The presentation layer (data presentation layer, data provision level) sets the system-dependent representation of the data (for example, ASCII, EBCDIC) into an independent form, enabling the syntactically correct data exchange between different systems. Also, functions such as data compression and encryption are guaranteed that data to be sent by the application layer of a system that can be read by the application layer of another system to the layer 6. The presentation layer. If necessary, the presentation layer acts as a translator between different data formats, by making an understandable for both systems data format, the ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax Notation One) used.
OSI Layer 6 - Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for the delivery and formatting of information to the application layer for further processing or display. It relieves the application layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in data representation within the end-user systems. An example of a presentation service would be the conversion of an EBCDIC-coded text computer file to an ASCII-coded file. The presentation layer is the lowest layer at which application programmers consider data structure and presentation, instead of simply sending data in the form of datagrams or packets between hosts. This layer deals with issues of string representation - whether they use the Pascal method (an integer length field followed by the specified amount of bytes) or the C/C++ method (null-terminated strings, e.g. "thisisastring\0"). The idea is that the application layer should be able to point at the data to be moved, and the presentation layer will deal with the rest. Serialization of complex data structures into flat byte-strings (using mechanisms such as TLV or XML) can be thought of as the key functionality of the presentation layer. Encryption is typically done at this level too, although it can be done on the application, session, transport, or network layers, each having its own advantages and disadvantages. Decryption is also handled at the presentation layer. For example, when logging on to bank account sites the presentation layer will decrypt the data as it is received.[1] Another example is representing structure, which is normally standardized at this level, often by using XML. As well as simple pieces of data, like strings, more complicated things are standardized in this layer. Two common examples are 'objects' in object-oriented programming, and the exact way that streaming video is transmitted. In many widely used applications and protocols, no distinction is made between the presentation and application layers. For example, HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), generally regarded as an application-layer protocol, has presentation-layer aspects such as the ability to identify character encoding for proper conversion, which is then done in the application layer. Within the service layering semantics of the OSI network architecture, the presentation layer responds to service requests from the application layer and issues service requests to the session layer. In the OSI model: the presentation layer ensures the information that the application layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system. For example, a PC program communicates with another computer, one using extended binary coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC) and the other using ASCII to represent the same characters. If necessary, the presentation layer might be able to translate between multiple data formats by using a common format. Wikipedia
Data conversion
Character code translation
Compression
Encryption and Decryption
The Presentation OSI Layer is usually composed of 2 sublayers that are:
CASE common application service element
ACSE
Association Control Service Element
ROSE
Remote Operation Service Element
CCR
Commitment Concurrency and Recovery
RTSE
Reliable Transfer Service Element
SASE specific application service element
FTAM
File Transfer, Access and Manager
VT
Virtual Terminal
MOTIS
Message Oriented Text Interchange Standard
CMIP
Common Management Information Protocol
JTM
Job Transfer and Manipulation
MMS
Manufacturing Messaging Service
RDA
Remote Database Access
DTP
Distributed Transaction Processing
Layer 7 Application Layer
Layer 6 presentation layer, layer 5 session layer, layer 4 transport layer, layer 3 network layer, layer 2 data link layer, layer 1 physical layer.
The OSI Model – The 7 Layers of Networking Explained in Plain English
By Chloe Tucker
This article explains the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model and the 7 layers of networking, in plain English.
The OSI model is a conceptual framework that is used to describe how a network functions. In plain English, the OSI model helped standardize the way computer systems send information to each other.
Learning networking is a bit like learning a language - there are lots of standards and then some exceptions. Therefore, it’s important to really understand that the OSI model is not a set of rules. It is a tool for understanding how networks function.
Once you learn the OSI model, you will be able to further understand and appreciate this glorious entity we call the Internet, as well as be able to troubleshoot networking issues with greater fluency and ease.
All hail the Internet!
Prerequisites
You don’t need any prior programming or networking experience to understand this article. However, you will need:
Basic familiarity with common networking terms (explained below)
A curiosity about how things work :)
Learning Objectives
Over the course of this article, you will learn:
What the OSI model is
The purpose of each of the 7 layers
The problems that can happen at each of the 7 layers
The difference between TCP/IP model and the OSI model
Common Networking Terms
Here are some common networking terms that you should be familiar with to get the most out of this article. I’ll use these terms when I talk about OSI layers next.
A node is a physical electronic device hooked up to a network, for example a computer, printer, router, and so on. If set up properly, a node is capable of sending and/or receiving information over a network.
Nodes may be set up adjacent to one other, wherein Node A can connect directly to Node B, or there may be an intermediate node, like a switch or a router, set up between Node A and Node B.
Typically, routers connect networks to the Internet and switches operate within a network to facilitate intra-network communication. Learn more about hub vs. switch vs. router.
Here's an example:
For the nitpicky among us (yep, I see you), host is another term that you will encounter in networking. I will define a host as a type of node that requires an IP address. All hosts are nodes, but not all nodes are hosts. Please Tweet angrily at me if you disagree.
Links connect nodes on a network. Links can be wired, like Ethernet, or cable-free, like WiFi.
Links to can either be point-to-point, where Node A is connected to Node B, or multipoint, where Node A is connected to Node B and Node C.
When we’re talking about information being transmitted, this may also be described as a one-to-one vs. a one-to-many relationship.
A protocol is a mutually agreed upon set of rules that allows two nodes on a network to exchange data.
“A protocol defines the rules governing the syntax (what can be communicated), semantics (how it can be communicated), and synchronization (when and at what speed it can be communicated) of the communications procedure. Protocols can be implemented on hardware, software, or a combination of both. Protocols can be created by anyone, but the most widely adopted protocols are based on standards.” - The Illustrated Network.
Both wired and cable-free links can have protocols.
While anyone can create a protocol, the most widely adopted protocols are often based on standards published by Internet organizations such as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
A network is a general term for a group of computers, printers, or any other device that wants to share data.
Network types include LAN, HAN, CAN, MAN, WAN, BAN, or VPN. Think I’m just randomly rhyming things with the word can ? I can ’t say I am - these are all real network types. Learn more here .
Topology describes how nodes and links fit together in a network configuration, often depicted in a diagram. Here are some common network topology types:
A network consists of nodes, links between nodes, and protocols that govern data transmission between nodes.
At whatever scale and complexity networks get to, you will understand what’s happening in all computer networks by learning the OSI model and 7 layers of networking.
What is the OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of 7 layers of networking.
First, what’s a layer?
No, a layer - not a lair . Here there are no dragons.
A layer is a way of categorizing and grouping functionality and behavior on and of a network.
In the OSI model, layers are organized from the most tangible and most physical, to less tangible and less physical but closer to the end user.
Each layer abstracts lower level functionality away until by the time you get to the highest layer. All the details and inner workings of all the other layers are hidden from the end user.
How to remember all the names of the layers? Easy.
Please | Physical Layer
Do | Data Link Layer
Not | Network Layer
Tell (the) | Transport Layer
Secret | Session Layer
Password (to) | Presentation Layer
Anyone | Application Layer
Keep in mind that while certain technologies, like protocols, may logically “belong to” one layer more than another, not all technologies fit neatly into a single layer in the OSI model. For example, Ethernet, 802.11 (Wifi) and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) procedure operate on >1 layer.
The OSI is a model and a tool, not a set of rules.
OSI Layer 1
Layer 1 is the physical layer . There’s a lot of technology in Layer 1 - everything from physical network devices, cabling, to how the cables hook up to the devices. Plus if we don’t need cables, what the signal type and transmission methods are (for example, wireless broadband).
Instead of listing every type of technology in Layer 1, I’ve created broader categories for these technologies. I encourage readers to learn more about each of these categories:
Nodes (devices) and networking hardware components. Devices include hubs, repeaters, routers, computers, printers, and so on. Hardware components that live inside of these devices include antennas, amplifiers, Network Interface Cards (NICs), and more.
Device interface mechanics. How and where does a cable connect to a device (cable connector and device socket)? What is the size and shape of the connector, and how many pins does it have? What dictates when a pin is active or inactive?
Functional and procedural logic. What is the function of each pin in the connector - send or receive? What procedural logic dictates the sequence of events so a node can start to communicate with another node on Layer 2?
Cabling protocols and specifications. Ethernet (CAT), USB, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) , and more. Specifications include maximum cable length, modulation techniques, radio specifications, line coding, and bits synchronization (more on that below).
Cable types. Options include shielded or unshielded twisted pair, untwisted pair, coaxial and so on. Learn more about cable types here .
Signal type. Baseband is a single bit stream at a time, like a railway track - one-way only. Broadband consists of multiple bit streams at the same time, like a bi-directional highway.
Signal transmission method (may be wired or cable-free). Options include electrical (Ethernet), light (optical networks, fiber optics), radio waves (802.11 WiFi, a/b/g/n/ac/ax variants or Bluetooth). If cable-free, then also consider frequency: 2.5 GHz vs. 5 GHz. If it’s cabled, consider voltage. If cabled and Ethernet, also consider networking standards like 100BASE-T and related standards.
The data unit on Layer 1 is the bit.
A bit the smallest unit of transmittable digital information. Bits are binary, so either a 0 or a 1. Bytes, consisting of 8 bits, are used to represent single characters, like a letter, numeral, or symbol.
Bits are sent to and from hardware devices in accordance with the supported data rate (transmission rate, in number of bits per second or millisecond) and are synchronized so the number of bits sent and received per unit of time remains consistent (this is called bit synchronization). The way bits are transmitted depends on the signal transmission method.
Nodes can send, receive, or send and receive bits. If they can only do one, then the node uses a simplex mode. If they can do both, then the node uses a duplex mode. If a node can send and receive at the same time, it’s full-duplex – if not, it’s just half-duplex.
The original Ethernet was half-duplex. Full-duplex Ethernet is an option now, given the right equipment.
How to Troubleshoot OSI Layer 1 Problems
Here are some Layer 1 problems to watch out for:
Defunct cables, for example damaged wires or broken connectors
Broken hardware network devices, for example damaged circuits
Stuff being unplugged (...we’ve all been there)
If there are issues in Layer 1, anything beyond Layer 1 will not function properly.
Layer 1 contains the infrastructure that makes communication on networks possible.
It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating physical links between network devices. - Source
Fun fact: deep-sea communications cables transmit data around the world. This map will blow your mind: https://www.submarinecablemap.com/
And because you made it this far, here’s a koala:
OSI Layer 2
Layer 2 is the data link layer . Layer 2 defines how data is formatted for transmission, how much data can flow between nodes, for how long, and what to do when errors are detected in this flow.
