assignment on ict in education

This site belongs to UNESCO's International Institute for Educational Planning

IIEP Learning Portal

Search form

• issue briefs
• Improve learning

Information and communication technology (ICT) in education

Information and communications technology (ict) can impact student learning when teachers are digitally literate and understand how to integrate it into curriculum..

Schools use a diverse set of ICT tools to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.(6) In some contexts, ICT has also become integral to the teaching-learning interaction, through such approaches as replacing chalkboards with interactive digital whiteboards, using students’ own smartphones or other devices for learning during class time, and the “flipped classroom” model where students watch lectures at home on the computer and use classroom time for more interactive exercises.

When teachers are digitally literate and trained to use ICT, these approaches can lead to higher order thinking skills, provide creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings, and leave students better prepared to deal with ongoing technological change in society and the workplace.(18)

ICT issues planners must consider include: considering the total cost-benefit equation, supplying and maintaining the requisite infrastructure, and ensuring investments are matched with teacher support and other policies aimed at effective ICT use.(16)

Issues and Discussion

Digital culture and digital literacy: Computer technologies and other aspects of digital culture have changed the ways people live, work, play, and learn, impacting the construction and distribution of knowledge and power around the world.(14) Graduates who are less familiar with digital culture are increasingly at a disadvantage in the national and global economy. Digital literacy—the skills of searching for, discerning, and producing information, as well as the critical use of new media for full participation in society—has thus become an important consideration for curriculum frameworks.(8)

In many countries, digital literacy is being built through the incorporation of information and communication technology (ICT) into schools. Some common educational applications of ICT include:

• One laptop per child: Less expensive laptops have been designed for use in school on a 1:1 basis with features like lower power consumption, a low cost operating system, and special re-programming and mesh network functions.(42) Despite efforts to reduce costs, however, providing one laptop per child may be too costly for some developing countries.(41)
• Tablets: Tablets are small personal computers with a touch screen, allowing input without a keyboard or mouse. Inexpensive learning software (“apps”) can be downloaded onto tablets, making them a versatile tool for learning.(7)(25) The most effective apps develop higher order thinking skills and provide creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings.(18)
• Interactive White Boards or Smart Boards : Interactive white boards allow projected computer images to be displayed, manipulated, dragged, clicked, or copied.(3) Simultaneously, handwritten notes can be taken on the board and saved for later use. Interactive white boards are associated with whole-class instruction rather than student-centred activities.(38) Student engagement is generally higher when ICT is available for student use throughout the classroom.(4)
• E-readers : E-readers are electronic devices that can hold hundreds of books in digital form, and they are increasingly utilized in the delivery of reading material.(19) Students—both skilled readers and reluctant readers—have had positive responses to the use of e-readers for independent reading.(22) Features of e-readers that can contribute to positive use include their portability and long battery life, response to text, and the ability to define unknown words.(22) Additionally, many classic book titles are available for free in e-book form.
• Flipped Classrooms: The flipped classroom model, involving lecture and practice at home via computer-guided instruction and interactive learning activities in class, can allow for an expanded curriculum. There is little investigation on the student learning outcomes of flipped classrooms.(5) Student perceptions about flipped classrooms are mixed, but generally positive, as they prefer the cooperative learning activities in class over lecture.(5)(35)

ICT and Teacher Professional Development: Teachers need specific professional development opportunities in order to increase their ability to use ICT for formative learning assessments, individualized instruction, accessing online resources, and for fostering student interaction and collaboration.(15) Such training in ICT should positively impact teachers’ general attitudes towards ICT in the classroom, but it should also provide specific guidance on ICT teaching and learning within each discipline. Without this support, teachers tend to use ICT for skill-based applications, limiting student academic thinking.(32) To sup­port teachers as they change their teaching, it is also essential for education managers, supervisors, teacher educators, and decision makers to be trained in ICT use.(11)

Ensuring benefits of ICT investments: To ensure the investments made in ICT benefit students, additional conditions must be met. School policies need to provide schools with the minimum acceptable infrastructure for ICT, including stable and affordable internet connectivity and security measures such as filters and site blockers. Teacher policies need to target basic ICT literacy skills, ICT use in pedagogical settings, and discipline-specific uses. (21) Successful imple­mentation of ICT requires integration of ICT in the curriculum. Finally, digital content needs to be developed in local languages and reflect local culture. (40) Ongoing technical, human, and organizational supports on all of these issues are needed to ensure access and effective use of ICT. (21)

Resource Constrained Contexts: The total cost of ICT ownership is considerable: training of teachers and administrators, connectivity, technical support, and software, amongst others. (42) When bringing ICT into classrooms, policies should use an incremental pathway, establishing infrastructure and bringing in sustainable and easily upgradable ICT. (16) Schools in some countries have begun allowing students to bring their own mobile technology (such as laptop, tablet, or smartphone) into class rather than providing such tools to all students—an approach called Bring Your Own Device. (1)(27)(34) However, not all families can afford devices or service plans for their children. (30) Schools must ensure all students have equitable access to ICT devices for learning.

Inclusiveness Considerations

Digital Divide: The digital divide refers to disparities of digital media and internet access both within and across countries, as well as the gap between people with and without the digital literacy and skills to utilize media and internet.(23)(26)(31) The digital divide both creates and reinforces socio-economic inequalities of the world’s poorest people. Policies need to intentionally bridge this divide to bring media, internet, and digital literacy to all students, not just those who are easiest to reach.

Minority language groups: Students whose mother tongue is different from the official language of instruction are less likely to have computers and internet connections at home than students from the majority. There is also less material available to them online in their own language, putting them at a disadvantage in comparison to their majority peers who gather information, prepare talks and papers, and communicate more using ICT. (39) Yet ICT tools can also help improve the skills of minority language students—especially in learning the official language of instruction—through features such as automatic speech recognition, the availability of authentic audio-visual materials, and chat functions. (2)(17)

Students with different styles of learning: ICT can provide diverse options for taking in and processing information, making sense of ideas, and expressing learning. Over 87% of students learn best through visual and tactile modalities, and ICT can help these students ‘experience’ the information instead of just reading and hearing it. (20)(37) Mobile devices can also offer programmes (“apps”) that provide extra support to students with special needs, with features such as simplified screens and instructions, consistent placement of menus and control features, graphics combined with text, audio feedback, ability to set pace and level of difficulty, appropriate and unambiguous feedback, and easy error correction. (24)(29)

Plans and policies

• India [ PDF ]
• Detroit, USA [ PDF ]
• Finland [ PDF ]
• Alberta Education. 2012. Bring your own device: A guide for schools . Retrieved from http://education.alberta.ca/admin/technology/research.aspx
• Alsied, S.M. and Pathan, M.M. 2015. ‘The use of computer technology in EFL classroom: Advantages and implications.’ International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies . 1 (1).
• BBC. N.D. ‘What is an interactive whiteboard?’ Retrieved from http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/Whatisaninteractivewhiteboard.aspx
• Beilefeldt, T. 2012. ‘Guidance for technology decisions from classroom observation.’ Journal of Research on Technology in Education . 44 (3).
• Bishop, J.L. and Verleger, M.A. 2013. ‘The flipped classroom: A survey of the research.’ Presented at the 120th ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition. Atlanta, Georgia.
• Blurton, C. 2000. New Directions of ICT-Use in Education . United National Education Science and Culture Organization (UNESCO).
• Bryant, B.R., Ok, M., Kang, E.Y., Kim, M.K., Lang, R., Bryant, D.P. and Pfannestiel, K. 2015. ‘Performance of fourth-grade students with learning disabilities on multiplication facts comparing teacher-mediated and technology-mediated interventions: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Behavioral Education. 24.
• Buckingham, D. 2005. Educación en medios. Alfabetización, aprendizaje y cultura contemporánea, Barcelona, Paidós.
• Buckingham, D., Sefton-Green, J., and Scanlon, M. 2001. 'Selling the Digital Dream: Marketing Education Technologies to Teachers and Parents.'  ICT, Pedagogy, and the Curriculum: Subject to Change . London: Routledge.
• "Burk, R. 2001. 'E-book devices and the marketplace: In search of customers.' Library Hi Tech 19 (4)."
• Chapman, D., and Mählck, L. (Eds). 2004. Adapting technology for school improvement: a global perspective. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
• Cheung, A.C.K and Slavin, R.E. 2012. ‘How features of educational technology applications affect student reading outcomes: A meta-analysis.’ Educational Research Review . 7.
• Cheung, A.C.K and Slavin, R.E. 2013. ‘The effectiveness of educational technology applications for enhancing mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms: A meta-analysis.’ Educational Research Review . 9.
• Deuze, M. 2006. 'Participation Remediation Bricolage - Considering Principal Components of a Digital Culture.' The Information Society . 22 .
• Dunleavy, M., Dextert, S. and Heinecke, W.F. 2007. ‘What added value does a 1:1 student to laptop ratio bring to technology-supported teaching and learning?’ Journal of Computer Assisted Learning . 23.
• Enyedy, N. 2014. Personalized Instruction: New Interest, Old Rhetoric, Limited Results, and the Need for a New Direction for Computer-Mediated Learning . Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center.
• Golonka, E.M., Bowles, A.R., Frank, V.M., Richardson, D.L. and Freynik, S. 2014. ‘Technologies for foreign language learning: A review of technology types and their effectiveness.’ Computer Assisted Language Learning . 27 (1).
• Goodwin, K. 2012. Use of Tablet Technology in the Classroom . Strathfield, New South Wales: NSW Curriculum and Learning Innovation Centre.
• Jung, J., Chan-Olmsted, S., Park, B., and Kim, Y. 2011. 'Factors affecting e-book reader awareness, interest, and intention to use.' New Media & Society . 14 (2)
• Kenney, L. 2011. ‘Elementary education, there’s an app for that. Communication technology in the elementary school classroom.’ The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications . 2 (1).
• Kopcha, T.J. 2012. ‘Teachers’ perceptions of the barriers to technology integration and practices with technology under situated professional development.’ Computers and Education . 59.
• Miranda, T., Williams-Rossi, D., Johnson, K., and McKenzie, N. 2011. "Reluctant readers in middle school: Successful engagement with text using the e-reader.' International journal of applied science and technology . 1 (6).
• Moyo, L. 2009. 'The digital divide: scarcity, inequality and conflict.' Digital Cultures . New York: Open University Press.
• Newton, D.A. and Dell, A.G. 2011. ‘Mobile devices and students with disabilities: What do best practices tell us?’ Journal of Special Education Technology . 26 (3).
• Nirvi, S. (2011). ‘Special education pupils find learning tool in iPad applications.’ Education Week . 30 .
• Norris, P. 2001. Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide . Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press.
• Project Tomorrow. 2012. Learning in the 21st century: Mobile devices + social media = personalized learning . Washington, D.C.: Blackboard K-12.
• Riasati, M.J., Allahyar, N. and Tan, K.E. 2012. ‘Technology in language education: Benefits and barriers.’ Journal of Education and Practice . 3 (5).
• Rodriquez, C.D., Strnadova, I. and Cumming, T. 2013. ‘Using iPads with students with disabilities: Lessons learned from students, teachers, and parents.’ Intervention in School and Clinic . 49 (4).
• Sangani, K. 2013. 'BYOD to the classroom.' Engineering & Technology . 3 (8).
• Servon, L. 2002. Redefining the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public Policy . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
• Smeets, E. 2005. ‘Does ICT contribute to powerful learning environments in primary education?’ Computers and Education. 44 .
• Smith, G.E. and Thorne, S. 2007. Differentiating Instruction with Technology in K-5 Classrooms . Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education.
• Song, Y. 2014. '"Bring your own device (BYOD)" for seamless science inquiry in a primary school.' Computers & Education. 74 .
• Strayer, J.F. 2012. ‘How learning in an inverted classroom influences cooperation, innovation and task orientation.’ Learning Environment Research. 15.
• Tamim, R.M., Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Abrami, P.C. and Schmid, R.F. 2011. ‘What forty years of research says about the impact of technology on learning: A second-order meta-analysis and validation study. Review of Educational Research. 81 (1).
• Tileston, D.W. 2003. What Every Teacher Should Know about Media and Technology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Turel, Y.K. and Johnson, T.E. 2012. ‘Teachers’ belief and use of interactive whiteboards for teaching and learning.’ Educational Technology and Society . 15(1).
• Volman, M., van Eck, E., Heemskerk, I. and Kuiper, E. 2005. ‘New technologies, new differences. Gender and ethnic differences in pupils’ use of ICT in primary and secondary education.’ Computers and Education. 45 .
• Voogt, J., Knezek, G., Cox, M., Knezek, D. and ten Brummelhuis, A. 2013. ‘Under which conditions does ICT have a positive effect on teaching and learning? A call to action.’ Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 29 (1).
• Warschauer, M. and Ames, M. 2010. ‘Can one laptop per child save the world’s poor?’ Journal of International Affairs. 64 (1).
• Zuker, A.A. and Light, D. 2009. ‘Laptop programs for students.’ Science. 323 (5910).

Related information

• Information and communication technologies (ICT)

• CSR in Education
• Government Schools
• iDream Education
• iPrep Digital Class
• iPrep Digital Library
• iPrep Tablets
• News Updates

Request a Quote

The power of ict in teaching and learning: 7 remarkable benefits.

About ICT In Teaching And Learning

What is ict in the context of schools, government research on ict, benefits of ict in teaching and learning .

Benefit 1: Education for Everyone

Benefit 2: personalized learning, benefit 3: higher knowledge retention, benefit 4: improves transparency, benefit 5: learner-centered approach, benefit 6: time efficiency, benefit 7: preparation for the digital age, introducing iprep digital library a perfect fit for ict in teaching and learning, no infrastructure barriers, reduced to no electricity dependency, makes reporting easy, bilingual learning, addressing learning gaps, the way forward.

Rajeev Dudi

Rajeev is a dynamic Digital Marketing Associate at iDream Education. With a passion for content creation and SEO, Rajeev is a fresh talent in the industry, committed to delivering exceptional results.

[email protected]

Share this post

Related articles.

A Guide to Smart Devices for the Classroom: Addressing Your Smart Classroom Needs

Choosing the Right ICT Lab Providers in Delhi: A Comprehensive Guide

How Aide et Action Asia with iMpower program of M3M Foundation is tackling incremental learning gaps of migrant students across India

Case Studies Reflecting ICT@Samagra Shiksha Aligned Cost Effective Digital Library Solution

Affordable Digital Libraries for Schools: Unlocking Learning Beyond Bookshelves

Leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Impact of ICT in Education: An Analysis

• Conference paper
• First Online: 06 November 2022
• Cite this conference paper

• Golak Bihari Palai 12 &
• Deepanjali Mishra   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5662-6999 12  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ((LNNS,volume 517))

369 Accesses

One day in the month of November, 2019, the world received a major setback when it understood that a new pandemic called COVID-19, or the Novel Coronavirus had taken over to create havoc among the people. It was first started in a wet market of a small province in China. After that it has spread all over the world like a bonfire. Many countries got under its grip, namely USA, South Korea, and Italy where the situation was totally out of control. During the last two years, India suffered huge loss due to COVID-19 in terms of life, property, and other assets. India is the second largest most populous country with 130 crores was highly affected due to COVID-19. Out of all the aspects, education was the worst affected sector. There was no option left but to implement e-learning as a methodology of teaching and learning. It has emerged as one of the major sources of business, like e-commerce, learning methodology, and e-learning. E-learning is a methodology of teaching and learning where the teacher teaches using multimedia, and the learner learns using the digital mode of education. This mode of teaching and learning has indeed brought a revolution in the education process because neither the teacher nor the student needs to be together in one place. There are numerous subjects which can be taught online, ranging from technical to non-technical subjects. Literature is an imitation of fiction or non-fiction. Online could be the best mode of instruction for literature students. Therefore, this paper is an attempt to make an analysis of the implications of e-learning in education, and its implementation to teach literature by the teachers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

https://news.usc.edu/54256/the-benefits-and-drawbacks-of-online-technology/ . Retrieved 15 May 2020

https://www.ed.gov/oii-news/use-technology-teaching-and-learning . Retrieved 15 May 2020

Applebee AN (1989) A study of book-length works taught in high school English courses (report series 1.2). National Research Center on Literature Teaching and Learning, State University of New York, Albany

Google Scholar  

Thompkins J (ed) (1980) Reader-response criticism: from formalism to poststructuralism. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore

Webb N (1983) Microcomputer learning in small groups: cognitive requirements and group processes. J Educ Psychol 76(6):1076–1088

Article   Google Scholar  

Bolter JD (1991) Writing space: the computer, hypertext, and the history of writing. Erlbaum, Hillsdale. Retrieved 15 May 2020

Steve (1989) Another World: inside artificial reality. PC Comput 2(11):90–99, 102. Retrieved 15 May 2020

Bennett S, Lockyer L (1999) The impact of digital technologies on teaching and learning in K-12 education. Curriculum Corporation. Retrieved from: http://www.ndlrn.edu.au/verve/_resources/impact_digital_technologies_k-12pdf.pdf

Boruszko G (2013) New technologies and teaching comparative literature. CLCWeb Comp Lit Cul 15(6), Article Number 3. https://doi.org/10.7771/1481-4374.2355

Porter S (1999) Introduction: technology in teaching literature and culture: some reflections. In: Teaching European literature and culture with communication and information technologies. http://users.ox.ac.uk

Pratt MK (2009) How technology is changing what we read. Retrieved from http://www.pcworld.com/article/164355/e_books.html

Rozema RA (2004) Electronic literacy: teaching literary reading through the digital medium. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/1300/

Bauerlein M (2008) Online literacy is a lesser kind. The Chronicle Review, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 19 Sept 2008. http://chronicle.com/article/Online-Literacy-Is-a-Lesser/28307

Bauerlein M (2008) The dumbest generation: how the digital age stupefies young Americans and jeopardizes our future (or, don’t trust anyone under 30). Jeremy P. Tarcher; Penguin, New York, p 110

(2010). http://lists.digitalhumanities.org/pipermail/humanist/2010-April/001183.html (my emphasis)

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Humanities, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar, India

Golak Bihari Palai & Deepanjali Mishra

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Deepanjali Mishra .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

University of Macau, Macau, Macao

JIS University, Kolkata, India

Nilanjan Dey

Global Knowledge Research Foundation, Ahmedabad, India

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this paper

Cite this paper.

