomly selected subsample can be used to address the possibility that a researcher is inadvertently giving greater attention to cases that reinforce his or her preconceived ideas.

Regardless of the sampling method used, qualitative researchers should clearly describe the sampling strategy and justify how it fits the study when reporting study findings (transparency). A common error is to refer to theoretical sampling when the cases were not chosen according to emerging theoretical concepts. Another common error is to apply sampling principles from quantitative research (e.g., cluster sampling) to convince skeptical reviewers about the rigor or validity of qualitative research. Rigor is best achieved by being purposeful, making sound decisions, and articulating the rationale for those decisions. As mentioned earlier in the discussion of transferability , qualitative researchers are encouraged to describe their methods of sample selection and descriptive characteristics about their sample so that readers and reviewers can judge how the current sample may differ from others. Understanding the characteristics of each qualitative study sample is essential for the iterative nature of qualitative research whereby qualitative findings inform the development of future qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods studies. Reviewers should evaluate sampling decisions based on how they fit the study purpose and how they influence the quality of the end product.

What Sample Size Is Needed for Qualitative Research?

No definitive rules exist about sample size in qualitative research. However, sample sizes are typically smaller than those in quantitative studies ( Patton, 2015 ). Small samples often generate a large volume of data and information-rich cases, ultimately leading to insight regarding the phenomenon under study ( Patton, 2015 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). Sample sizes of 20–30 cases are typical, but a qualitative sample can be even smaller under some circumstances ( Mason, 2010 ).

Sample size adequacy is evaluated based on the quality of the study findings, specifically the full development of categories and inter-relationships or the adequacy of information about the phenomenon under study ( Corbin & Strauss, 2008 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). Small sample sizes are of concern if they do not result in these outcomes. Data saturation (i.e., the point at which no new information, categories, or themes emerge) is often used to judge informational adequacy ( Morgan, 1998 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). Although enough participants should be included to obtain saturation ( Morgan, 1998 ), informational adequacy pertains to more than sample size. It is also a function of the quality of the data, which is influenced by study participant characteristics (e.g., cognitive ability, knowledge, representativeness) and the researcher’s data-gathering skills and analytical ability to generate meaningful findings ( Morse, 2015b ; Patton, 2015 ).

Sample size is also influenced by type of qualitative research, the study purpose, the sample, the depth and complexity of the topic investigated, and the method of data collection. In general, the more heterogeneous the sample, the larger the sample size, particularly if the goal is to investigate similarities and differences by specific characteristics ( Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). For instance, in a study to conduct an initial exploration of factors underlying parents’ motivations to use good parenting practices, theoretical saturation (i.e., the point at which no new information, categories, or themes emerge) was obtained with a small sample ( n = 15), most likely because the study was limited to parents of young children ( Hingle et al., 2012 ). If the goal of the study had been, for example, to identify racial/ethnic, gender, or age differences in food parenting practices, a larger sample would likely be needed to obtain saturation or informational adequacy.

Studies that seek to understand maximum variation in a phenomenon might also need a larger sample than one that is seeking to understand extreme or atypical cases. For example, a qualitative study of diet and physical activity in young Australian men conducted focus groups to identify perceived motivators and barriers to healthy eating and physical activity and examine the influence of body weight on their perceptions. Examining the influence of body weight status required 10 focus groups to allow for group assignment based on body mass index ( Ashton et al., 2015 ). More specifically, 61 men were assigned to a healthy-weight focus group ( n = 3), an overweight/obese focus group ( n = 3), or a mixed-weight focus group ( n = 4). Had the researcher not been interested in whether facilitators and barriers differed by weight status, its likely theoretical saturation could have been obtained with fewer groups. Depth of inquiry also influences sample size ( Sandelowski, 1995 ). For instance, an in-depth analysis of an intervention for children with cancer and their families included 16 family members from three families. Study data comprised 52 hrs of videotaped intervention sessions and 10 interviews ( West, Bell, Woodgate, & Moules, 2015 ). Depth was obtained through multiple data points and types of data, which justified sampling only a few families.