In more official tech terms:
Line discipline. Who should talk for how long? How long should nodes be able to transit information for?
Flow control. How much data should be transmitted?
Error control - detection and correction . All data transmission methods have potential for errors, from electrical spikes to dirty connectors. Once Layer 2 technologies tell network administrators about an issue on Layer 2 or Layer 1, the system administrator can correct for those errors on subsequent layers. Layer 2 is mostly concerned with error detection, not error correction. ( Source )
There are two distinct sublayers within Layer 2:
Media Access Control (MAC): the MAC sublayer handles the assignment of a hardware identification number, called a MAC address, that uniquely identifies each device on a network. No two devices should have the same MAC address. The MAC address is assigned at the point of manufacturing. It is automatically recognized by most networks. MAC addresses live on Network Interface Cards (NICs). Switches keep track of all MAC addresses on a network. Learn more about MAC addresses on PC Mag and in this article . Learn more about network switches here .
Logical Link Control (LLC): the LLC sublayer handles framing addressing and flow control. The speed depends on the link between nodes, for example Ethernet or Wifi.
The data unit on Layer 2 is a frame .
Each frame contains a frame header, body, and a frame trailer:
Header: typically includes MAC addresses for the source and destination nodes.
Body: consists of the bits being transmitted.
Trailer: includes error detection information. When errors are detected, and depending on the implementation or configuration of a network or protocol, frames may be discarded or the error may be reported up to higher layers for further error correction. Examples of error detection mechanisms: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) and Frame Check Sequence (FCS). Learn more about error detection techniques here .
Typically there is a maximum frame size limit, called an Maximum Transmission Unit, MTU. Jumbo frames exceed the standard MTU, learn more about jumbo frames here .
How to Troubleshoot OSI Layer 2 Problems
Here are some Layer 2 problems to watch out for:
All the problems that can occur on Layer 1
Unsuccessful connections (sessions) between two nodes
Sessions that are successfully established but intermittently fail
Frame collisions
The Data Link Layer allows nodes to communicate with each other within a local area network. The foundations of line discipline, flow control, and error control are established in this layer.
OSI Layer 3
Layer 3 is the network layer . This is where we send information between and across networks through the use of routers. Instead of just node-to-node communication, we can now do network-to-network communication.
Routers are the workhorse of Layer 3 - we couldn’t have Layer 3 without them. They move data packets across multiple networks.
Not only do they connect to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to provide access to the Internet, they also keep track of what’s on its network (remember that switches keep track of all MAC addresses on a network), what other networks it’s connected to, and the different paths for routing data packets across these networks.
Routers store all of this addressing and routing information in routing tables.
Here’s a simple example of a routing table:
The data unit on Layer 3 is the data packet . Typically, each data packet contains a frame plus an IP address information wrapper. In other words, frames are encapsulated by Layer 3 addressing information.
The data being transmitted in a packet is also sometimes called the payload . While each packet has everything it needs to get to its destination, whether or not it makes it there is another story.
Layer 3 transmissions are connectionless, or best effort - they don't do anything but send the traffic where it’s supposed to go. More on data transport protocols on Layer 4.
Once a node is connected to the Internet, it is assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) address, which looks either like 172.16. 254.1 (IPv4 address convention) or like 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 (IPv6 address convention). Routers use IP addresses in their routing tables.
IP addresses are associated with the physical node’s MAC address via the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which resolves MAC addresses with the node’s corresponding IP address.
ARP is conventionally considered part of Layer 2, but since IP addresses don’t exist until Layer 3, it’s also part of Layer 3.
How to Troubleshoot OSI Layer 3 Problems
Here are some Layer 3 problems to watch out for:
All the problems that can crop up on previous layers :)
Faulty or non-functional router or other node
IP address is incorrectly configured
Many answers to Layer 3 questions will require the use of command-line tools like ping , trace , show ip route , or show ip protocols . Learn more about troubleshooting on layer 1-3 here .
The Network Layer allows nodes to connect to the Internet and send information across different networks.
OSI Layer 4
Layer 4 is the transport layer . This where we dive into the nitty gritty specifics of the connection between two nodes and how information is transmitted between them. It builds on the functions of Layer 2 - line discipline, flow control, and error control.
This layer is also responsible for data packet segmentation, or how data packets are broken up and sent over the network.
Unlike the previous layer, Layer 4 also has an understanding of the whole message, not just the contents of each individual data packet. With this understanding, Layer 4 is able to manage network congestion by not sending all the packets at once.
The data units of Layer 4 go by a few names. For TCP, the data unit is a packet. For UDP, a packet is referred to as a datagram. I’ll just use the term data packet here for the sake of simplicity.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are two of the most well-known protocols in Layer 4.
TCP, a connection-oriented protocol, prioritizes data quality over speed.
TCP explicitly establishes a connection with the destination node and requires a handshake between the source and destination nodes when data is transmitted. The handshake confirms that data was received. If the destination node does not receive all of the data, TCP will ask for a retry.
TCP also ensures that packets are delivered or reassembled in the correct order. Learn more about TCP here .
UDP, a connectionless protocol, prioritizes speed over data quality. UDP does not require a handshake, which is why it’s called connectionless.
Because UDP doesn’t have to wait for this acknowledgement, it can send data at a faster rate, but not all of the data may be successfully transmitted and we’d never know.
If information is split up into multiple datagrams, unless those datagrams contain a sequence number, UDP does not ensure that packets are reassembled in the correct order. Learn more about UDP here .
TCP and UDP both send data to specific ports on a network device, which has an IP address. The combination of the IP address and the port number is called a socket.
Learn more about sockets here .
Learn more about the differences and similarities between these two protocols here .
How to Troubleshoot OSI Layer 4 Problems
Here are some Layer 4 problems to watch out for:
Blocked ports - check your Access Control Lists (ACL) & firewalls
Quality of Service (QoS) settings. QoS is a feature of routers/switches that can prioritize traffic, and they can really muck things up. Learn more about QoS here .
The Transport Layer provides end-to-end transmission of a message by segmenting a message into multiple data packets; the layer supports connection-oriented and connectionless communication.
OSI Layer 5
Layer 5 is the session layer . This layer establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions.
A session is a mutually agreed upon connection that is established between two network applications. Not two nodes! Nope, we’ve moved on from nodes. They were so Layer 4.
Just kidding, we still have nodes, but Layer 5 doesn’t need to retain the concept of a node because that’s been abstracted out (taken care of) by previous layers.
So a session is a connection that is established between two specific end-user applications. There are two important concepts to consider here:
Client and server model: the application requesting the information is called the client, and the application that has the requested information is called the server.
Request and response model: while a session is being established and during a session, there is a constant back-and-forth of requests for information and responses containing that information or “hey, I don’t have what you’re requesting.”
Sessions may be open for a very short amount of time or a long amount of time. They may fail sometimes, too.
Depending on the protocol in question, various failure resolution processes may kick in. Depending on the applications/protocols/hardware in use, sessions may support simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex modes.
Examples of protocols on Layer 5 include Network Basic Input Output System (NetBIOS) and Remote Procedure Call Protocol (RPC), and many others.
From here on out (layer 5 and up), networks are focused on ways of making connections to end-user applications and displaying data to the user.
How to Troubleshoot OSI Layer 5 Problems
Here are some Layer 5 problems to watch out for:
Servers are unavailable
Servers are incorrectly configured, for example Apache or PHP configs
Session failure - disconnect, timeout, and so on.
The Session Layer initiates, maintains, and terminates connections between two end-user applications. It responds to requests from the presentation layer and issues requests to the transport layer.
OSI Layer 6
Layer 6 is the presentation layer . This layer is responsible for data formatting, such as character encoding and conversions, and data encryption.
The operating system that hosts the end-user application is typically involved in Layer 6 processes. This functionality is not always implemented in a network protocol.
Layer 6 makes sure that end-user applications operating on Layer 7 can successfully consume data and, of course, eventually display it.
There are three data formatting methods to be aware of:
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII): this 7-bit encoding technique is the most widely used standard for character encoding. One superset is ISO-8859-1, which provides most of the characters necessary for languages spoken in Western Europe.
Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBDCIC): designed by IBM for mainframe usage. This encoding is incompatible with other character encoding methods.
Unicode: character encodings can be done with 32-, 16-, or 8-bit characters and attempts to accommodate every known, written alphabet.
Learn more about character encoding methods in this article , and also here .
Encryption: SSL or TLS encryption protocols live on Layer 6. These encryption protocols help ensure that transmitted data is less vulnerable to malicious actors by providing authentication and data encryption for nodes operating on a network. TLS is the successor to SSL.
How to Troubleshoot OSI Layer 6 Problems
Here are some Layer 6 problems to watch out for:
Non-existent or corrupted drivers
Incorrect OS user access level
The Presentation Layer formats and encrypts data.
OSI Layer 7
Layer 7 is the application layer .
True to its name, this is the layer that is ultimately responsible for supporting services used by end-user applications. Applications include software programs that are installed on the operating system, like Internet browsers (for example, Firefox) or word processing programs (for example, Microsoft Word).
Applications can perform specialized network functions under the hood and require specialized services that fall under the umbrella of Layer 7.
Electronic mail programs, for example, are specifically created to run over a network and utilize networking functionality, such as email protocols, which fall under Layer 7.
Applications will also control end-user interaction, such as security checks (for example, MFA), identification of two participants, initiation of an exchange of information, and so on.
Protocols that operate on this level include File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Secure Shell (SSH), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), Domain Name Service (DNS), and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
While each of these protocols serve different functions and operate differently, on a high level they all facilitate the communication of information. ( Source )
How to Troubleshoot OSI Layer 7 Problems
Here are some Layer 7 problems to watch out for:
All issues on previous layers
Incorrectly configured software applications
User error (... we’ve all been there)
The Application Layer owns the services and functions that end-user applications need to work. It does not include the applications themselves.
Our Layer 1 koala is all grown up.
Learning check - can you apply makeup to a koala?
Don’t have a koala?
Well - answer these questions instead. It’s the next best thing, I promise.
What is the OSI model?
What are each of the layers?
How could I use this information to troubleshoot networking issues?
Congratulations - you’ve taken one step farther to understanding the glorious entity we call the Internet.