Palai, G.B., Mishra, D. (2023). Impact of ICT in Education: An Analysis. In: Fong, S., Dey, N., Joshi, A. (eds) ICT Analysis and Applications. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 517. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5224-1_45

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5224-1_45

Published : 06 November 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-19-5223-4

Online ISBN : 978-981-19-5224-1

eBook Packages : Engineering Engineering (R0)

Share this paper

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• Review article
• Open access
• Published: 18 October 2021

A heutagogical approach for the assessment of Internet Communication Technology (ICT) assignments in higher education

• Michael Lynch   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0332-0563 1 ,
• Todd Sage   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9879-5080 1 ,
• Laurel Iverson Hitchcock   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3062-9622 2 &
• Melanie Sage   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3385-9650 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  18 , Article number:  55 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

8737 Accesses

12 Citations

19 Altmetric

Metrics details

Pedagogical foundations exist for incorporating technology in instruction; however, these foundations have not kept pace with technology's evolution. Through the use of Information Communication Technologies (ICTs), students now can share content directed at external audiences, i.e., audiences other than the instructor. These audiences are referred to as authentic audiences as they are public-facing and exist outside of the classroom. The existing literature offers evidence of student satisfaction with assignments directed at appealing to external audiences, however, the literature provides no comprehensive pedagogical rationale for assignments directed at authentic audiences wherein the goals are self-determined. The authors discuss the theory of heutagogy, the study of self-determined learning, as an approach for assessing assignments that utilize ICTs and are directed at authentic audiences. Finally, the authors offer an approach for the assessment of these assignments, including a rubric.

Introduction to problem

College instructors increasingly offer assignments that harness the internet for communication or dissemination, such as through infographics, podcasts, the creation of blogs, or social networking. Reasons broadly include enhancing student engagement, connecting students with public audiences, and increasing digital literacy. Existing literature offers evidence of student satisfaction with assignments in which they create material for public audiences using Internet Communication Technologies (ICTs) (Armstrong et al., 2009 ; Hitchcock & Battista, 2013 ; Wopereis et al., 2010 ), as well as the benefits of authentic assessment in which participants are evaluated in instructor-designed real-world activities that mirror future vocational work (Gulikers et al., 2004 ). However, a literature gap exists relative to pedagogical reasons for asking students to publicly share their work using ICTs, and around the best practices for designing and assessing ICT assignments. Technology is increasingly central to higher education, and even more so in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, where many classes have moved entirely online, requiring instructors to use technology in increasingly novel ways (Johnson et al., 2020 ). Theoretical lenses such as heutagogy offer an opportunity to consider the implications of these types of assignments in light of learning outcomes and assessment. Briefly, heutagogy is an instructional approach focused on learner self-determination.

One hesitation when using ICTs in the classroom is about how to assess and assign a grade to this kind of work, especially when students are designing content for a specific audience besides the teacher. We attempt to answer this dilemma by presenting a pedagogical guide for educators seeking to incorporate ICTs in higher education curricula using a heutagogical lens. First, we describe the importance of ICTs in the 21st Century classroom, particularly in light of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Next, we describe heutagogy, which provides instructors in higher education with a rationale for utilizing ICTs for assignments that support student engagement with authentic audiences. Finally, we present an assessment approach for public-facing ICT assignments. This discussion fills a gap in knowledge and practice related to how college educators assess ICT assignments in higher education (Sosa & Manzuoli, 2019 ).

ICTs in the 21st century classroom

Broadly defined, ICTs are technologies that allow for information sharing and communication with others over the internet (Sosa & Manzuoli, 2019 ). Rather than just offering a new tool, ICTs structurally change the way that information is accessed, diffused, and adopted (Reid, 2002 ). Learners are increasingly influenced by ICTs outside the classroom, and are often already self-directed in the ways that they navigate these tools to learn about issues of interest to them (Sutherland, 2004 ). Just as with prior innovations that shift knowledge dissemination, such as the printing press and telephone, ICTs have brought forth conflicting positions about whether these tools are helpful in the classroom (Reid, 2002 ). Some of these concerns stem from the role of the teacher when these technologies are used (Reid, 2002 ; Sutherland, 2004 ), which this paper helps to address.

Examples of ICTs in the classroom include the use of social networking sites (i.e. Twitter and Instagram) and websites that can host digital content as well as audio and video recording software for creating digital content. In higher education, ICTs are often used to enable learners to develop products designed for public consumption, like podcasts, websites, blogs, or social media comments in spaces like Twitter, or bookmark material for sharing in places like Pinterest. ICTs can be integrated into assignments as an add-on such as asking students to post comments about a research paper on Twitter, or they can be Learner-Generated Digital Media (LGDM) assignments which require the student to conceptualize and create digital media content for an assignment such as a podcast, infographic or video (Reyna et al., 2017 ).

The latter, LDGM assignments allow students to create products for an authentic, public audience, rather than the artificial instructor-only audience. Authentic audiences are interested in the subject matter produced by the student, and authentic audiences are shown to enhance student engagement and performance (Herrington et al., 2014 ; Newmann, 1995 ; Newmann et al., 1996 ). Using ICTs with authentic audiences encourages students to consider their professional voice while promoting technological proficiency. It offers opportunities for creative thinking beyond typical specific assignment structures often used in classroom papers. Considerations related to the professional and ethical public presentation of self are essential for public servants, such as teachers, social workers, and health professionals; these assignments offer hands-on reflective practice.

Prior research on authentic audiences focuses on how this approach meets the goals of student-centered or community-based learning (Newmann et al., 1996 ). ICTs offer additional opportunities to reach very particular audiences. For example, students can create content directed at specific professional or regional groups or hard-to-reach populations by utilizing social media groups or hashtags. The flexibility offered to students makes assessment difficult because the student may have more content and context expertise about the target population than the instructor, and the products may vary widely based on the project (Cochrane & Antonczak, 2013 ). Additionally, technical rubrics, such as those that assess citation style or the inclusion of specific content, are not easily transferable to the range of ICT assignments that can be used in the classroom.

Not only do ICTs facilitate sharing with authentic audiences, but they also allow for direct communication and collaboration between students and their audiences through digital tools such as private messaging and commenting features. Thus, students can actively engage with their audience across an assignment's development, rather than passively sharing, which transforms the audience into supporters or mentors (Ito et al., 2013 ). Rather than very clear instructions afforded by typical college assignments, these assignments require critical thinking and the ability to manage ambiguity. These authentic connections offer learners access to diverse and multidisciplinary ways of thinking and feedback, collaboration, self-reflection, along with meaningful associations and networking with professionals or other types of interested community beyond the typical classroom, which often focuses more on direct knowledge transfer.

The importance of ICTs is more apparent given the changing landscape of higher education, which faces contemporary pressures related to the COVID-19 pandemic and social justice movements, where content does not yet exist in textbooks. Students are very exposed to public dialogues, especially via ICTs. Higher education institutions benefit significantly from the expanded use of ICTs technology in the classroom, including discussing current events. Scholars note both strengths and weaknesses of this move; for instance, Grosseck ( 2009 ) notes they allow increased access to, the creation of, and sharing of information, and cost savings to the University, but also pose challenges related to the technology (e.g., privacy settings) and the requirement for high-speed internet.

ICTs are not new to higher education. Venkatesh et al. ( 2013 ) point out that North America and European countries had already reached a "tipping point" (p. 6); the use of ICTs is going beyond individual instructors to having support at the institutional level. Venkatesh et al. ( 2013 ) continue that "…we are also witnessing a growing trend to incorporate increasingly sophisticated ICT tools in education. These may be signs of future indispensability …" (p. 8). As seen in our own use of ICTs in the classroom (distance or traditional), ICTs have been and will continue to be increasingly important to teaching in the professional disciplines. Additionally, research by Simándi ( 2018 ) has shown the use of ICTs technologies in adult education facilitates life-long learning, which "… builds on self-defined and self-regulating learning; the facilitator is present in the creation of the learning environment and supports the learning process as well" (p. 69). This development of life-long learning is a crucial component to professional disciplines, given that graduates require continuous knowledge updates throughout a career.

COVID-19 and social change movements of 2020: a mandate for innovation

The current coronavirus pandemic (COVID‐19) has shifted secondary education to a predominantly online model. This shift is forecasted to impact secondary education for up to the next five-years (Dennis, 2020 ). Thus, educators must develop assessment tools that accurately evaluate learners' competency within digital spaces (Eltayar et al., 2020 ). Because online learning can increase a sense of isolation (Carolan et al., 2020 ), instructors need to create opportunities for students to build community and to grow their interpersonal communication skills when using technology. Peer-engagement in a virtual community of practice can mitigate learners' feelings of isolation associated with online learning (Carolan et al., 2020 ).

Beyond its impacts on secondary education, the COVID-19 pandemic has changed our collective daily lives. The pandemic has accelerated trends where people increasingly rely on technology to replace place-based activities, such as meeting with peers, running errands, and other daily living activities (Budd et al., 2020 ). COVID-19 has forced institutions and individuals to rely on new ways of communicating and connecting, often by harnessing ICTs platforms (Garfin, 2020 ).

Further, in the context of COVID-19, massive social unrest associated with ongoing police brutality and the Black Lives Matter movement has underscored the utility of ICTs social media platforms (Wilkins et al., 2019 ). Individuals and groups have used social media to quickly and easily organize, mobilize, and learn about world events, including protests and demonstrations. Technology and social media are now ubiquitous aspects of daily news in human life; educators must equip students with the skills to use technology and how it can be harnessed constructively for their personal and professional use.

Because instructors in higher education are now rethinking their content-delivery methods, activities and assignments need to fit in a world where pandemics might become part of a recurring landscape. Bao ( 2020 ) identified five high-impact principles for online education at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in China, one of which was the creation of "high-quality participation to improve the breadth and depth of student's learning" (p. 1). Instructors can harness the dynamic and social aspects of ICTs to create high-impact activities and rigorous assignments to address a wide range of learning outcomes. Gurukkal ( 2020 ) states that COVID-19 will create a new "radical systemic transformation" (p.92) in higher education and that this transformation will have online teaching and evaluation at the forefront of educational delivery that makes-competency evaluation equal to other methods of assessment.

The study of adult learning has transformed over the years (Blaschke & Hase, 2019 ). Knowles’ ( 1973 ) theory of adult learning, referred to as andragogy, focuses on unique characteristics of adult learners including changes in self-concept, orientation, and readiness to learn from experience. Pedagogical learning is teacher-centric, and although andragogy focuses on the needs of the adult learner, it is still teacher-directed (Blaschke & Hase, 2019 ). Heutagogy is defined as "a form of self-determined learning…" (Blaschke, 2012 ), which focuses on developing students' "capability and capacity to learn" (Blaschke, 2012 , p 2). Self-determined learning focuses on the process of learning (heutagogy) while self-directed learning focuses more on content (andragogy) (Blaschke & Hase, 2019 ). In summary, pedagogy, where the instructor is in control, can be viewed as one end of a continuum, with andragogy, where control is shared, in the middle of the continuum, and heutagogy can be viewed as the learner-determined end of the continuum (Blaschke & Hase, 2019 ). The heutagogical approach is the best fit with the learner-centered, unstructured student interaction that occurs when using ICTs, and offers practical boundaries to help educators think about how to apply these types of assignments in the classroom.

Prior research has explored the ways that emerging theories inform the use of ICTs from a heutagogical standpoint in the classroom. Blaschke and Hase ( 2019 ) identify these theories as complexity, connectivism, and rhizomatic (organic non-linear) theories, as students reflect on and construct their own knowledge through navigating non-linear tasks while connected and getting feedback with those outside their traditional classroom environments. Cochrane and Antonczak ( 2013 ) add humanism as a grounding theory when using this approach.

Although these are promising outcomes, ICTs may be perceived as a threat to traditional teacher-led knowledge transfer, and take new learning for teachers to reach the desired outcomes (Sutherland, 2004 ), including about how to prepare students for these types of assignments and provide an appropriate assessment.

It centers “—learner agency, self-efficacy, and capability, reflection and metacognition, and non-linear learning” (Blaschke & Hase, 2019 , p. 1), and therefore its application lends well to college classrooms where critical thinking for lifelong learning is a highly-valued learner outcome. Further, heutagogy encourages competency and capability development. Competency refers to a learner’s ability to gain knowledge and skills, their confidence in their ability to solve problems, and how they apply acquired knowledge and skills in new and unfamiliar contexts (Blaschke, 2012 ). Competency-based education, with its focus on assessing students’ abilities to demonstrate predetermined knowledge, skills, and values, is common and often mandated in professional programs such as medicine, law, and social work (Frank et al., 2010 ; Morcke et al., 2013 ). While educators in professional programs may not always have flexibility in what is taught or how it is taught, a mindset grounded in heutagogy and the application of heutagogical principles whenever possible, offer students the opportunity to develop self-efficacy, creativity, and communication and collaboration skills (Blaschke, 2012 ).

For example, in the heutagogical classroom, much of the learning is student-driven rather than traditional instructor-led learning. The student takes a more active role in determining what is to be learned based on their own needs and interests (Glassner & Back, 2020 ), and the instructor acts as a facilitator. Students are able to dictate the learning process, which often results in non-linear learning where students not only reflect on outcomes but also on the learning process itself (Blaschke, 2012 ; Narayan et al., 2019 ). Heutagogy aims to develop lifelong learners, making it an excellent theoretical fit for the fields of applied sciences like nursing, social work, and public health, all disciplines that routinely change with the development of new knowledge, devices, techniques, and research into best practices (Bhoyrub et al., 2010 ). Specifically, heutagogical approaches foster the development of skills relevant to any professional setting, including communication skills, digital literacy, the ability to work with others to solve complex problems, metacognitive skills associated with a deeper self-understanding for how one learns, and self-confidence to apply skills in various settings (Blaschke, 2012 ). A heutagogical approach also emphasizes collaborative learning, particularly in which learners belong to communities of practice that exist as part of larger systems (Blaschke, 2012 ). These communities share new knowledge, experiences, and resources, which enhance all community members' capabilities. This form of ongoing learning requires engagement within and between members to develop knowledge that, over time, transforms learning and practice within larger systems (McDonald & Cater-Steel, 2016 ). This student-centered learning allows for meta-cognition that is transferable to other spaces, and when used in social media assignments, has been found to increase student familiarity with new tools and a sense of competency (Blaschke, 2014 ). Allowing learners to participate in communities of practice while in higher education allows for the development of relationships and social capital within these communities, which will support lifelong learning after formal education (Halsall et al., 2016 ). These communities of practice become personalized learning environments and must include tools that facilitate the learner's "three basic cognitive processes: reading, reflecting and sharing" (Torres Kompen et al., 2019 , p. 196).

Heutagogical principles for the use of ICTs assignments

ICTs assignments are unique in various ways, such as providing students access to larger online communities, encouraging creativity and self-directed learning, and being directed to public-facing audiences rather than solely the instructor. ICTs assignments can be created and evaluated using principles of heutagogy. McAuliffe et al. ( 2009 ) proposed the following four principles of heutagogy:

Understanding how to learn is crucial;

Educators should focus on the process instead of content;

Learning encompasses multiple disciplines; and

Learning should be self-chosen and self-directed.

Through ICTs assignments, students create products that conceivably have value beyond the classroom, which can influence student motivation and focus. By using ICT, students can be self-directed, develop or join communities of practice, and create content for these authentic audiences. Given these assignments' unique nature, viewing them through a traditional pedagogical or an andragogical framework is insufficient. Heutagogy emphasizes student-directed learning, a multidisciplinary point of view, and an examination of the process by which each student learns, which fits with the nature and scope of ICT assignments. Table 1 offers a visual of heutagogical principles for the use of ICTs assignments, which is described in the following paragraphs.

Knowledge of the learning process

ICT assignments often require students to use a new digital and social technology to create some product or digital content; this enables them to learn at multiple levels. The students learn how to use the new technology, display or integrate their content ideas using the technology, and align them with their professional practice standards or learning objectives. For instance, when creating a podcast for an assignment, students must first learn the elements of a quality podcast, how to record and edit an audio file, and develop interview questions or outline a storyboard. They also consider how the content aligns with publicly representing themselves in relation to the course topic. This form of assignment offers a self-reflection opportunity about the process of learning, including an understanding of the audience, technology, sources of information that inform the work, and considerations for sharing it.

Focus on process instead of content

ICT assignments often have multiple steps that lead to the creation of a piece of digital content. For example, Hitchcock et al., ( 2021 ) created an assignment where students interview local leaders and create a podcast. In this assignment, students need to learn how to use podcasting technology, search for local community leaders, learn how to write appropriate interview questions that match their disciplinary values and ethics, conduct an interview, edit the audio into a podcast and then reflect on the learning experience. By asking students to reflect on the assignment, instructors can motivate students to focus on their learning process and the skill development associated with the assignment's different parts.

Multidisciplinary learning

ICT technology has made the world much more interconnected, allowing students to connect via social networking sites with experts or global colleagues within and outside of their discipline through digital tools that support communities of practice (Davis, 2015 ). Further, by requiring students to learn or become proficient in various forms of ICTs, they must think about their potential audiences' disciplinary perspectives while reflecting on their professional jargon, who they want to reach, and that person's experiences; Twitter, in particular, requires direct, clear, and concise communication (Davis, 2015 ). When students produce content designed for authentic audiences, they can create content that can appeal to a multidisciplinary audience.

• Self-directed learning

Knowles ( 1975 ) describes self-directed learning as "a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learnings goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes" (p. 18). ICT assignments can be structured in ways that promote self-directed learning, both in terms of content and process (Candy, 2004 ). Instructors can create assignments that allow students to choose the type of technology they use and their content. For example, an assignment focused on data collection and analysis could ask students to use any online platform to conduct a survey of their choosing and then analyze the results. In terms of content, students can approach their content development in a number of ways, perhaps choosing to produce their findings in a video, podcast, infographic, or traditional paper. Further, by understanding the principle of self-directed learning, educators can support students in professional education programs to develop and practice life-long learning skills by helping learners to identify specific topics, social problems, or populations in need of care that arouse their interest and curiosity (i.e. HIV/AIDS, domestic violence or working with children in foster care).

Evaluation of ICTs assignments using a heutagogical approach

Educators in the professional disciplines must address ever-changing practice environments without the foresight of knowing what future needs may arise within a given professional field of practice. Competency-based education, with its focus on assessing students’ abilities to demonstrate predetermined knowledge, skills, and values, is common and often mandated in professional programs such as medicine, law, and social work (Frank et al., 2010 ; Morcke et al., 2013 ; Robbins, 2014 ). Historically, practice-based learning was used to prepare students for learning how to work within their profession. Still, it did little to prepare learners to adapt to systematic changes and the progression of theory and evidence-based practices. The traditional teaching model of subject expert and learner can only prepare learners for the currently-known dynamics within a profession (Bhoyrub et al., 2010 ). As previously noted, by integrating ICTs assignments from a heutagogical perspective, educators in professional programs can better prepare students for life-long learning throughout a career.

The value of using authentic audiences, such as proposed in this paper, is that they allow the learner to shift their focus from simply conveying their understanding of the subject matter to focusing on engaging their audience as it relates to their subject matter. This shift requires them to not only know their subject matter but what others in the audience already know and how to enhance their audience's knowledge related to the subject matter, while they might also learn from their authentic audience (Novakovich & Long, 2013 ). This shift increases the learners' engagement with the subject and simultaneously with others within their profession.