Authors of publications describing qualitative findings should show evidence that the data were “saturated” by a sample with sufficient variation to permit detailing shared and divergent perspectives, meanings, or experiences about the topic of inquiry. Decisions related to the sample (e.g., targeted recruitment) should be detailed in publications so that peer reviewers have the context for evaluating the sample and determining how the sample influenced the study findings ( Patton, 2015 ).

Qualitative Data Analysis

When conducting qualitative research, voluminous amounts of data are gathered and must be prepared (i.e., transcribed) and managed. During the analytic process, data are systematically transformed through identifying, defining, interpreting, and describing findings that are meant to comprehensively describe the phenomenon or the abstract qualities that they have in common. The process should be systematic ( dependability ) and well-documented in the analysis section of a qualitative manuscript. For example, Kelly and Ganong (2011) , in their study of medical treatment decisions made by families of children with cancer, described their analytic procedure by outlining their approach to coding and use of memoing (e.g., keeping careful notes about emerging ideas about the data throughout the analytic process), comparative analysis (e.g., comparing data against one another and looking for similarities and differences), and diagram drawing (e.g., pictorially representing the data structure, including relationships between codes).

How Should Researchers Document Coding Reliability?

Because the intent of qualitative research is to account for multiple perspectives, the goal of qualitative analysis is to comprehensively incorporate those perspectives into discernible findings. Researchers accustomed to doing quantitative studies may expect authors to quantify interrater reliability (e.g., kappa statistic) but this is not typical in qualitative research. Rather, the emphasis in qualitative research is on (1) training those gathering data to be rigorous and produce high-quality data and on (2) using systematic processes to document key decisions (e.g., code book), clear direction, and open communication among team members during data analysis. The goal is to make the most of the collective insight of the investigative team to triangulate or complement each other’s efforts to process and interpret the data. Instead of evaluating if two independent raters came to the same numeric rating, reviewers of qualitative manuscripts should judge to what extent the overall process of coding, data management, and data interpretation were systematic and rigorous. Authors of qualitative reports should articulate their coding procedures for others to evaluate. Together, these strategies promote trustworthiness of the study findings.

An example of how these processes are described in the report of a qualitative study is as follows:

The first two authors independently applied the categories to a sample of two interviews and compared their application of the categories to identify lack of clarity and overlap in categories. The investigators created a code book that contained a definition of categories, guidelines for their application, and excerpts of data exemplifying the categories. The first two authors independently coded the data and compared how they applied the categories to the data and resolved any differences during biweekly meetings. ATLAS.ti, version 6.2, was used to document and accommodate ongoing changes and additions to the coding structure ( Palma et al., 2015 , p. 224).

Do I Need to Use a Specialized Qualitative Data Software Program for Analysis?

Multiple computer software packages for qualitative data analysis are currently available ( Silver & Lewins, 2014 ; Yin, 2015 ). These packages allow the researcher to import qualitative data (e.g., interview transcripts) into the software program and organize data segments (e.g., delineate which interview excerpts are relevant to particular themes). Qualitative analysis software can be useful for organizing and sorting through data, including during the analysis phase. Some software programs also offer sophisticated coding and visualization capabilities that facilitate and enhance interpretation and understanding. For example, if data segments are coded by specific characteristics (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity), the data can be sorted and analyzed by these characteristics, which may contribute to an understanding of whether and/or how a particular phenomenon may vary by these characteristics.

The strength of computer software packages for qualitative data analysis is their potential to contribute to methodological rigor by organizing the data for systematic analyses ( John & Johnson, 2000 ; MacMillan & Koenig, 2004 ). However, the programs do not replace the researchers’ analyses. The researcher or research team is ultimately responsible for analyzing the data, identifying the themes and patterns, and placing the findings within the context of the literature. In other words, qualitative data analysis software programs contribute to, but do not ensure scientific rigor or “objectivity” in, the analytic process. In fact, using a software program for analysis is not essential if the researcher demonstrates the use of alternative tools and procedures for rigor.