Learning Resources
Many, very smart people have written entire books about the OSI model or entire books about specific layers. I encourage readers to check out any O’Reilly-published books about the subject or about network engineering in general.
Here are some resources I used when writing this article:
The Illustrated Network, 2nd Edition
Protocol Data Unit (PDU): https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-segments-packets-and-frames/
Troubleshooting Along the OSI Model: https://www.pearsonitcertification.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1730891
The OSI Model Demystified: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HEEnLZV2wGI
OSI Model for Dummies: https://www.dummies.com/programming/networking/layers-in-the-osi-model-of-a-computer-network/
Chloe Tucker is an artist and computer science enthusiast based in Portland, Oregon. As a former educator, she's continuously searching for the intersection of learning and teaching, or technology and art. Reach out to her on Twitter @_chloetucker and check out her website at chloe.dev .
If you read this far, thank the author to show them you care. Say Thanks
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!
The presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI Reference Model protocol stack, and second from the top. It is different from the other layers in two key respects. First, it has a much more limited and specific function than the other layers; it's actually somewhat easy to describe, hurray! Second, it is used much less often than the other layers; in many types of connections it is not required.
The name of this layer suggests its main function as well: it deals with the presentation of data. More specifically, the presentation layer is charged with taking care of any issues that might arise where data sent from one system needs to be viewed in a different way by the other system. It also takes care of any special processing that must be done to data from the time an application tries to send it until the time it is sent over the network.
Here are some of the specific types of data handling issues that the presentation layer handles:
The reason that the presentation layer is not always used in network communications is that the jobs mentioned above are simply not always needed. Compression and encryption are usually considered optional, and translation features are also only needed in certain circumstances. Another reason why the presentation layer is sometimes not mentioned is that its functions may be performed as part of the application layer.
The fact that the translation job done by the presentation layer isn't always needed means that it is common for it to be skipped by actual protocol stack implementations. This means that protocols at layer seven may talk directly with those at layer five. Once again, this is part of the reason why all of the functions of layers five through seven may be included together in the same software package, as described in the overview of layers and layer groupings .
The sixth OSI model layer is called the . Protocols at this layer take care of manipulation tasks that transform data from one representation to another, such as translation, compression and encryption. In many cases, no such functions are required in a particular networking stack; if so, there may not be any protocol active at layer six.
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The OSI Model
What is the osi model.
How a single bit travels from one computer to the next is a complex concept. In 1984, the open systems interconnection (OSI) model was published as a framework for network communication. The model breaks down computer network communication into seven layers. All of the layers work together to create a digital message. The message is built as it moves down the protocol stack. However, it is not sent to another network until it reaches the physical layer.
The model helps IT, computer science, and cybersecurity professionals understand how a single bit travels from one computer to the next by breaking the system into these layers.
From physical devices to user interfaces (UI), this model explains the communication role of each layer in overall computer networking. This article will start by introducing the Physical Layer (Layer 1).
Layer 1: the physical layer
The physical layer is where data moves across network interfaces as digital signals. Additionally, this is where the transmitting and receiving of network communication occurs. Starting with the Application Layer the message moves down the OSI model, and it eventually reaches the Physical Layer for transmission. When the message is received by the physical layer, the message will then move up the OSI layers until it reaches the final application layer.
Layer 2: data-link layer
Electrical signals received (or transmitted) to the physical layer are linked and translated to digital logic in the data-Link layer . Computer devices may be networked at the Data-Link layer, but only as a Local Area Network (LAN). Connecting a LAN to another LAN occurs at Layer 3.
Within Layer 2, the Protocol Data Unit (PDU) known as a frame consists of a header, footer, and data. Understanding how a frame is structured is important for network traffic analysis.
Additionally, within Layer 2, physical addresses are assigned and are also known as MAC addresses and/or hardware addresses in networking. MAC addresses are unique to each device on a local network. They are 48-bits in length and are assigned in hexadecimal characters.
Some other things to note about Layer 2 is that there are a few protocols that reside in it that we should know about:
Ethernet : The most common type of LAN, Ethernet is the standard used to connect computing devices, routers, and switches in a wired network.
IEEE 802.11 : “Wi-Fi” or “Wireless LAN.”
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) : Network standard for fiber optic LAN connections.
Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP) : A Link Layer protocol used for advertising neighbors, identity, and capabilities on a LAN.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) : Converts and links Internet Protocol (IP) addresses to MAC addresses on a LAN.
Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) : Similar to LLDP, but Cisco proprietary. The protocol collects neighbor information of directly connected LAN devices.
Additionally, Layer 2 is split into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC) : Responsible for establishing the logical link between devices on a local network.
Media Access Control (MAC) : Responsible for the procedures used by devices across a network medium.
Layer 3: network layer
When we think of the internet, we are thinking of interconnected networks. Interconnecting networks refer to a Local Area Network (LAN) connection to neighboring or remote networks. Layer 3 of the OSI model, the network layer , is where internetworking takes place and is where logical addresses are assigned to networked devices. A primary function of this layer is to route network packets from one LAN to another. Routing requires IP addresses and logical mapping of other networks across the internet to properly deliver messages. Another important function of Layer 3 is its ability to fragment and reassemble large communication. When Layer 3 passes a message down to Layer 2 for transmission, message length limits may be encountered in some cases.
Additionally, Layer 3 is the layer where the protocols used to route communication between networks reside. A few common network protocols are:
Internet Protocol (IP) : IPv4 and IPv6 are two versions of IP, and IPv4 is the most common protocol of the Internet .
Internet Protocol Secure (IPSec) : A more secure version of IP which leverages cryptography.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) : Distance-vector routing protocol that uses hop count as a metric of routing.
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EiGRP) : Cisco proprietary. A distance-vectoring protocol used for automating network configurations and routing decisions.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) : Network protocol used for error reporting of network issues.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) : A routing protocol designed to exchange routing information automatically on the internet.
Within Layer 3, the Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is the packet . Packets encapsulate data intended for transmission with header and footer data.
The IPv4 protocol encapsulates data with IPv4 header information necessary for delivery. For example, the 32-bit packet format contains the source address, the destination address, protocol, time-to-live (TTL), etc. in the IPv4 header data.
Layer 4: transport layer
The transport layer , Layer 4, is responsible for being the go-between the abstract layers of the OSI model (Layers 7-5) and the concrete communication layers (Layers 3-1).
Depending on the type of application, the transportation of that application’s communication will need to be handled in a specific way. For example, basic web browsing communication uses Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) . HTTP communicates via a specific connection service type and port. The transport layer is responsible for delivering/receiving the HTTP communication and maintaining the connection throughout the HTTP communication.
The Protocol Data Unit (PDU) at Layer 4 is known as a data segment . Segmentation is the process of dividing raw data into smaller pieces. Once the raw data is packaged from the higher application layers it is segmented at the transport layer before being passed to the Network Layer.
The transport layer protocols are divided into two categories depending on their connection service type:
Connection-oriented services
This connection type establishes a logical connection between two devices prior to beginning communication across a network. Connection-oriented protocols typically maintain service connection by following a set of rules that initiate, negotiate, manage, and terminate the communication. The Transport Layer protocols will also retransmit any data that is received without acknowledgment. The most common Connection-Oriented protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and its process to manage a connection between two devices is called the Three-Way Handshake . In TCP communication, the communicating devices typically share a client/server relationship where a client initiates communication with a service. The handshake involves the process of sending special TCP messages to synchronize a state of negotiated connection in communication.
Connectionless services
In connectionless communication, the protocol does not establish a connection between client and server. Instead, once a request is made to the server, the server sends all data without initiation, negotiation, or management of connection. Connectionless protocols also do not attempt to correct any interruptions in data transmission. Once the server sends the data, the server is not concerned if the client receives it.
When TCP or UDP are used to establish communication, the communication is assigned a port as the Layer 4 address. A port is a logical assignment given to processes and their respective application protocols on a computing system. A few important facts to memorize about ports are:
There are 65,535 valid port numbers available to assign to a communication process.
Ports 0 - 1023 are Well-Known Ports : Assigned to universal TCP/IP application protocols. These protocols are the most common such as HTTPS, SSH, FTP, DNS, and the list goes on. They are registered to these protocols by a global
Ports 1024 - 49,151 are Registered Ports : Reserved for application protocols that are not specified as universal TCP/IP application protocols.
Ports 49,152 - 65,535 are Private/Dynamic Ports : These ports may be used for any process without the need to register the port with the global assigning authority.
When TCP and IP are used together, a Layer 4 port and a Layer 3 IP address are assigned to the connection. This is called a socket. For example, 8.8.8.8:443 is a socket indicating that communication to IP address 8.8.8.8 is to connect to port 443 on the server.
Layer 5: session layer
The session layer starts, manages, and terminates sessions between end-user application processes. Sessions are considered the persistent connection between devices. A session is application-focused; sessions are not concerned with layers 1-4. Instead, the session layer controls dialog between two networked devices. It is considered to facilitate host-to-host communication. Sessions dialog may be controlled through synchronization checkpoints, and through management of communication modes. There are two modes of communication permitted at Layer 5:
Half-Duplex : Communication travels in both directions between sender and receiver, but only one device may transmit a message at a time.
Full-Duplex : Communication travels in both directions between sender and receiver, and messages may be sent simultaneously in either direction.
The session layer resembles a phone conversation. For example, when a person picks up a phone and calls someone else a session is created. Once the communication on the call is completed, the session is terminated by hanging up the phone. In computing, software applications are making the phone call and establishing a session.
Two common Layer 5 protocols still used today are:
Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
Layer 6: presentation layer
The presentation layer is primarily responsible for presenting data so that the recipient will understand the data. Data formatting and encoding protocols apply at Layer 6 to ensure data is legible and presented properly in the application receiving it. Data compression is also a function of Layer 6. If necessary, data may be compressed to improve data throughput over network communication.
Some common Layer 6 protocols are ASCII , JPEG , GIF , MPEG , and PNG .
Another main function of the presentation layer is the encryption and decryption of data sent across a network. Most encryption communication protocols straddle multiple layers of the OSI model, but the actual encryption function is Layer 6.
Two of the most common secure communication protocols are:
Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
Layer 7: application layer
The topmost layer of the OSI model is the application layer . On computer systems, applications display information to the user via the UI.
Note : Software applications running on a computer are NOT considered to reside in the application layer. Instead, they leverage application layer services and protocols that enable network communication.