A conceptual approach for designing ICT assignments through a heutagogical lens should follow a logical path and allow the learner ownership over the design, content, and identification of an authentic audience to connect with and exchange information. The creation of an assessment tool for these assignments should include input from the learners as they conceptualize their ICT assignments' implementation. ICTs provide learners with multiple opportunities to develop new skill sets and develop expertise within their professional communities (Barber et al., 2015 ). ICT assignments expand the traditional use of problem-based learning commonly used in a conventional social learning framework by connecting the learner with collective knowledge beyond the traditional classroom and in environments where technology and expertise can outpace an instructor's ability to learn and integrate these advances.

Evaluating ICT assignments designed with an heutagogical approach

The Framework for Authentic Intellectual Work (AIW) offers a starting point to think about how to assess ICT assignments (Newmann et al., 1996 ). Designed for use in K-12 education, this framework encourages the use of classroom assignments that model work completed by adults in their everyday work lives as a way to help students engage in genuine and rigorous learning. Multiple research from primary and secondary education in the US has documented the use of the AIW framework with both traditional and ICTs assignments (i.e. written paper vs. student-created videos), and overall, findings showed that AIW framework allowed educators to assess student learning outcomes across a variety of topics and disciplines (Newmann et al., 1996 , 2001 ; Swan & Hofer, 2013 ). While not historically used in higher education, the framework supports the process of inquiry-based learning as well as creating works for public audiences, both common teaching strategies in higher education (Spires & Hervey, 2011 ). AIW includes three primary criteria for assessing an assignment. When all three criteria are met in an assignment's design, then the more authentic the student's work.

The first criterion of the AIW framework is the Construction of Knowledge, which could be compared to the lower-order thinking skills such as remembering and understanding key concepts (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001 ). To meet this item, an assignment would require students to identify, interpret, and organize prior knowledge and new learning around a topic. For example, an instructor might ask students to create a podcast about how a social problem impacts their community (e.g., homelessness, food insecurity, etc.). To evaluate a student's podcast for knowledge construction, an instructor might look for how the student showed their understanding of the social problem (i.e., give facts about the problem using quality evidence) and how well they analyzed this social problem in their community (i.e., constructing arguments, considering alternative points of view and/or describing patterns). Additionally, students may need to learn technology skills with multimedia-based assignments such as recording and editing audio for a podcast, which aligns with the heutagogical principle of Knowledge of the Learning Process (see Table 1 for examples).

The second criterion is Disciplined Inquiry, which has two parts. First, it requires students to apply their knowledge of facts, theories, and skills to understand a problem or issue deeply. Here, students engage with some of Bloom's higher-order thinking skills to analyze and evaluate a problem or topic (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001 ). In our podcast assignment example, an instructor would still be focused on how well a student integrates conflicting information about the causes of the social problem or draws logical conclusions from the facts in their podcast. Second is what Newman et al. ( 1995 ; 1996 ) referred to as elaborated communication or demonstration, whereby students express their findings through complex forms of communication such as writing or an oral presentation. Viewed from Bloom's Taxonomy, the instructor assesses how well a student created a multimedia-based assignment, such as how well the student expressed their ideas through such outcomes as writing, dialogues, or visual representations. From a heutagogical perspective, students are focused on the process of creating the assignment rather than the content itself (see Table 1 for examples). Considering the same podcast assignment, producing a high-quality podcast about a complex topic that includes show notes would demonstrate both elaborate written and oral communications.

The final criterion is Value beyond School, which reflects both a product that resembles real-life work and student perception that the work is meaningful. Value can be found in assignments that address a current problem of significance, incorporate students' lived experiences, and/or require students to share their work outside of the classroom. This also reflects the heutagogical principle that learning is multidisciplinary, moving beyond the classroom and curriculum (see Table 1 for examples). The previously discussed podcast assignment meets these criteria because it can be shared with individuals and groups outside of the classroom. Newmann et al. ( 2001 ) note that it is challenging to evaluate student performance if their work has value outside of the classroom because students nor educators have control over the potential audience, so this criterion only needs to be met in the assignment's design. However, social media analytics offer the potential to help students to assess the value of their work outside of the classroom. Analytics include metrics like the number of downloads of a file, the number of clicks on a hyperlink, or how many times a digital post or artifact has been re-shared within a social media platform (i.e., the number of retweets on Twitter). Additionally, an instructor can assess student satisfaction with the assignment as a tool that contributed to meaningful learning or request a reflection on how they engaged their public audience.

Practical rubric for heutagogy-based assessment

Table 2 . offers a sample rubric for a podcast assignment using the three AIW criteria, paired with specific assignment criteria and performance benchmarks adapted from the VALUES Rubrics created by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU, 2010 ). The VALUES Rubrics are designed to be adjusted by instructors with terminology that best fits disciplines and courses. Besides being used by instructors to assess the product's quality, this rubric offers the opportunity for self and peer assessment by using benchmarks as a checklist for completed tasks.

As can be seen, the rubric offers a heutagogical approach to assessment for instructors who want to gauge student learning with public-facing assignments. First, there are multiple assessment criteria in the rubric, from learning more about a social problem to integrating best practices for podcasting, encouraging students to focus on the process of creating a podcast from content to technical aspects. Second, because a podcast is designed for an audience outside the classroom, students need to consider that listeners will be diverse and incorporate multiple perspectives into their final product. Finally, the rubric is flexible enough to accommodate other forms of digital technology such as a video, should an instructor want to allow more technology options such as a video about a social problem or a vlog (a blog post that is shared as a video) (Tetloff et al., 2014 ). Blaschke ( 2014 ) offers additional considerations for a social media assignment based in self-determined learning, such as adjusting the assignment to the level of the student, incorporating self-reflection, and negotiating the assessment process. Student participants in Blaschke’s ( 2014 ) study informed other suggestions based on their perspectives, including providing guidance and support for new social media use, being prepared for those opposed to social media, making expectations clear, preparing how to track student activity, and assuring work is clearly aligned with learning objectives and the students’ future work.

Implications for the higher education classroom

The integration of heutagogy with ICTs offers educators several opportunities to better prepare adult learners for future work environments in the twenty-first century, from learning ICT skills to developing the knowledge and attitudes needed for lifelong learning. For twenty-first century skills, numerous stakeholders from education and industry have weighed in based on expertise and experience (Battelle for Kids, 2020 ; Blaschke, 2014 ; Davidson, 2011 ; Trilling & Fadel, 2009 ). 21st-century skills now require digital literacy skills associated with ICTs assignments as well as career and learning self-reliance, collaboration skills, and creativity (Trilling & Fadel, 2009 ), all skills supported by the heutagogical design and assessment elements discussed in this paper.

Moreover, the heutagogical approach to learning and assessment helps instructors respond to the question, "why are you using social media in the classroom, and how do you assess it?" Here we clearly articulate why one would use social media, given students' need to engage in self-directed learning and knowledge generation to help prepare them for their future learning and technology-mediated engagement in a digital society. A gap in this work is how one assesses such varied activity; by dismantling the theory of heutagogy and authentic audiences, we land on a flexible but defendable approach that encourages intellectual freedom and autonomy while also holding students accountable for articulating the merits of their work.

Although the approach presented here offers insight into the ways to assess ICTs in the classroom through the lens of heutagogy, this article does not explore the degree of understanding that instructors or students need to have in ICTs in order to benefit from an ICT-mediated assignment, nor does it investigate technology access issues for students. Therefore, this approach for assessment may be ideally suited for instructors who are already using ICTs in the classroom and have thought through access concerns, but would benefit from structure to help assess and provide feedback to students about their learning. Additionally, this approach suggests flexibility and negotiation of learning outcomes, which likely has a time impact for instructors, an issue not evaluated in this article. Finally, the approach offered presents recommendations based on a review of the literature, and is not applied. Future research can assess the ways that students and teachers experience this approach, and whether it helps assess the desired learning outcomes.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives . Longman.

Google Scholar  

Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12 (3), 80–97. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.890 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Armstrong, G. R., Tucker, J. M., & Massad, V. J. (2009). Achieving learning goals with student-created podcasts. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 7 (1), 149–154.

Association of American Colleges and Universities. (2010). VALUE Rubric. Association of American Colleges and Universities. https://www.aacu.org/value/rubrics .

Bao, W. (2020). COVID-19 and online teaching in higher education: A case study of Peking University. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2 (2), 113–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.191 .

Barber, W., King, S., & Buchanan, S. (2015). Problem-based learning and authentic assessment in digital pedagogy: Embracing the role of collaborative communities. Electronic Journal of E-Learning, 13 (2), 59–67.

Battelle for Kids. (2020). Making 21st century education a reality for every student, a conversation & action guide for 21st century education systems (pp. 1–8). http://static.battelleforkids.org/documents/bfk/Making-2st-Century-a-Reality-for-Every-Student-Conversation-and-Action%20Guide.pdf .

Bhoyrub, J., Hurley, J., Neilson, G. R., Ramsay, M., & Smith, M. (2010). Heutagogy: An alternative practice-based learning approach. Nurse Education in Practice, 10 (6), 322–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2010.05.001 .

Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13 (1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v13i1.1076 .

Blaschke, L. M. (2014). Using social media to engage and develop the online learner in self-determined learning. Research in Learning Technology . https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v22.21635 .

Blaschke, L. M., & Hase, S. (2019). Heutagogy and digital media networks: Setting students on the path to lifelong learning. Pacific Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 1 (1), 1–14.

Budd, J., Miller, B. S., Manning, E. M., Lampos, V., Zhuang, M., Edelstein, M., Rees, G., Emery, V. C., Stevens, M. M., Keegan, N., Short, M. J., Pillay, D., Manley, E., Cox, I. J., Heymann, D., Johnson, A. M., & McKendry, R. A. (2020). Digital technologies in the public-health response to COVID-19. Nature Medicine, 26 (8), 1183–1192. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-1011-4 .

Candy, P. C. (2004). Linking thinking: Self-directed learning in the digital age . Department of Education, Science and Training.

Carolan, C., Davies, C. L., Crookes, P., McGhee, S., & Roxburgh, M. (2020). COVID 19: Disruptive impacts and transformative opportunities in undergraduate nurse education. Nurse Education in Practice, 46 , 102807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2020.102807

Cochrane, T., & Antonczak, L. (2013). Post web 2.0 media: Mobile social media. 2013 (3), 2. https://doi.org/10.5339/qproc.2013.mlearn.2 .

Davidson, E. J. (2011). ‘Hey professor, why are you teaching this class?’ Reflections on the relevance of IS research for undergraduate students. European Journal of Information Systems, 20 (2), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejis.2011.1 .

Davis, K. (2015). Teachers’ perceptions of Twitter for professional development. Disability and Rehabilitation, 37 (17), 1551–1558.

Dennis, M. J. (2020). Consider higher education opportunities after COVID-19. Enrollment Management Report, 24 (5), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/emt.30681 .

Eltayar, A. N., Eldesoky, N. I., Khalifa, H., & Rashed, S. (2020). Online faculty development using cognitive apprenticeship in response to COVID-19. Medical Education, 54 (7), 665–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.14190 .

Frank, J. R., Mungroo, R., Ahmad, Y., Wang, M., Rossi, S. D., & Horsley, T. (2010). Toward a definition of competency-based education in medicine: A systematic review of published definitions. Medical Teacher, 32 (8), 631–637. https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2010.500898 .

Garfin, D. R. (2020). Technology as a coping tool during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic: Implications and recommendations. Stress and Health, 36 (4), 555–559. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2975 .

Glassner, A., & Back, S. (2020). Introduction—heutagogy: What does it mean, and why it is needed. In A. Glassner & S. Back (Eds.), Exploring heutagogy in higher education: Academia meets the zeitgeist (pp. 1–8). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4144-5_1 .

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Grosseck, G. (2009). To use or not to use web 2.0 in higher education? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1 (1), 478–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.087 .

Gulikers, J. T., Bastiaens, T. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2004). A five-dimensional framework for authentic assessment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52 (3), 67.

Gurukkal, R. (2020). Will Covid 19 turn higher education into another mode? Higher Education for the Future, 7 (2), 89–96.

Halsall, J. P., Powell, J. L., & Snowden, M. (2016). Determined learning approach: Implications of heutagogy society based learning. Cogent Social Sciences, 2 (1), 1223904. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2016.1223904 .

Herrington, J., Reeves, T. C., & Oliver, R. (2014). Authentic learning environments. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 401–412). Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_32 .

Hitchcock, L. I., & Battista, A. (2013). Social media for professional practice: Integrating Twitter with social work pedagogy. Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work , 18 (Supplement 1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.5555/basw.18.suppl-1.3751j3g390xx3g56 .

Hitchcock, L.I., Sage, T., Lynch, M. & Sage, M. (2021). Podcasting as a pedagogical tool for experiential learning in social work education. Journal of Teaching in Social Work. https://doi.org/10.1080/08841233.2021.1897923 .

Ito, M., Gutiérrez, K., Livingstone, S., Penuel, B., Rhodes, J., Salen, K., Schor, J., Sefton-Green, J., & Watkins, S. C. (2013). Connected learning: An agenda for research and design. Digital Media and Learning Research Hub. http://dmlhub.net/ .

Johnson, N., Veletsianos, G., & Seaman, J. (2020). US faculty and administrators’ experiences and approaches in the early weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic. Online Learning, 24 (2), 6–21.

Khine, M. S. (2013). Research on E-learning and ICT in education. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16 (4), 287–289.

Knowles, M. (1973). The adult learning: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf Pub. Co. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED084368.pdf .

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers . Cambridge Books. https://www.hpu.edu/research-publications/tesol-working-papers/2011/9_1-2_Brook.pdf .

Kop, R., Fournier, H., & Mak, J. S. F. (2011). A pedagogy of abundance or a pedagogy to support human beings? Participant support on massive open online courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12 (7), 74–93. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v12i7.1041 .

McAuliffe, M., Hargreaves, D., Winter, A., & Chadwick, G. (2009). Does pedagogy still rule? Australasian Journal of Engineering Education, 15 (1), 13–18.

McDonald, J., & Cater-Steel, A. (2016). Communities of practice: Facilitating social learning in higher education . Springer.

Morcke, A. M., Dornan, T., & Eika, B. (2013). Outcome (competency) based education: An exploration of its origins, theoretical basis, and empirical evidence. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 18 (4), 851–863.

Narayan, V., Herrington, J., & Cochrane, C. (2019). Design principles for heutagogical learning: Implementing student-determined learning with mobile and social media tools. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 35 (3), 86–101. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3941 .

Newmann, F. M. (1995). Authentic pedagogy: Standards that boost student performance. Issues in Restructuring Schools .  8. 1–12.

Newmann, F. M., Marks, H. M., & Gamoran, A. (1996). Authentic pedagogy and student performance. American Journal of Education, 104 (4), 280–312. https://doi.org/10.1086/444136 .

Newmann, F. M., Bryk, A. S., & Nagaoka, J. K. (2001). Authentic intellectual work and standardized tests. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research, 1–48.

Novakovich, J., & Long, E. C. (2013). Digital performance learning: Utilizing a course weblog for mediating communication. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16 (4), 231–241.

Reid, S. (2002). The integration of information and communication technology into classroom teaching. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, XLVIII (1), 30–46.

Reyna, J., Hanham, J., & Meier, P. (2017). A taxonomy of digital media types for Learner-Generated Digital Media assignments. E-Learning and Digital Media, 14 (6), 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042753017752973 .

Robbins, S. P. (2014). From the Editor—Accreditation, competency-based education, and EPAS revisions. Journal of Social Work Education, 50 (4), 581–586. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2014.947893 .

Simándi, S. (2018). Intergenerational learning – lifelong learning. Acta Educationis Generalis, 8 (2), 63–71. https://doi.org/10.2478/atd-2018-0012 .

Sosa, O. G., & Manzuoli, C. H. (2019). Models for the pedagogical integration of information and communication technologies: A literature review. Ensaio: Avaliação e Políticas Públicas Em Educação, 27 , 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-40362018002701720 .

Spires, H. A., & Hervey, L. G. (2011). New technologies, new pedagogies: Finding the grail in higher education. Journal of Leadership Studies, 4 (4), 54–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.20194 .

Sutherland, R. (2004). Designs for learning: ICT and knowledge in the classroom. Computers & Education, 43 (1–2), 5–16.

Swan, K., & Hofer, M. (2013). Examining student-created documentaries as a mechanism for engaging students in authentic intellectual work. Theory & Research in Social Education, 41 (1), 133–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00933104.2013.758018 .

Tetloff, M., Hitchcock, L., Battista, A., & Lowry, D. (2014). Multimodal Composition and Social Justice: Videos as a Tool of Advocacy in Social Work Pedagogy. Journal of Technology in Human Services, 32 (1–2), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228835.2013.857284 .

Torres Kompen, R., Edirisingha, P., Canaleta, X., Alsina, M., & Monguet, J. M. (2019). Personal learning environments based on Web 2.0 services in higher education. Telematics and Informatics, 38 , 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2018.10.003 .

Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

Venkatesh, V., Jedwab, J., Rabah, J., Thomas, T., Varela, W., & Alexander, K. (2013). From disconnected to connected: Insights into the future of distance education and web 2.0 tools in higher education. Revue Internationale Des Technologies En Pédagogie Universitaire / International Journal of Technologies in Higher Education, 10 (3), 6–13.

Wilkins, D. J., Livingstone, A. G., & Levine, M. (2019). Whose tweets? The rhetorical functions of social media use in developing the Black Lives Matter movement. British Journal of Social Psychology, 58 (4), 786–805. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12318 .

Wopereis, I. G. J. H., Sloep, P. B., & Poortman, S. H. (2010). Weblogs as instruments for reflection on action in teacher education. Interactive Learning Environments, 18 (3), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2010.500530 .

Download references

Acknowledgements

Author information, authors and affiliations.

University at Buffalo School of Social Work, 685 Baldy Hall, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA

Michael Lynch, Todd Sage & Melanie Sage

Department of Social Work, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 3154 University Hall, 1402 10th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL, 35294-1241, USA

Laurel Iverson Hitchcock

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

We are the only four authors on this manuscript and we both had active parts in the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Lynch .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

We do not have any conflicts of interest with publishing this manuscript, and we have seen, read, and understood the journal’s guidelines on copyright.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Lynch, M., Sage, T., Hitchcock, L.I. et al. A heutagogical approach for the assessment of Internet Communication Technology (ICT) assignments in higher education. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 18 , 55 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00290-x

Download citation

Received : 23 March 2021

Accepted : 28 July 2021

Published : 18 October 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00290-x

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Internet Communication Technologies (ICT)
• Authentic audiences

Importance of ICT in Education Essay

Ict: introduction, teachers and their role in education, impact of ict in education, use of ict in education, importance of ict to students, works cited.

