performance management and problem solving

Problem Solving: 40 Useful Performance Feedback Phrases

Problem Solving: Use these sample phrases to craft meaningful performance evaluations, drive change and motivate your workforce.

Problem Solving is the skill of defining a problem to determine its cause, identify it, prioritize and select alternative solutions to implement in solving the problems and reviving relationships.

Problem Solving: Exceeds Expectations Phrases

Actively listens when others are talking and seek clarification on issues not well understood.
Seeks to brainstorm on problems to try to find the right solutions.
Evaluates all possible solutions and chooses the one that will deliver the best results.
Knows how well to collaborate with others to find solutions to problems.
Knows how to resolve any outstanding client issues and problems amicably.
Communicates views and thoughts in a very distinct and understandable manner.
Is decisive when it comes to making decisions and sticks by the decisions made.
Gathers all the necessary facts and information first before making any decision.
Monitors all outcomes of all actions undertaken to take full responsibility for any problem.
Breaks a problem down before starting to analyze it in a more detailed manner.

Problem Solving: Meets Expectations Phrases

Is always open-minded and readily accepts what others have to contribute.
Has an inquisitive nature and tries to analyze all that is happening around.
Always asks the right questions and raises any relevant issue when necessary.
Keeps things calm even when required to make quick decisions under high pressure.
Communicates or articulates issues in an obvious and concise way that people can easily understand.
Shows strong level-headedness when assessing situations and coming up with solutions.
Tries to be accommodative of other people's views and accepts them easily.
Always portrays enough knowledge of the problem and its feasible solutions.
Shows the willingness to change tact whenever the conditions change.
Creates opportunities to evaluate and implement the decisions that are arrived at properly.

Problem Solving: Needs Improvement Phrases

Not willing to be accommodative of other people's ideas and opinions.
Does not know how to present a problem in ways that people can understand.
Finds it difficult to articulate issues in a clear and understandable manner.
Not decisive and assertive when it comes to coming up with solutions.
Does not take the time to listen keenly to what others have to say or contribute.
Always in a hurry to make decisions and does not think things through.
Does not always monitor the decisions made to ensure that they have a positive impact.
When faced with a high-pressure problem, does not maintain a cool head to be able to solve it properly.
Not willing to collaborate with other people to come up with solutions to problems.
Does not manage client-related issues in a professional manner and customers are left unsatisfied.

Problem Solving: Self Evaluation Questions

How well do you solve issues and are you confident in your abilities?
Give an instance you solved a problem, and it was successful.
Give a situation that you solved a problem, and it was unsuccessful.
How well do you accommodate other people ideas and opinions when trying to solve a problem?
How do you manage high-pressure situations that require fast and urgent attention?
Do you involve other people when trying to solve any particular problem?
How well do you brainstorm before setting out to solve a problem?
Do you research well enough to get proper facts and information?
Are you in most cases conversant with what the problem is before you solve it?
How well are you keen on everything that is happening around you?

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3 ways to solve your performance management problems

Jump to section

What is performance management?

4 phases of performance management

3 benefits of a performance management system

3 common pitfalls of performance management systems.

11 key elements to an effective performance management program

Every company wants to succeed. And at its heart, that means tapping into your employees’ fullest potential .

But empowering employee success and high performance can be harder than it seems. Every employee is their own whole person . And so when it comes to performance, there’s no one-size-fits-all approach.

Performance management is more than just a line of communication between a manager and their employees. It’s more than an annual performance review, too.

Performance management can be a tricky process to navigate. In this article, you’ll learn how to implement a successful performance strategy. And you'll learn why the annual performance review has become a thing of the past.

What is performance management?

For years, companies have talked about performance ratings. It’s only until recently performance management bled into talks with HR folks.

Performance management is a set of processes and systems to develop employees. These systems, processes, and lines of communication help focus on strategy. At its heart, performance management is about helping employees perform at their best.

Traditionally, companies relied on performance ratings. As research has shown, humans are bad at accurately “rating” employee performance. It was largely a system that put the power in the hands of the manager. As Harvard Business Review reports , it was a highly flawed system.

Performance management emerged as a way to remedy the broken performance rating process. Different performance management strategies and systems are developed with employees at the center.

In today’s workforce, performance management has become a non-negotiable for many companies. And yet, performance management is still largely regarded as a “work in progress” for many HR professionals.

The 4 phases of performance management

Performance management moves through a cycle. At its foundation, performance management is built on strong communication , feedback, and a culture of trust . While performance management looks different at every company, we generally see this process move through four phases .

1. Planning

This first phase is around expectation-setting for employees. This starts with employees clearly understanding roles, responsibilities , and expectations. Oftentimes, this first starts with the job description. It’s important for the job description to accurately reflect (as much as possible) what the employee will be doing.

But this phase also includes connecting dots to larger organizational initiatives. Consider the ways this role connects to your company’s larger goals.

It’s also important to include the employee in this planning phase. That means that as a people manager , you should work together to create a plan. This includes outlining tasks, deliverables, and how work will be measured.

It’s also important to factor in learning and development in the planning process. In what ways will you help create learning opportunities? What training or upskilling can help the employee grow?

2. Assessing (or reviewing)

Long are the days where career development is only talked about once a year.

At BetterUp, we factor career conversations into our regular one-on-one meetings on a monthly basis. It’s important touchpoints between an employee and their manager.

These deliverables can be reviewed in regular one-on-one meetings. Tracking progress doesn’t need to wait until an annual performance review (and nor will that set up the employee for success).

As a manager, it’s important to stay close to how progress is being made — and provide support where needed. To be able to provide that support, you need to be attuned to how your employee is progressing towards their goals.

Carve some time in your regular meetings to assess or review. This phase of the performance management process is integral to ensuring you’re setting up your employees for success.

3. Coaching

This third phase of performance management is critical to success. As humans, asking for and receiving feedback can be sensitive. In fact, 360-degree feedback can actually empower your employees to tap into their full potential.

But beyond feedback, we all need coaching.

In this phase, managers should identify any barriers the employee may face in reaching their objectives. It’s also critically important for open lines of feedback to be fostered in the form of coaching .

Without coaching, the employee is likely not going to know how to best allocate their time and resources effectively. But it’s also a great opportunity to ask for feedback from your employees . Feedback isn’t a one-way street.

If your organization needs help in fostering a culture of feedback, BetterUp can help. Pairing employees one-on-one with a coach has tremendous benefits. Of the people who start out stuck, 77% will significantly improve their mental fitness in just a few months with personalized support.

4. Rewarding

This last and final phase of performance management is centered around recognition.

Employee recognition can come in all shapes and sizes. And it doesn’t need to be reserved for the annual performance review. In fact, quite the opposite. Recognition can be used as an employee retention lever. When employees are recognized and rewarded for their work, they’re more likely to stay committed to the organization.

Throughout their tenure, managers should make sure reward and recognition are built into their habits. This can be as simple as a Slack message recognizing an employee for their hard work. Or it could be something more in-depth, like a gift, a card, or a shout-out in a big team meeting.

And, of course, when performance reviews do come around, factor in this rewarding phase. An employee who exceeds expectations should be rewarded. Sometimes, that will be a promotion and praise. Other times, it might be extended time off or even a merit increase .

performance-management-woman-talking-to-colleague

A performance management system can help capture and streamline all key components. Here are three benefits to implementing a performance management system.

Capturing data and analytics

Performance management software (PMS) can help with capturing data. With the right system, your organization can gain insights into things like employee engagement and key metrics.

Insights into this data can help identify problems earlier rather than later. It can also help see where certain teams or managers are excelling. It might offer up opportunities for those who are doing well to share what’s working.

A place for feedback

Some performance management systems are also feedback tools . Feedback — while it might sound scary — isn’t always critical.

For example, some software systems promote ways to recognize and give positive feedback to peers or colleagues. Try these positive feedback examples for a start. You can also leverage tools for more constructive feedback .

Goal-setting

You might’ve heard the phrase, “You’re more likely to achieve your goals if you write them down.”

First, there’s science to back that up . Second, a performance management system can help with that. Consider how you can use a performance management system for goal-setting. It can be helpful for visibility across teams and workstreams. By making goals clear, easily findable, and visible, you can set your teams up for success.

Examples of performance review systems

There are a lot of performance management systems to choose from. And, the truth is, as company leaders, you’ll know what’s best for your organization.

We recommend consulting with peers, colleagues, and other organizations to see what works for them. It’s always a good idea to ask for recommendations and referrals from your network .

Here are the top two rated performance management systems from Trust Radius .

Cornerstone OnDemand
Ceridian Dayforce

Like any other system, performance management comes with its pros and cons. Talk to any HR leader and you’ll quickly understand why performance management has pitfalls.

Here are three common pitfalls of performance management — and how your organization can overcome them.

Lack of strategy or focus

Problem. Performance management is adopted into your organization. But there’s a lack of strategy or focus around how it’ll be used. Or, if there is a strategy, it isn’t widely communicated and clearly understood by employees. This leaves your workforce confused, unsure of how to meet their goals, or potentially unsure of what the goals are in the first place.