Presentation of Findings

Should there be overlap between presentation of themes in the results and discussion sections.

Qualitative papers sometimes combine results and discussion into one section to provide a cohesive presentation of the findings along with meaningful linkages to the existing literature ( Burnard, 2004 ; Burnard, Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008 ). Although doing so is an acceptable method for reporting qualitative findings, some journals prefer the two sections to be distinct.

When the journal style is to distinguish the two sections, the results section should describe the findings, that is, the themes, while the discussion section should pull the themes together to make larger-level conclusions and place the findings within the context of the existing literature. For instance, the findings section of a study of how rural African-American adolescents, parents, and community leaders perceived obesity and topics for a proposed obesity prevention program, contained a description of themes about adolescent eating patterns, body shape, and feedback on the proposed weight gain prevention program according to each subset of participants (i.e., adolescents, parents, community leaders). The discussion section then put these themes within the context of findings from prior qualitative and intervention studies in related populations ( Cassidy et al., 2013 ). In the Discussion, when making linkages to the existing literature, it is important to avoid the temptation to extrapolate beyond the findings or to over-interpret them ( Burnard, 2004 ). Linkages between the findings and the existing literature should be supported by ample evidence to avoid spurious or misleading connections ( Burnard, 2004 ).

What Should I Include in the Results Section?

The results section of a qualitative research report is likely to contain more material than customary in quantitative research reports. Findings in a qualitative research paper typically include researcher interpretations of the data as well as data exemplars and the logic that led to researcher interpretations ( Sandelowski & Barroso, 2002 ). Interpretation pertains to the researcher breaking down and recombining the data and creating new meanings (e.g., abstract categories, themes, conceptual models). Select quotes from interviews or other types of data (e.g., participant observation, focus groups) are presented to illustrate or support researcher interpretations. Researchers trained in the quantitative tradition, where interpretation is restricted to the discussion section, may find this surprising; however, in qualitative methods, researcher interpretations represent an important component of the study results. The presentation of the findings, including researcher interpretations (e.g., themes) and data (e.g., quotes) supporting those interpretations, adds to the trustworthiness of the study ( Elo et al., 2014 ).

The Results section should contain a balance between data illustrations (i.e., quotes) and researcher interpretations ( Lofland & Lofland, 2006 ; Sandelowski, 1998 ). Because interpretation arises out of the data, description and interpretation should be combined. Description should be sufficient to support researcher interpretations, and quotes should be used judiciously ( Morrow, 2005 ; Sandelowski, 1994 ). Not every theme needs to be supported by multiple quotes. Rather, quotes should be carefully selected to provide “voice” to the participants and to help the reader understand the phenomenon from the participant’s perspective within the context of the researcher’s interpretation ( Morrow, 2005 ; Ritchie & Lewis, 2003 ). For example, researchers who developed a grounded theory of sexual risk behavior of urban American Indian adolescent girls identified desire for better opportunities as a key deterrent to neighborhood norms for early sexual activity. They illustrated this theme with the following quote: “I don’t want to live in the ‘hood and all that…My sisters are stuck there because they had babies. That isn’t going to happen to me” ( Saftner, Martyn, Momper, Loveland-Cherry, & Low, 2015 , p. 372).

There is no precise formula for the proportion of description to interpretation. Both descriptive and analytic excess should be avoided ( Lofland & Lofland, 2006 ). The former pertains to presentation of unedited field notes or interview transcripts rather than selecting and connecting data to analytic concepts that explain or summarize the data. The latter pertains to focusing on the mechanics of analysis and interpretation without substantiating researcher interpretations with quotes. Reviewer requests for methodological rigor can result in researchers writing qualitative research papers that suffer from analytic excess ( Sandelowski & Barroso, 2002 ). Page limitations of most journals provide a safeguard against descriptive excess, but page limitations should not circumvent researchers from providing the basis for their interpretations.