Information and Communication Technology is among the most indispensable tools that the business world relies on today. Virtually all businesses, in one way or another, rely on technology tools to carry out operations. Other organizations like learning institutions are not left behind technology-wise. ICT is increasingly being employed in contemporary learning institutions to ease the work of students and teachers.

Among the most commendable successes of employing ICT in learning institutions is e-learning, in which the ICT tools are used to access classrooms remotely. This paper explores the importance of the tools of the tools of ICT in education and the roles that these tools have played in making learning better and easier.

Teachers are scholars who have mastered specific subjects that form part of their specialty and help in imparting knowledge to students. Some of the roles that teachers play in academic institutions include designing syllabuses, preparing timetables, preparing for lessons and convening students for lessons, and carrying out continuous assessments on students.

Others include keeping records of academic reports, disciplinary records, and other records related to the activities of students in school, like the participation of students in games and other activities.

In cases where there are limitations such that it is impossible to convene people and resources together for learning. E-learning provides a very important and convenient way of teaching people. In such a case, a teacher provides learning materials and lessons online, which can be accessed by his/her students at their convenience.

The materials can be audio files of recorded classroom lessons, audio-visual files for lessons requiring visual information like practical or even text documents, and hypertext documents (Tinio 1). This method of teaching is also convenient for teachers because they are able to record lessons at their convenience, and the assessment of students involves less documentation.

This is because with the use of the internet, teachers are able to upload assignments and continuous assessments on the e-learning systems, and after students are done with the assignments, they use the system or emails to send their completed assignments to their teachers. This comes with a number of advantages which are brought about by having students complete assignments in soft copies.

One of these advantages is that feedback from teachers will be timely and it will be convenient for the teachers. Teachers can also use technology tools such as plagiarism software to check if students have copied the works of other scholars and thus establish the authenticity of the assignment. It can thus be argued that although e-learning systems have their disadvantages, they are very instrumental in teaching people whose schedules are tight and who may have limitations as far as accessing the classroom is concerned.

Therefore technology has been an influential and essential tool in the career of education, and several innovations have been made that have made teaching a much easier career. The paragraph below discusses other ways in which technology has been employed in the education career.

Teachers can also use the tools of ICT in other functions. One such function is keeping records of student performances and other kinds of records within the academic institution. This can be done by uploading the information to a Management Information System for the school or college, which should have a database for supporting the same. The information can also be stored in soft form in Compact Disks, Hard Drives, Flash Disks, or even Digital Video Disks (Obringer 1).

This ensures that information is properly stored and backed up and also ensures that records are not as bulky as they would have been in the absence of the tools of ICT. Such a system also ensures that information can easily be accessed and also ensures that proper privacy of the data is maintained.

Another way in which teachers can use the tools of ICT to ease their work is by employing tools like projectors for presentations of lessons, iPads for students, computers connected to the internet for communicating to students about continuous assessments, and the like (Higgins 1). This way, the teacher will be able to reduce the paperwork that he /she uses in his/her work, and this is bound to make his/her work easier.

For instance, if the teacher can access a projector, he/she can prepare a presentation of a lesson for his/her students, and this way, he will not have to carry textbooks, notebooks, and the like to the classroom for the lesson. The teacher can also post notes and relevant texts for a given course on the information system for the school or on an interactive website, and thus he/she will have more time for discussions during lessons.

Teachers can also, in consultation with IT specialists, develop real-time systems where students can answer questions related woo what they have learned in class and get automated results through the system (Masie 1).

This will help the students understand the concepts taught in class better, and this way, teachers will have less workload. Such websites will also help teachers to show the students how questions related to their specialty are framed early enough so that students can concentrate on knowledge acquisition during class hours.

This is as opposed to a case where the students remain clueless about the kind of questions they expect in exams and spend most of their time preparing for exams rather than reading extensively to acquire knowledge. ICT can also be sued by teachers to advertise the kind of services they offer in schools and also advertise the books and journals they have written. This can be achieved by using websites for the school or specific teachers or professors.

As evidenced in the discussion above, ICT is a very instrumental tool in education as a career. The specific tools of ICT used in education, as discussed above, include the use of ICT in distance learning, storage of student performance and other relevant information in databases and storage media, and the use of tools of ICT in classroom like projectors, iPads and the like. Since the invention of the internet and the subsequent popularity of computers, a lot of functions of education as a career have been made simpler.

These include the administration of continuous assessments, marking continuous assessments, giving feedback to students, and even checking the originality of the ideas expressed in the assignments and examinations. All in all, the impact that ICT has had in educational institutions is so much that school life without ICT is somehow impossible for people who are accustomed to using ICT.

Higgins, Steve. “Does ICT improve learning and teaching in schools”. 2007. Web.

Masie, Shank. “What is electronic learning?” 2007. Web.

Obringer, Ann. “ How E-Learning Works ”. 2008. Web.

Tinio, Victoria. “ICT in Education”. 2008. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, November 22). Importance of ICT in Education. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ict-in-education/

"Importance of ICT in Education." IvyPanda , 22 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/ict-in-education/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Importance of ICT in Education'. 22 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Importance of ICT in Education." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ict-in-education/.

1. IvyPanda . "Importance of ICT in Education." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ict-in-education/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Importance of ICT in Education." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ict-in-education/.

• E-Learning in the Academic Industry
• Effectiveness of Integrating ICT in Schools
• ICT for Disaster Management Systems
• Project Management: Building ICT Center
• The Future of E-Learning
• Ottawa Region ICT Centres Project
• ICT Disaster Management Systems
• Traditional Learning and E-Learning Differences
• E-Learning: Video, Television and Videoconferencing
• Nontakers Perceptiom Towards ICT
• Technological Advances in Education
• Computer Based Training Verses Instructor Lead Training
• Smart Classroom and Its Effect on Student Learning
• Use of Technology as a Learning Tool
• Computers & Preschool Children: Why They Are Required in Early Childhood Centers

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review

Stella timotheou.

1 CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology (Cyprus Interaction Lab), Cyprus, CYENS Center of Excellence & Cyprus University of Technology, Nicosia-Limassol, Cyprus

Ourania Miliou

Yiannis dimitriadis.

2 Universidad de Valladolid (UVA), Spain, Valladolid, Spain

Sara Villagrá Sobrino

Nikoleta giannoutsou, romina cachia.

3 JRC - Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Seville, Spain

Alejandra Martínez Monés

Andri ioannou, associated data.

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education and led education systems worldwide to adopt strategies and policies for ICT integration. The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs, especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of the education systems in accordance with current technological trends. These issues were emphasized during the recent COVID-19 pandemic that accelerated the use of digital technologies in education, generating questions regarding digitalization in schools. Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses. Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience to enhance their digital capacity and preparedness, increase their digitalization levels, and achieve a successful digital transformation. Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem, there is a need to show how these impacts are interconnected and identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environments. For this purpose, we conducted a non-systematic literature review. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors that affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation. The findings suggest that ICT integration in schools impacts more than just students’ performance; it affects several other school-related aspects and stakeholders, too. Furthermore, various factors affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the digital transformation process. The study results shed light on how ICTs can positively contribute to the digital transformation of schools and which factors should be considered for schools to achieve effective and efficient change.

Introduction

Digital technologies have brought changes to the nature and scope of education. Versatile and disruptive technological innovations, such as smart devices, the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), blockchain, and software applications have opened up new opportunities for advancing teaching and learning (Gaol & Prasolova-Førland, 2021 ; OECD, 2021 ). Hence, in recent years, education systems worldwide have increased their investment in the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) (Fernández-Gutiérrez et al., 2020 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ) and prioritized their educational agendas to adapt strategies or policies around ICT integration (European Commission, 2019 ). The latter brought about issues regarding the quality of teaching and learning with ICTs (Bates, 2015 ), especially concerning the understanding, adaptation, and design of education systems in accordance with current technological trends (Balyer & Öz, 2018 ). Studies have shown that despite the investment made in the integration of technology in schools, the results have not been promising, and the intended outcomes have not yet been achieved (Delgado et al., 2015 ; Lawrence & Tar, 2018 ). These issues were exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced teaching across education levels to move online (Daniel, 2020 ). Online teaching accelerated the use of digital technologies generating questions regarding the process, the nature, the extent, and the effectiveness of digitalization in schools (Cachia et al., 2021 ; König et al., 2020 ). Specifically, many schools demonstrated a lack of experience and low digital capacity, which resulted in widening gaps, inequalities, and learning losses (Blaskó et al., 2021 ; Di Pietro et al, 2020 ). Such results have engendered the need for schools to learn and build upon the experience in order to enhance their digital capacity (European Commission, 2020 ) and increase their digitalization levels (Costa et al., 2021 ). Digitalization offers possibilities for fundamental improvement in schools (OECD, 2021 ; Rott & Marouane, 2018 ) and touches many aspects of a school’s development (Delcker & Ifenthaler, 2021 ) . However, it is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes beyond the technical aspects of technology and infrastructure (Pettersson, 2021 ). Namely, digitalization refers to “ a series of deep and coordinated culture, workforce, and technology shifts and operating models ” (Brooks & McCormack, 2020 , p. 3) that brings cultural, organizational, and operational change through the integration of digital technologies (JISC, 2020 ). A successful digital transformation requires that schools increase their digital capacity levels, establishing the necessary “ culture, policies, infrastructure as well as digital competence of students and staff to support the effective integration of technology in teaching and learning practices ” (Costa et al, 2021 , p.163).

Given that the integration of digital technologies is a complex and continuous process that impacts different actors within the school ecosystem (Eng, 2005 ), there is a need to show how the different elements of the impact are interconnected and to identify the factors that can encourage an effective and efficient change in the school environment. To address the issues outlined above, we formulated the following research questions:

a) What is the impact of digital technologies on education?

b) Which factors might affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation?

In the present investigation, we conducted a non-systematic literature review of publications pertaining to the impact of digital technologies on education and the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. The results of the literature review were organized thematically based on the evidence presented about the impact of digital technology on education and the factors which affect the schools’ digital capacity and digital transformation.

Methodology

The non-systematic literature review presented herein covers the main theories and research published over the past 17 years on the topic. It is based on meta-analyses and review papers found in scholarly, peer-reviewed content databases and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied (e.g., digitalization, digital capacity) from professional and international bodies (e.g., the OECD). We searched the Scopus database, which indexes various online journals in the education sector with an international scope, to collect peer-reviewed academic papers. Furthermore, we used an all-inclusive Google Scholar search to include relevant key terms or to include studies found in the reference list of the peer-reviewed papers, and other key studies and reports related to the concepts studied by professional and international bodies. Lastly, we gathered sources from the Publications Office of the European Union ( https://op.europa.eu/en/home ); namely, documents that refer to policies related to digital transformation in education.

Regarding search terms, we first searched resources on the impact of digital technologies on education by performing the following search queries: “impact” OR “effects” AND “digital technologies” AND “education”, “impact” OR “effects” AND “ICT” AND “education”. We further refined our results by adding the terms “meta-analysis” and “review” or by adjusting the search options based on the features of each database to avoid collecting individual studies that would provide limited contributions to a particular domain. We relied on meta-analyses and review studies as these consider the findings of multiple studies to offer a more comprehensive view of the research in a given area (Schuele & Justice, 2006 ). Specifically, meta-analysis studies provided quantitative evidence based on statistically verifiable results regarding the impact of educational interventions that integrate digital technologies in school classrooms (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ).

However, quantitative data does not offer explanations for the challenges or difficulties experienced during ICT integration in learning and teaching (Tolani-Brown et al., 2011 ). To fill this gap, we analyzed literature reviews and gathered in-depth qualitative evidence of the benefits and implications of technology integration in schools. In the analysis presented herein, we also included policy documents and reports from professional and international bodies and governmental reports, which offered useful explanations of the key concepts of this study and provided recent evidence on digital capacity and transformation in education along with policy recommendations. The inclusion and exclusion criteria that were considered in this study are presented in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of resources on the impact of digital technologies on education

To ensure a reliable extraction of information from each study and assist the research synthesis we selected the study characteristics of interest (impact) and constructed coding forms. First, an overview of the synthesis was provided by the principal investigator who described the processes of coding, data entry, and data management. The coders followed the same set of instructions but worked independently. To ensure a common understanding of the process between coders, a sample of ten studies was tested. The results were compared, and the discrepancies were identified and resolved. Additionally, to ensure an efficient coding process, all coders participated in group meetings to discuss additions, deletions, and modifications (Stock, 1994 ). Due to the methodological diversity of the studied documents we began to synthesize the literature review findings based on similar study designs. Specifically, most of the meta-analysis studies were grouped in one category due to the quantitative nature of the measured impact. These studies tended to refer to student achievement (Hattie et al., 2014 ). Then, we organized the themes of the qualitative studies in several impact categories. Lastly, we synthesized both review and meta-analysis data across the categories. In order to establish a collective understanding of the concept of impact, we referred to a previous impact study by Balanskat ( 2009 ) which investigated the impact of technology in primary schools. In this context, the impact had a more specific ICT-related meaning and was described as “ a significant influence or effect of ICT on the measured or perceived quality of (parts of) education ” (Balanskat, 2009 , p. 9). In the study presented herein, the main impacts are in relation to learning and learners, teaching, and teachers, as well as other key stakeholders who are directly or indirectly connected to the school unit.

The study’s results identified multiple dimensions of the impact of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes; on equality, inclusion, and social integration; on teachers’ professional and teaching practices; and on other school-related aspects and stakeholders. The data analysis indicated various factors that might affect the schools’ digital capacity and transformation, such as digital competencies, the teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development, as well as the school’s leadership and management, administration, infrastructure, etc. The impacts and factors found in the literature review are presented below.

Impacts of digital technologies on students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes, and emotions

The impact of ICT use on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes has been investigated early in the literature. Eng ( 2005 ) found a small positive effect between ICT use and students' learning. Specifically, the author reported that access to computer-assisted instruction (CAI) programs in simulation or tutorial modes—used to supplement rather than substitute instruction – could enhance student learning. The author reported studies showing that teachers acknowledged the benefits of ICT on pupils with special educational needs; however, the impact of ICT on students' attainment was unclear. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) found a statistically significant positive association between ICT use and higher student achievement in primary and secondary education. The authors also reported improvements in the performance of low-achieving pupils. The use of ICT resulted in further positive gains for students, namely increased attention, engagement, motivation, communication and process skills, teamwork, and gains related to their behaviour towards learning. Evidence from qualitative studies showed that teachers, students, and parents recognized the positive impact of ICT on students' learning regardless of their competence level (strong/weak students). Punie et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that showed positive results of ICT-based learning for supporting low-achieving pupils and young people with complex lives outside the education system. Liao et al. ( 2007 ) reported moderate positive effects of computer application instruction (CAI, computer simulations, and web-based learning) over traditional instruction on primary school student's achievement. Similarly, Tamim et al. ( 2011 ) reported small to moderate positive effects between the use of computer technology (CAI, ICT, simulations, computer-based instruction, digital and hypermedia) and student achievement in formal face-to-face classrooms compared to classrooms that did not use technology. Jewitt et al., ( 2011 ) found that the use of learning platforms (LPs) (virtual learning environments, management information systems, communication technologies, and information- and resource-sharing technologies) in schools allowed primary and secondary students to access a wider variety of quality learning resources, engage in independent and personalized learning, and conduct self- and peer-review; LPs also provide opportunities for teacher assessment and feedback. Similar findings were reported by Fu ( 2013 ), who documented a list of benefits and opportunities of ICT use. According to the author, the use of ICTs helps students access digital information and course content effectively and efficiently, supports student-centered and self-directed learning, as well as the development of a creative learning environment where more opportunities for critical thinking skills are offered, and promotes collaborative learning in a distance-learning environment. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found consistent but small positive associations between the use of technology and learning outcomes of school-age learners (5–18-year-olds) in studies linking the provision and use of technology with attainment. Additionally, Chauhan ( 2017 ) reported a medium positive effect of technology on the learning effectiveness of primary school students compared to students who followed traditional learning instruction.

The rise of mobile technologies and hardware devices instigated investigations into their impact on teaching and learning. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) reported a moderate effect on students' performance from the use of mobile devices in the classroom compared to the use of desktop computers or the non-use of mobile devices. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported medium–low to low positive effects of technology integration (e.g., CAI, ICTs) in the classroom on students' achievement and attitude compared to not using technology or using technology to varying degrees. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) found a low statistically significant effect of the use of tablets and other smart devices in educational contexts on students' achievement outcomes. The authors suggested that tablets offered additional advantages to students; namely, they reported improvements in students’ notetaking, organizational and communication skills, and creativity. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a small positive effect of one-to-one laptop programs on students’ academic achievement across subject areas. Additional reported benefits included student-centered, individualized, and project-based learning enhanced learner engagement and enthusiasm. Additionally, the authors found that students using one-to-one laptop programs tended to use technology more frequently than in non-laptop classrooms, and as a result, they developed a range of skills (e.g., information skills, media skills, technology skills, organizational skills). Haßler et al. ( 2016 ) found that most interventions that included the use of tablets across the curriculum reported positive learning outcomes. However, from 23 studies, five reported no differences, and two reported a negative effect on students' learning outcomes. Similar results were indicated by Kalati and Kim ( 2022 ) who investigated the effect of touchscreen technologies on young students’ learning. Specifically, from 53 studies, 34 advocated positive effects of touchscreen devices on children’s learning, 17 obtained mixed findings and two studies reported negative effects.

More recently, approaches that refer to the impact of gamification with the use of digital technologies on teaching and learning were also explored. A review by Pan et al. ( 2022 ) that examined the role of learning games in fostering mathematics education in K-12 settings, reported that gameplay improved students’ performance. Integration of digital games in teaching was also found as a promising pedagogical practice in STEM education that could lead to increased learning gains (Martinez et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). However, although Talan et al. ( 2020 ) reported a medium effect of the use of educational games (both digital and non-digital) on academic achievement, the effect of non-digital games was higher.

Over the last two years, the effects of more advanced technologies on teaching and learning were also investigated. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) found that AR applications had a medium effect on students' learning outcomes compared to traditional lectures. Similarly, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) showed that AR had a medium impact on students' learning gains. VR applications integrated into various subjects were also found to have a moderate effect on students’ learning compared to control conditions (traditional classes, e.g., lectures, textbooks, and multimedia use, e.g., images, videos, animation, CAI) (Chen et al., 2022b ). Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) noted the moderate effect of VR technologies on students’ learning when these were applied in STEM disciplines. In the same meta-analysis, Villena-Taranilla et al. ( 2022 ) highlighted the role of immersive VR, since its effect on students’ learning was greater (at a high level) across educational levels (K-6) compared to semi-immersive and non-immersive integrations. In another meta-analysis study, the effect size of the immersive VR was small and significantly differentiated across educational levels (Coban et al., 2022 ). The impact of AI on education was investigated by Su and Yang ( 2022 ) and Su et al. ( 2022 ), who showed that this technology significantly improved students’ understanding of AI computer science and machine learning concepts.