Solution. Your organization should outline what performance management will look like for your employees. This dials into every aspect of their employee experience . It’s also important to have structured communication and training, especially if new software is introduced.

Clearly communicate strategy, goals, and systems. Reiterate and communicate them often. Make sure managers are trained on their role in performance management. Ask your managers how you can support them in this new performance management strategy.

Lack of accountability

Problem. Your organization might adopt a performance management system. You might implement the system. But maybe you fail to communicate the details or ask managers for their support.

But there’s no clear owner. There’s a lack of commitment from leadership to adopt the system at the highest level. How are managers going to adopt the new performance management system if leaders aren’t using it?

Solution. Your entire leadership team needs to lead by example . Without their buy-in, it’s likely their respective teams won’t adopt the system. Clearly communicate the reason behind the new performance management system. Ensure leaders clearly understand their respective roles and responsibilities.

And make sure there’s a clear owner. Hold your leaders accountable for leveraging the new strategy. Without accountability , you won’t see your desired results.

Lack of feedback

Problem. Timely feedback is a massive challenge in performance management. Managers and employees alike are often scared of feedback. It can be scary to hear what you or your team needs to change. It can also be difficult to build trust to allow for open feedback between teams.

But without feedback, your employees aren’t reaching their full potential. You know that you need to create a culture of feedback where employees feel safe, valued, and heard.

Solution. Encourage employees to give upward feedback . Make sure employees understand the role of feedback in performance management. Train managers on how to effectively ask for and receive feedback.

Consider ways personalized coaching can help build a culture of trust in your organization. We know feedback is hard. But it’s not impossible. And without it, your performance management system won’t be effective.

11 key elements of an effective performance management program

More and more organizations are adopting performance management strategies and systems. But it’s important to understand the state of performance management today. Performance management requires different elements to soothe and nurture a thriving workforce.

Accuracy and fairness (as little subjectivity as possible)
Efficient and effective
Foster development and learning
Encourage open feedback
Capture and analyze metrics
Create a culture of responsibility
Empower employee development (including development opportunities)
Offer regular check-ins
Empower employee engagement
Reward good performance
Ability to set individual goals and company goals

Start enabling your employees’ performance

You might be looking to enhance performance reviews. You might be looking for some good performance review questions to help prompt career development. Or maybe you want to take career development to the next level . Consider the role of performance development and performance management.

Your human resources team should be deeply embedded in the performance management process. Work with your HR leaders to implement a performance management program that works for your organization.

The performance management cycle can be a tricky one. The standalone annual review process is long outdated. There are plenty of performance management tools to help reach performance standards.

From onboarding new employees to nurturing tenured veterans, individual performance matters. Consider ways you can take performance evaluation to the next level.

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Develop your leadership and strategic management skills with the help of an expert Coach.

Madeline Miles

Madeline is a writer, communicator, and storyteller who is passionate about using words to help drive positive change. She holds a bachelor's in English Creative Writing and Communication Studies and lives in Denver, Colorado. In her spare time, she's usually somewhere outside (preferably in the mountains) — and enjoys poetry and fiction.

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Performance management process

performance management and problem solving

Ivan Andreev

Demand Generation & Capture Strategist

ivan.andreev@valamis.com

February 3, 2020 · updated April 2, 2024

6 minute read

What is the performance management process?

1. planning, 2. coaching, 3. reviewing.

The performance management process is a collaborative, communication-based process where employees and management work together to plan, monitor and review the employee’s objectives, long-term goals, job trajectory and comprehensive contribution to the company.

This process is continual, with regular sessions where both management and employees have the opportunity to give and receive feedback.

According to the Gallup State of the American Workplace study , only 22% of employees are engaged and thriving . Employees who are engaged and thriving are more likely to maintain strong work performance, even during difficult times. This also means that 78% of the workforce could do better work if only their organization had the right type of management process .

Some reasons cited in this study for lack of motivation are seeing less deserving employees receive promotions, lack of actionable feedback, and management not involving employees in goal setting. All of these taken together show the importance of the performance management process, and why each part of it must be done well for the process as a whole to succeed.

The performance management process, when done correctly, is designed to fix those problems in the workplace, setting employees up for success in achieving both their goals and overall company objectives.

Performance management process steps

The steps in the performance management process can be broken down into four broad categories: Planning, coaching, reviewing and rewarding. Each step is equally important, and together form the backbone of a company’s performance management process.

The first step of the performance management process is Planning .

1.1 The defining stage

The performance management process begins with the planning stage.

HR and management need to define the job itself, including a comprehensive description, long and short-term goals, identify key objectives and develop a clear metric for how those objectives and goals will be assessed.

Goals should be clear, done in the SMART format (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, time-based) and clear performance standards should be set.

1.2 The feedback stage

Once management has completed the defining stage, employees should have the opportunity to give input on this material. They are the one doing their job and will have a key insight into what skills, competencies and goals will best assist the company to achieve organizational goals.

1.3 The approval stage

Management and employees both agree to the definition of the role, goals and objectives.

By making this first step of the performance management process collaborative, management sets the stage for the process as a whole to be collaborative, and the employee feels that they are involved in goal setting – an important thing, as evidenced by the Gallup study.

2.1 Organize meetings on a timely, regular basis

Once the parameters of the job and objectives for the future have been set, the next step of the performance management process begins.

The coaching process is extremely important and must be done on a regular basis. Meetings should be at least quarterly, although monthly meetings are the ideal.

2.2 Provide necessary training, coaching and solutions

These meetings should focus on solutions and coaching opportunities, rather than punitive measures for lackluster performance.

If accountability is made into a negative, then employees will avoid it rather than being honest about where they are struggling.

In some cases, management training in this area can be very helpful to an organization.

2.3 Solicit feedback on both sides

Management should be able to give – and receive – honest feedback and work with employees rather than adopting a combative stance. The ability to give actionable feedback is important here.

2.4 Revisit objectives as necessary

As the performance management process continues, management should revisit objectives to see if adjustments should be made, as well as pay attention to career development opportunities for their employees.

This step involves reviewing the overall performance of the employee, how well the process itself worked, and it also includes the reward – which is an extremely important part of the overall process.

3.1 Reviewing employee performance

At the end of the yearly performance management cycle , there should be an employee review, which is sometimes also called a performance appraisal. Typically, these are held once a year, to look at how well the employee performed over that span of time.

There should be a clear record from previous check-ins to show the employee’s progress throughout the year. The monthly check-ins are to help the employee with problem-solving, adjusting goals and other future-looking tasks. This performance review is the only step that looks backward, to assess the behavior of the past year.

3.2 Reviewing the performance management process

At this stage, it is important for both management and employees to look over the previous year and see how well the performance management process worked.

Questions that can be asked are:

Were personal and organizational objectives met? If not, why?
What challenges did the employee face?
What training would help the employee perform better?
How did management feedback help? If not, why?
How could the process be made better?
Was the time spent on this process effectively?

3.3 Reviewing overall goal completion

Of course, one of the main questions to answer is ‘did the employee reach their goals?’ How well did the employee succeed at the tasks given to them throughout the year?

It is important to look at both smaller and larger goals, as this can give an indication to problem areas where training or interventions can be applied.

3.4 Giving actionable feedback

A key part of the review is to give and receive feedback.

Management should give actionable feedback for the employee so that they know areas where they can improve future performance.

The employee should also be invited to give feedback on the process, and how management can do better on their end.

The last step in performance management process is Action .

4.1 Reward and recognition

The last step of the performance management process is the reward and recognition.

This step is absolutely key – employees will not stay motivated if they are given no reason to. This does not necessarily have to be monetary, although it likely will include monetary compensation. Other rewards could be new projects, company-wide recognition, time off, or leadership opportunities.

4.2 Setting the stage for next year’s performance management cycle

The end of the performance management cycle gives management and employees one last chance to offer feedback on the process as a whole and asks for thoughts and feedback for the planning stage for the next year’s cycle.

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Strategic Performance Management pp 93–108 Cite as

Problem-Solving and Performance Management Tools

Marc Helmold ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9759-9002 2
First Online: 29 April 2022

1971 Accesses

Part of the book series: Management for Professionals ((MANAGPROF))

Problem-solving consists of using generic or ad hoc methods in an orderly manner to find solutions to problems. Some of the problem-solving techniques developed and used in philosophy, artificial intelligence, computer science, engineering, mathematics, medicine, and societies in general are related to mental problem-solving techniques studied in psychology and cognitive sciences (Helmold, 2021). The term problem-solving has a slightly different meaning depending on the discipline. For instance, it is a mental process in psychology and a computerized process in computer science. There are two different types of problems: ill-defined and well-defined; different approaches are used for each. Well-defined problems have specific end goals and clearly expected solutions, while ill-defined problems do not. Well-defined problems allow for more initial planning than ill-defined problems. Solving problems sometimes involves dealing with pragmatics, the way that context contributes to meaning, and semantics, the interpretation of the problem. The ability to understand what the end goal of the problem is, and what rules could be applied, represents the key to solving the problem. Sometimes the problem requires abstract thinking or coming up with a creative solution.