Additional potential problems with qualitative results sections include under-elaboration, where themes are too few and not clearly defined. The opposite problem, over-elaboration, pertains to too many analytic distinctions that could be collapsed under a higher level of abstraction. Quotes can also be under- or over-interpreted. Care should be taken to ensure the quote(s) selected clearly support the theme to which they are attached. And finally, findings from a qualitative study should be interesting and make clear contributions to the literature ( Lofland & Lofland, 2006 ; Morse, 2015b ).

Should I Quantify My Results? (e.g., Frequency With Which Themes Were Endorsed)

There is controversy over whether to quantify qualitative findings, such as providing counts for the frequency with which particular themes are endorsed by study participants ( Morgan, 1993 ; Sandelowski, 2001 ). Qualitative papers usually report themes and patterns that emerge from the data without quantification ( Dey, 1993 ). However, it is possible to quantify qualitative findings, such as in qualitative content analysis. Qualitative content analysis is a method through which a researcher identifies the frequency with which a phenomenon, such as specific words, phrases, or concepts, is mentioned ( Elo et al., 2014 ; Morgan, 1993 ). Although this method may appeal to quantitative reviewers, it is important to note that this method only fits specific study purposes, such as studies that investigate the language used by a particular group when communicating about a specific topic. In addition, results may be quantified to provide information on whether themes appeared to be common or atypical. Authors should avoid using imprecise language, such as “some participants” or “many participants.” A good example of quantification of results to illustrate more or less typical themes comes from a manuscript describing a qualitative study of school nurses’ perceived barriers to addressing obesity with students and their families. The authors described that all but one nurse reported not having the resources they needed to discuss weight with students and families whereas one-quarter of nurses reported not feeling competent to discuss weight issues ( Steele et al., 2011 ). If quantification of findings is used, authors should provide justification that explains how quantification is consistent with the aims or goals of the study ( Sandelowski, 2001 ).

Conclusions

This article highlighted key theoretical and logistical considerations that arise in designing, conducting, and reporting qualitative research studies (see Table 1 for a summary). This type of research is vital for obtaining patient, family, community, and other stakeholder perspectives about their needs and interests, and will become increasingly critical as our models of health care delivery evolve. For example, qualitative research could contribute to the study of health care providers and systems with the goal of optimizing our health care delivery models. Given the increasing diversity of the populations we serve, qualitative research will also be critical in providing guidance in how to tailor health interventions to key characteristics and increase the likelihood of acceptable, effective treatment approaches. For example, applying qualitative research methods could enhance our understanding of refugee experiences in our health care system, clarify treatment preferences for emerging adults in the midst of health care transitions, examine satisfaction with health care delivery, and evaluate the applicability of our theoretical models of health behavior changes across racial and ethnic groups. Incorporating patient perspectives into treatment is essential to meeting this nation’s priority on patient-centered health care ( Institute of Medicine Committee on Quality of Health Care in America, 2001 ). Authors of qualitative studies who address the methodological choices addressed in this review will make important contributions to the field of pediatric psychology. Qualitative findings will lead to a more informed field that addresses the needs of a wide range of patient populations and produces effective and acceptable population-specific interventions to promote health.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Bridget Grahmann for her assistance with manuscript preparation.

This work was supported by National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health (K07CA196985 to Y.W.). This work is a publication of the United States Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Center (USDA/ARS), Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas. It is also a publication of the USDA/ARS, Children’s Nutrition Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, and funded in part with federal funds from the USDA/ARS under Cooperative Agreement No. 58‐6250‐0‐008 (to D.T.). The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the USDA, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement from the U.S. government. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Conflicts of interest : None declared.