It is worth noting that the vast majority of studies referred to learning gains in specific subjects. Specifically, several studies examined the impact of digital technologies on students’ literacy skills and reported positive effects on language learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Grgurović et al., 2013 ; Friedel et al., 2013 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Chen et al., 2022b ; Savva et al., 2022 ). Also, several studies documented positive effects on specific language learning areas, namely foreign language learning (Kao, 2014 ), writing (Higgins et al., 2012 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ), as well as reading and comprehension (Cheung & Slavin, 2011 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Schwabe et al., 2022 ). ICTs were also found to have a positive impact on students' performance in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines (Arztmann et al., 2022 ; Bado, 2022 ; Villena-Taranilla et al., 2022 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). Specifically, a number of studies reported positive impacts on students’ achievement in mathematics (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Li & Ma, 2010 ; Pan et al., 2022 ; Ran et al., 2022 ; Verschaffel et al., 2019 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, studies documented positive effects of ICTs on science learning (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ; Hillmayr et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). Çelik ( 2022 ) also noted that computer simulations can help students understand learning concepts related to science. Furthermore, some studies documented that the use of ICTs had a positive impact on students’ achievement in other subjects, such as geography, history, music, and arts (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ), and design and technology (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

More specific positive learning gains were reported in a number of skills, e.g., problem-solving skills and pattern exploration skills (Higgins et al., 2012 ), metacognitive learning outcomes (Verschaffel et al., 2019 ), literacy skills, computational thinking skills, emotion control skills, and collaborative inquiry skills (Lu et al., 2022 ; Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). Additionally, several investigations have reported benefits from the use of ICT on students’ creativity (Fielding & Murcia, 2022 ; Liu et al., 2022 ; Quah & Ng, 2022 ). Lastly, digital technologies were also found to be beneficial for enhancing students’ lifelong learning skills (Haleem et al., 2022 ).

Apart from gaining knowledge and skills, studies also reported improvement in motivation and interest in mathematics (Higgins et. al., 2019 ; Fadda et al., 2022 ) and increased positive achievement emotions towards several subjects during interventions using educational games (Lei et al., 2022a ). Chen et al. ( 2022a ) also reported a small but positive effect of digital health approaches in bullying and cyberbullying interventions with K-12 students, demonstrating that technology-based approaches can help reduce bullying and related consequences by providing emotional support, empowerment, and change of attitude. In their meta-review study, Su et al. ( 2022 ) also documented that AI technologies effectively strengthened students’ attitudes towards learning. In another meta-analysis, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported positive effects of digital games on motivation and behaviour towards STEM subjects.

Impacts of digital technologies on equality, inclusion and social integration

Although most of the reviewed studies focused on the impact of ICTs on students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, reports were also made on other aspects in the school context, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) documented research interventions investigating how ICT can support pupils with additional or special educational needs. While those interventions were relatively small scale and mostly based on qualitative data, their findings indicated that the use of ICTs enabled the development of communication, participation, and self-esteem. A recent meta-analysis (Baragash et al., 2022 ) with 119 participants with different disabilities, reported a significant overall effect size of AR on their functional skills acquisition. Koh’s meta-analysis ( 2022 ) also revealed that students with intellectual and developmental disabilities improved their competence and performance when they used digital games in the lessons.

Istenic Starcic and Bagon ( 2014 ) found that the role of ICT in inclusion and the design of pedagogical and technological interventions was not sufficiently explored in educational interventions with people with special needs; however, some benefits of ICT use were found in students’ social integration. The issue of gender and technology use was mentioned in a small number of studies. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported a statistically significant positive interaction between one-to-one laptop programs and gender. Specifically, the results showed that girls and boys alike benefitted from the laptop program, but the effect on girls’ achievement was smaller than that on boys’. Along the same lines, Arztmann et al. ( 2022 ) reported no difference in the impact of game-based learning between boys and girls, arguing that boys and girls equally benefited from game-based interventions in STEM domains. However, results from a systematic review by Cussó-Calabuig et al. ( 2018 ) found limited and low-quality evidence on the effects of intensive use of computers on gender differences in computer anxiety, self-efficacy, and self-confidence. Based on their view, intensive use of computers can reduce gender differences in some areas and not in others, depending on contextual and implementation factors.

Impacts of digital technologies on teachers’ professional and teaching practices

Various research studies have explored the impact of ICT on teachers’ instructional practices and student assessment. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that the use of mobile devices by students enabled teachers to successfully deliver content (e.g., mobile serious games), provide scaffolding, and facilitate synchronous collaborative learning. The integration of digital games in teaching and learning activities also gave teachers the opportunity to study and apply various pedagogical practices (Bado, 2022 ). Specifically, Bado ( 2022 ) found that teachers who implemented instructional activities in three stages (pre-game, game, and post-game) maximized students’ learning outcomes and engagement. For instance, during the pre-game stage, teachers focused on lectures and gameplay training, at the game stage teachers provided scaffolding on content, addressed technical issues, and managed the classroom activities. During the post-game stage, teachers organized activities for debriefing to ensure that the gameplay had indeed enhanced students’ learning outcomes.

Furthermore, ICT can increase efficiency in lesson planning and preparation by offering possibilities for a more collaborative approach among teachers. The sharing of curriculum plans and the analysis of students’ data led to clearer target settings and improvements in reporting to parents (Balanskat et al., 2006 ).

Additionally, the use and application of digital technologies in teaching and learning were found to enhance teachers’ digital competence. Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) documented studies that revealed that the use of digital technologies in education had a positive effect on teachers’ basic ICT skills. The greatest impact was found on teachers with enough experience in integrating ICTs in their teaching and/or who had recently participated in development courses for the pedagogical use of technologies in teaching. Punie et al. ( 2006 ) reported that the provision of fully equipped multimedia portable computers and the development of online teacher communities had positive impacts on teachers’ confidence and competence in the use of ICTs.

Moreover, online assessment via ICTs benefits instruction. In particular, online assessments support the digitalization of students’ work and related logistics, allow teachers to gather immediate feedback and readjust to new objectives, and support the improvement of the technical quality of tests by providing more accurate results. Additionally, the capabilities of ICTs (e.g., interactive media, simulations) create new potential methods of testing specific skills, such as problem-solving and problem-processing skills, meta-cognitive skills, creativity and communication skills, and the ability to work productively in groups (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Impacts of digital technologies on other school-related aspects and stakeholders

There is evidence that the effective use of ICTs and the data transmission offered by broadband connections help improve administration (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Specifically, ICTs have been found to provide better management systems to schools that have data gathering procedures in place. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) reported impacts from the use of ICTs in schools in the following areas: attendance monitoring, assessment records, reporting to parents, financial management, creation of repositories for learning resources, and sharing of information amongst staff. Such data can be used strategically for self-evaluation and monitoring purposes which in turn can result in school improvements. Additionally, they reported that online access to other people with similar roles helped to reduce headteachers’ isolation by offering them opportunities to share insights into the use of ICT in learning and teaching and how it could be used to support school improvement. Furthermore, ICTs provided more efficient and successful examination management procedures, namely less time-consuming reporting processes compared to paper-based examinations and smooth communications between schools and examination authorities through electronic data exchange (Punie et al., 2006 ).

Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) reported that the use of ICTs improved home-school relationships. Additionally, Escueta et al. ( 2017 ) reported several ICT programs that had improved the flow of information from the school to parents. Particularly, they documented that the use of ICTs (learning management systems, emails, dedicated websites, mobile phones) allowed for personalized and customized information exchange between schools and parents, such as attendance records, upcoming class assignments, school events, and students’ grades, which generated positive results on students’ learning outcomes and attainment. Such information exchange between schools and families prompted parents to encourage their children to put more effort into their schoolwork.

The above findings suggest that the impact of ICT integration in schools goes beyond students’ performance in school subjects. Specifically, it affects a number of school-related aspects, such as equality and social integration, professional and teaching practices, and diverse stakeholders. In Table ​ Table2, 2 , we summarize the different impacts of digital technologies on school stakeholders based on the literature review, while in Table ​ Table3 3 we organized the tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript.

The impact of digital technologies on schools’ stakeholders based on the literature review

Tools/platforms and practices/policies addressed in the meta-analyses, literature reviews, EU reports, and international bodies included in the manuscript

Additionally, based on the results of the literature review, there are many types of digital technologies with different affordances (see, for example, studies on VR vs Immersive VR), which evolve over time (e.g. starting from CAIs in 2005 to Augmented and Virtual reality 2020). Furthermore, these technologies are linked to different pedagogies and policy initiatives, which are critical factors in the study of impact. Table ​ Table3 3 summarizes the different tools and practices that have been used to examine the impact of digital technologies on education since 2005 based on the review results.

Factors that affect the integration of digital technologies

Although the analysis of the literature review demonstrated different impacts of the use of digital technology on education, several authors highlighted the importance of various factors, besides the technology itself, that affect this impact. For example, Liao et al. ( 2007 ) suggested that future studies should carefully investigate which factors contribute to positive outcomes by clarifying the exact relationship between computer applications and learning. Additionally, Haßler et al., ( 2016 ) suggested that the neutral findings regarding the impact of tablets on students learning outcomes in some of the studies included in their review should encourage educators, school leaders, and school officials to further investigate the potential of such devices in teaching and learning. Several other researchers suggested that a number of variables play a significant role in the impact of ICTs on students’ learning that could be attributed to the school context, teaching practices and professional development, the curriculum, and learners’ characteristics (Underwood, 2009 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Tang et al., 2022 ).

Digital competencies

One of the most common challenges reported in studies that utilized digital tools in the classroom was the lack of students’ skills on how to use them. Fu ( 2013 ) found that students’ lack of technical skills is a barrier to the effective use of ICT in the classroom. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) reported that students faced challenges when using tablets and smart mobile devices, associated with the technical issues or expertise needed for their use and the distracting nature of the devices and highlighted the need for teachers’ professional development. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) reported that skills training about the use of digital technologies is essential for learners to fully exploit the benefits of instruction.

Delgado et al. ( 2015 ), meanwhile, reported studies that showed a strong positive association between teachers’ computer skills and students’ use of computers. Teachers’ lack of ICT skills and familiarization with technologies can become a constraint to the effective use of technology in the classroom (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Delgado et al., 2015 ).

It is worth noting that the way teachers are introduced to ICTs affects the impact of digital technologies on education. Previous studies have shown that teachers may avoid using digital technologies due to limited digital skills (Balanskat, 2006 ), or they prefer applying “safe” technologies, namely technologies that their own teachers used and with which they are familiar (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). In this regard, the provision of digital skills training and exposure to new digital tools might encourage teachers to apply various technologies in their lessons (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Apart from digital competence, technical support in the school setting has also been shown to affect teachers’ use of technology in their classrooms (Delgado et al., 2015 ). Ferrari et al. ( 2011 ) found that while teachers’ use of ICT is high, 75% stated that they needed more institutional support and a shift in the mindset of educational actors to achieve more innovative teaching practices. The provision of support can reduce time and effort as well as cognitive constraints, which could cause limited ICT integration in the school lessons by teachers (Escueta et al., 2017 ).

Teachers’ personal characteristics, training approaches, and professional development

Teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development affect the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, Cheok and Wong ( 2015 ) found that teachers’ personal characteristics (e.g., anxiety, self-efficacy) are associated with their satisfaction and engagement with technology. Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of confidence, resistance to change, and negative attitudes in using new technologies in teaching are significant determinants of teachers’ levels of engagement in ICT. The same author reported that the provision of technical support, motivation support (e.g., awards, sufficient time for planning), and training on how technologies can benefit teaching and learning can eliminate the above barriers to ICT integration. Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that comfort levels in using technology are an important predictor of technology integration and argued that it is essential to provide teachers with appropriate training and ongoing support until they are comfortable with using ICTs in the classroom. Hillmayr et al. ( 2020 ) documented that training teachers on ICT had an important effecton students’ learning.

According to Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ), the impact of ICTs on students’ learning is highly dependent on the teachers’ capacity to efficiently exploit their application for pedagogical purposes. Results obtained from the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) (OECD, 2021 ) revealed that although schools are open to innovative practices and have the capacity to adopt them, only 39% of teachers in the European Union reported that they are well or very well prepared to use digital technologies for teaching. Li and Ma ( 2010 ) and Hardman ( 2019 ) showed that the positive effect of technology on students’ achievement depends on the pedagogical practices used by teachers. Schmid et al. ( 2014 ) reported that learning was best supported when students were engaged in active, meaningful activities with the use of technological tools that provided cognitive support. Tamim et al. ( 2015 ) compared two different pedagogical uses of tablets and found a significant moderate effect when the devices were used in a student-centered context and approach rather than within teacher-led environments. Similarly, Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) and Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) reported that the positive results from the integration of AR applications could be attributed to the existence of different variables which could influence AR interventions (e.g., pedagogical approach, learning environment, and duration of the intervention). Additionally, Garzón et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that the pedagogical resources that teachers used to complement their lectures and the pedagogical approaches they applied were crucial to the effective integration of AR on students’ learning gains. Garzón and Acevedo ( 2019 ) also emphasized that the success of a technology-enhanced intervention is based on both the technology per se and its characteristics and on the pedagogical strategies teachers choose to implement. For instance, their results indicated that the collaborative learning approach had the highest impact on students’ learning gains among other approaches (e.g., inquiry-based learning, situated learning, or project-based learning). Ran et al. ( 2022 ) also found that the use of technology to design collaborative and communicative environments showed the largest moderator effects among the other approaches.

Hattie ( 2008 ) reported that the effective use of computers is associated with training teachers in using computers as a teaching and learning tool. Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) noted that in addition to the strategies teachers adopt in teaching, ongoing professional development is also vital in ensuring the success of technology implementation programs. Sung et al. ( 2016 ) found that research on the use of mobile devices to support learning tends to report that the insufficient preparation of teachers is a major obstacle in implementing effective mobile learning programs in schools. Friedel et al. ( 2013 ) found that providing training and support to teachers increased the positive impact of the interventions on students’ learning gains. Trucano ( 2005 ) argued that positive impacts occur when digital technologies are used to enhance teachers’ existing pedagogical philosophies. Higgins et al. ( 2012 ) found that the types of technologies used and how they are used could also affect students’ learning. The authors suggested that training and professional development of teachers that focuses on the effective pedagogical use of technology to support teaching and learning is an important component of successful instructional approaches (Higgins et al., 2012 ). Archer et al. ( 2014 ) found that studies that reported ICT interventions during which teachers received training and support had moderate positive effects on students’ learning outcomes, which were significantly higher than studies where little or no detail about training and support was mentioned. Fu ( 2013 ) reported that the lack of teachers’ knowledge and skills on the technical and instructional aspects of ICT use in the classroom, in-service training, pedagogy support, technical and financial support, as well as the lack of teachers’ motivation and encouragement to integrate ICT on their teaching were significant barriers to the integration of ICT in education.

School leadership and management

Management and leadership are important cornerstones in the digital transformation process (Pihir et al., 2018 ). Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) documented leadership among the factors positively affecting the successful implementation of technology integration in schools. Strong leadership, strategic planning, and systematic integration of digital technologies are prerequisites for the digital transformation of education systems (Ređep, 2021 ). Management and leadership play a significant role in formulating policies that are translated into practice and ensure that developments in ICT become embedded into the life of the school and in the experiences of staff and pupils (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). Policy support and leadership must include the provision of an overall vision for the use of digital technologies in education, guidance for students and parents, logistical support, as well as teacher training (Conrads et al., 2017 ). Unless there is a commitment throughout the school, with accountability for progress at key points, it is unlikely for ICT integration to be sustained or become part of the culture (Condie & Munro, 2007 ). To achieve this, principals need to adopt and promote a whole-institution strategy and build a strong mutual support system that enables the school’s technological maturity (European Commission, 2019 ). In this context, school culture plays an essential role in shaping the mindsets and beliefs of school actors towards successful technology integration. Condie and Munro ( 2007 ) emphasized the importance of the principal’s enthusiasm and work as a source of inspiration for the school staff and the students to cultivate a culture of innovation and establish sustainable digital change. Specifically, school leaders need to create conditions in which the school staff is empowered to experiment and take risks with technology (Elkordy & Lovinelli, 2020 ).

In order for leaders to achieve the above, it is important to develop capacities for learning and leading, advocating professional learning, and creating support systems and structures (European Commission, 2019 ). Digital technology integration in education systems can be challenging and leadership needs guidance to achieve it. Such guidance can be introduced through the adoption of new methods and techniques in strategic planning for the integration of digital technologies (Ređep, 2021 ). Even though the role of leaders is vital, the relevant training offered to them has so far been inadequate. Specifically, only a third of the education systems in Europe have put in place national strategies that explicitly refer to the training of school principals (European Commission, 2019 , p. 16).

Connectivity, infrastructure, and government and other support

The effective integration of digital technologies across levels of education presupposes the development of infrastructure, the provision of digital content, and the selection of proper resources (Voogt et al., 2013 ). Particularly, a high-quality broadband connection in the school increases the quality and quantity of educational activities. There is evidence that ICT increases and formalizes cooperative planning between teachers and cooperation with managers, which in turn has a positive impact on teaching practices (Balanskat et al., 2006 ). Additionally, ICT resources, including software and hardware, increase the likelihood of teachers integrating technology into the curriculum to enhance their teaching practices (Delgado et al., 2015 ). For example, Zheng et al. ( 2016 ) found that the use of one-on-one laptop programs resulted in positive changes in teaching and learning, which would not have been accomplished without the infrastructure and technical support provided to teachers. Delgado et al. ( 2015 ) reported that limited access to technology (insufficient computers, peripherals, and software) and lack of technical support are important barriers to ICT integration. Access to infrastructure refers not only to the availability of technology in a school but also to the provision of a proper amount and the right types of technology in locations where teachers and students can use them. Effective technical support is a central element of the whole-school strategy for ICT (Underwood, 2009 ). Bingimlas ( 2009 ) reported that lack of technical support in the classroom and whole-school resources (e.g., failing to connect to the Internet, printers not printing, malfunctioning computers, and working on old computers) are significant barriers that discourage the use of ICT by teachers. Moreover, poor quality and inadequate hardware maintenance, and unsuitable educational software may discourage teachers from using ICTs (Balanskat et al., 2006 ; Bingimlas, 2009 ).

Government support can also impact the integration of ICTs in teaching. Specifically, Balanskat et al. ( 2006 ) reported that government interventions and training programs increased teachers’ enthusiasm and positive attitudes towards ICT and led to the routine use of embedded ICT.

Lastly, another important factor affecting digital transformation is the development and quality assurance of digital learning resources. Such resources can be support textbooks and related materials or resources that focus on specific subjects or parts of the curriculum. Policies on the provision of digital learning resources are essential for schools and can be achieved through various actions. For example, some countries are financing web portals that become repositories, enabling teachers to share resources or create their own. Additionally, they may offer e-learning opportunities or other services linked to digital education. In other cases, specific agencies of projects have also been set up to develop digital resources (Eurydice, 2019 ).