The quality, not the longevity, of one’s life is what is important. Martin Luther King

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Ultimate Guide to Performance Management: Definition, Purpose, Steps & Benefits

Ever felt like your organization’s performance management strategies are falling flat? Are your team members disengaged?

We’re here to help you turn those performance management woes into wins. Whether you’re a seasoned manager or starting, we’ve got you covered.

What is performance management?

Performance management is an organizational tool that helps managers track and evaluate employees’ work. The goal of performance management is to create an environment where people can perform to the best of their abilities and produce the highest-quality work most efficiently and effectively.

It is an ongoing, continuous process of communicating and clarifying job responsibilities, priorities, performance expectations, and development planning that optimize an individual’s performance and align with organizational strategic goals.

Why is performance management important?

You cannot stay in the game without effective performance management. First off, it gives everyone a clear picture of what’s expected of them and how their work ties into the bigger organizational goals. Imagine how much smoother things run when everyone knows their role and what they’re working towards!

Another biggie is the regular feedback and communication it encourages. Managers and employees get these helpful chats and reviews, which can be a game-changer for employee development and motivation. Fun fact: Gallup found that folks who get regular feedback are more productive . That’s pretty significant!

And don’t forget the data side of things. Performance management helps organizations make smarter decisions by tracking and analyzing performance metrics. Plus, there are cool tech tools like AI and analytics that are shaking things up in this space, making evaluations more accurate and helping us keep tabs on performance in real time.

So, in today’s fast-paced business world, nailing performance management isn’t just nice—it’s essential for staying competitive and achieving long-term success.

Steps in the continuous performance management cycle

Step 1: planning.

So, when it comes to continuous performance management, the first step is all about getting your ducks in a row. Think of it as setting the stage for a great performance. Here’s how to do it:

1. Define clear expectations

Start by sitting down with your team members and clearly lay out what you expect from them. This could be their job responsibilities, specific targets they should hit, or projects they need to complete. Make sure these expectations align with the big picture, your company’s goals.

2. Establish SMART goals

Encourage your team to set SMART goals – Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. This helps break down those big goals into bite-sized pieces. It’s like planning a road trip with clear milestones along the way.

3. Develop IDPs (Individual Development Plans)

Take the time to chat with each team member about their career aspirations and areas where they want to improve. Create Individual Development Plans (IDPs) that outline their personal growth journey. This shows you care about their professional development and helps them see the bigger picture.

4. Schedule regular check-ins

Set up regular one-on-one meetings with your team members. These can be as frequent as needed – weekly, bi-weekly, or monthly. During these chats, discuss their goals, progress, and any challenges they might face. It’s your chance to provide support and guidance.

Step 2: Monitoring

Once the groundwork is laid, it’s time to roll up your sleeves and start actively managing performance. Here’s how to do that effectively:

1. Collect ongoing feedback

During your check-ins, make sure to keep the lines of communication open. Give feedback regularly, and more importantly, be ready to listen. This helps identify issues early on and keeps everyone on the same page.

2. Document performance data

It’s crucial to keep good records. Document achievements, areas where improvements are needed, and any action plans you’ve agreed upon. This paperwork comes in handy when it’s time for performance evaluations, and it also helps track progress.

3. Recognize and reward achievements

Don’t forget to celebrate the wins. When someone meets or exceeds their goals, acknowledge their hard work and success. This positive reinforcement keeps people motivated and reminds them that their efforts matter.

4. Address performance gaps promptly

If you notice any performance issues or gaps, tackle them head-on and constructively. The focus should always be finding solutions and helping your team members develop. Collaborate with them to create action plans for improvement .

5. Adjust goals and plans as needed

Remember, things change, and so should your plans if necessary. Be flexible and ready to adjust goals and priorities as circumstances evolve. This way, you ensure that your team stays focused on what truly matters for the company.

Step 3: Developing

Alright, so we’ve got the planning and monitoring parts down. Now, let’s talk about the juicy stuff – development. This step is all about helping your team grow and become better versions of themselves. Here’s how you can do it:

1. Provide ongoing coaching

Think of yourself as a coach on the sidelines. Encourage your team members to explore their potential and offer guidance along the way. Share your expertise, suggest resources, and be there to answer questions. It’s like being their mentor.

2. Offer learning opportunities

Help your team access training, workshops, or courses that can boost their skills. Whether it’s a coding boot camp, leadership seminars, or public speaking classes, investing in your team’s development pays off big time. It’s like giving them the tools to build their superhero arsenal.

3. Foster a growth mindset

Encourage a culture of continuous learning and improvement. Praise effort and resilience rather than just results. This mindset shift can do wonders for morale and motivation. Imagine everyone on your team thinking, “I may not be there yet, but I’m getting closer every day.”

4. Set up mentorship programs

Pair experienced employees with those looking to grow in specific areas. Mentorship can be a game-changer. It’s like having a wise Yoda guiding a Padawan to Jedi mastery. Your more experienced team members can share their knowledge and offer valuable insights.

5. Create stretch assignments

Challenge your team with projects or tasks slightly beyond their current abilities. This pushes them out of their comfort zones and encourages growth. It’s like leveling up in a video game; you face tougher challenges, but you also gain more skills.

Step 4: Rating and rewarding

Now, let’s talk about the final act – rating and rewarding. This is where you acknowledge and celebrate your team’s achievements. Here’s how to do it right:

1. Conduct fair evaluations

When it’s time for performance evaluations, be fair and objective. Use the data you’ve collected over time to assess each team member’s performance. It’s like being a judge in a talent show, where everyone’s performance gets a fair review.

2. Recognize achievements

Celebrate successes openly. Whether it’s hitting sales targets, completing a major project, or consistently providing top-notch customer service, ensure everyone knows when they’ve done well. It’s like giving out gold stars in school but for grown-ups!

3. Provide constructive feedback

Along with the celebration, offer constructive feedback. Highlight what went right and discuss areas for improvement. This feedback loop is essential for growth. It’s like having a coach analyze a game tape with a sports team.

4. Offer rewards and incentives

Reward your team for their hard work and outstanding performance. It could be bonuses, promotions, extra time off, or even simple things like an “Employee of the Month” parking spot. These incentives keep motivation high and show that you value their efforts.

5. Set new goals

After the celebration, it’s time to look forward. Work with your team to set new goals and objectives for the next performance cycle. Keep the momentum going by focusing on what’s next. It’s like planning the next adventure in a series of epic quests.

Step 5: Refining the process

Alright, folks, we’ve been through the development and rewarding stages, but we’re not quite done yet. The next step is all about refining the process – making it even better for the future. Here’s how you can do it:

1. Reflect and learn

Take a step back and reflect on the entire performance management process. What worked well? What didn’t? Gather feedback from your team about their experience. It’s like reviewing game tape after a match to see what went right and what needs improvement.

2. Identify areas for enhancement

Once you’ve gathered insights, identify areas where the performance management process can be refined. Maybe the communication during check-ins could be more open, or the goal-setting process needs to be more streamlined. It’s like fine-tuning a musical instrument to make it play even sweeter.

3. Update policies and procedures

Based on your insights, update your organization’s policies and procedures related to performance management. Ensure that they align with the evolving needs and goals of your team and the company. It’s like upgrading the game’s rules to make it more exciting and fair.

4. Train and educate

Ensure your team members and managers are well-informed about any changes or improvements in the process. Provide training and resources to help everyone adapt to the refined system. It’s like giving your crew a navigation system for smoother sailing.

5. Implement feedback loops

Establish mechanisms for ongoing feedback on the performance management process itself. Encourage team members to share suggestions for improvement. This keeps the process dynamic and responsive to changing needs. It’s like having a suggestion box where everyone can contribute to making things better.

Step 6: Looping back

Now, we’re at the final step – looping back. It’s not the end; it’s a new beginning. Here’s how you can keep the continuous performance management cycle going:

1. Set new goals

As we did in the earlier stages, set new performance goals for the upcoming cycle. Encourage your team to aim higher and keep pushing their limits. It’s like starting a new chapter in a book, full of new adventures and challenges.

2. Reiterate the process

Remind everyone about the performance management process and the importance of regular check-ins, feedback, and development. It’s like rehearsing for a big performance; you want everyone to be in sync and ready to give their best.

3. Embrace continuous improvement

Keep the mindset of continuous improvement alive within your team and organization. Encourage everyone to learn from their experiences and grow together. It’s like being on a journey where every step is a chance to get better.

4. Celebrate progress

As you go through the cycle again, don’t forget to celebrate progress and achievements. Recognize the hard work and dedication of your team members. It’s like having pit stops during a long road trip to recharge and enjoy the journey.

5. Keep the conversation going

The key to looping back effectively is to keep the conversation going. Maintain open lines of communication, seek feedback, and adapt as needed. It’s like having a never-ending dialogue with your team, always looking for ways to improve and grow together.

Essential features of effective performance management software

An effective performance management software should have several key features to make it a valuable asset for your organization. First off, it should provide a user-friendly interface that’s easy for both employees and managers to navigate.