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Visiting Professor of the Practice in Qualitative Research Research Methods & Statistics (RMS) Program

Apply now Job no: 497212 Work type: Faculty Full-Time Location: Denver, CO Categories: Faculty Division: Morgridge College Of Education

The Morgridge College of Education (MCE) at the University of Denver (DU) invites applications for a 9-month qualitative research faculty position in the Research Methods and Statistics (RMS) Program at the rank of Visiting Professor of the Practice to begin September 1, 2024. The oldest and largest independent university in the Rocky Mountain Region, DU is in the city of Denver, which is an increasing ethnically diverse city according to the U.S. Census data. Situated in a vibrant metropolitan community, DU is committed to building and sustaining a culturally diverse faculty, staff, and student body, and advancing diversity, equity, and inclusion. DU has high research activity and enrolls approximately 12,000 students in its undergraduate, graduate, and professional preparation programs. The MCE, a 65,000 square foot complex built in 2010, is in Katherine A. Ruffatto Hall and provides a flexible, innovative, and multidisciplinary learning environment. The MCE and Research Methods and Statistics (RMS) program are strongly committed to Diversity Equity Inclusion Justice and Accessibility (DEIJA). The RMS faculty seek a colleague who can teach qualitative research and is passionate about developing strong leaders and practitioners across the fields of education, mental health, and research and information science. RMS is dedicated to preparing professionals who can use data as a tool for promoting social justice and the public good. RMS students learn advanced and holistic analytic skills for educational, social, behavior, and health research. A strong candidate will model educational and social equity through meaningful teaching, service, and scholarship activities commensurate with the visiting faculty line.

Position Summary

We seek a candidate with a proven record of excellence in teaching and mentoring/advising, and who values our mission of serving the public good. We are especially interested in qualified candidates who can contribute to Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, Justice, and Accessibility (DEIJA) through their teaching, service, and scholarship. The position requires an innovative and critical thinker capable of working within a dynamic environment. The faculty in this position will:

Demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of qualitative methodologies in educational research and legal, ethical, and professional standards of practice
Teach and support students across MCE’s MA, EdD, and PhD programs—which provide comprehensive preparation in the areas of Research Methods & Statistics, Library and Information Science, Higher Education, Educational Leadership & Policy Studies, Curriculum & Instruction, Counseling Psychology, and School Psychology
Demonstrate criticality, creativity, and excellence in conducting and disseminating qualitative research

Essential Functions

Teaching: Teach courses as assigned at a range of 38-40 quarter credit hours demonstrating experience and versatility through engaging and rigorous pedagogical approaches. Serve on doctoral dissertation committees. Service: Provide Program, Department, and College Service (e.g., support for program admissions and marketing, active participation in program/department/college meetings and retreats, updating program curriculum, serving on committees, and additional duties as needed).

Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities

Excellent written and oral communication skills.
Demonstrated knowledge and experience with a variety of teaching methods.
Outstanding teaching skills.
Initiative and ability to work both independently and in a collaborative, collegial environment.
Demonstrated experience interacting with diverse communities or evidence of a commitment to incorporate inclusive teaching methods and/or pedagogies to effectively engage broadly diverse student populations.
Demonstrated commitment to inclusive excellence, equity, and access in education.
Exceptional abilities in scholarly and/or creative activities are needed as required by the department/center/school/college and position.

Required Qualifications

Earned doctorate in research methods, education, or a related field by the start of the appointment.
Demonstrated expertise in critical qualitative methodologies (e.g., critical inquiry, critical ethnography, critical narrative inquiry, testimonio, critical phenomenology, critical grounded theory).
Prior teaching of diverse students in higher education.
Demonstrated commitment to diversity, equity, inclusions, justice, and accessibility (DEIJA) in education

Preferred Qualifications

At least 3 years of experience teaching qualitative research methods courses at the higher education level.
Prior experience serving on doctoral dissertation committees.
Prior supervision of graduate student-led research (e.g., providing feedback on students’ research designs, study implementation, or reporting).
Prior experience using qualitative analysis software (e.g., Dedoose, NVivo).

Working Environment

1. Standard office environment. 2. Unexpected interruptions occur often and stress level is moderate to high. 3. Noise level is quiet to moderate.