Administration and digital data management

The digital transformation of schools involves organizational improvements at the level of internal workflows, communication between the different stakeholders, and potential for collaboration. Vuorikari et al. ( 2020 ) presented evidence that digital technologies supported the automation of administrative practices in schools and reduced the administration’s workload. There is evidence that digital data affects the production of knowledge about schools and has the power to transform how schooling takes place. Specifically, Sellar ( 2015 ) reported that data infrastructure in education is developing due to the demand for “ information about student outcomes, teacher quality, school performance, and adult skills, associated with policy efforts to increase human capital and productivity practices ” (p. 771). In this regard, practices, such as datafication which refers to the “ translation of information about all kinds of things and processes into quantified formats” have become essential for decision-making based on accountability reports about the school’s quality. The data could be turned into deep insights about education or training incorporating ICTs. For example, measuring students’ online engagement with the learning material and drawing meaningful conclusions can allow teachers to improve their educational interventions (Vuorikari et al., 2020 ).

Students’ socioeconomic background and family support

Research show that the active engagement of parents in the school and their support for the school’s work can make a difference to their children’s attitudes towards learning and, as a result, their achievement (Hattie, 2008 ). In recent years, digital technologies have been used for more effective communication between school and family (Escueta et al., 2017 ). The European Commission ( 2020 ) presented data from a Eurostat survey regarding the use of computers by students during the pandemic. The data showed that younger pupils needed additional support and guidance from parents and the challenges were greater for families in which parents had lower levels of education and little to no digital skills.

In this regard, the socio-economic background of the learners and their socio-cultural environment also affect educational achievements (Punie et al., 2006 ). Trucano documented that the use of computers at home positively influenced students’ confidence and resulted in more frequent use at school, compared to students who had no home access (Trucano, 2005 ). In this sense, the socio-economic background affects the access to computers at home (OECD, 2015 ) which in turn influences the experience of ICT, an important factor for school achievement (Punie et al., 2006 ; Underwood, 2009 ). Furthermore, parents from different socio-economic backgrounds may have different abilities and availability to support their children in their learning process (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ).

Schools’ socioeconomic context and emergency situations

The socio-economic context of the school is closely related to a school’s digital transformation. For example, schools in disadvantaged, rural, or deprived areas are likely to lack the digital capacity and infrastructure required to adapt to the use of digital technologies during emergency periods, such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). Data collected from school principals confirmed that in several countries, there is a rural/urban divide in connectivity (OECD, 2015 ).

Emergency periods also affect the digitalization of schools. The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of schools and forced them to seek appropriate and connective ways to keep working on the curriculum (Di Pietro et al., 2020 ). The sudden large-scale shift to distance and online teaching and learning also presented challenges around quality and equity in education, such as the risk of increased inequalities in learning, digital, and social, as well as teachers facing difficulties coping with this demanding situation (European Commission, 2020 ).

Looking at the findings of the above studies, we can conclude that the impact of digital technologies on education is influenced by various actors and touches many aspects of the school ecosystem. Figure  1 summarizes the factors affecting the digital technologies’ impact on school stakeholders based on the findings from the literature review.

Factors that affect the impact of ICTs on education

The findings revealed that the use of digital technologies in education affects a variety of actors within a school’s ecosystem. First, we observed that as technologies evolve, so does the interest of the research community to apply them to school settings. Figure  2 summarizes the trends identified in current research around the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity and transformation as found in the present study. Starting as early as 2005, when computers, simulations, and interactive boards were the most commonly applied tools in school interventions (e.g., Eng, 2005 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Moran et al., 2008 ; Tamim et al., 2011 ), moving towards the use of learning platforms (Jewitt et al., 2011 ), then to the use of mobile devices and digital games (e.g., Tamim et al., 2015 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ), as well as e-books (e.g., Savva et al., 2022 ), to the more recent advanced technologies, such as AR and VR applications (e.g., Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Kalemkuş & Kalemkuş, 2022 ), or robotics and AI (e.g., Su & Yang, 2022 ; Su et al., 2022 ). As this evolution shows, digital technologies are a concept in flux with different affordances and characteristics. Additionally, from an instructional perspective, there has been a growing interest in different modes and models of content delivery such as online, blended, and hybrid modes (e.g., Cheok & Wong, 2015 ; Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ; Ulum, 2022 ). This is an indication that the value of technologies to support teaching and learning as well as other school-related practices is increasingly recognized by the research and school community. The impact results from the literature review indicate that ICT integration on students’ learning outcomes has effects that are small (Coban et al., 2022 ; Eng, 2005 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ; Zheng et al., 2016 ) to moderate (Garzón & Acevedo, 2019 ; Garzón et al., 2020 ; Liao et al., 2007 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Talan et al., 2020 ; Wen & Walters, 2022 ). That said, a number of recent studies have reported high effect sizes (e.g., Kazu & Yalçin, 2022 ).

Current work and trends in the study of the impact of digital technologies on schools’ digital capacity

Based on these findings, several authors have suggested that the impact of technology on education depends on several variables and not on the technology per se (Tamim et al., 2011 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ; Archer et al., 2014 ; Sung et al., 2016 ; Haßler et al., 2016 ; Chauhan, 2017 ; Lee et al., 2020 ; Lei et al., 2022a ). While the impact of ICTs on student achievement has been thoroughly investigated by researchers, other aspects related to school life that are also affected by ICTs, such as equality, inclusion, and social integration have received less attention. Further analysis of the literature review has revealed a greater investment in ICT interventions to support learning and teaching in the core subjects of literacy and STEM disciplines, especially mathematics, and science. These were the most common subjects studied in the reviewed papers often drawing on national testing results, while studies that investigated other subject areas, such as social studies, were limited (Chauhan, 2017 ; Condie & Munro, 2007 ). As such, research is still lacking impact studies that focus on the effects of ICTs on a range of curriculum subjects.

The qualitative research provided additional information about the impact of digital technologies on education, documenting positive effects and giving more details about implications, recommendations, and future research directions. Specifically, the findings regarding the role of ICTs in supporting learning highlight the importance of teachers’ instructional practice and the learning context in the use of technologies and consequently their impact on instruction (Çelik, 2022 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ; Tamim et al., 2015 ). The review also provided useful insights regarding the various factors that affect the impact of digital technologies on education. These factors are interconnected and play a vital role in the transformation process. Specifically, these factors include a) digital competencies; b) teachers’ personal characteristics and professional development; c) school leadership and management; d) connectivity, infrastructure, and government support; e) administration and data management practices; f) students’ socio-economic background and family support and g) the socioeconomic context of the school and emergency situations. It is worth noting that we observed factors that affect the integration of ICTs in education but may also be affected by it. For example, the frequent use of ICTs and the use of laptops by students for instructional purposes positively affect the development of digital competencies (Zheng et al., 2016 ) and at the same time, the digital competencies affect the use of ICTs (Fu, 2013 ; Higgins et al., 2012 ). As a result, the impact of digital technologies should be explored more as an enabler of desirable and new practices and not merely as a catalyst that improves the output of the education process i.e. namely student attainment.

Conclusions

Digital technologies offer immense potential for fundamental improvement in schools. However, investment in ICT infrastructure and professional development to improve school education are yet to provide fruitful results. Digital transformation is a complex process that requires large-scale transformative changes that presuppose digital capacity and preparedness. To achieve such changes, all actors within the school’s ecosystem need to share a common vision regarding the integration of ICTs in education and work towards achieving this goal. Our literature review, which synthesized quantitative and qualitative data from a list of meta-analyses and review studies, provided useful insights into the impact of ICTs on different school stakeholders and showed that the impact of digital technologies touches upon many different aspects of school life, which are often overlooked when the focus is on student achievement as the final output of education. Furthermore, the concept of digital technologies is a concept in flux as technologies are not only different among them calling for different uses in the educational practice but they also change through time. Additionally, we opened a forum for discussion regarding the factors that affect a school’s digital capacity and transformation. We hope that our study will inform policy, practice, and research and result in a paradigm shift towards more holistic approaches in impact and assessment studies.

Study limitations and future directions

We presented a review of the study of digital technologies' impact on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation. The study results were based on a non-systematic literature review grounded on the acquisition of documentation in specific databases. Future studies should investigate more databases to corroborate and enhance our results. Moreover, search queries could be enhanced with key terms that could provide additional insights about the integration of ICTs in education, such as “policies and strategies for ICT integration in education”. Also, the study drew information from meta-analyses and literature reviews to acquire evidence about the effects of ICT integration in schools. Such evidence was mostly based on the general conclusions of the studies. It is worth mentioning that, we located individual studies which showed different, such as negative or neutral results. Thus, further insights are needed about the impact of ICTs on education and the factors influencing the impact. Furthermore, the nature of the studies included in meta-analyses and reviews is different as they are based on different research methodologies and data gathering processes. For instance, in a meta-analysis, the impact among the studies investigated is measured in a particular way, depending on policy or research targets (e.g., results from national examinations, pre-/post-tests). Meanwhile, in literature reviews, qualitative studies offer additional insights and detail based on self-reports and research opinions on several different aspects and stakeholders who could affect and be affected by ICT integration. As a result, it was challenging to draw causal relationships between so many interrelating variables.

Despite the challenges mentioned above, this study envisaged examining school units as ecosystems that consist of several actors by bringing together several variables from different research epistemologies to provide an understanding of the integration of ICTs. However, the use of other tools and methodologies and models for evaluation of the impact of digital technologies on education could give more detailed data and more accurate results. For instance, self-reflection tools, like SELFIE—developed on the DigCompOrg framework- (Kampylis et al., 2015 ; Bocconi & Lightfoot, 2021 ) can help capture a school’s digital capacity and better assess the impact of ICTs on education. Furthermore, the development of a theory of change could be a good approach for documenting the impact of digital technologies on education. Specifically, theories of change are models used for the evaluation of interventions and their impact; they are developed to describe how interventions will work and give the desired outcomes (Mayne, 2015 ). Theory of change as a methodological approach has also been used by researchers to develop models for evaluation in the field of education (e.g., Aromatario et al., 2019 ; Chapman & Sammons, 2013 ; De Silva et al., 2014 ).

We also propose that future studies aim at similar investigations by applying more holistic approaches for impact assessment that can provide in-depth data about the impact of digital technologies on education. For instance, future studies could focus on different research questions about the technologies that are used during the interventions or the way the implementation takes place (e.g., What methodologies are used for documenting impact? How are experimental studies implemented? How can teachers be taken into account and trained on the technology and its functions? What are the elements of an appropriate and successful implementation? How is the whole intervention designed? On which learning theories is the technology implementation based?).

Future research could also focus on assessing the impact of digital technologies on various other subjects since there is a scarcity of research related to particular subjects, such as geography, history, arts, music, and design and technology. More research should also be done about the impact of ICTs on skills, emotions, and attitudes, and on equality, inclusion, social interaction, and special needs education. There is also a need for more research about the impact of ICTs on administration, management, digitalization, and home-school relationships. Additionally, although new forms of teaching and learning with the use of ICTs (e.g., blended, hybrid, and online learning) have initiated several investigations in mainstream classrooms, only a few studies have measured their impact on students’ learning. Additionally, our review did not document any study about the impact of flipped classrooms on K-12 education. Regarding teaching and learning approaches, it is worth noting that studies referred to STEM or STEAM did not investigate the impact of STEM/STEAM as an interdisciplinary approach to learning but only investigated the impact of ICTs on learning in each domain as a separate subject (science, technology, engineering, arts, mathematics). Hence, we propose future research to also investigate the impact of the STEM/STEAM approach on education. The impact of emerging technologies on education, such as AR, VR, robotics, and AI has also been investigated recently, but more work needs to be done.

Finally, we propose that future studies could focus on the way in which specific factors, e.g., infrastructure and government support, school leadership and management, students’ and teachers’ digital competencies, approaches teachers utilize in the teaching and learning (e.g., blended, online and hybrid learning, flipped classrooms, STEM/STEAM approach, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning), affect the impact of digital technologies on education. We hope that future studies will give detailed insights into the concept of schools’ digital transformation through further investigation of impacts and factors which influence digital capacity and transformation based on the results and the recommendations of the present study.

Acknowledgements

This project has received funding under Grant Agreement No Ref Ares (2021) 339036 7483039 as well as funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program under Grant Agreement No 739578 and the Government of the Republic of Cyprus through the Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy. The UVa co-authors would like also to acknowledge funding from the European Regional Development Fund and the National Research Agency of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, under project grant PID2020-112584RB-C32.

Data availability statement

Declarations.