For example, the user can craft messages and access the network from the application layer. A web browser application allows a user to access a web page. The user may input information and receive information through the web browser. However, the application layer protocol HTTP performs the network communication function. The web browser and HTTP work closely together, and the distinction between the two may be subtle. Yet, HTTP is the web browsing protocol for all web browser applications. In contrast, no single web browser software exclusively utilizes HTTP.
HTTP is one of many common application layer protocols. Below are a few additional protocols to know. It is also good practice to memorize the associated port assigned to the protocols:
Protocol
Port Number(s)
Description
(DNS)
53
Translates internet names to their globally registered IP addresses. For example, “google.com” is registered in global DNS as IP address 8.8.8.8.
(HTTPS)
443
Sends data to and from web browsers and web servers, but securely with the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocol.
FTP
20, 21
Transfers files from a client to a server and vice versa.
(SSH)
22
Connects to computers remotely and in a secure, encrypted way.
(SMTP)
25
Sends and receives email.
(DHCP)
67
Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.
(IRC)
194
Used in a client/server method. IRC clients communicate through an IRC server.
(POP3)
110 (unsecured), 995 (secured)
Used for email where the client receives mail by downloading it locally to a computer from a server mailbox.
The OSI model breaks down computer network communication into seven layers. All of the layers work together to create a digital message. Understanding the OSI model will help you communicate with other network technologists. Computer networking may seem complex, but, with a bit of study, you can gain this knowledge to become an effective Cybersecurity Analyst.
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The presentation layer is the 6 layer from the bottom in the OSI model. This layer presents the incoming data from the application layer of the sender machine to the receiver machine. It converts one format of data to another format of data if both sender and receiver understand different formats; hence this layer is also called the translation layer. It deals with the semantics and syntax of the data, so this layer is also called the syntax layer. It uses operations such as data compression, data encryption & decryption, data conversion, etc.
Data is sent from sender to receiver, but what if the sender device and receiver device understand different formats of code? For example, suppose one device understands ASCII code and another device understands EBCDIC code. In that case, the data must be translated into a code that the recipient understands to determine what data has been sent. The presentation layer is responsible for translating ASCII codes to EBCDIC or vice versa. With the help of the presentation layer, the receiver understands the data effectively and uses it efficiently. Whatever data is being transmitted between the sender and the receiver, that data must be secure because an intruder can hack the data passing between the sender and the receiver. Hackers can modify the data and send the modified data to the receiver to create false communication. The presentation layer is responsible for encrypting and decrypting data to avoid data leakage and data modification. The plaintext data at the source is encrypted into ciphertext (unreadable format), then it is sent to the receiver, where the ciphertext is decrypted into plaintext. Now, if the hacker tries to hack the data, the hacker receives an encrypted, unreadable form, and if the hacker tries to send modified data, the receiver can detect the modification during decryption; thereby, the data remains safe. If the file size is large, it becomes difficult to transmit the large file over the network. File size can be decreased by compressing the file for easy transmission of data. Compression is the method of diminishing the size of a file to transmit data easily in less time. When the compressed data reaches the receiver, the data is reconstructed back to the original size, and this process is called decompression.
The presentation layer in the OSI model is classified into two sublayers:
This sublayer offers services to layer-7, i.e., the application layer, and requests services from layer-5, i.e., the session layer. It supports various application services, such as Reliable Transfer Service Element (RTSE), Remote Operation Service Element (ROSE), Association Control Service Element (ACSE), and Commitment Concurrency and Recovery (CCR). This sublayer offers application-specific protocols, such as Message Oriented Text Interchange Standard (MOTIS), Remote Database Access (RDA), File Transfer Access and Manager (FTAM), Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP), Virtual Terminal (VT), Distributed Transaction Processing (DTP), Job Transfer and Manipulation (JTM), and others. It is a presentation layer protocol in the OSI model, which was formed by Citrix Systems. It is used for transferring data from server to client. It is a very thin protocol as it does not require much overhead in order to transmit data from the server over to the client. It is well-optimized for the WAN. It is the protocol that is used to implement the presentation layer of the OSI model. It provides different kinds of data representation, such as images, video, audio, numbers, etc. It is used for Microsoft Remote Procedure Call (Microsoft RPC) and Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) / Remote Procedure Calls (RPC). It is a communication protocol that was specifically designed for macOS by Apple, Inc. It provides file services for Classic Mac OS and macOS. This protocol is used to share files over the network. It is a protocol that is associated with the client-server operating system. The user can access the directory, print, message, file, clock synchronization, etc., with the help of this protocol. It supports many platforms, such as Linux, Classic Mac OS, Windows NT, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows. It is a telecommunications equipment that splits a stream of data into separate packets and formats packet headers for asynchronous communication on X.25 networks. It receives packets from the network and converts them into a stream of data. The PAD provides many asynchronous terminal connectivities to a host computer. It is a computer network protocol that is used to transfer data between two systems. It was first published in 1987. XDR is used by various systems such as NDMP, Network File System, NetCDF, ZFS, Open Network Computer Remote Procedure Call, and others. It is a protocol that offers ISO presentation services over TCP/IP based networks. This protocol explains an approach to provide stream-line support for OSI over TCP/IP based networks.
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The OSI Model’s 7 Layers, Explained
The seven layers in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model each serve a specific function and work together to create an efficient network communication system.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a framework in network communication that simplifies complex network interactions into a structured format.
What Is the OSI Model?
The Open Systems Interconnection model is a framework in network communication designed to simplify complex network interactions into a structured format. This architecture has seven layers, each of which serves a specific function. All seven layers work together to create a robust and efficient network communication system.
Each of its seven layers has a distinct role, ensuring efficient data transfer from one device to another . The OSI model is essential for understanding how data is transmitted in a network and is also a practical guide for network protocol design and problem solving.
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The OSI model, developed by the International Organization for Standardization , outlines the essential functions of networking and telecommunications systems for practical application. It plays a crucial role in telecommunications, where vendors use it to define the features and capabilities of their products and services.
This approach allows for a detailed explanation of different aspects of network communication, including transport protocols, addressing schemes and data packaging methods. As a result, the OSI model resolves the complexities of network communication and fosters a more integrated and coherent digital world .
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model
Each layer of the OSI model serves a specific function, yet they work in harmony to create a robust and efficient network communication system. Understanding these layers provides valuable insights into the complexities of network design and operation, showcasing the intricate nature of modern digital communication.
Layer 7: Application Layer
Functionality: The Application Layer is the closest to the end user. It facilitates user interaction with networked systems, providing interfaces and protocols for web browsers, email clients and other applications.
Key protocols: Protocols like HTTP, FTP and SMTP operate at this layer, enabling services such as web browsing, file transfers and email communications.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
Role: The Presentation Layer acts as a translator, converting data formats from the application layer into a network-compatible format and vice versa. It ensures that data sent from one system is readable by another.
Data formatting: This layer is responsible for data encryption and compression, playing a significant role in maintaining data privacy and efficient transmission.
Layer 5: Session Layer
Managing sessions: It establishes, manages and terminates sessions between applications. This layer ensures that sessions are maintained for the duration of the communication.
Coordination: The Session Layer coordinates communication between systems, managing dialogues and synchronizing data exchange.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
Data segmentation and control: The Transport Layer is crucial for segmenting data into smaller packets. It ensures end-to-end data integrity and delivery, managing flow control, error correction and sequencing.
Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are key protocols in this layer, differing in their approach to data transmission.
Layer 3: Network Layer
Routing and addressing: This layer is responsible for logical addressing and routing data packets across different networks. It determines the best path for data to travel from source to destination.
Internet protocol: The Internet Protocol (IP), fundamental for internet data exchange, operates at this layer.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
Framing and MAC addressing: The Data Link Layer frames data into packets. It handles physical addressing through MAC addresses, ensuring that data is directed to the correct hardware.
Error detection: This layer is also involved in error detection and handling, improving overall data transmission reliability.
Layer 1: Physical Layer
Physical transmission: The Physical Layer deals with the physical aspects of data transmission, including cable types, electrical signals and data rates.
Hardware components: It involves hardware components like cables, switches and network interface cards, forming the foundation of network communication.
How Data Flows in the OSI Model
Understanding this data flow process is crucial for professionals, as it aids in diagnosing and troubleshooting network issues, designing efficient network solutions and ensuring robust data security and management.
Encapsulation Process
When data is sent, it begins at the Application Layer and moves down through the layers. At each stage, it is encapsulated with the necessary headers, trailers, and other control information relevant to that layer. For instance, at the Transport Layer, data is segmented and encapsulated with port numbers, while at the Network Layer, IP addresses are added.
Each layer plays a role in preparing the data for transmission. The Presentation Layer may encrypt the data for security, while the Data Link Layer ensures it is formatted into frames suitable for physical transmission.
Data Transmission Across the Network
The Physical Layer transmits the raw bits over a physical medium, such as a cable or wireless network. This transmission is the actual movement of data across the network. In cases where data must move across different networks, the Network Layer’s routing functionalities become crucial. It ensures that data packets find the most efficient path to their destination.
Decapsulation Process
Upon reaching the destination, the data moves up the OSI model, with each layer removing its respective encapsulation. The Data Link Layer, for instance, removes framing, and the Transport Layer checks for transmission errors and reassembles the data segments. Once the data reaches the Application Layer, it is in its original format and ready to be used by the receiving application, whether it’s an email client, a web browser or any other networked software.
Seamless Data Flow
The OSI model ensures that each layer only communicates with its immediate upper and lower layers, creating a seamless flow. This layered approach means changes in one layer’s protocols or functionalities can occur without disrupting the entire network.
OSI Model Advantages
The OSI model is a cornerstone in network architecture for several reasons:
Simplification of network design
The OSI model’s layered approach breaks down complex network processes, making design and operation more manageable. Each layer focuses on a specific aspect of communication, allowing for independent development and easier troubleshooting.
Standardization and interoperability
It establishes universal standards for network communication, enabling different technologies to interact seamlessly. This interoperability is crucial for the efficient functioning of diverse network devices and applications.
Flexibility and Scalability
Adaptable to technological advancements, the OSI model allows individual layers to evolve without overhauling the entire system. This scalability makes it suitable for various network sizes and types.
Enhanced Security
Security measures are integrated at multiple layers, providing a robust defense against threats. Each layer can address specific security concerns, leading to comprehensive network protection.