Next up, it needs to support goal setting and tracking. Goals are essential for driving performance. Recent advancements in performance management software involve AI-powered algorithms that can help set more accurate and achievable goals. These algorithms can analyze historical performance data and recommend goals that align with an individual’s or team’s capabilities.

Feedback and communication tools are also a must. Features like real-time feedback and performance discussions help foster continuous improvement. In fact, a survey by Deloitte found that organizations that use regular check-ins for performance conversations are more likely to outperform their peers .

Lastly, data analytics capabilities are crucial. The software should provide in-depth performance analytics, helping you identify trends, strengths, and areas for improvement. This data-driven approach can lead to more informed decisions.

Recent developments include machine learning to predict performance management trends and identify high-potential employees, adding another layer of sophistication to performance management.

So, when considering performance management software, remember these features to ensure you’re making a smart investment that can help your organization’s productivity and success.

Performance management methods you should avoid

Ineffective performance management processes are a barrier to effective teamwork and goals. See how different ineffective ways can slow your business growth down:

1. Overly narrow, short-term view of performance

It’s like looking at a single puzzle piece and ignoring the big picture. Take the example of sales teams. If you solely judge their performance by monthly sales numbers, it can put a ton of pressure on them. They might resort to questionable tactics or ignore building long-term customer relationships. Eventually, this can harm your brand and long-term growth.

Instead, consider the broader impact. Look beyond immediate metrics and think about how actions today contribute to long-term success. Performance should be evaluated based on how it aligns with your company’s overall vision and values.

2. Using performance management as a tool for evaluation and not development

It’s like giving someone a score without any guidance on how to improve. Imagine a manager who only focuses on pointing out errors during performance reviews. That can be really disheartening for employees, leading to lower motivation and even turnover.

Instead, strike a balance between evaluation and development. Make performance discussions a chance to provide constructive feedback, set achievable goals, and offer support for learning and growth.

3. Not using goal setting and defined milestones

It’s like going on a road trip without a map or GPS. Without clear objectives and checkpoints, your team might feel lost and uncertain about what they’re supposed to achieve.

To avoid this, make sure you have a solid goal-setting process in place. Define SMART goals and regularly check in on these goals during performance discussions to track progress and provide guidance.

4. Lack of clarity in vision and objectives

It’s like driving in thick fog without headlights; you’re bound to get lost. Imagine if your team doesn’t understand the bigger picture, the organization’s overall goals. They might end up working at cross-purposes, wasting valuable time and resources.

To avoid this, ensure your vision and objectives are crystal clear. Communicate them to your team in a way that’s easy to understand.

5. Relying on annual and unfair reviews

It’s like waiting a whole year to tell someone they have spinach stuck in their teeth; it’s embarrassing and not very helpful. If employees feel they’re being judged unfairly or only receive feedback once a year, they’re likely to become disengaged and frustrated.

Instead, opt for more frequent, ongoing feedback. It’s like having a continuous conversation with your team. Regular check-ins allow for real-time feedback, which helps employees make immediate improvements.

6. No well-defined work processes

Imagine trying to bake a cake without a recipe; it could turn into a disaster. If your team doesn’t know how tasks should be completed or the workflow, they might make costly mistakes, miss deadlines, or duplicate efforts.

To avoid this, ensure you have transparent work processes in place. It’s like providing your team with a recipe book. Everyone should know the steps, responsibilities, and deadlines for different tasks.

10 performance management best practices

1. share the bigger picture.

Think of it as showing them the treasure map. When you communicate your company’s vision, goals, and objectives clearly, you’re giving your team a sense of purpose and direction. This practice ensures everyone knows how their work fits into the grand scheme of things.

Example: Imagine you’re leading a team in a company aiming to revolutionize education through technology. When you share this vision with your software development team, they don’t just see coding as lines of text; they see it as a tool to change the world of education. They’re not just writing code; they’re on a mission. That’s what sharing the bigger picture does – it inspires your team to perform at their absolute best.

2. Involve employees in the process

It’s like you’re taking a road trip with your team, and they’re not just passengers – they’re co-pilots. Encourage their active participation. Seek their input, listen to their feedback, and value their insights. When employees have a say in the process, they feel more engaged and accountable.

Example: Picture yourself as a team leader discussing performance goals with your team members. Instead of handing down goals like a decree, you ask for their thoughts and ideas. They share their perspectives, and you work together to set realistic, motivating goals. It’s a collaborative approach that fosters a sense of ownership, making your team more committed to achieving goals with performance management .

3. Use performance management software

Think of it as your trusty sidekick. This software helps you set, track, and evaluate goals, provide feedback, and manage performance data with ease. Performance management software gives you real-time data and insights, which can be a game-changer.

Example: Imagine you’re an HR manager overseeing multiple teams. With the software, you can quickly access performance metrics, spot trends, and pinpoint improvement areas. This not only saves you time but also enables you to provide targeted support to teams and individuals. It’s like having a superpower that allows you to make data-driven decisions and ultimately enhance team performance.

4. Set SMART goals

It’s like putting on your hiking boots before heading out on a challenging trail. SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. SMART goals provide clarity and direction

Example: Imagine you’re a manager, and you’re working with a sales team. Instead of saying, “Let’s increase sales,” you set a SMART goal: “Increase monthly sales in the Eastern region by 10% by the end of Q3.” This goal is specific, you can measure it, it’s achievable, it’s relevant to your company’s growth, and it has a clear time frame. Your team now knows exactly what they need to achieve and by when, making their efforts more focused and effective.

5. Align individual and organizational goals

Think of it as harmonizing a symphony. When individual goals align with the broader organizational goals, it’s like music to everyone’s ears. Alignment ensures that everyone’s efforts contribute to the company’s success.

Example: Suppose you’re the CEO of a software company aiming to become a market leader. To align individual goals, you set targets for each department that support this overarching goal. Your sales team focuses on expanding market share, your development team aims to improve product quality, and your customer support team strives to enhance customer satisfaction. With everyone pulling in the same direction, you’re more likely to achieve your company’s vision.

6. Provide frequent, actionable feedback

Now, this one is like having regular check-ins with your GPS during a long road trip. Frequent, actionable feedback is essential for helping your team stay on course and make real progress. Regular feedback fosters improvement and engagement.

Example: Imagine you’re a manager overseeing a creative team. Instead of waiting for the annual performance review to give feedback, you provide ongoing, specific feedback after each project. You acknowledge what went well and suggest areas for improvement. This approach keeps your team members motivated and continuously learning, as they can apply feedback immediately and see their growth over time.

7. Use multi-rated feedback

Think of this as getting feedback from different angles, like looking at a piece of art from various perspectives. Multi-rated feedback involves gathering input from various sources, including peers, subordinates, and supervisors. This provides a more comprehensive and balanced view of an individual’s performance.

Example: Imagine you’re managing a marketing team, and you’re conducting a performance review for one of your team members. Instead of relying solely on your perspective, you also seek feedback from their colleagues and direct reports. This 360-degree view gives you a more accurate assessment of their strengths and areas for improvement. It can uncover valuable insights that might have been missed otherwise.

8. Provide ongoing development opportunities

Development opportunities are like fuel for employee growth. It’s not just about the destination; it’s about the journey. When you offer continuous learning and development, it’s like providing a roadmap for your team’s career progression. This keeps employees engaged and motivated.

Example: Imagine you’re an HR manager. You regularly offer training sessions, workshops, and mentorship programs to your employees. This approach allows them to acquire new skills and knowledge, empowering them to take on new challenges and responsibilities. When employees see that their growth is a priority, they’re likelier to stay with the company and perform at their best.

9. Train managers to be better leaders and fair evaluators

Managers are the frontline leaders in the performance management process. They need the right tools and skills to lead effectively and fairly. It’s like providing them with a superhero cape to lead their teams. Well-trained managers lead to improved team performance and fairness in evaluations.

Example: Suppose you’re an executive overseeing a large department. You invest in leadership training for your managers, teaching them effective communication, conflict resolution, and performance evaluation techniques. As a result, they can provide constructive feedback, handle conflicts professionally, and ensure that evaluations are fair and consistent across the team. This leads to higher employee morale and a more productive work environment.

10. Foster a culture of open communication

Imagine a workplace where everyone feels comfortable speaking their minds, sharing ideas, and addressing concerns openly. That’s the essence of a culture of open communication. This enhances trust, engagement, and problem-solving. Here’s how it unfolds:

Example: Picture you’re the founder of a startup. You create an environment where employees are encouraged to voice their opinions and ideas. They know their feedback is valued and acted upon. This openness leads to innovation, faster issue resolution, and higher employee satisfaction. When people feel heard, they’re more likely to collaborate and contribute to the company’s success.

The future of performance management

You’ve probably noticed that the way we manage performance in the workplace is undergoing some serious changes .

1. Smoother cross-team collaboration

It’s all about recognizing that a lot of our goals are team efforts, not just individual ones aiming to improve team collaboration ..