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Archer K, Savage R, Sanghera-Sidhu S, Wood E, Gottardo A, Chen V. Examining the effectiveness of technology use in classrooms: A tertiary meta-analysis. Computers & Education. 2014; 78 :140–149. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.06.001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Aromatario O, Van Hoye A, Vuillemin A, Foucaut AM, Pommier J, Cambon L. Using theory of change to develop an intervention theory for designing and evaluating behavior change SDApps for healthy eating and physical exercise: The OCAPREV theory. BMC Public Health. 2019; 19 (1):1–12. doi: 10.1186/s12889-019-7828-4. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arztmann, M., Hornstra, L., Jeuring, J., & Kester, L. (2022). Effects of games in STEM education: A meta-analysis on the moderating role of student background characteristics. Studies in Science Education , 1-37. 10.1080/03057267.2022.2057732
• Bado N. Game-based learning pedagogy: A review of the literature. Interactive Learning Environments. 2022; 30 (5):936–948. doi: 10.1080/10494820.2019.1683587. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Balanskat, A. (2009). Study of the impact of technology in primary schools – Synthesis Report. Empirica and European Schoolnet. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://erte.dge.mec.pt/sites/default/files/Recursos/Estudos/synthesis_report_steps_en.pdf
• Balanskat, A. (2006). The ICT Impact Report: A review of studies of ICT impact on schools in Europe, European Schoolnet. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from:  https://en.unesco.org/icted/content/ict-impact-report-review-studies-ict-impact-schools-europe
• Balanskat, A., Blamire, R., & Kefala, S. (2006). The ICT impact report.  European Schoolnet . Retrieved from: http://colccti.colfinder.org/sites/default/files/ict_impact_report_0.pdf
• Balyer, A., & Öz, Ö. (2018). Academicians’ views on digital transformation in education. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), 5 (4), 809–830. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from  http://iojet.org/index.php/IOJET/article/view/441/295
• Baragash RS, Al-Samarraie H, Moody L, Zaqout F. Augmented reality and functional skills acquisition among individuals with special needs: A meta-analysis of group design studies. Journal of Special Education Technology. 2022; 37 (1):74–81. doi: 10.1177/0162643420910413. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bates, A. W. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning . Open Educational Resources Collection . 6. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://irl.umsl.edu/oer/6
• Bingimlas KA. Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in teaching and learning environments: A review of the literature. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education. 2009; 5 (3):235–245. doi: 10.12973/ejmste/75275. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blaskó Z, Costa PD, Schnepf SV. Learning losses and educational inequalities in Europe: Mapping the potential consequences of the COVID-19 crisis. Journal of European Social Policy. 2022; 32 (4):361–375. doi: 10.1177/09589287221091687. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bocconi S, Lightfoot M. Scaling up and integrating the selfie tool for schools' digital capacity in education and training systems: Methodology and lessons learnt. European Training Foundation. 2021 doi: 10.2816/907029,JRC123936. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Brooks, D. C., & McCormack, M. (2020). Driving Digital Transformation in Higher Education . Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://library.educause.edu/-/media/files/library/2020/6/dx2020.pdf?la=en&hash=28FB8C377B59AFB1855C225BBA8E3CFBB0A271DA
• Cachia, R., Chaudron, S., Di Gioia, R., Velicu, A., & Vuorikari, R. (2021). Emergency remote schooling during COVID-19, a closer look at European families. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from  https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC125787
• Çelik B. The effects of computer simulations on students’ science process skills: Literature review. Canadian Journal of Educational and Social Studies. 2022; 2 (1):16–28. doi: 10.53103/cjess.v2i1.17. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chapman, C., & Sammons, P. (2013). School Self-Evaluation for School Improvement: What Works and Why? . CfBT Education Trust. 60 Queens Road, Reading, RG1 4BS, England.
• Chauhan S. A meta-analysis of the impact of technology on learning effectiveness of elementary students. Computers & Education. 2017; 105 :14–30. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2016.11.005. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen, Q., Chan, K. L., Guo, S., Chen, M., Lo, C. K. M., & Ip, P. (2022a). Effectiveness of digital health interventions in reducing bullying and cyberbullying: a meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 15248380221082090. 10.1177/15248380221082090 [ PubMed ]
• Chen B, Wang Y, Wang L. The effects of virtual reality-assisted language learning: A meta-analysis. Sustainability. 2022; 14 (6):3147. doi: 10.3390/su14063147. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cheok ML, Wong SL. Predictors of e-learning satisfaction in teaching and learning for school teachers: A literature review. International Journal of Instruction. 2015; 8 (1):75–90. doi: 10.12973/iji.2015.816a. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cheung, A. C., & Slavin, R. E. (2011). The Effectiveness of Education Technology for Enhancing Reading Achievement: A Meta-Analysis. Center for Research and reform in Education .
• Coban, M., Bolat, Y. I., & Goksu, I. (2022). The potential of immersive virtual reality to enhance learning: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review , 100452. 10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100452
• Condie, R., & Munro, R. K. (2007). The impact of ICT in schools-a landscape review. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://oei.org.ar/ibertic/evaluacion/sites/default/files/biblioteca/33_impact_ict_in_schools.pdf
• Conrads, J., Rasmussen, M., Winters, N., Geniet, A., Langer, L., (2017). Digital Education Policies in Europe and Beyond: Key Design Principles for More Effective Policies. Redecker, C., P. Kampylis, M. Bacigalupo, Y. Punie (ed.), EUR 29000 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 10.2760/462941
• Costa P, Castaño-Muñoz J, Kampylis P. Capturing schools’ digital capacity: Psychometric analyses of the SELFIE self-reflection tool. Computers & Education. 2021; 162 :104080. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104080. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cussó-Calabuig R, Farran XC, Bosch-Capblanch X. Effects of intensive use of computers in secondary school on gender differences in attitudes towards ICT: A systematic review. Education and Information Technologies. 2018; 23 (5):2111–2139. doi: 10.1007/s10639-018-9706-6. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Daniel SJ. Education and the COVID-19 pandemic. Prospects. 2020; 49 (1):91–96. doi: 10.1007/s11125-020-09464-3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Delcker J, Ifenthaler D. Teachers’ perspective on school development at German vocational schools during the Covid-19 pandemic. Technology, Pedagogy and Education. 2021; 30 (1):125–139. doi: 10.1080/1475939X.2020.1857826. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Delgado, A., Wardlow, L., O’Malley, K., & McKnight, K. (2015). Educational technology: A review of the integration, resources, and effectiveness of technology in K-12 classrooms. Journal of Information Technology Education Research , 14, 397. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from  http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol14/JITEv14ResearchP397-416Delgado1829.pdf
• De Silva MJ, Breuer E, Lee L, Asher L, Chowdhary N, Lund C, Patel V. Theory of change: A theory-driven approach to enhance the Medical Research Council's framework for complex interventions. Trials. 2014; 15 (1):1–13. doi: 10.1186/1745-6215-15-267. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Di Pietro G, Biagi F, Costa P, Karpiński Z, Mazza J. The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on the existing literature and recent international datasets. Publications Office of the European Union; 2020. [ Google Scholar ]
• Elkordy A, Lovinelli J. Competencies, Culture, and Change: A Model for Digital Transformation in K12 Educational Contexts. In: Ifenthaler D, Hofhues S, Egloffstein M, Helbig C, editors. Digital Transformation of Learning Organizations. Springer; 2020. pp. 203–219. [ Google Scholar ]
• Eng TS. The impact of ICT on learning: A review of research. International Education Journal. 2005; 6 (5):635–650. [ Google Scholar ]
• European Commission. (2020). Digital Education Action Plan 2021 – 2027. Resetting education and training for the digital age. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from  https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/default/files/document-library-docs/deap-communication-sept2020_en.pdf
• European Commission. (2019). 2 nd survey of schools: ICT in education. Objective 1: Benchmark progress in ICT in schools . Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://data.europa.eu/euodp/data/storage/f/2019-03-19T084831/FinalreportObjective1-BenchmarkprogressinICTinschools.pdf
• Eurydice. (2019). Digital Education at School in Europe , Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/digital-education-school-europe_en
• Escueta, M., Quan, V., Nickow, A. J., & Oreopoulos, P. (2017). Education technology: An evidence-based review. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from  https://ssrn.com/abstract=3031695
• Fadda D, Pellegrini M, Vivanet G, Zandonella Callegher C. Effects of digital games on student motivation in mathematics: A meta-analysis in K-12. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2022; 38 (1):304–325. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12618. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fernández-Gutiérrez M, Gimenez G, Calero J. Is the use of ICT in education leading to higher student outcomes? Analysis from the Spanish Autonomous Communities. Computers & Education. 2020; 157 :103969. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103969. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferrari, A., Cachia, R., & Punie, Y. (2011). Educational change through technology: A challenge for obligatory schooling in Europe. Lecture Notes in Computer Science , 6964 , 97–110. Retrieved 30 June 2022  https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-642-23985-4.pdf
• Fielding, K., & Murcia, K. (2022). Research linking digital technologies to young children’s creativity: An interpretive framework and systematic review. Issues in Educational Research , 32 (1), 105–125. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from  http://www.iier.org.au/iier32/fielding-abs.html
• Friedel, H., Bos, B., Lee, K., & Smith, S. (2013). The impact of mobile handheld digital devices on student learning: A literature review with meta-analysis. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 3708–3717). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
• Fu JS. ICT in education: A critical literature review and its implications. International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT) 2013; 9 (1):112–125. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gaol FL, Prasolova-Førland E. Special section editorial: The frontiers of augmented and mixed reality in all levels of education. Education and Information Technologies. 2022; 27 (1):611–623. doi: 10.1007/s10639-021-10746-2. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Garzón J, Acevedo J. Meta-analysis of the impact of Augmented Reality on students’ learning gains. Educational Research Review. 2019; 27 :244–260. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.001. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Garzón, J., Baldiris, S., Gutiérrez, J., & Pavón, J. (2020). How do pedagogical approaches affect the impact of augmented reality on education? A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Educational Research Review , 100334. 10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100334
• Grgurović M, Chapelle CA, Shelley MC. A meta-analysis of effectiveness studies on computer technology-supported language learning. ReCALL. 2013; 25 (2):165–198. doi: 10.1017/S0958344013000013. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Haßler B, Major L, Hennessy S. Tablet use in schools: A critical review of the evidence for learning outcomes. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2016; 32 (2):139–156. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12123. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Haleem A, Javaid M, Qadri MA, Suman R. Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: A review. Sustainable Operations and Computers. 2022; 3 :275–285. doi: 10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hardman J. Towards a pedagogical model of teaching with ICTs for mathematics attainment in primary school: A review of studies 2008–2018. Heliyon. 2019; 5 (5):e01726. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01726. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hattie J, Rogers HJ, Swaminathan H. The role of meta-analysis in educational research. In: Reid AD, Hart P, Peters MA, editors. A companion to research in education. Springer; 2014. pp. 197–207. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hattie J. Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. 2008 doi: 10.4324/9780203887332. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Higgins S, Xiao Z, Katsipataki M. The impact of digital technology on learning: A summary for the education endowment foundation. Education Endowment Foundation and Durham University; 2012. [ Google Scholar ]
• Higgins, K., Huscroft-D’Angelo, J., & Crawford, L. (2019). Effects of technology in mathematics on achievement, motivation, and attitude: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research , 57(2), 283-319.
• Hillmayr D, Ziernwald L, Reinhold F, Hofer SI, Reiss KM. The potential of digital tools to enhance mathematics and science learning in secondary schools: A context-specific meta-analysis. Computers & Education. 2020; 153 (1038):97. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103897. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Istenic Starcic A, Bagon S. ICT-supported learning for inclusion of people with special needs: Review of seven educational technology journals, 1970–2011. British Journal of Educational Technology. 2014; 45 (2):202–230. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12086. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jewitt C, Clark W, Hadjithoma-Garstka C. The use of learning platforms to organise learning in English primary and secondary schools. Learning, Media and Technology. 2011; 36 (4):335–348. doi: 10.1080/17439884.2011.621955. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• JISC. (2020). What is digital transformation?.  Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://www.jisc.ac.uk/guides/digital-strategy-framework-for-university-leaders/what-is-digital-transformation
• Kalati, A. T., & Kim, M. S. (2022). What is the effect of touchscreen technology on young children’s learning?: A systematic review. Education and Information Technologies , 1-19. 10.1007/s10639-021-10816-5
• Kalemkuş, J., & Kalemkuş, F. (2022). Effect of the use of augmented reality applications on academic achievement of student in science education: Meta-analysis review. Interactive Learning Environments , 1-18. 10.1080/10494820.2022.2027458
• Kao C-W. The effects of digital game-based learning task in English as a foreign language contexts: A meta-analysis. Education Journal. 2014; 42 (2):113–141. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kampylis P, Punie Y, Devine J. Promoting effective digital-age learning - a European framework for digitally competent educational organisations. JRC Technical Reports. 2015 doi: 10.2791/54070. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kazu IY, Yalçin CK. Investigation of the effectiveness of hybrid learning on academic achievement: A meta-analysis study. International Journal of Progressive Education. 2022; 18 (1):249–265. doi: 10.29329/ijpe.2022.426.14. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Koh C. A qualitative meta-analysis on the use of serious games to support learners with intellectual and developmental disabilities: What we know, what we need to know and what we can do. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 2022; 69 (3):919–950. doi: 10.1080/1034912X.2020.1746245. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• König J, Jäger-Biela DJ, Glutsch N. Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure: Teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Germany. European Journal of Teacher Education. 2020; 43 (4):608–622. doi: 10.1080/02619768.2020.1809650. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lawrence JE, Tar UA. Factors that influence teachers’ adoption and integration of ICT in teaching/learning process. Educational Media International. 2018; 55 (1):79–105. doi: 10.1080/09523987.2018.1439712. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee, S., Kuo, L. J., Xu, Z., & Hu, X. (2020). The effects of technology-integrated classroom instruction on K-12 English language learners’ literacy development: A meta-analysis. Computer Assisted Language Learning , 1-32. 10.1080/09588221.2020.1774612
• Lei, H., Chiu, M. M., Wang, D., Wang, C., & Xie, T. (2022a). Effects of game-based learning on students’ achievement in science: a meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research . 10.1177/07356331211064543
• Lei H, Wang C, Chiu MM, Chen S. Do educational games affect students' achievement emotions? Evidence from a meta-analysis. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2022; 38 (4):946–959. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12664. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liao YKC, Chang HW, Chen YW. Effects of computer application on elementary school student's achievement: A meta-analysis of students in Taiwan. Computers in the Schools. 2007; 24 (3–4):43–64. doi: 10.1300/J025v24n03_04. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li Q, Ma X. A meta-analysis of the effects of computer technology on school students’ mathematics learning. Educational Psychology Review. 2010; 22 (3):215–243. doi: 10.1007/s10648-010-9125-8. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu, M., Pang, W., Guo, J., & Zhang, Y. (2022). A meta-analysis of the effect of multimedia technology on creative performance. Education and Information Technologies , 1-28. 10.1007/s10639-022-10981-1
• Lu Z, Chiu MM, Cui Y, Mao W, Lei H. Effects of game-based learning on students’ computational thinking: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research. 2022 doi: 10.1177/07356331221100740. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Martinez L, Gimenes M, Lambert E. Entertainment video games for academic learning: A systematic review. Journal of Educational Computing Research. 2022 doi: 10.1177/07356331211053848. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mayne J. Useful theory of change models. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation. 2015; 30 (2):119–142. doi: 10.3138/cjpe.230. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moran J, Ferdig RE, Pearson PD, Wardrop J, Blomeyer RL., Jr Technology and reading performance in the middle-school grades: A meta-analysis with recommendations for policy and practice. Journal of Literacy Research. 2008; 40 (1):6–58. doi: 10.1080/10862960802070483. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• OECD. (2015). Students, Computers and Learning: Making the Connection . PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris. Retrieved from: 10.1787/9789264239555-en
• OECD. (2021). OECD Digital Education Outlook 2021: Pushing the Frontiers with Artificial Intelligence, Blockchain and Robots. Retrieved from: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/oecd-digital-education-outlook-2021_589b283f-en
• Pan Y, Ke F, Xu X. A systematic review of the role of learning games in fostering mathematics education in K-12 settings. Educational Research Review. 2022; 36 :100448. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100448. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pettersson F. Understanding digitalization and educational change in school by means of activity theory and the levels of learning concept. Education and Information Technologies. 2021; 26 (1):187–204. doi: 10.1007/s10639-020-10239-8. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pihir, I., Tomičić-Pupek, K., & Furjan, M. T. (2018). Digital transformation insights and trends. In Central European Conference on Information and Intelligent Systems (pp. 141–149). Faculty of Organization and Informatics Varazdin. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from https://www.proquest.com/conference-papers-proceedings/digital-transformation-insights-trends/docview/2125639934/se-2
• Punie, Y., Zinnbauer, D., & Cabrera, M. (2006). A review of the impact of ICT on learning. Working Paper prepared for DG EAC. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: http://www.eurosfaire.prd.fr/7pc/doc/1224678677_jrc47246n.pdf
• Quah CY, Ng KH. A systematic literature review on digital storytelling authoring tool in education: January 2010 to January 2020. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction. 2022; 38 (9):851–867. doi: 10.1080/10447318.2021.1972608. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ran H, Kim NJ, Secada WG. A meta-analysis on the effects of technology's functions and roles on students' mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms. Journal of computer assisted learning. 2022; 38 (1):258–284. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12611. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ređep, N. B. (2021). Comparative overview of the digital preparedness of education systems in selected CEE countries. Center for Policy Studies. CEU Democracy Institute .
• Rott, B., & Marouane, C. (2018). Digitalization in schools–organization, collaboration and communication. In Digital Marketplaces Unleashed (pp. 113–124). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
• Savva M, Higgins S, Beckmann N. Meta-analysis examining the effects of electronic storybooks on language and literacy outcomes for children in grades Pre-K to grade 2. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2022; 38 (2):526–564. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12623. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schmid RF, Bernard RM, Borokhovski E, Tamim RM, Abrami PC, Surkes MA, Wade CA, Woods J. The effects of technology use in postsecondary education: A meta-analysis of classroom applications. Computers & Education. 2014; 72 :271–291. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2013.11.002. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schuele CM, Justice LM. The importance of effect sizes in the interpretation of research: Primer on research: Part 3. The ASHA Leader. 2006; 11 (10):14–27. doi: 10.1044/leader.FTR4.11102006.14. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schwabe, A., Lind, F., Kosch, L., & Boomgaarden, H. G. (2022). No negative effects of reading on screen on comprehension of narrative texts compared to print: A meta-analysis. Media Psychology , 1-18. 10.1080/15213269.2022.2070216
• Sellar S. Data infrastructure: a review of expanding accountability systems and large-scale assessments in education. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education. 2015; 36 (5):765–777. doi: 10.1080/01596306.2014.931117. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stock WA. Systematic coding for research synthesis. In: Cooper H, Hedges LV, editors. The handbook of research synthesis, 236. Russel Sage; 1994. pp. 125–138. [ Google Scholar ]
• Su, J., Zhong, Y., & Ng, D. T. K. (2022). A meta-review of literature on educational approaches for teaching AI at the K-12 levels in the Asia-Pacific region. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence , 100065. 10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100065
• Su J, Yang W. Artificial intelligence in early childhood education: A scoping review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence. 2022; 3 :100049. doi: 10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100049. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sung YT, Chang KE, Liu TC. The effects of integrating mobile devices with teaching and learning on students' learning performance: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Computers & Education. 2016; 94 :252–275. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.008. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Talan T, Doğan Y, Batdı V. Efficiency of digital and non-digital educational games: A comparative meta-analysis and a meta-thematic analysis. Journal of Research on Technology in Education. 2020; 52 (4):474–514. doi: 10.1080/15391523.2020.1743798. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tamim, R. M., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Abrami, P. C., & Schmid, R. F. (2011). What forty years of research says about the impact of technology on learning: A second-order meta-analysis and validation study. Review of Educational research, 81 (1), 4–28. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from 10.3102/0034654310393361
• Tamim, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Pickup, D., Bernard, R. M., & El Saadi, L. (2015). Tablets for teaching and learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Commonwealth of Learning. Retrieved from: http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/1012/2015_Tamim-et-al_Tablets-for-Teaching-and-Learning.pdf
• Tang C, Mao S, Xing Z, Naumann S. Improving student creativity through digital technology products: A literature review. Thinking Skills and Creativity. 2022; 44 :101032. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101032. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tolani-Brown, N., McCormac, M., & Zimmermann, R. (2011). An analysis of the research and impact of ICT in education in developing country contexts. In ICTs and sustainable solutions for the digital divide: Theory and perspectives (pp. 218–242). IGI Global.
• Trucano, M. (2005). Knowledge Maps: ICTs in Education. Washington, DC: info Dev / World Bank. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from  https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED496513.pdf
• Ulum H. The effects of online education on academic success: A meta-analysis study. Education and Information Technologies. 2022; 27 (1):429–450. doi: 10.1007/s10639-021-10740-8. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Underwood, J. D. (2009). The impact of digital technology: A review of the evidence of the impact of digital technologies on formal education. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/10491
• Verschaffel, L., Depaepe, F., & Mevarech, Z. (2019). Learning Mathematics in metacognitively oriented ICT-Based learning environments: A systematic review of the literature. Education Research International , 2019 . 10.1155/2019/3402035
• Villena-Taranilla R, Tirado-Olivares S, Cózar-Gutiérrez R, González-Calero JA. Effects of virtual reality on learning outcomes in K-6 education: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review. 2022; 35 :100434. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100434. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Voogt J, Knezek G, Cox M, Knezek D, ten Brummelhuis A. Under which conditions does ICT have a positive effect on teaching and learning? A call to action. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 2013; 29 (1):4–14. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00453.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vuorikari, R., Punie, Y., & Cabrera, M. (2020). Emerging technologies and the teaching profession: Ethical and pedagogical considerations based on near-future scenarios  (No. JRC120183). Joint Research Centre. Retrieved 30 June 2022 from: https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC120183
• Wang LH, Chen B, Hwang GJ, Guan JQ, Wang YQ. Effects of digital game-based STEM education on students’ learning achievement: A meta-analysis. International Journal of STEM Education. 2022; 9 (1):1–13. doi: 10.1186/s40594-022-00344-0. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wen X, Walters SM. The impact of technology on students’ writing performances in elementary classrooms: A meta-analysis. Computers and Education Open. 2022; 3 :100082. doi: 10.1016/j.caeo.2022.100082. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zheng B, Warschauer M, Lin CH, Chang C. Learning in one-to-one laptop environments: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Review of Educational Research. 2016; 86 (4):1052–1084. doi: 10.3102/0034654316628645. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

ICT in Education: A Critical Literature Review and Its Implications

This review summarizes the relevant research on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in education. Specifically, it reviews studies that have touched upon the merits of ICT integration in schools, barriers or challenges encountered in the use of ICT, factors influencing successful ICT integration, in-service and pre-service teachers’ attitudes, perceptions, and confidence in using ICT as well as the importance of school culture in the use of ICT. This review discusses gaps in the literature and the directions that future studies may take to address these gaps.

Related Papers

Texila International Journal

Ahmad Danial

Khalid Bingimlas (Alghimlas)

The use of ICT in the classroom is very important for providing opportunities for students to learn to operate in an information age. Studying the obstacles to the use of ICT in education may assist educators to overcome these barriers and become successful technology adopters in the future. This paper provides a meta-analysis of the relevant literature that aims to present the perceived barriers to technology integration in science education. The findings indicate that teachers had a strong desire for to integrate ICT into education; but that, they encountered many barriers. The major barriers were lack of confidence, lack of competence, and lack of access to resources. Since confidence, competence and accessibility have been found to be the critical components of technology integration in schools, ICT resources including software and hardware, effective professional development, sufficient time, and technical support need to be provided to teachers. No one component in itself is sufficient to provide good teaching. However, the presence of all components increases the possibility of excellent integration of ICT in learning and teaching opportunities. Generally, this paper provides information and recommendation to those responsible for the integration of new technologies into science education.

Elvina Taran

The research presented in this dissertation aimed at understanding how computers are being used by primary school teachers and how ICT use is influenced by and related to a number of teacher and school related variables. This research aim embodies the idea that ICT integration should be seen as a specific case in the wider field of school improvement. The school-improvement perspective and findings from each subsequent chapter resulted in the development of a model of ICT integration in primary education. The model adds to the holistic approach when explaining ICT integration in education because teachers are not considered as completely independent, but sharing their school context. Although ICT integration still seems to depend for a large part on the willingness and attitudes of individual teachers, an important conclusion arising from our studies is that school-based policies have the potential to become a vehicle to promote ICT integration. In this phd, we especially focused on the iterative construction of a model that describes and explains ICT integration in class. Although future research is needed to further develop this model, we nevertheless hope that the conclusions presented throughout this dissertation are already helpful for those actively involved in the difficult task of managing the complex process of ICT integration. It must be stressed over and over again that, even when teachers recognise ICT as a beneficial tool, the integration of computers in daily classroom practice remains a complex and long-term enterprise.