Real-World Applications of the OSI Model
The OSI model’s influence extends well beyond theoretical concepts, playing a crucial role in various practical aspects of networking:
Network Design and Protocol Development
Network professionals use the OSI model as a blueprint for structuring and developing robust networks. It guides the creation of new protocols, ensuring seamless integration and functionality across different network layers.
Efficient Troubleshooting and Management
In troubleshooting, the OSI model provides a systematic approach for identifying issues, from physical connectivity to application-level errors. It also aids in network maintenance and performance optimization, addressing each layer to enhance overall efficiency.
Cybersecurity Strategy
The model is foundational in crafting layered security strategies . By implementing security measures at different layers, it offers comprehensive protection against various cyber threats. Understanding the OSI layers is key in detecting and mitigating attacks targeting specific network segments.
Educational and Training Tool
It serves as an essential framework in networking education, helping students and professionals alike understand complex network operations. The OSI model is a cornerstone in training programs , emphasizing the intricacies of network architecture and security.
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OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model
While the OSI model offers a detailed conceptual framework, the TCP/IP model is recognized for its practical application in today’s internet-driven world.
Structural Differences
OSI model : Introduced as a comprehensive, protocol-independent framework, the OSI model details seven distinct layers, offering a more granular approach to network communication.
TCP/IP model : Developed earlier by the U.S. Department of Defense, the TCP/IP model consists of four layers (Application, Transport, Internet and Network Access), combining certain OSI layers.
Theoretical vs. Practical Approach
OSI model : Developed as a theoretical and universal networking model, it’s used more for educational purposes to explain how networks operate.
TCP/IP model : This model is designed around specific standard protocols, focusing on solving practical communication issues. It leaves sequencing and acknowledgment functions to the transport layer, differing from the OSI approach.
Adoption and Use
OSI model: While not widely implemented in its entirety, the OSI model’s clear layer separation is influential in protocol design and network education; simpler applications in the OSI framework may not utilize all seven layers, with only the first three layers (Physical, Data Link, and Network) being mandatory for basic data communication.
TCP/IP model : The dominant model used in most network architectures today, especially in internet-related communications. In TCP/IP, most applications engage all layers for communication.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why is the osi model important.
The OSI model is crucial for standardizing network communication and ensuring interoperability between various devices and systems. It simplifies network design and troubleshooting and serves as a fundamental educational tool in networking.
What are the 7 layers of the OSI model?
Layer 1: Physical Layer — Transmits raw data.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer — Manages direct links and framing.
Layer 3: Network Layer — Handles addressing and routing.
Layer 4: Transport Layer — Ensures reliable data transfer.
Layer 5: Session Layer — Manages connections.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer — Translates data formats.
Layer 7: Application Layer — Interfaces with applications.
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What is the OSI Model?
The OSI Model Defined, Explained, and Explored
The OSI Model Defined
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support interoperability between different products and software. In the OSI reference model, the communications between a computing system are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
Created at a time when network computing was in its infancy, the OSI was published in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Though it does not always map directly to specific systems, the OSI Model is still used today as a means to describe Network Architecture.
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model
Physical layer.
The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or optically transmitting raw unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer of the sending device to the physical layer of the receiving device. It can include specifications such as voltages, pin layout, cabling, and radio frequencies. At the physical layer, one might find “physical” resources such as network hubs, cabling, repeaters, network adapters or modems.
Data Link Layer
At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node data transfer where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects errors that may have occurred at the physical layer.
The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own. The first, media access control (MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing for device transmissions over a network. The second, the logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error control over the physical medium as well as identifies line protocols.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and delivering them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses contained inside the frame. The network layer finds the destination by using logical addresses, such as IP (internet protocol). At this layer, routers are a crucial component used to quite literally route information where it needs to go between networks.
Transport Layer
The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data packets. It regulates the size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems and hosts. One of the most common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the Transmission Control Protocol.
Session Layer
The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session or connection between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer 5. Session layer services also include authentication and reconnections.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the syntax or semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also called the syntax layer. This layer can also handle the encryption and decryption required by the application layer.
Application Layer
At this layer, both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the software application. This layer sees network services provided to end-user applications such as a web browser or Office 365. The application layer identifies communication partners, resource availability, and synchronizes communication.
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Physical Layer
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The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking model defines a conceptual framework for communications between computer systems. The model is an ISO standard which identifies seven fundamental networking layers, from the physical hardware up to high-level software applications.
Each layer in the model handles a specific networking function. The standard helps administrators to visualize networks, isolate problems, and understand the use cases for new technologies. Many network equipment vendors advertise the OSI layer that their products are designed to slot into.
OSI was adopted as an international standard in 1984. It remains relevant today despite the changes to network implementation that have occurred since first publication. Cloud, edge, and IoT can all be accommodated within the model.
In this article, we'll explain each of the seven OSI layers in turn. We'll start from the lowest level, labelled as Layer 1.
1. Physical Layer
All networking begins with physical equipment. This layer encapsulates the hardware involved in the communications, such as switches and cables. Data is transferred as a stream of binary digits - 0 or 1 - that the hardware prepares from input it's been fed. The physical layer specifies the electrical signals that are used to encode the data over the wire, such as a 5-volt pulse to indicate a binary "1."
Errors in the physical layer tend to result in data not being transferred at all. There could be a break in the connection due to a missing plug or incorrect power supply. Problems can also arise when two components disagree on the physical encoding of data values. In the case of wireless connections, a weak signal can lead to bit loss during transmission.
2. Data Link Layer
The model's second layer concerns communication between two devices that are directly connected to each other in the same network. It's responsible for establishing a link that allows data to be exchanged using an agreed protocol. Many network switches operate at Layer 2.
The data link layer will eventually pass bits to the physical layer. As it sits above the hardware, the data link layer can perform basic error detection and correction in response to physical transfer issues. There are two sub-layers that define these responsibilities: Logical Link Control (LLC) that handles frame synchronization and error detection, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to constrain how devices acquire permission to transfer data.
3. Network Layer
The network layer is the first level to support data transfer between two separately maintained networks. It's redundant in situations where all your devices exist on the same network.
Data that comes to the network layer from higher levels is first broken up into packets suitable for transmission. Packets received from the remote network in response are reassembled into usable data.
The network layer is where several important protocols are first encountered. These include IP (for determining the path to a destination), ICMP, routing, and virtual LAN. Together these mechanisms facilitate inter-network communications with a familiar degree of usability. However operations at this level aren't necessarily reliable: messages aren't required to succeed and may not necessarily be retried.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer provides higher-level abstractions for coordinating data transfers between devices. Transport controllers determine where data will be sent and the rate it should be transferred at.
Layer 4 is where TCP and UDP are implemented, providing the port numbers that allow devices to expose multiple communication channels. Load balancing is often situated at Layer 4 as a result, allowing traffic to be routed between ports on a target device.
Transport mechanisms are expected to guarantee successful communication. Stringent error controls are applied to recover from packet loss and retry failed transfers. Flow control is enforced so the sender doesn't overwhelm the remote device by sending data more quickly than the available bandwidth permits.
5. Session Layer
Layer 5 creates ongoing communication sessions between two devices. Sessions are used to negotiate new connections, agree on their duration, and gracefully close down the connection once the data exchange is complete. This layer ensures that sessions remain open long enough to transfer all the data that's being sent.
Checkpoint control is another responsibility that's held by Layer 5. Sessions can define checkpoints to facilitate progress updates and resumable transmissions. A new checkpoint could be set every few megabytes for a file upload, allowing the sender to continue from a particular point if the transfer gets interrupted.
Many significant protocols operate at Layer 5 including authentication and logon technologies such as LDAP and NetBIOS. These establish semi-permanent communication channels for managing an end user session on a specific device.
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer handles preparation of data for the application layer that comes next in the model. After data has made it up from the hardware, through the data link, and across the transport, it's almost ready to be consumed by high-level components. The presentation layer completes the process by performing any formatting tasks that may be required.
Decryption, decoding, and decompression are three common operations found at this level. The presentation layer processes received data into formats that can be eventually utilized by a client application. Similarly, outward-bound data is reformatted into compressed and encrypted structures that are suitable for network transmission.
TLS is one major technology that's part of the presentation layer. Certificate verification and data decryption is handled before requests reach the network client, allowing information to be consumed with confidence that it's authentic.
7. Application Layer
The application layer is the top of the stack. It represents the functionality that's perceived by network end users. Applications in the OSI model provide a convenient end-to-end interface to facilitate complete data transfers, without making you think about hardware, data links, sessions, and compression.
Despite its name, this layer doesn't relate to client-side software such as your web browser or email client. An application in OSI terms is a protocol that caters for the complete communication of complex data through layers 1-6.
HTTP, FTP, DHCP, DNS, and SSH all exist at the application layer. These are high-level mechanisms which permit direct transfers of user data between an origin device and a remote server. You only need minimal knowledge of the workings of the other layers.
The seven OSI layers describe the transfer of data through computer networks. Understanding the functions and responsibilities of each layer can help you identify the source of problems and assess the intended use case for new components.
OSI is an abstract model that doesn't directly map to the specific networking implementations commonly used today. As an example, the TCP/IP protocol works on its own simpler system of four layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport, and Application. These abstract and absorb the equivalent OSI layers: the application layer spans OSI L5 to L7, while L1 and L2 are combined in TCP/IP's concept of Network Access.
OSI remains applicable despite its lack of direct real-world application. It's been around so long that it's widely understood among administrators from all backgrounds. Its relatively high level of abstraction has also ensured it's remained relevant in the face of new networking paradigms, many of which have targeted Layer 3 and above. An awareness of the seven layers and their responsibilities can still help you appreciate the flow of data through a network while uncovering integration opportunities for new components.
OSI Presentation and Application Layers
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Paul D. Bartoli 3
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This chapter discusses the Application and Presentation Layers of the Reference Model of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) [1]. The Application and Presentation Layers perform functions necessary to exchange information between application processes; the Application Layer is concerned with the semantic aspects of the information exchange, while the Presentation Layer is concerned with the syntactic aspects. The ability to manage the semantic and syntactic elements of the information to be exchanged is key to ensuring that the information can be interpreted by the communicants.
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The Internet in IoT—OSI, TCP/IP, IPv4, IPv6 and Internet Routing
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ISO 8571, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—File transfer, access, and management,” Parts 1–4, 1988.