Collaboration skills: So, what this means for employees is that they’ll need to get better at working with colleagues from different departments. Those collaboration skills are going to be gold because they directly affect how well they perform.
Shared accountability: Also, performance is getting tied more closely to team outcomes. That means people are not just responsible for their own work but for how their team does as a whole.
Diversity of perspective: Oh, and exposure to diverse perspectives and skills is becoming a big deal. This can lead to better problem-solving and decision-making, which is a win-win for employees and the organization.

2. Adapting to hybrid work

We want to make sure people can be productive and engaged no matter where they’re working.

Self-management: Employees will need to get better at managing their own time and tasks since they have more freedom in a hybrid setup. This is all about taking responsibility for your workday.
Outcome-based performance: We’re shifting focus from how many hours you work to what you’re actually accomplishing. So, it’s more about results and less about clock-watching.
Work-life balance: And don’t forget about work-life balance. In a hybrid world, balancing work and personal life can really affect how well you perform.

3. Regular conversations about performance

Those old annual performance reviews? Well, they’re going out of style. Now, we’re all about having regular chats about how you’re doing. It’s a more flexible and responsive way to manage performance.

Timely course correction: With these regular talks, you can catch and fix issues faster. No more waiting a whole year to address problems.
Development focus: More conversations mean more chances to learn and grow. So, employees get more opportunities to develop their skills and get even better at what they do.
Increased engagement: And guess what? Talking more often with managers and colleagues helps you feel more connected. When you feel part of something, you’re more likely to put in your best effort.

4. Better understanding and focus on employee well-being

You know what’s really cool? There’s a growing awareness that happy, healthy employees are high-performing employees. This means organizations are paying more attention to your well-being.

Work-life balance: Your work-life balance is now a priority. When you’re not overwhelmed by work, you’re more focused and productive.
Mental health support: Organizations are offering better support for mental health. When you’re feeling good mentally, you’re likely to be more engaged and perform better.
Flexible work arrangements: They’re also getting more flexible with work arrangements, like remote performance management work options. This gives you the freedom to work in a way that suits you, which can lead to improved well-being and performance.

5. More focus on employee learning and development

Guess what? Lifelong learning isn’t just a buzzword anymore; it’s becoming a way of life at work.

Skill growth: You’ll have more opportunities to grow your skills. Learning and development programs help you become better at your job, which naturally Boost employee productivity with performance.
Career growth: With a focus on development, you’re more likely to climb the career ladder within your organization. Advancement often goes hand in hand with improved performance.
Adaptability: Learning becomes a habit. You become more adaptable to change, which is crucial in today’s fast-paced work environment.

6. Elimination of annual reviews

Say goodbye to those dreaded once-a-year performance reviews. They’re making way for something better.

Frequent feedback: You’ll get more feedback throughout the year. This helps you stay on track and make improvements in real-time.
Course correction: If you’re heading in the wrong direction, there’s no need to wait a whole year to fix it.
Less stress: No more anxiety leading up to annual reviews. This can help reduce stress and let you focus on doing your best every day.

7. Automation in HR operations

The HR department is getting a digital makeover. Automation is simplifying many HR processes.

Efficiency: HR tasks like leave requests, payroll, and benefits administration are faster and more accurate. Less paperwork means more time for you to focus on your job.
Data-driven decisions: With better data at their fingertips, HR can make smarter decisions. This can lead to improved policies and practices that benefit everyone.
Streamlined onboarding: When you join a new company, onboarding is smoother. You get up to speed faster and become a productive team member sooner.

1. What is the difference between performance management and performance appraisal?

Performance management is a proactive process focusing on the development of an employee to help future performance and meet future goals. Performance appraisal is a reactive process that looks at the employee’s past actions within a set amount of time and rates how well they performed in their role and how many goals they met.

2. What are some common challenges in performance management?

Developing and implementing effective performance management strategies , lack of employee engagement, and time-consuming and bureaucratic processes.

3. What is the difference between performance reviews and appraisals?

Performance reviews are more flexible and informal than appraisals and can be conducted more frequently to provide regular feedback and coaching. Appraisals are more structured and formal and are often used to determine compensation and promotions.

4. How often should performance reviews be conducted?

The most common types of performance reviews are annual and bi-annual. The frequency of these should be determined by the organization’s needs and resources.

5. What are SMART goals?

They are a best practice framework for setting goals that incorporate specific criteria to help focus efforts and increase the chances of achieving the goal. The SMART acronym stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time-bound.

Gaurav Sabharwal

Gaurav is the CEO of JOP (Joy of Performing), an OKR and high-performance enabling platform. With almost two decades of experience in building businesses, he knows what it takes to enable high performance within a team and engage them in the business. He supports organizations globally by becoming their growth partner and helping them build high-performing teams by tackling issues like lack of focus, unclear goals, unaligned teams, lack of funding, no continuous improvement framework, etc. He is a Certified OKR Coach and loves to share helpful resources and address common organizational challenges to help drive team performance. Read More

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Article • 7 min read

What Is Problem Solving?

By the Mind Tools Content Team

We all spend a lot of our time solving problems, both at work and in our personal lives.

Some problems are small, and we can quickly sort them out ourselves. But others are complex challenges that take collaboration, creativity, and a considerable amount of effort to solve.

At work, the types of problems we face depend largely on the organizations we're in and the jobs we do. A manager in a cleaning company, for example, might spend their day untangling staffing issues, resolving client complaints, and sorting out problems with equipment and supplies. An aircraft designer, on the other hand, might be grappling with a problem about aerodynamics, or trying to work out why a new safety feature isn't working. Meanwhile, a politician might be exploring solutions to racial injustice or climate change.

But whatever issues we face, there are some common ways to tackle them effectively. And we can all boost our confidence and ability to succeed by building a strong set of problem-solving skills.

Mind Tools offers a large collection of resources to help you do just that!

How Well Do You Solve Problems?

Start by taking an honest look at your existing skills. What's your current approach to solving problems, and how well is it working? Our quiz, How Good Is Your Problem Solving? lets you analyze your abilities, and signposts ways to address any areas of weakness.

Define Every Problem

The first step in solving a problem is understanding what that problem actually is. You need to be sure that you're dealing with the real problem – not its symptoms. For example, if performance in your department is substandard, you might think that the problem lies with the individuals submitting work. However, if you look a bit deeper, the real issue might be a general lack of training, or an unreasonable workload across the team.

Tools like 5 Whys , Appreciation and Root Cause Analysis get you asking the right questions, and help you to work through the layers of a problem to uncover what's really going on.

However, defining a problem doesn't mean deciding how to solve it straightaway. It's important to look at the issue from a variety of perspectives. If you commit yourself too early, you can end up with a short-sighted solution. The CATWOE checklist provides a powerful reminder to look at many elements that may contribute to the problem, keeping you open to a variety of possible solutions.

Understanding Complexity

As you define your problem, you'll often discover just how complicated it is. There are likely several interrelated issues involved. That's why it's important to have ways to visualize, simplify and make sense of this tangled mess!

Affinity Diagrams are great for organizing many different pieces of information into common themes, and for understanding the relationships between them.

Another popular tool is the Cause-and-Effect Diagram . To generate viable solutions, you need a solid understanding of what's causing the problem.

When your problem occurs within a business process, creating a Flow Chart , Swim Lane Diagram or a Systems Diagram will help you to see how various activities and inputs fit together. This may well highlight a missing element or bottleneck that's causing your problem.

Quite often, what seems to be a single problem turns out to be a whole series of problems. The Drill Down technique prompts you to split your problem into smaller, more manageable parts.

General Problem-Solving Tools

When you understand the problem in front of you, you’re ready to start solving it. With your definition to guide you, you can generate several possible solutions, choose the best one, then put it into action. That's the four-step approach at the heart of good problem solving.

There are various problem-solving styles to use. For example:

Constructive Controversy is a way of widening perspectives and energizing discussions.
Inductive Reasoning makes the most of people’s experiences and know-how, and can speed up solution finding.
Means-End Analysis can bring extra clarity to your thinking, and kick-start the process of implementing solutions.

Specific Problem-Solving Systems

Some particularly complicated or important problems call for a more comprehensive process. Again, Mind Tools has a range of approaches to try, including:

Simplex , which involves an eight-stage process: problem finding, fact finding, defining the problem, idea finding, selecting and evaluating, planning, selling the idea, and acting. These steps build upon the basic, four-step process described above, and they create a cycle of problem finding and solving that will continually improve your organization.
Appreciative Inquiry , which is a uniquely positive way of solving problems by examining what's working well in the areas surrounding them.
Soft Systems Methodology , which takes you through four stages to uncover more details about what's creating your problem, and then define actions that will improve the situation.

Further Problem-Solving Strategies

Good problem solving requires a number of other skills – all of which are covered by Mind Tools.

For example, we have a large section of resources to improve your Creativity , so that you come up with a range of possible solutions.

By strengthening your Decision Making , you'll be better at evaluating the options, selecting the best ones, then choosing how to implement them.

And our Project Management collection has valuable advice for strengthening the whole problem-solving process. The resources there will help you to make effective changes – and then keep them working long term.

Problems are an inescapable part of life, both in and out of work. So we can all benefit from having strong problem-solving skills.

It's important to understand your current approach to problem solving, and to know where and how to improve.