Physical Activities

1. Ability to sit in front of a computer for an extended period of time. 2. Occasionally required to move about the office/campus with the capability of transporting objects up to 20 lbs.

Work Schedule While the University's administrative offices are open Monday – Friday, 8:00 am – 4:30 pm, faculty schedules vary from term to term and are based on courses taught, service commitments, and research agendas. The University's academic calendars are posted on the registrar's website (the law school is on a semester system and has a different academic calendar ).

Application Deadline For consideration, please submit your application materials by 4:00 p.m. (MST) April 26, 2024

Special Instructions Candidates must apply online through jobs.du.edu to be considered. Only applications submitted online will be accepted.

Salary Grade Number: The salary grade for the position is UC. Salary Range: The salary range for the position is $58,000-$68,000

The University of Denver has provided a compensation range that represents its good faith estimate of what the University may pay for the position at the time of posting. The University may ultimately pay more or less than the posted compensation range. The salary offered to the selected candidate will be determined based on factors such as the qualifications of the selected candidate, departmental budget availability, internal salary equity considerations, and available market information, but not based on a candidate’s sex or any other protected status.

Benefits: The University of Denver offers excellent benefits, including medical, dental, retirement, paid time off, tuition benefit and ECO pass. The University of Denver is a private institution that empowers students who want to make a difference. Learn more about the University of Denver .

Please include the following documents with your application: 1. Resume 2. Cover Letter

The University of Denver is an equal opportunity employer. The University of Denver prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, ancestry, age, religion, creed, disability, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, marital status, pregnancy, genetic information, military enlistment, or veteran status, and any other class of individuals protected from discrimination under federal, state, or local law, regulation, or ordinance in any of the University's educational programs and activities, and in the employment (including application for employment) and admissions (including application for admission) context, as required by Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972; the Americans with Disabilities Act; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964; the Age Discrimination Act of 1975; the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967; Equal Pay Act; Colorado Equal Pay for Equal Work Act; the Colorado Protecting Opportunities and Workers' Rights ("POWR") Act; and any other federal, state, and local laws, regulations, or ordinances that prohibit discrimination, harassment, and/or retaliation. For more information, please see the University of Denver's Non‑Discrimination‑Statement .

All offers of employment are contingent upon satisfactory completion of a criminal history background check.

Advertised: April 03, 2024 Applications close: April 26, 2024

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IMAGES

(PDF) Qualitative Research Paper
(PDF) Sampling in Qualitative Research
View 15 Chapter 3 Research Design Qualitative Example Factwindowgraphic
Examples Of Qualitative Research Paper : (PDF) The Town Hall Focus
Format Of A Qualitative Research Paper
Qualitative Research Report Template Database

VIDEO

SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND SAMPLE (QUALITATIVE RESEARCH)
Sample Qualitative and Quantitative Research Titles
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research vs Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research Characteristics
Hofstee and BEUK Method Lecture 12