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ISO DIS 9066–1, “Reliable transfer service”, 1988 (text in SC 18 N 1408, March, 1988). ISO DIS 9066–2, “Reliable transfer protocol specification,” 1988 (text in SC 18 N 1409). CCITT Recommendation X.218, “Reliable transfer: Model and service definition,” 1988. CCITT Recommendation X.228, “Reliable transfer: Protocol specification,” 1988.
ISO DIS 9072–1, “Remote operations service,” 1988 (text in SC 18 N 1410, March, 1988). ISO DIS 9072–2, “Remote operations protocol specification,” 1988 (text in SC 18 N 1411, March, 1988). CCITT Recommendation X.219, “Remote operations: Model, notation, and service definition,” 1988. CCITT Recommendation X.229, “Remote operations: Protocol specification,” 1988.
ISO DIS 9594, “Information processing—Open systems interconnection—The directory,” parts 1–8, 1988 (text in SC 21 N 2751 through N 2758, April, 1988). CCITT X.500, “Series recommendations on directory,” November, 1987.
ISO DIS 10021, “Information processing—Text communication—Message oriented text interchange system,” 1988 (text in SC 18 N 1487 through N 1493, May, 1988). CCITT X.400, “Series recommendations for message handling systems,” 1988.
ISO 8613/1–8, “Office document architecture and interchange format,” 1988, awaiting publication. CCITT T.400, “Series recommendations for document architecture, transfer, and manipulation,” 1988.
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ISO 8822, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—Connection oriented presentation service definition,” 1988. CCITT Recommendation X.216, “Presentation service definition for open systems interconnection for CCITT applications,” 1988.
ISO 8825, “Information processing—Open systems interconnection—Specification of basic encoding rules for abstract syntax notation one (ASN.1),” 1987; and ISO 8825/ PDAD 1, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—Specification of basic encoding rules for ASN.1: Proposed draft addendum 1 on ASN.1 extensions,” 1988 (text in SC 21 N 2342 Revised, April, 1988). CCITT Recommendation X.209, “Specification of basic encoding rules for abstract syntax notation one (ASN.1),” 1988.
ISO 8823, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—Connection oriented presentation protocol specification,” 1988. CCITT Recommendation X.226, “Presentation protocol specification for open systems interconnection for CCITT applications,” 1988.
ISO 8326, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—Basic connection oriented session service definition,” 1987; and ISO 8326/AD 2, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—Basic connection oriented session service definition—Addendum 2: Incorporation of unlimited user data,” 1988. ISO 8327, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—Basic connection oriented session protocol specification,” 1987; and ISO 8327/AD 2, “Information processing systems—Open systems interconnection—Basic connection oriented session protocol specification—Addendum 2: Unlimited session user data protocol specification,” 1988.
CCITT Recommendation X.215, “Session service definition for open systems interconnection for CCITT applications,” 1988. CCITT Recommendation X.225, “Session protocol specification for open systems interconnection for CCITT applications,” 1988.
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Bartoli, P.D. (1989). OSI Presentation and Application Layers. In: Sunshine, C.A. (eds) Computer Network Architectures and Protocols. Applications of Communications Theory. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0809-6_13
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What is OSI Model? – Layers of OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection , where open stands to say non-proprietary. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe. The OSI reference model was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization ‘, in the year 1984.
The OSI model provides a theoretical foundation for understanding network communication . However, it is usually not directly implemented in its entirety in real-world networking hardware or software . Instead, specific protocols and technologies are often designed based on the principles outlined in the OSI model to facilitate efficient data transmission and networking operations
The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO , is a reference framework that explains the process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions , allowing for a more systematic approach to networking.
For those preparing for competitive exams like GATE, a strong understanding of networking concepts, including the OSI model, is crucial. To deepen your knowledge in this area and other key computer science topics, consider enrolling in the GATE CS Self-Paced course . This course offers comprehensive coverage of the syllabus, helping you build a solid foundation for your exam preparation.
Data Flow In OSI Model
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
Application Layer: Applications create the data.
Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.
Let’s look at it with an Example:
Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.
Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application like Gmail , outlook , etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application layer )
Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission. (This happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer )
Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session Layer )
Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer )
Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer. (This happens in Layer 3: Network Layer )
Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer )
Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Zoro’s email client.
What Are The 7 Layers of The OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
Functions of the Physical Layer
Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note: Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers .
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address . The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses ( MAC addresses ) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Note: Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address es are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Note: Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet . Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments . It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation , and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number s in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application. Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
Connection-Oriented Service
Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes:
Connection Establishment
Data Transfer
Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note: Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments . Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model. Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note: All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as the “Application Layer”. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers. Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in their browser. The “ Messenger ” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.
Communication in Session Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC .
Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF.
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example : Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP .
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.
Mail Services: Provide email service.
Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information about various objects and services.
Note: The OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
OSI Model – Layer Architecture
7
Helps in identifying the client and synchronizing communication.
Message
6
Data from the application layer is extracted and manipulated in the required format for transmission.
Message
, ,
5
Establishes Connection, Maintenance, Ensures Authentication and Ensures security.
Message (or encrypted message)
4
Take Service from Network Layer and provide it to the Application Layer.
Segment
3
Transmission of data from one host to another, located in different networks.
Packet
2
Node to Node Delivery of Message.
Frame
,
1
Establishing Physical Connections between Devices.
Bits
, , , Cables
TCP/IP protocol ( Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol ) was created by U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1970s.
Some key differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP Model are:
TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers but OSI model has 7 layers. Layers 5,6,7 of the OSI model are combined into the Application Layer of TCP/IP model and OSI layers 1 and 2 are combined into Network Access Layers of TCP/IP protocol.
The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model, hence it is a foundational protocol that defines how should data be transferred online.
Compared to the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has less strict layer boundaries.
All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data transmission but in the OSI model, some applications can skip certain layers. Only layers 1,2 and 3 of the OSI model are necessary for data transmission.
OSI vs TCP/IP
Why Does The OSI Model Matter?
Even though the modern Internet doesn’t strictly use the OSI Model (it uses a simpler Internet protocol suite), the OSI Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. Whether it’s one person having trouble getting their laptop online, or a website being down for thousands of users, the OSI Model helps to identify the problem. If you can narrow down the issue to one specific layer of the model, you can avoid a lot of unnecessary work.
Imperva Application Security
Imperva security solutions protect your applications at different levels of the OSI model. They use DDoS mitigation to secure the network layer and provide web application firewall (WAF), bot management, and API security to protect the application layer.
To secure applications and networks across the OSI stack, Imperva offers multi-layered protection to ensure websites and applications are always available, accessible, and safe. The Imperva application security solution includes:
DDoS Mitigation: Protects the network layer from Distributed Denial of Service attacks.
Web Application Firewall (WAF) : Shields the application layer from threats.
Bot Management: Prevents malicious bots from affecting the application.
API Security: Secures APIs from various vulnerabilities and attacks.
The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers. Its advantages include:
It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and troubleshoot.
It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and protocols.
Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model .
It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model
Complexity: The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for beginners.
Not Practical: In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model isn’t always directly applicable.
Slow Adoption: When it was introduced, the OSI Model was not quickly adopted by the industry, which preferred the simpler and already-established TCP/IP model.
Overhead: Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make the process more time-consuming and less efficient.
Theoretical: The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for understanding concepts but not always practical for implementation.
In conclusion, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has specific responsibilities and interacts with the layers directly above and below it, ensuring seamless communication and data exchange across diverse network environments. Understanding the OSI model helps in troubleshooting network issues, designing robust network architectures, and facilitating interoperability between different networking products and technologies.
Frequently Asked Questions on OSI Model – FAQs
Is osi layer still used.
Yes, the OSI model is still used by networking professionals to understand data abstraction paths and processes better.
What is the highest layer of the OSI model?
Layer 7 or Application layer is highest layer of OSI model.
What is layer 8?
Layer 8 doesn’t actually exist in the OSI model but is often jokingly used to refer to the end user. For example: a layer 8 error would be a user error.
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The Layers of the OSI Model Illustrated
Each layer explained
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The Wireless Connection
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Installing & Upgrading
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The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in layers, with control passed from one layer to the next. It is primarily used today as a teaching tool. It conceptually divides computer network architecture into 7 layers in a logical progression.
The lower layers deal with electrical signals, chunks of binary data , and routing of these data across networks. Higher levels cover network requests and responses, representation of data, and network protocols, as seen from a user's point of view.
The OSI model was originally conceived as a standard architecture for building network systems, and many popular network technologies today reflect the layered design of OSI.
Physical Layer
At Layer 1, the Physical layer of the OSI model is responsible for the ultimate transmission of digital data bits from the Physical layer of the sending (source) device over network communications media to the Physical layer of the receiving (destination) device.
Examples of layer 1 technologies include Ethernet cables and hubs . Also, hubs and other repeaters are standard network devices that function at the Physical layer, as are cable connectors.
At the Physical layer, data is transmitted using the type of signaling supported by the physical medium: electric voltages, radio frequencies, or pulses of infrared or ordinary light.
Data Link Layer
When obtaining data from the Physical layer, the Data Link layer checks for physical transmission errors and packages bits into data frames. The Data Link layer also manages physical addressing schemes such as MAC addresses for Ethernet networks, controlling access of network devices to the physical medium.
Because the Data Link layer is the most complex layer in the OSI model, it is often divided into two parts: the Media Access Control sub-layer and the Logical Link Control sub-layer.
Network Layer
The Network layer adds the concept of routing above the Data Link layer. When data arrives at the Network layer, the source and destination addresses contained inside each frame are examined to determine if the data has reached its final destination. If the data has reached the final destination, layer 3 formats the data into packets delivered to the Transport layer. Otherwise, the Network layer updates the destination address and pushes the frame down to the lower layers.
To support routing, the Network layer maintains logical addresses such as IP addresses for devices on the network. The Network layer also manages the mapping between these logical addresses and physical addresses. In IPv4 networking, this mapping is accomplished through the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP); IPv6 uses Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP).
Transport Layer
The Transport Layer delivers data across network connections. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are the most common examples of Transport Layer 4 network protocols. Different transport protocols may support a range of optional capabilities, including error recovery, flow control, and support for re-transmission.
Session Layer
The Session Layer manages the sequence and flow of events that initiate and tear down network connections. At layer 5, it is built to support multiple types of connections that can be created dynamically and run over individual networks.
Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer has the simplest function of any piece of the OSI model. At layer 6, it handles syntax processing of message data such as format conversions and encryption/decryption needed to support the Application layer above it.