Define every problem you encounter – and understand its complexity, rather than trying to solve it too soon.

There's a range of general problem-solving approaches, helping you to generate possible answers, choose the best ones, and then implement your solution.

Some complicated or serious problems require more specific problem-solving systems, especially when they relate to business processes.

By boosting your creativity, decision-making and project-management skills, you’ll become even better at solving all the problems you face.

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Self Evaluation Comments for Problem Solving (30 Examples)

By Status.net Editorial Team on May 19, 2023 — 9 minutes to read

Self-evaluation is an essential aspect of professional development. It helps you to identify areas of improvement and measure your progress towards achieving your goals. By evaluating your problem-solving skills, you can identify your strengths and weaknesses and take steps to improve your performance.

Problem Solving Self-Evaluation Comments Examples

I was able to identify the root cause of the problem and develop a solution that addressed it effectively.
I was able to think outside the box and come up with a creative solution to a complex problem.
I was able to collaborate effectively with my team members to solve a challenging problem.
I was able to prioritize tasks and allocate resources efficiently to solve a problem within a tight deadline.
I was able to remain calm and composed under pressure while solving a critical problem.
I was able to analyze data and information to identify patterns and trends that helped me solve a problem.
I was able to communicate clearly and effectively with stakeholders to understand their needs and solve their problems.
I was able to adapt to changing circumstances and adjust my problem-solving approach accordingly.
I was able to learn from my mistakes and apply those lessons to future problem-solving situations.
I was able to use critical thinking skills to evaluate multiple options and select the best solution to a problem.
I was able to break down a complex problem into smaller, more manageable parts and solve each part individually.
I was able to identify potential obstacles and develop contingency plans to overcome them while solving a problem.
I was able to leverage my technical expertise to solve a problem that required specialized knowledge.
I was able to use my creativity and innovation to develop a unique solution to a problem.
I was able to gather and analyze feedback from stakeholders to continuously improve my problem-solving approach.
I was able to use my leadership skills to motivate and guide my team members towards a successful problem-solving outcome.
I was able to effectively manage competing priorities and still solve a problem within the given timeline.
I was able to use my communication skills to explain complex technical solutions to non-technical stakeholders.
I was able to use my analytical skills to identify patterns and trends that helped me solve a problem more efficiently.
I was able to use my problem-solving skills to identify opportunities for process improvements and implement them successfully.
I was able to use my research skills to gather information that helped me solve a problem more effectively.
I was able to use my project management skills to break down a large-scale problem into smaller, more manageable tasks.
I was able to use my negotiation skills to reach a mutually beneficial solution to a problem.
I was able to remain objective and unbiased while evaluating potential solutions to a problem.
I was able to use my attention to detail to identify small but critical issues that were contributing to a larger problem.
I was able to use my interpersonal skills to build strong relationships with stakeholders and work collaboratively towards a solution.
I was able to use my problem-solving skills to find a solution that balanced the needs of multiple stakeholders.
I was able to use my persistence and determination to keep working towards a solution even when faced with obstacles.
I was able to use my time management skills to prioritize tasks and allocate my time efficiently while solving a problem.
I was able to use my empathy and understanding of others’ perspectives to develop a solution that met everyone’s needs.

Improving Problem Solving Skills

To become a better problem solver, you need to develop critical thinking skills, effective communication skills, prioritize tasks, and use brainstorming techniques. Here are some tips to help you improve your problem-solving skills:

Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinking is the ability to analyze a situation, identify problems, and come up with creative solutions. To develop critical thinking skills, you need to:

Ask questions: Don’t be afraid to ask questions to clarify the problem or gather more information.
Challenge assumptions: Don’t accept things at face value. Question assumptions and look for evidence to support them.
Evaluate evidence: Look for evidence that supports or contradicts your assumptions. Evaluate the quality and reliability of the evidence.
Consider alternative perspectives: Try to see the problem from different angles and consider alternative solutions.

Effective Communication Skills

Effective communication is essential for problem-solving because it helps you:

Understand the problem: Good communication skills help you clarify the problem and understand what is expected of you.
Collaborate with others: Effective communication skills help you work with others to find solutions.
Express your ideas clearly: Clear communication helps you convey your ideas and solutions to others.

To improve your communication skills, you need to:

Listen actively: Listen to others and try to understand their perspective.
Speak clearly: Speak clearly and concisely to avoid confusion.
Use nonverbal cues: Pay attention to body language and other nonverbal cues to understand what others are saying.

Prioritizing Tasks

Prioritizing tasks is essential for effective problem-solving because it helps you:

Focus on the most important tasks: Prioritizing helps you focus on the tasks that will have the most significant impact.
Manage your time: Prioritizing helps you manage your time more effectively.
Avoid procrastination: Prioritizing helps you avoid procrastination by breaking down large tasks into smaller, more manageable ones.

To prioritize tasks effectively, you need to:

Identify the most important tasks: Identify the tasks that will have the most significant impact.
Break down large tasks: Break large tasks into smaller, more manageable ones.
Set deadlines: Set deadlines for each task to help you stay on track.

Brainstorming Techniques

Brainstorming is a technique used to generate creative ideas and solutions. To brainstorm effectively, you need to:

Generate a lot of ideas: Don’t be afraid to come up with as many ideas as possible, even if they seem silly or unrealistic.
Encourage creativity: Encourage creative thinking by allowing everyone to contribute ideas.
Avoid criticism: Don’t criticize or judge ideas during the brainstorming process.

To brainstorm effectively, you can use techniques like mind mapping, free writing, or group brainstorming sessions.

Time Management and Productivity

Managing time effectively.

One of the biggest challenges when it comes to problem-solving is managing your time effectively. It’s easy to get bogged down in the details and lose track of the big picture. To avoid this, set specific goals and deadlines for yourself. Make a to-do list and prioritize your tasks based on their importance and urgency. Use a timer or a stopwatch to keep track of how much time you spend on each task, and try to minimize distractions as much as possible.

For example, if you’re working on a project that requires a lot of research, set a goal to finish the research phase by the end of the day. Break the research down into smaller tasks, such as reading a certain number of articles or books, and set deadlines for each task. This will help you stay on track and ensure that you’re making progress towards your goal.

Overcoming Overwhelm

Feeling overwhelmed is a common problem when it comes to problem-solving. When you’re faced with a complex problem, it’s easy to feel like you don’t know where to start. To overcome this, break the problem down into smaller, more manageable parts. Identify the key issues or questions that need to be addressed, and focus on one at a time.

For example, if you’re trying to solve a problem with a product or service, start by identifying the key issues that are causing the problem. Once you’ve identified these issues, break them down into smaller, more manageable parts. Focus on one issue at a time, and come up with a plan to address it. Once you’ve addressed all of the key issues, you’ll have a better understanding of the problem as a whole, and you’ll be better equipped to come up with a solution.

Being Proactive

Being proactive is an important part of problem-solving. Instead of waiting for problems to arise, take a proactive approach and try to anticipate potential problems before they occur. This will help you stay ahead of the curve and avoid potential roadblocks.

For example, if you’re working on a project with a tight deadline, don’t wait until the last minute to start working on it. Instead, start working on it as soon as possible, and set specific goals and deadlines for yourself. This will help you stay on track and ensure that you’re making progress towards your goal. Additionally, be proactive in identifying potential roadblocks or issues that could arise, and come up with a plan to address them before they become a problem.

Performance Review and Goal Setting

Setting objectives.

When preparing for a performance review, it’s important to set specific objectives that will guide the conversation. Start by reflecting on your current role and responsibilities, and consider areas where you could improve or grow. These objectives should be measurable and achievable, and should align with your personal and professional goals.

For example, one objective might be to improve your communication skills by attending a workshop or taking an online course. Another objective might be to take on more leadership responsibilities within your team or department.

Measuring Performance

During the performance review, your manager will likely evaluate your progress towards meeting your objectives. It’s important to come prepared with concrete examples of how you’ve worked towards your goals, as well as any challenges or obstacles you’ve faced.

For example, if your objective was to improve your project management skills, you might share how you’ve successfully led a project from start to finish, or how you’ve implemented new tools or processes to streamline your workflow. If you’ve faced challenges, be honest about what went wrong and what you learned from the experience.

Creating an Action Plan

After reviewing your performance, you and your manager should work together to create an action plan for the next review period. This plan should include specific goals and objectives, as well as a timeline for achieving them. It’s also important to identify any resources or support you may need to reach your goals.

For example, if your objective is to improve your technical skills, you might discuss opportunities for additional training or mentorship. If your goal is to take on more leadership responsibilities, you might discuss ways to gain experience through shadowing or cross-functional projects.

Overall, the performance review and goal setting process is an important opportunity to reflect on your progress and set a course for future growth and development. By setting specific, measurable objectives and working collaboratively with your manager, you can ensure that you’re on track to achieve your personal and professional goals.

When writing self-evaluation comments, it is important to be honest and objective. Avoid making exaggerated or false claims about your abilities or achievements. Instead, focus on specific examples that demonstrate your skills and accomplishments.