COMMENTS

PDF Sample of the Qualitative Research Paper
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PAPER 1 Sample of the Qualitative Research Paper In the following pages you will find a sample of the full BGS research qualitative paper with each section or chapter as it might look in a completed research paper beginning with the title page and working through each chapter and section of the research paper.
PDF Students' Perceptions towards the Quality of Online Education: A
The findings of this research revealed that flexibility, cost-effectiveness, electronic research availability, ease of connection to the Internet, and well-designed class interface were students' positive experiences. The students' negative experiences were caused by delayed feedback from instructors, unavailable technical support from ...
A Qualitative Study of the Impact of Experiences of Students With
coach was the focus of this study. The purpose of this qualitative research was to gauge the extent of pressures, the social and emotional impact, and the advantages and/or disadvantages individuals felt when they were a student having a parent in a position of authority at their school. The findings from the research study substantiated the
PDF Students' Perceptions of Bullying After the Fact: A Qualitative Study
research project took shape long before the events of April 16th unfolded. The data were collected and analyzed and the writing of the results had already commenced when our community fell victim to this violence. While this research project was not originally constructed in reaction to the events that unfolded that windy day, the words and ...
A Qualitative Study Exploring Faculty Perception and Adaptation of
A Qualitative Study Exploring Faculty Perception and Adaptation of Social Presence in the Online Classroom Kathleen J. Marino Seton Hall University ... The research in instructional communication has focused on teachers' use of verbal and nonverbal behaviors, and the impact of those behaviors on students in traditional, ...
(PDF) Qualitative Research Paper
1. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human. and social sciences to find the way p eople think. 2. Qualitative research is holistic in nature; this is ...
Planning Qualitative Research: Design and Decision Making for New
Qualitative research draws from interpretivist and constructivist paradigms, seeking to deeply understand a research subject rather than predict outcomes, as in the positivist paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).Interpretivism seeks to build knowledge from understanding individuals' unique viewpoints and the meaning attached to those viewpoints (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
What Is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and ...
Qualitative Psychology Sample articles
February 2015. by Erin E. Toolis and Phillip L. Hammack. Lifetime Activism, Marginality, and Psychology: Narratives of Lifelong Feminist Activists Committed to Social Change (PDF, 93KB) August 2014. by Anjali Dutt and Shelly Grabe. Qualitative Inquiry in the History of Psychology (PDF, 82KB) February 2014. by Frederick J. Wertz.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative data can be in the form of interviews, transcripts, surveys, videos, audio, etc. The steps involved in qualitative data analysis are given below. Organize the Data: This can be done by transcribing interviews or making detailed notes. Review the Data: Examine the data, ideas, and patterns.
PDF Chapter 4: Analysis and Interpretation of Results
The analysis and interpretation of data is carried out in two phases. The. first part, which is based on the results of the questionnaire, deals with a quantitative. analysis of data. The second, which is based on the results of the interview and focus group. discussions, is a qualitative interpretation.
Qualitative Research: Data Collection, Analysis, and Management
Qualitative research is used to gain insights into people's feelings and thoughts, which may provide the basis for a future stand-alone qualitative study or may help researchers to map out survey instruments for use in a quantitative study. It is also possible to use different types of research in the same study, an approach known as "mixed ...
Qualitative Study
Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems.[1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervene or introduce treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypotheses as well as further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants ...
A conceptual Paper on Qualitative Paradigm and Making Sense of
of making sense of qualitative data is not a onetime issue, and that it's a process that involves. 11. various stages of research starting from the conscription of the research topic all the way ...
Qualitative research design (JARS-Qual)
JARS-Qual, developed in 2018, mark the first time APA Style has included qualitative standards. They outline what should be reported in qualitative research manuscripts to make the review process easier. The seventh edition of the Publication Manual also includes content on qualitative studies, including standards for journal article ...
How to use and assess qualitative research methods
Abstract. This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions ...
PDF Chapter Three 3 Qualitative Research Design and Methods 3.1
quantitative research design (Creswell, 1994, pp. 1-2, own emphasis). This study uses the "extended-case studies" approach (Babbie, 2007, p. 298) that seeks to investigate, analyse, and interpret contingency relationships. 1. Qualitative research presents a complex set of issues (and key variables or themes, or both) and seeks to draw ...
What Is Qualitative Research?
Revised on 30 January 2023. Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which ...
PDF CHAPTER FOUR Qualitative Research
Research. methods that delve deeply into experiences, social processes, and subcultures are referred to as qualitative research. As a group, qualitative research methods: Recognize that every individual is situated in an unfolding life context, that is, a set of circumstances, values, and influences. Respect the meanings each individual assigns ...
PDF A Sample Qualitative Dissertation Proposal
Rationale for Qualitative Methods The purpose of qualitative research is to understand and explain participant meaning (Morrow & Smith, 2000). More specifically, Creswell (1998) defines qualitative research as, an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem.
Sample papers
These sample papers demonstrate APA Style formatting standards for different student paper types. Students may write the same types of papers as professional authors (e.g., quantitative studies, literature reviews) or other types of papers for course assignments (e.g., reaction or response papers, discussion posts), dissertations, and theses.
Sample+Qualitative+Research+Paper
Creswell's Research Design, 3rd or 4th ed. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PAPER 45 population sample, so your study is limited by the number of participants, or that you used a convenience sample. Summary Then the author would wrap up the chapter with the summarization of the chapter and a transition to the next chapter as described above.
Anonymizing Qualitative Data
Qualitative researchers often collect very personal data, whether in interviews or in narratives, diaries, or other records that depict their experiences. One way to protect their identities is by changing their names, and anonymizing the data. Gibbs (2018) suggests an approach:
Developing and Validating the Qualitative ...
Developing and Validating the Qualitative Characteristics of Children's Play Assessment System Supported by Caplan Foundation Project led by: PI: Michael Haslip, PhD This one-year project in the McNichol ECE lab is validating an assessment created to measure young children's play skill development, called the Qualitative Characteristics of Children's Play or QCCP, and building a new ...
Commentary: Writing and Evaluating Qualitative Research Reports
Objective To provide an overview of qualitative methods, particularly for reviewers and authors who may be less familiar with qualitative research.Methods A question and answer format is used to address considerations for writing and evaluating qualitative research.Results and Conclusions When producing qualitative research, individuals are encouraged to address the qualitative research ...
Working with dogs in olfactory searches in the French Armed Forces and
Stephanie Michenaud is currently completing her Phd in ethology and social psychology at Paris Nanterre University (LECD laboratory), and at Picardie Jules Verne University (CRP-CPO laboratory). Having worked for over fifteen years in the field of pet and working dogs (including the National Guide Dog Breeding Center and Handi'Chiens), she is particularly interested in the various aspects of ...
Visiting Professor of the Practice in Qualitative Research Research
The RMS faculty seek a colleague who can teach qualitative research and is passionate about developing strong leaders and practitioners across the fields of education, mental health, and research and information science. RMS is dedicated to preparing professionals who can use data as a tool for promoting social justice and the public good.