Application Layer
The Application layer supplies network services to end-user applications. Network services are protocols that work with the user's data. For example, in a web browser application, the Application layer protocol HTTP packages the data needed to send and receive web page content. This layer 7 provides data to (and obtains data from) the Presentation layer.
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Difference between presentation layer and user-interface
What is the difference between a presentation layer and an user-interface?
user-interface
4 Answers 4
They are close in execution, but they come from different directions. They aren't well defined, depending on the specific context, they may be almost identical or overlap only slightly.
Presentation layer is term in the taxonomy of code and associated resources.
User Interface is the implementation of the intended User Experience in terms of page layout, page transitions and page control elements. (I am using "page" loosely here - you can replace it with "form" or "window").
The distinction is important when you consider how a user interface gets created. If you come from the code, you are basically working with the needs and mechanisms of the code - what data is there to show? , and in what ways your code can change that?
If you come from the user, the questions are rather what data the does the user need? and what data the user wants to change?
(The first one isn't necessarily worse - it's perfect for users who have a good idea of the inner workings of the application, and it makes it often easier to make use of the full capabilities of the code.)
The link in the John's answer refers to the OSI model, which is not the term intended here IMHO.
I think presentation layer and UI are overlapping concepts, though not 100% overlapping.
Form one angle: The term presentation layer suggests a layered structure in the application, while the term UI does not suggest anything about the inner structure of the application.
From another angle: The term UI might only include the collection of controls and their event handlers, while the term presentation layer could include some deeper non visual parts of the application like ViewModels or Presenters.
The presentation layer delivers information to the application layer for display.
The presentation layer, in some cases, handles data translation to allow use on a particular system.
The user interface shows you the data once the presentation layer has done any translations it needs to.
More here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_Layer
Here's my own interpretation:
Presentation layer loosely refers to the layer which is responsible for somehow displaying the data for the users. It is often spoken of in the context of a software architecture along with other layers such persistence layer, business logic layer, etc, and rarely by itself.
User interface simply refers to the point of interfacing between the users and some software programs. User interface do not always have to have a nice graphical windows capabilities. A console program, one which runs on the prompt, is also said to have a user interface, just not a graphical one.
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Network infrastructure
OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)
Andrew Froehlich, West Gate Networks
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Kara Gattine, Director of Editorial Operations
What is OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)?
OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a reference model for how applications communicate over a network. This model focuses on providing a visual design of how each communications layer is built on top of the other, starting with the physical cabling, all the way to the application that's trying to communicate with other devices on a network.
A reference model is a conceptual framework for understanding relationships. The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide technology vendors and developers so the digital communications products and software programs they create can interoperate and to promote a clear framework that describes the functions of a networking or telecommunications system that's in use.
Most vendors involved in telecommunications try to describe their products and services in relation to the OSI model. This helps them differentiate among the various transport protocols, addressing schemes and communications packaging methods. And, although it's useful for guiding discussion and evaluation, the OSI model is theoretical in nature and should be used only as a general guide. That's because few network products or standard tools keep related functions together in well-defined layers, as is the case in the OSI model. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol ( TCP/IP ) suite, for example, is the most widely used network protocol, but even it doesn't map cleanly to the OSI model.
History of the OSI model
In the 1970s, technology researchers began examining how computer systems could best communicate with each other. Over the next few years, several competing models were created and published to the community. However, it wasn't until 1984 when the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) took the best parts of competing networking reference models to propose OSI as a way to finally create a framework that technology companies around the world could use as the basis of their networking technologies .
From ISO's perspective, the easiest way to create a conceptual model was to organize the models into different abstraction layers required to organize and send data between computing systems. Looking inside each abstracted layer to see the details shows one part of this network communication process. Each layer can be thought of as a separate communication module or piece of the puzzle. But, to actually accomplish the goal of sending data from one device to another, each module must work together.
How the OSI model works
Information technology (IT) networking professionals use OSI to model or conceptualize how data is sent or received over a network. Understanding this is a foundational part of most IT networking certifications, including the Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA) and CompTIA Network+ certification programs. As mentioned, the model is designed to break down data transmission standards, processes and protocols over a series of seven layers, each of which is responsible for performing specific tasks concerning sending and receiving data.
The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints in a network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related functions, or layers. Each communicating user or program is on a device that can provide those seven layers of function.
In this architecture, each layer serves the layer above it and, in turn, is served by the layer below it. So, in a given message between users, there will be a flow of data down through the layers in the source computer, across the network and then up through the layers in the receiving computer. Only the application layer at the top of the stack doesn't provide services to a higher-level layer.
The seven layers of function are provided by a combination of applications, operating systems (OSes), network card device drivers, networking hardware and protocols that enable a system to transmit a signal over a network through various physical mediums, including twisted-pair copper, fiber optics, Wi-Fi or Long-Term Evolution (LTE) with 5G .
7 layers of the OSI model
What is the function of each layer of the OSI model? The seven Open Systems Interconnection layers are the following.
Layer 7. The application layer
The application layer enables the user -- human or software -- to interact with the application or network whenever the user elects to read messages, transfer files or perform other network-related tasks. Web browsers and other internet-connected apps, such as Outlook and Skype, use Layer 7 application protocols.
Layer 6. The presentation layer
The presentation layer translates or formats data for the application layer based on the semantics or syntax the application accepts. This layer also handles the encryption and decryption that the application layer requires.
Layer 5. The session layer
The session layer sets up, coordinates and terminates conversations between applications. Its services include authentication and reconnection after an interruption. This layer determines how long a system will wait for another application to respond. Examples of session layer protocols include X.225 and Zone Information Protocol (ZIP).
Layer 4. The transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for transferring data across a network and provides error-checking mechanisms and data flow controls. It determines how much data to send, where it gets sent and at what rate. TCP within the TCP/IP suite is the best-known example of the transport layer. This is where the communications select TCP port numbers to categorize and organize data transmissions across a network.
Layer 3. The network layer
The primary function of the network layer is to move data into and through other networks. Network layer protocols accomplish this by packaging data with correct network address information, selecting the appropriate network routes and forwarding the packaged data up the stack to the transport layer. From a TCP/IP perspective, this is where IP addresses are applied for routing purposes.
Layer 2. The data-link layer
The data-link , or protocol layer, in a program handles moving data into and out of a physical link in a network. This layer handles problems that occur as a result of bit transmission errors. It ensures that the pace of the data flow doesn't overwhelm the sending and receiving devices. This layer also permits the transmission of data to Layer 3, the network layer, where it's addressed and routed.
The data-link layer can be further divided into two sublayers. The higher layer, which is called logical link control (LLC), is responsible for multiplexing, flow control, acknowledgement and notifying upper layers if transmit/receive (TX/RX) errors occur.
The media access control sublayer is responsible for tracking data frames using MAC addresses of the sending and receiving hardware. It's also responsible for organizing each frame, marking the starting and ending bits and organizing timing regarding when each frame can be sent along the physical layer medium.
Layer 1. The physical layer
The physical layer transports data using electrical, mechanical or procedural interfaces. This layer is responsible for sending computer bits from one device to another along the network. It determines how physical connections to the network are set up and how bits are represented into predictable signals as they're transmitted either electrically, optically or via radio waves.
Cross-layer functions
Cross-layer functions, or services that may affect more than one layer, include the following:
security service telecommunication as defined by the International Telecommunication Union Standardization Sector (ITU-T) X.800 recommendation;
management functions that enable the configuration, instantiation, monitoring and terminating of the communications of two or more entities;
Multiprotocol Label Switching ( MPLS ), which operates at an OSI model layer that lies between the Layer 2 data-link layer and the Layer 3 network layer -- MPLS can carry a variety of traffic, including Ethernet frames and IP packets;
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) translates IPv4 addresses (OSI Layer 3) into Ethernet MAC addresses (OSI Layer 2); and
domain name system (DNS), which is an application layer service that's used to look up the IP address of a domain name.
Pros and cons of the OSI model
The OSI model has a number of advantages, including the following:
It's considered a standard model in computer networking.
The model supports connectionless , as well as connection-oriented, services. Users can take advantage of connectionless services when they need faster data transmissions over the internet and the connection-oriented model when they're looking for reliability.
It has the flexibility to adapt to many protocols.
The model is more adaptable and secure than having all services bundled in one layer.
The disadvantages of the OSI model include the following:
It doesn't define any particular protocol.
The session layer, which is used for session management, and the presentation layer, which deals with user interaction, aren't as useful as other layers in the OSI model.
Some services are duplicated at various layers, such as the transport and data-link layers.
Layers can't work in parallel; each layer must wait to receive data from the previous layer.
OSI model vs. TCP/IP model
The OSI reference model describes the functions of a telecommunication or networking system, while TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP and OSI are the most broadly used networking models for communication.
The OSI and TCP/IP models have similarities and differences. The main similarity is in their construction, as both use layers, although the OSI model consists of seven layers, while TCP/IP consists of just four layers.
Another similarity is that the upper layer for each model is the application layer, which performs the same tasks in each model but may vary according to the information each receives.
The functions performed in each model are also similar because each uses a network and transport layer to operate. The OSI and TCP/IP model are mostly used to transmit data packets, although they each use different means and paths to reach their destinations.
Additional similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP models include the following:
Both are logical models.
Both define standards for networking.
They each divide the network communication process in layers.
Both provide frameworks for creating and implementing networking standards and devices.
They enable one manufacturer to make devices and network components that can coexist and work with the devices and components made by other manufacturers.
Both divide complex functions into simpler components.
Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models include the following:
OSI uses three layers -- application, presentation and session -- to define the functionality of upper layers, while TCP/IP uses only the application layer.
OSI uses two separate layers -- physical and data-link -- to define the functionality of the bottom layers, while TCP/IP uses only the link layer.
OSI uses the network layer to define the routing standards and protocols, while TCP/IP uses the internet layer.
Next: Explore 12 common network protocols all network engineers should know here .
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Our travels through the OSI seven layers of networking have shown that each layer has specific weaknesses and angles of attack. In turn, each has its best defenses. Now, we’ve come to the OSI presentation layer. Here translation, encryption and compression all happen.
What Is the Presentation Layer?
The simplest way to describe the OSI presentation layer is as follows: it is where machine-readable code gets processed into something the end user can use later in the application layer. This layer is where formatting, conversion and encryption happen. Without it, unless you’re a developer, you likely won’t know what you’re looking at.