Innovation and Creativity Self Evaluation Comments (30 Examples)
Self Evaluation Sample Answers: Strengths and Weaknesses
Authenticity: How to Be Your Authentic Self (Examples & Strategies)
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Google (Alphabet) HRM: Training, Performance Management

Google Alphabet HRM, training, performance, planning, needs analysis, design, delivery, evaluation, measures, standards, information technology business

Google’s (Alphabet’s) human resource management practices cover effective employee training programs, as well as performance management to maximize human resource capabilities. The information technology company uses needs analysis to design training programs aimed at supporting an innovative workforce. The training programs and their results are regularly evaluated to ensure that they meet Google’s human resource needs. The company also has finely tuned performance management practices, inclusive of performance planning that directly addresses corporate objectives for HRM and supports the competitive advantages noted in the SWOT analysis of Google (Alphabet) . To solve performance issues, Alphabet’s human resource management uses performance management practices along with employee training programs.

This article is part of a series on Google’s (Alphabet’s) human resource management:

Google (Alphabet) HRM: HR Planning, Job Analysis & Design
Google (Alphabet) HRM: Recruitment, Selection, Retention
Google (Alphabet) HRM: Compensation, Career Development

Employee Training at Google (Alphabet)

Needs Analysis . Google’s HR management uses different types of needs analysis, such as organizational analysis, work analysis, and cost-benefit analysis. Organizational analysis identifies new human resource needs based on the firm’s current situation. For example, in developing new software products and investing in new businesses, Google conducts organizational analysis to determine the corresponding human resource requirements. Work analysis determines the specific requirements to fulfill work tasks. Google applies work analysis on new jobs, or when an organizational restructuring has just occurred. Cost-benefit analysis determines the practicality of training programs and activities. Alphabet’s HRM objective in using this type of analysis is to maximize the benefits achieved through training programs.

Program Design . Google’s HR management uses a combination of the relational model and the results-oriented approach for training program design. The relational model focuses on the relationship of the company with employees. Google maintains positive internal relations to foster employee participation in creative and innovative processes. The results-oriented approach focuses on training outcomes. For example, in implementing a training program, Google uses this approach to facilitate employees’ learning. Thus, the relational model optimizes relations among employees, while the results-oriented approach ensures that the information technology company’s human resources are effective.

Delivery . Google’s human resource management delivers training programs in various ways, such as discussions, simulations, and on-the-job training. Discussions enable Google to maintain rich communications involving employees. With rich communications, training programs also benefit through maximum feedback from the trainees. The company uses simulations to facilitate creative responses. Simulations empower Google’s employees to understand the details of work tasks, projects, and products. The company’s HRM uses on-the-job training to maximize the transfer of knowledge to new hires or interns. Many of these interns are absorbed into Alphabet’s organization.

Evaluation . Google has summative and descriptive purposes in evaluating training programs. The summative purpose is to determine the effectiveness of the program in developing human resources to support strategies, such as Google’s (Alphabet’s) generic strategy for competitive advantage and intensive strategies for growth . The descriptive purpose of evaluation is to understand the effects of the training on employees. Google’s human resource management uses evaluation variables, like trainees’ learning and reactions, and the results of training programs in terms of changes in human resource knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Alphabet’s (Google’s) Performance Management Practices

Performance Planning . Google’s performance planning efforts address different dimensions of its human resource management, including customer service, communication, support for diversity, and problem-solving abilities. Google’s performance appraisal programs also use variables corresponding to these dimensions. For example, the company’s HRM evaluates employees’ performance in internal communications and problem-solving activities to decide on performance management approaches.

Link to Corporate Objectives . Google’s performance management practices are directly linked to corporate objectives for human resource management because they ensure that employees remain capable of supporting the firm’s business activities. For instance, the emphasis on diversity supports diverse ideas, which lead to higher rates of innovation. Innovation is part of the corporate objectives and the goals set in Google’s (Alphabet’s) mission statement and vision statement . Also, the emphasis on problem-solving abilities ensures that human resources are satisfactory in developing organizational resilience in information technology, consumer electronics, and online services markets.

Measurements and Standards . Google’s HR management uses different sets of measurements and standards for its performance management practices in different areas of human resources. The firm uses individual measurements of ethical conduct and contributions to innovation and quality of output. Alphabet’s human resource management also uses team variables, like collaboration level. Creativity is also an important measure of the performance of the firm’s workforce because creative employees contribute more to the innovation factor in the organizational culture or company culture of Google (Alphabet) . The company maintains high standards for all these measures and always emphasizes excellence in employees.

Performance Interviews . Google’s human resource management conducts performance interviews that address concerns about individual performance and team performance. The individual performance interviews cover knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes of employees. The team performance interviews cover how employees perform as part of project teams at Alphabet. Note that the company forms and disbands teams for different purposes and projects. The interviews are also structured and unstructured, as well as formal and informal. Google’s HRM uses unstructured and informal interviews at meeting places, such as the coffee and snack areas of its offices.

Performance Problems . Google’s human resource management is usually concerned about performance problems in the areas of quality of work and work behaviors. In terms of quality of work, some red flags for HR managers are errors and ineffective work techniques. In terms of work behaviors, Google’s HR managers are concerned about negativism, power struggles, and tardiness or delays.

Alphabet Inc. – Form 10-K .
Alphabet Inc. – Google – Building a More Inclusive Workplace .
Långstedt, J., & Arrowsmith, J. (2023). Values, Work and Well-being in Artificial Intelligence Society: Exacerbating Dilemmas in Human Resource Management. In Algorithmic Ethics (pp. 22-38). Routledge.
Mhatre, S. G., & Mehta, N. K. (2023). Review of phenomenological approaches and its scope in human resource management. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance, 10 (1), 112-131.
U.S. Department of Commerce – International Trade Administration – Software and Information Technology Industry .
Zhang, J., & Chen, Z. (2023). Exploring human resource management digital transformation in the digital age. Journal of the Knowledge Economy , 1-17.
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Problem-Solving and Tool Use in Office Work: The Potential of Electronic Performance Support Systems to Promote Employee Performance and Learning

Associated data.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

In the context of office work, learning to handle an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system is important as implementation costs for such systems and associated expectations are high. However, these expectations are often not met because the users are not trained adequately. Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) are designed to support employees’ ERP-related problem-solving and informal learning. EPSS are supposed to enhance employees’ performance and informal workplace learning through task-specific and granular help in task performance and problem-solving. However, there is little empirical research on EPSS. Two survey studies addressed this research gap. In the first study, 301 people working in Human Resource (HR)-related positions and functions evaluated the learning potential of EPSS as well as potential advantages and obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS. Though other measures are currently assessed as more important for learning, HR employees expect a strong increase in the significance of EPSS for employee learning. In the second study, 652 users of ERP software completed a questionnaire on characteristics of their daily work tasks, team characteristics, individual dispositions, their coping with ERP-related problems, and characteristics of EPSS. Findings indicate that the most frequently available and used approach when dealing with an ERP-related problem is consulting colleagues. Three EPSS types can be distinguished by their increasing integration into the user interface and their context-sensitivity (external, extrinsic, and intrinsic EPSS). While external and extrinsic EPSS are available to many users, intrinsic EPSS are less common but are used intensively if available. EPSS availability is identified to be a strong positive predictor of frequency of EPSS use, while agreeableness as well as the task complexity and information-processing requirements show small negative effects. Moreover, more intensive ERP users use EPSS more frequently. In general, ERP users value, features such as context-sensitivity, an integration of the EPSS into the ERP system’s user interface, the option to save one’s own notes, and information displayed in an extra window. It is expected that EPSS will play an important role in workplace learning in the future, along with other measures.

Introduction

In this paper, we investigate the significance of Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) for informal workplace learning, including their actual availability and frequency of use among different ERP user types. Office workplaces are shaped by two main developments. Firstly, knowledge workers in office workplaces are confronted with increasingly complex tasks because routine activities are automated or outsourced. Hence, more complex tasks remain for which routine solutions are not available ( Littlejohn and Margaryan, 2014 ; Frey and Osborne, 2017 ; Bughin et al., 2018 ). Secondly, more and more software is used at office workplaces for organizational operations and decision-making ( Venkatesh and Bala, 2008 ; Eikhof, 2012 ; Billett, 2021 ). Therefore, the skills needed in working life are increasingly linked to “electronically mediated tasks and work roles” ( Billett, 2021 , p. 1). Thus, an essential part of knowledge workers’ competence is mastering the handling of software tools ( Warren et al., 2009 ; Hämäläinen et al., 2018 ). Säljö (1999) argues that any learning means learning to use tools. His concept of cultural tools comprises not only physical tools but also intellectual concepts, such as technical language or specific calculation schemes and, of course, software tools. Similarly, Engeström (1993) , based on Vygotsky’s (1978) cultural-historical activity theory, emphasizes the significance of tools as mediating artifacts between the subject (i.e., the employee) and the object (i.e., the task at hand) and outlines that these tools can be physical or symbolic, internal or external. In case of office work, software applications are the most important tools. One important category of software applications in office work are Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. ERP systems usually comprise a variety of software modules that integrate data from several departments into one single system and support the management of all business processes ( Kalling, 2003 ; Nwankpa, 2015 ). Learning in the context of an ERP system is especially of interest because of two reasons. First, as costs of implementing an ERP system are high, so are the expectations of the increase in the performance. However, these expectations are often not met because the users are not capable of handling these systems and not trained adequately ( Jasperson et al., 2005 ; Rezvani et al., 2017 ). Second, the transfer of formally acquired knowledge to one’s workplace often proves difficult for employees ( Chang, 2004 ; Mao and Brown, 2005 ; Nguyen and Klein, 2008 ; Nguyen, 2009 ). This is also true for formal learning regarding ERP and sheds light on the importance of post-implementation learning, which means continuous on-the-job learning after an information technology has been implemented ( Deng, 2000 ; Chou et al., 2014 ). In this context, informal learning plays an important role, as most learning in the workplace occurs informally ( Eraut, 2010 ). Informal learning in general can be defined as “any kind of learning which does not take place within, or follow from, a formally organised learning programme or event” ( Eraut, 2000 , p. 114). According to Eraut (2000 , 2004) , informal learning can include different modes of learning, from unconscious learning (i.e., implicit learning ) to conscious non-formal learning with clear learning objectives and time set aside to pursue it (i.e., deliberative learning ). A typical working activity where learning is seen as a possible and welcome by-product is problem-solving ( Eraut, 2000 , 2004 ).