The research presented in this dissertation aimed at understanding how computers are being used by primary school teachers and how ICT use is influenced by and related to a number of teacher and school related variables. This research aim embodies the idea that ICT integration should be seen as a specific case in the wider field of school improvement. The school-improvement perspective and findings from each subsequent chapter resulted in the development of a model of ICT integration in primary education. The model adds to the holistic approach when explaining ICT integration in education because teachers are not considered as completely independent, but sharing their school context. Although ICT integration still seems to depend for a large part on the willingness and attitudes of individual teachers, an important conclusion arising from our studies is that school-based policies have the potential to become a vehicle to promote ICT integration.

Desmond Govender

AB RAHIM BAKAR

Computers & Education

Himani Singh

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

Charles Steele

RELATED PAPERS

jesus manuel espinoza osuna

Fertility and sterility

Yolanda Smith

Nasratullah Rashidi

Ethan Katsh

Eka Purwa Laksana

Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery

Aldo Giancotti

Simone Wünsch

Lecture Notes in Computer Science

shriyash chougule

Transport in Porous Media

Juan David Santos

Kidney International

Fotini Skopouli

Madushi Raththagala

André Araújo

Journal of Vascular Surgery: Venous and Lymphatic Disorders

raquel barba

Indian Journal of Hematology and Blood Transfusion

Dr. Bankim Das

Hendra Trinamara Putra

Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Benjamin Wu

Sustainability

Loredana Luvidi

Physical Review Letters

Environment International

Journal of Sustainable Agriculture

Journal of Information Systems

WIT transactions on engineering sciences

Igor Tsukrov

Sherryl Leone

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

SOS Children’s Villages inaugurates ICT Centre for Cheshe R/C Basic School

By Albert Futukpor

Tamale, April 13, GNA – An Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Learning Centre, equipped with 20 laptops and accessories, has been inaugurated for the heshe R/C Basic School in Tamale to help ensure quality education and prepare school children for the challenges of the digital age.

A total of 250 dual desks were also distributed to five basic schools at Adubiliyili, Fooshegu, Chanshegu, Gbulahibila and Cheshe in the Tamale Metropolis to help improve their furniture situation.

The ICT Learning Centre and the dual desks were provided by the SOS Children’s Villages in Ghana as part of its intervention in the communities.

Mr Alexander Mar Kekula, National Director, SOS Children’s Villages in Ghana, speaking during the inauguration of the centre and the presentation of the dual desks at Cheshe R/C Basic School on Friday, said the gesture stood as testament of the organisation’s commitment to ensuring that every child received quality education.

Mr Mar Kekula said, “In a world where technology is rapidly advancing, the ability to navigate the digital landscape is not just a skill but also a necessity. Our investment in this ICT lab underscores our dedication to equipping our students with the tools they need to thrive in an increasingly interconnected and technologically driven society.”

On the dual desks, he said, “The emphasis is not just about the desks but about the transformative power and dignity they hold for our children, who will also experience the comfort of sitting upright to write and not lying on their bellies.”

He said, “the Cheshe community is part of the current Fooshegu project, which was rolled out in 2022, and scheduled to end in 2026 with a target of 300 caregivers and 1,200 children” expressing hope that the Ghana Education Service, the Catholic Education Unit, the PTA, and SMC would all contribute their quota to sustain the project.

Mr Haruna Iddrisu, Member of Parliament for Tamale South Constituency, said the future was ICT, adding therefore, training children in ICT would equip them with necessary skills for job opportunities as well as promote self-employment in the development of the country.

Mr Iddrisu expressed gratitude to the SOS Children’s Villages in Ghana for imparting ICT skills to the children of the area, which he said would shape their lives.

The Tamale Metropolitan Director of Education, Mr Mohammed Alhassan, expressed gratitude to the organisation for the support, saying the ICT facility and the desks would be put to good use to achieve their intended purpose.

Chief of Cheshe, Datalun Wulana Abdul Rahaman, who spoke through a representative, lauded the gesture, and assured the benefactors of the community’s support to sustain the SOS Children’s Villages in Ghana projects in the area.

Taylor Swift is now a class at the University of Miami. What will the students learn?

MIAMI — A University of Miami dean’s own homework assignment last year — learn all you can about Taylor Swift’s songs as fast as you can — has led to one of the coming fall semester’s hottest classes on the Coral Gables campus.

Students were more than ready for it. The UM’s “Mastermind Taylor Swift Brand” strategic communication class filled up at a pace almost as fast as tickets sold out last August for the superstar’s three South Florida concerts in October 2023. Those shows open the second U.S. leg of Swift’s Eras Tour at Miami Gardens’ Hard Rock Stadium.

When registration opened earlier this month at UM for the 150-capacity class that’s open to all majors and begins Aug. 20, all seats filled within four days. The school raised the cap to 175. There is now a waiting list for STC 290. UM may add more seats for the Tuesday-Thursday 75-minute class.

How a UM Swift class was born

For Alyse Lancaster, UM’s vice dean for academic affairs in the School of Communication, that “Mastermind Taylor Swift Brand” class she formulated and will teach is a family affair.

The class is happening because her daughter Gabi planted the idea. And her son Sydney, a sophomore at the University of Florida majoring in interior design, designed the class’s promotional poster that UM students have seen around campus since March.

“Taylor Swift has been a staple in my house since my now-17-year-old daughter was 4 years old,” Lancaster told the Miami Herald in an email interview. “But it wasn’t until we were able to purchase presale tickets for the Eras Tour concert that things changed on my end. My daughter told me that I needed to learn all of the songs on the Eras Tour set list, plus most of Taylor’s other songs — ‘because you never know what the two surprise songs she will perform at the concert’ and I need to be ready.”

Gabi made her mom a playlist. Lancaster listened intently.

“Don’t blame me, love made me crazy/ If it doesn’t, you ain’t doin’ it right” blasting on Lancaster’s exercise walks.

“And you call me up again just to break me like a promise/ So casually cruel in the name of being honest,” Taylor’s dig at ex-beau Jake Gyllenhaal, coming from Lancaster’s car stereo on those drives to and from campus in Miami’s infernal traffic jams.

All this cramming of Swift’s music gave the educator plenty of contemplative and creative time.

“Then she and I went to see the Eras Tour movie and while watching this incredible woman perform for 3.5 hours straight, through nine eras of her music, interacting with her over-the-moon-excited, completely engaged audience, I finally understood what the big deal is,” Lancaster said.

On one of those walks, the idea for the class hit Lancaster like an immediate, enchanted revelation, much like words and music come to Swift. She knew she had to teach a communication strategy class at UM built around Swift’s brand.

Swift in academia from UF to Harvard

Other places of higher education have designed courses around the pop star.

Last fall, the University of Miami’s School of Law had an adjunct professor teach a seven-week intensive class called “Intellectual Property Law Through the Lens of Taylor Swift.”

The University of Florida’s one-credit discussion-based spring 2024 class, “ Musical Storytelling With Taylor Swift and Other Iconic Female Artists,” filled its 15 spots in 10 seconds when early registration opened last fall, the campus newspaper, The Independent Florida Alligator reported.

In the last year, Stanford University has offered “All Too Well (Ten Week Version),” a course analyzing Swift’s 10-minute masterpiece, “All Too Well” and “The Last Great American Songwriter: Storytelling With Taylor Swift Through the Eras.”

Harvard’s Department of English opened its “ Taylor Swift and Her World “ course this spring, promising to cover “illicit affairs and hoaxes” and “champagne problems and incomplete closure.”

Berklee College of Music in Boston offers a “Songs of Taylor Swift” class with a focus on the performer’s music composition and lyrics, The Boston Globe reported.

In addition to Lancaster’s coming UM class, Arizona State University, Brigham Young University, Houston’s Rice University, the University of Delaware and the University of California, Berkeley all plan Swift-inspired courses in 2024, according to Best Colleges.

“I typically teach courses in advertising strategy development and social media strategies,” Lancaster said. “These classes focus on brand-building, identifying and communicating with the desired target audience, building brand loyalty, and using social media to build a long-lasting relationship between the brand and its loyal audience. And it occurred to me that Taylor Swift has successfully built a billion-dollar brand with a multicultural, multigenerational, global audience of millions of loyal fans.

“So why not use Taylor Swift’s success and business prowess as the foundation for teaching students about brand-building, audience-building, and the importance of communication in achieving those relationships? And just like that, the class was born,” Lancaster said.

What students will learn

Students who managed to secure a seat for UM’s STC 290 in the fall will learn about the marketing and communication strategies Swift has used to build her billion-dollar brand via “the most diverse and loyal group of fans many of us have ever seen,” Lancaster said.

Take Emma Craig, a junior majoring in biomedical engineering at UM. “It’s going to be a ‘Cruel Summer’ waiting until fall for the new Taylor Swift class coming to UM,” the student told The Miami Hurricane campus paper in anticipation of registration for the course.

“For “Mastermind,” the class title borrowed from one of Swift’s “Midnights” tracks, Lancaster’s lectures aim to teach students how to use promotional, persuasive and strategic communication to build a connection with a target audience, and how to get that audience invested in the brand, Lancaster said as she builds her syllabus. School of Communication issues like freedom of expression, the right to privacy for public figures, and the legal limits of using artificial intelligence to alter images are also on the course agenda.

“These are skills students can use not only in the industry, but also in building their own personal brands after graduation,” Lancaster said.

Swift’s own education path

For Swift, 34, that brand-building began inside a classroom in Hendersonville, Tennessee, when she was a high school freshman in a math class, she told the Miami Herald in an interview published in January 2008, just a month after she turned 18.

While her peers listened to the teacher lecture about algebra a few years earlier, Swift said she scribbled the lyrics to her first two hits, “Tim McGraw” and “Teardrops on My Guitar,” in her notebook and sneaked out of class to record voice memos into her telephone.

At 17, signed to her first label, Swift already directed nearly every aspect of her career, from the images on her album covers and press photos, to the songs’ sequencing on her albums. Swift said nothing was released to the marketplace that she hadn’t approved.

“When teachers conducted random notebook checks, they’d be freaked out — but they learned to deal with me,” Swift mused in that long-ago interview.

Knowledge retention

Taylor Swift, Lancaster says, is “in essence, a phenomenon who truly understands many of the important constructs we cover in higher education, including persuasive communication, branding, storytelling, intellectual property, and the power of music.”

One reason universities like UM and UF have taken to teaching Swift, aside from the Eras-like sellout registrations for classes, is they give professors an opportunity to teach concepts that students may actually remember after graduation.

“If students can connect the information they learn to something that’s of great interest to them, they will not only remember that information, but they will be reminded of it whenever the topic of interest comes up. Using Taylor Swift as the impetus for teaching important concepts increases attention, learning, and retention. And plus, it makes learning fun,” Lancaster said.

“I’ve never been more excited to teach a class than I am to teach this one!”

Related Stories

現在JavaScriptが無効になっています

Yahoo!ニュースのすべての機能を利用するためには、JavaScriptの設定を有効にしてください。 JavaScriptの設定を変更する方法はこちら

公立小「子どもが1000人の大人と会う」授業の効用 若手起業家教員で注目の小泉志信先生の挑戦

4/14(日) 8:02 配信

「子どもたちの未来の選択肢を増やしたい」

写真：東洋経済education × ICT

2023年度、東京都板橋区立板橋第十小学校では、4年生の児童が1年間かけて1000人の大人と出会い、人生設計を考える探究学習「3Mプロジェクト」を実施した。このプロジェクトのリーダーが、当時教員4年目で、教員1年目に「一般社団法人まなびぱれっと」を立ち上げた小泉志信氏だ。公立小学校としてはかなり果敢な取り組みが実現したのは、新しいことに積極的に挑戦する同校の校風に加え、小泉氏の「起業家」としてのキャリアも大きな要因といえる。2024年4月、教員から転身し神奈川県鎌倉市教育委員会で勤務する小泉氏に、プロジェクトへの思い、新天地での挑戦について聞いた。 【写真を見る】プロジェクトのしめくくりは「SHIBUYA QWS」で発表を行った ――2023年度、板橋区立板橋第十小学校の「4年生の児童が1年間かけて1000人の大人と出会い、人生設計を考える」というプロジェクトは、公立小では前例のない取り組みであることから、メディアやSNSでも話題となりました。このプロジェクト立案のきっかけを教えてください。 2023年度、前任校から異動し板橋区立板橋第十小学校の4年生の担任になりました。4年生といえば、「2分の1成人式」を行う学校が多いと思いますが、「そもそも10歳の子どもたちが自分の未来を語るときに、人に語れるほどの世界を知っているのだろうか」という違和感がありました。 今、日本では、子どもの自殺が増えています。なぜ子どもたちが自ら命を絶ってしまうのかを考えたとき、“進む道”が少なすぎるからではないかと。「この道が合わなかったら、こっちに行こう」と子どもが自ら思えるようになれば、自殺しなくてすむと思うんです。 ところが、義務教育終了後、高校→大学→社会人とエスカレーター式に上がっていくことが一般的な通念として認識されているこの国は、失敗に寛容ではない風潮が少なからずありますよね。 そのため、何かに失敗したとき、「もうダメだ、ここにはいられない」と思って命を絶ってしまう子もいます。また、核家族化や共働き家庭の増加などにより、子どもたちは学校と家の往復が中心で、家族や教員以外の “知らない大人”と出会う機会が少ないという課題もあります。 子どもたちがたくさんの大人と出会う場をつくって関わり、一緒に何かを生み出すことで、自分がこれから進む道にはたくさんの選択肢があること、未来は自分で切り開いていけることを体感してほしいという思いがありました。 ――なぜ、「1000人の大人」だったのでしょうか。 コロナ禍により、地域のコミュニティーなど人と人とのつながりが薄れてしまっていることを感じていました。そんな中、これは僕の直感なのですが、「100人の大人」だけだと、子どもたちに大きな影響を与えることはできないのではないかと思ったのです。 でも「1000人の大人」と、思い切ってひと桁増やすことで、子どもたちにとってよい出会いが生まれる確率を高めることができるのではないかと。同時に、本当に1000人の大人を集められるのか、起業家でもある僕自身にとってのチャレンジでもありました。 さらに、「1000人の大人と会う」という、これまで公立小学校にはなかった革新的な取り組みに挑戦することで、教育界に何らかのメッセージを届けることができるのではないかと考えました。この事例を参考に、あとから続いて実践する学校が出てくることも想定しながら、プロジェクトを進めました。 ――総合的な学習の時間を中心にプロジェクトを進めたそうですが、4年生の1年間の学びはどのように進めたのでしょうか。 正式名称は、meet/make/mix（大人と出会う/大人と共に形にする/大人と子どもが混ざり合う）の頭文字を取り、「3Mプロジェクト」としました。1学期は「大人と出会う」をコンセプトに、大学生や起業家・アーティストなど多様な大人に人生設計をインタビューしたり、アーティストと作品を作ったりしながらその人の生き方にふれました。 2学期は、「食」「ゲーム」「林業」など10のグループに分かれ、教員の伴走のもと、企業や専門家の大人と協働しながらゲームのグループではゲームを開発したりなど、それぞれのプロジェクトを形にしていきました。 その後は、これまでの活動をふまえ、子どもたち一人ひとりが自分の人生設計図を作成。その過程においても、100人の大人を学校に集め、100組のペアを作って子どもと大人が混ざり合って人生について対話しながら思考を深めたり、100人のアーティストを呼んで子どもとペアをつくり、自分で作った人生設計を基に「未来の自分に向けて」というテーマでアーティストの力を借りながら絵で表現したりなどの授業を行いました。 ――2024年3月には、プロジェクトのしめくくりとして、渋谷にある創業支援施設「SHIBUYA QWS」で「1年間で大人1000人と出会った小学校4年生が語る人生設計発表会」を行いました。1年を振り返り、子どもたちの成長について感じた点を教えてください。 発表会の会場は学校の体育館でもよかったのですが、子どもたちにとって、非日常の空間に足を運んで発表を行うことも、大きな学びになりますよね。このプロジェクトは、「SHIBUYA QWS」が公募している未知の価値に挑戦する「QWSチャレンジ」にも採択されていたため、このような形で開催することができました。 1年間を振り返って、子どもたちの社会性は間違いなく伸びたことを実感しています。新しく出会う大人に対しても物怖じせず、自分の考えを伝えられるようになったことは、大きな成長だと思います。 加えて、このプロジェクトを通して、子どもたちが自分の未来について「○○になりたい」など職業をあげるだけでなく、「まず自分が幸せになって、周りの人も幸せにしていきたい」「挑戦することを大切にしたい」「自由に楽しく生きたい」など“自分はどう生きていきたいか”についてしっかり言語化している姿をみて、やってよかったと感じました。 さまざまな大人と関わる中で、家族や友達の大切さを再認識できた子も多かったですね。10歳の子どもたちが自らの手で作り上げた人生設計図が、今後の人生を歩んでいく中で何らかの財産になることができたら嬉しく思います。

• 夢を強調しすぎる「キャリア教育」から脱すべき訳
• 鎌倉市38歳教育長が「独自ファンド」を設立した訳
• 教員匿名座談会で土佐兄弟・卓也が聞く「職業観」
• 起業家育つリアルな「体験型キャリア教育」の中身
• 保護者のモンスター化防ぐ「枠組みづくり」の視点

アクセスランキング（国内）

「会合には水原氏の妻も参加した」水原一平容疑者　大谷との最後の夜の詳細が明らかに　ホテル地下会議室で大谷に口裏合わせ懇願も拒否→代理人呼ばれ妻交え修羅場に　米報道

地震大国・日本、各地に点在するＭ８級警戒「活断層」リスト　大都市圏「隠れ断層」リスクも　想像力発揮し、リスクに備えを

食べ放題で「上タン50人前」注文して店長逆ギレ！？ 「食べ放題」はどこまで食べていいのか【弁護士解説】

誤解受けやすい「トゥレット症」、街で当事者見かけたら？　向き合い方を考える

花粉　明日はまだ非常に多い飛散の所も　花粉シーズンは終盤　飛散終了時期はいつ?

Yahoo!ニュースからのお知らせ

生きるのがつらいあなたへ　相談窓口の情報

雑誌アクセスランキング（国内）

「子ども誕生、佳子さまご結婚…」注目される小室眞子さん、圭さん「里帰りのタイミング」

「お前、指をつめろ」「わかりました」日本初の女ヤクザ・西村まこ（57）が上司の一言で小指を切断した“異常な理由”

「藤原道長への思いを断ち切れなかった」からではない…紫式部が婚期を逃し続けた本当の理由

また死亡事故…　メディアが山崎製パンの不祥事を大きく報じないナゾ

「所持金3400万円」「右手指がすべて欠損」兵庫のアパートで孤独死した“謎の女性”…1年かけて正体をつきとめた記者2人の“徹底取材”