Attacks and Threats
If you are using an HTTPS website, encryption would happen at the presentation layer. That means getting your encryption right matters here. Therefore threat actors look for exploits in encryption flaws within the OSI presentation layer. One of the most common tactics is SSL hijacking or sniffing.
Like we said in previous entries, man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks are one of the go-to moves for threat actors. In conjunction with malware, SSL hijacking can be damaging at the OSI presentation layer. If an attacker has already installed malware on a machine, the MitM would use a proxy to serve as an untrusted certificate authority. If this is the case, the browser will trust the wrong certificate authority and now the attacker will be able to read all messages. For this reason, it is important that your antivirus is up to date and you are doing what you can to stop malware from entering your devices.
As mentioned in the previous piece on the session layer , attackers will take advantage of bad coding practices . That’s true at this layer as well. Keep this in mind when you choose and add software into your enterprise.
The Journey Through the OSI Seven-Layer Model
We’re almost done with the journey through the OSI seven-layer model. After the OSI presentation layer, we’ll look at the application layer. By far, this is where the widest range of attacks and breaches can occur. Therefore, it’s very important to understand.
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COMMENTS
Presentation Layer in OSI model
Introduction : Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a data translator for the network. ... The transport layer, or layer 4 of the OSI model, controls network traffic between hosts and end systems to guarantee full data flows ...
Layer 6 Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is the lowest layer at which application programmers consider data structure and presentation, instead of simply sending data in the form of datagrams or packets between hosts. This layer deals with issues of string representation - whether they use the Pascal method (an integer length field followed by the specified ...
The OSI Model
The Session Layer initiates, maintains, and terminates connections between two end-user applications. It responds to requests from the presentation layer and issues requests to the transport layer. OSI Layer 6. Layer 6 is the presentation layer. This layer is responsible for data formatting, such as character encoding and conversions, and data ...
Presentation layer
The presentation layer ensures the information that the application layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system. On the sending system it is responsible for conversion to standard, transmittable formats. [7] On the receiving system it is responsible for the translation, formatting, and delivery of ...
Presentation Layer of the OSI Model
Session layer: Fifth layer which controls the connections between computers. Presentation layer: ... Presentation layer: primarily responsible for managing protocol and architecture ;
What is presentation layer?
The presentation layer resides at Layer 6 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model and ensures that communications that pass through it are in the appropriate form for the recipient application. In other words, the presentation layer presents the data in a readable format from an application layer perspective.
Chapter 10
The presentation layer contains the components that implement and display the user interface and manage user interaction. This layer includes controls for user input and display, in addition to components that organize user interaction. Figure 1 shows how the presentation layer fits into a common application architecture.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer controls the presentation or formatting of the data content. At this point in the OSI model, there is no data communication per se. The focus of this layer is having a common ground to present data between applications. For example, let's take image files. Billions of image files are transferred every day.
The TCP/IP Guide
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) The presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI Reference Model protocol stack, and second from the top. It is different from the other layers in two key respects. First, it has a much more limited and specific function than the other layers; it's actually somewhat easy to describe, hurray! Second, it is used ...
The OSI Model
Instead, the session layer controls dialog between two networked devices. It is considered to facilitate host-to-host communication. Sessions dialog may be controlled through synchronization checkpoints, and through management of communication modes. There are two modes of communication permitted at Layer 5: ... Layer 6: presentation layer.
Presentation Layer in OSI Model
The presentation layer is the 6 th layer from the bottom in the OSI model. This layer presents the incoming data from the application layer of the sender machine to the receiver machine. It converts one format of data to another format of data if both sender and receiver understand different formats; hence this layer is also called the ...
The OSI Model's 7 Layers Explained
This layer ensures that sessions are maintained for the duration of the communication. Coordination: The Session Layer coordinates communication between systems, managing dialogues and synchronizing data exchange. Layer 4: Transport Layer. Data segmentation and control: The Transport Layer is crucial for segmenting data into smaller packets. It ...
The OSI Model & The 7 Layers Explained
The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session or connection between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer 5. ... Session layer services also include authentication and reconnections. Presentation Layer. The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the ...
The 7 OSI Networking Layers Explained
Data Link Layer. Network Layer. Transport Layer. Session Layer. Presentation Layer. Application Layer. Summary. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking model defines a conceptual framework for communications between computer systems. The model is an ISO standard which identifies seven fundamental networking layers, from the physical ...
PDF 13 OSI Presentation and Application Layers
13. ion LayersPaul D. BartoliI. IntroductionThis chapter discusses the Application and Presentation Layers of the Reference Model. of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) [1]. The Applica tion and Presentation Layers perform functions necessary to exchange information between application processes; the Application Layer is con cerned with the ...
What is OSI Model?
Presentation Layer - Layer 6 . The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. ... The transport layer, or layer 4 of the OSI model, controls network traffic between hosts and end systems to guarantee ...
The OSI Model Layers from Physical to Application
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in layers, with control passed from one layer to the next. It is primarily used today as a teaching tool. It conceptually divides computer network architecture into 7 layers in a logical progression. The lower layers deal with electrical signals ...
Difference between presentation layer and user-interface
Presentation layer is term in the taxonomy of code and associated resources. User Interface is the implementation of the intended User Experience in terms of page layout, page transitions and page control elements. (I am using "page" loosely here - you can replace it with "form" or "window").
What is the OSI model? The 7 layers of OSI explained
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol suite, for example, is the most widely used network protocol, but even it doesn't map cleanly to the OSI model. History of the OSI model. In the 1970s, technology researchers began examining how computer systems could best communicate with each other. ... The presentation layer.
The OSI Model and You Part 6: Stopping Threats at the OSI Presentation
The OSI Model and You Part 6: Stopping Threats at the OSI Presentation Layer. Our travels through the OSI seven layers of networking have shown that each layer has specific weaknesses and angles ...
What is the OSI Model?
The OSI Model can be seen as a universal language for computer networking. It is based on the concept of splitting up a communication system into seven abstract layers, each one stacked upon the last. Each layer of the OSI Model handles a specific job and communicates with the layers above and below itself. DDoS attacks target specific layers ...
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Introduction : Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a data translator for the network. ... The transport layer, or layer 4 of the OSI model, controls network traffic between hosts and end systems to guarantee full data flows ...
The presentation layer is the lowest layer at which application programmers consider data structure and presentation, instead of simply sending data in the form of datagrams or packets between hosts. This layer deals with issues of string representation - whether they use the Pascal method (an integer length field followed by the specified ...
The Session Layer initiates, maintains, and terminates connections between two end-user applications. It responds to requests from the presentation layer and issues requests to the transport layer. OSI Layer 6. Layer 6 is the presentation layer. This layer is responsible for data formatting, such as character encoding and conversions, and data ...
The presentation layer ensures the information that the application layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system. On the sending system it is responsible for conversion to standard, transmittable formats. [7] On the receiving system it is responsible for the translation, formatting, and delivery of ...
Session layer: Fifth layer which controls the connections between computers. Presentation layer: ... Presentation layer: primarily responsible for managing protocol and architecture ;
The presentation layer resides at Layer 6 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model and ensures that communications that pass through it are in the appropriate form for the recipient application. In other words, the presentation layer presents the data in a readable format from an application layer perspective.
The presentation layer contains the components that implement and display the user interface and manage user interaction. This layer includes controls for user input and display, in addition to components that organize user interaction. Figure 1 shows how the presentation layer fits into a common application architecture.
The presentation layer controls the presentation or formatting of the data content. At this point in the OSI model, there is no data communication per se. The focus of this layer is having a common ground to present data between applications. For example, let's take image files. Billions of image files are transferred every day.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) The presentation layer is the sixth layer of the OSI Reference Model protocol stack, and second from the top. It is different from the other layers in two key respects. First, it has a much more limited and specific function than the other layers; it's actually somewhat easy to describe, hurray! Second, it is used ...
Instead, the session layer controls dialog between two networked devices. It is considered to facilitate host-to-host communication. Sessions dialog may be controlled through synchronization checkpoints, and through management of communication modes. There are two modes of communication permitted at Layer 5: ... Layer 6: presentation layer.
The presentation layer is the 6 th layer from the bottom in the OSI model. This layer presents the incoming data from the application layer of the sender machine to the receiver machine. It converts one format of data to another format of data if both sender and receiver understand different formats; hence this layer is also called the ...
This layer ensures that sessions are maintained for the duration of the communication. Coordination: The Session Layer coordinates communication between systems, managing dialogues and synchronizing data exchange. Layer 4: Transport Layer. Data segmentation and control: The Transport Layer is crucial for segmenting data into smaller packets. It ...
The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session or connection between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer 5. ... Session layer services also include authentication and reconnections. Presentation Layer. The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the ...
Data Link Layer. Network Layer. Transport Layer. Session Layer. Presentation Layer. Application Layer. Summary. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking model defines a conceptual framework for communications between computer systems. The model is an ISO standard which identifies seven fundamental networking layers, from the physical ...
13. ion LayersPaul D. BartoliI. IntroductionThis chapter discusses the Application and Presentation Layers of the Reference Model. of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) [1]. The Applica tion and Presentation Layers perform functions necessary to exchange information between application processes; the Application Layer is con cerned with the ...
Presentation Layer - Layer 6 . The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. ... The transport layer, or layer 4 of the OSI model, controls network traffic between hosts and end systems to guarantee ...
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to implement protocols in layers, with control passed from one layer to the next. It is primarily used today as a teaching tool. It conceptually divides computer network architecture into 7 layers in a logical progression. The lower layers deal with electrical signals ...
Presentation layer is term in the taxonomy of code and associated resources. User Interface is the implementation of the intended User Experience in terms of page layout, page transitions and page control elements. (I am using "page" loosely here - you can replace it with "form" or "window").
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol suite, for example, is the most widely used network protocol, but even it doesn't map cleanly to the OSI model. History of the OSI model. In the 1970s, technology researchers began examining how computer systems could best communicate with each other. ... The presentation layer.
The OSI Model and You Part 6: Stopping Threats at the OSI Presentation Layer. Our travels through the OSI seven layers of networking have shown that each layer has specific weaknesses and angles ...
The OSI Model can be seen as a universal language for computer networking. It is based on the concept of splitting up a communication system into seven abstract layers, each one stacked upon the last. Each layer of the OSI Model handles a specific job and communicates with the layers above and below itself. DDoS attacks target specific layers ...