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What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

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Pritha Bhandari

Qualitative Research - Methods, Types, and Examples

What is Qualitative Research - Definition

Purpose of Qualitative Research Design

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research Methods

In-depth Interview

Focus Groups

Direct Observation

Open-Ended Surveys

Participant Observation

Literature Review

Types of Qualitative Research

Ethnographic Research

Grounded Theory

Phenomenological Method

Narrative Method

Historical Method

Steps in Conducting Qualitative Research

Step 1: Define Research Objectives

Step 2: Select a Research Design

Step 3: Sampling Methods

Step 4: Data Collection Techniques

Step 5: Plan Interviews and Questions

Step 6: Conducting Data Collection

Step 7: Data Recording and Management

Step 8: Data Analysis

Step 9: Validity and Reliability

Step 10: Ethical Considerations

Qualitative Research vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Topics

Qualitative Research Examples

Qualitative Research Limitations

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is qualitative research better?

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Have a language expert improve your writing

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Table of contents

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Pritha Bhandari

Commentary: Writing and Evaluating Qualitative Research Reports

Deborah Thompson

Karen J. Aroian

Elizabeth L. McQuaid

Janet A. Deatrick

What Is Qualitative Research?

What Are Typical Qualitative Research Questions?

What Are Rigor and Transparency in Qualitative Research?

Study Design and Methods

What Is the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research?

What Are Typical Sampling Methods in Qualitative Studies?

What Sample Size Is Needed for Qualitative Research?

Qualitative Data Analysis

How Should Researchers Document Coding Reliability?

Do I Need to Use a Specialized Qualitative Data Software Program for Analysis?

Presentation of Findings

What Should I Include in the Results Section?

Should I Quantify My Results? (e.g., Frequency With Which Themes Were Endorsed)

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Visiting Professor of the Practice in Qualitative Research Research Methods & Statistics (RMS) Program

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