To support these different modes of informal workplace learning, contextual performance support, community or social technologies and adaptive learning technologies seem promising ( Lindstaedt et al., 2010 ; Ley et al., 2014 ; Li and Herd, 2017 ; Kravčík, 2019 ; Ley, 2020 ). A solution that integrates these approaches and provides instant performance, and learning assistance when using software tools (e.g., ERP systems) and solving problems are EPSS ( Chang, 2004 ). EPSS has the potential to “provide the right information to the right user at the right time” ( Nguyen, 2009 , p. 95). The concept of EPSS has its roots in the 1990s. Gery (1991) first mentioned EPSS and later identified 19 attributes of performance-centered EPSS ( Gery, 1995 ). These included for example “establish and maintain a work context” or “contain embedded knowledge in the interface, support resources, and system logic” ( Gery, 1995 , p. 53). A more contemporary definition describes EPSS as “an electronic infrastructure that captures, stores, and distributes individual and corporate knowledge assets throughout an organization to enable individuals to achieve required levels of performance in the fastest possible time and with a minimum of support from other people” ( Noe, 2017 , p. 368). In a nutshell, granular task-specific information is presented to solve a problem at hand ( Mao and Brown, 2005 ). Hence, performance is supported during work ( Gery, 1995 ; Nguyen and Klein, 2008 ) at all career stages, ranging from “day-one performance” in rookies ( Gery, 1995 , p. 48) to the attainment of expert performance ( Clem, 2007 ). EPSS reduce cognitive load ( Tamez, 2012 ) and serve as an extension of the employees’ long-term memory ( Bastiaens et al., 1997 ; Mao, 2004 ). This means that the necessary knowledge may have been learned by an employee before but has not been memorized or has been forgotten in the meantime. However, several authors stress the potential of EPSS to not only enhance performance and remind users of what they have learned beforehand but also to support informal learning in the workplace ( Gery, 1995 ; Raybould, 1995 ; van Schaik et al., 2002 ), for example by providing scaffolding ( Cagiltay, 2006 ) or synthesizing and reflecting ( Hung and Chao, 2007 ).

Although companies have been applying EPSS—with varying success—since the 1990s, empirical research on their effectiveness is scarce ( Chang, 2004 ; Mao, 2004 ; Mao and Brown, 2005 ; Nguyen and Klein, 2008 ; Gal and Nachmias, 2012 ; Gal et al., 2017 ). This is especially true for recent studies that have included new technological capabilities in their definition and design of EPSS. In addition, some of the results of older studies can now be considered obsolete, because technologies available in the past are very different from those available today ( Ley, 2020 ). Moreover, literature on EPSS is criticized for not being empirical ( Mao, 2004 ; Nguyen et al., 2005 ; Gal and van Schaik, 2010 ) but based instead on anecdotal evidence ( Mao, 2004 ; Gal and van Schaik, 2010 ). The present exploratory studies address this research gap from two perspectives. First, the potential of EPSS is assessed more generally by people working in Human Resource (HR)-related positions and functions (= HR employees) (RQ1 and RQ2). Second, the user perspective is taken into account (RQ3 to RQ6). In addition, EPSS can be viewed from two perspectives. First, EPSS can be viewed as a resource created to support employees’ performance, problem-solving and learning. This is a more general view of EPSS, which can also address their availability as well as the design and different characteristics of a supplied EPSS. Second, the actual use of EPSS and its results can be examined. We considered these two perspectives in our studies. Altogether, we investigated six research questions, which are also illustrated in Figure 1 .

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Conceptual model of the investigated research questions.

RQ1: How significant are EPSS considered as a learning resource at present and in future by HR employees?
RQ2: What potential advantages and obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS are seen by HR employees?
RQ3: What activities are available to ERP users when they need to solve an ERP-related problem in the workplace and how frequently are these activities used when available?
RQ4: Do the ERP user types differ in terms of availability and frequency of EPSS use when dealing with an ERP-related problem in the workplace?
RQ5: What factors (contextual and individual/personal factors) influence the frequency of EPSS use when dealing with an ERP-related problem in the workplace?
RQ6: Which EPSS characteristics are considered the most useful by ERP users and do ERP user types differ in their assessment of usefulness?

In order to systematize the hypothetical influencing factors, a comprehensive Model of Informal Workplace Learning Through Problem-Solving was developed in a first step. Based on that, two studies were conducted in order to answer the research questions. In study 1, 301 HR employees completed a questionnaire on the significance of EPSS for corporate learning as well as potential advantages and obstacles. In study 2, 652 users of ERP systems completed a questionnaire on their use of ERP systems, the availability, and their use of activities for solving ERP-related problems, their evaluation of EPSS characteristics as well as contextual and individual factors.

Electronic Performance Support Systems and Informal Workplace Learning

Types, effects, and applications of epss.

In general, three types of EPSS can be distinguished, which differ primarily in the degree of their integration into the target system (e.g., ERP systems) and their context-sensitivity ( Gery, 1995 ). (1) External performance support is not integrated into the system or the work interface and can also be paper-based, for instance. As such, users have to turn away from the target system and to break the work context in order to use the external EPSS ( Gery, 1995 ; Mao, 2004 ; Sumuer and Yildirim, 2015 ). Early examples of external performance support are help desks, questions and answers Q&A, job aids, manuals, knowledge databases, and search engines ( Gery, 1995 ; Nguyen et al., 2005 ; Nguyen and Hanzel, 2007 ; Gal and Nachmias, 2012 ). More recent examples also include Web 2.0 technologies, such as online forums and communities and the content provided there. (2) Extrinsic performance support is integrated into the system, but not into its primary user interface ( Gery, 1995 ). Instead, the presumably helpful information is displayed outside of the target system ( Nguyen et al., 2005 ). This means that, for instance, a new window is opened. The system is often context-sensitive, which means that it can identify which task the user is working on. Based on this information, the extrinsic system can suggest appropriate information ( Nguyen et al., 2005 ). Examples for extrinsic EPSS are advisors, wizards, and cue cards ( Gery, 1995 ), but also often the conventional help function within a software. (3) Intrinsic EPSS integrate granular and context-sensitive information into the target system’s user interface ( Gery, 1995 ). Hence, the information is provided directly in the flow of work ( Nguyen et al., 2005 ; Gal and van Schaik, 2010 ; Gal and Nachmias, 2012 ). For users, it is often difficult to distinguish between the target system itself and the EPSS ( Gery, 1995 ). An example more in line with older notions of an intrinsic EPSS is the integrated help that is displayed automatically when creating a new title within the reference management software Citavi ® (Swiss Academic Software, Switzerland). More recent technical features that can be assigned to either extrinsic or intrinsic EPSS, depending on their design, include videos that colleagues have recorded about their own activities in the system as well as tutorials or guided tours, for example by the ERP vendor. In addition, the possibility to take notes in the system that are displayed to the documenting person or to groups of people, the next time this step in the system is entered, is conceivable. Other possible options may include social technologies, such as an integrated chat function for direct questions to experts or suggested experts with contact details. While Gery (1995) initially meant this distinction as a hierarchy with intrinsic EPSS as the superior type, in our opinion, today’s technological developments question this general superiority. Newer EPSS and EPSS characteristics, such as video platforms for tutorials, can also be very effective, although they fall into the categories of external or extrinsic EPSS. The effectiveness depends more on the specific design of the EPSS and its characteristics than, for example, on the way they are integrated into the user interface alone. Therefore, we still find Gery’s (1995) types useful to classify EPSS and EPSS characteristics, but we no longer assume a hierarchy in quality.

Overall, in our opinion, a contemporary definition of EPSS should be a much broader and more flexible one, that includes all technological devices and applications that enable users to solve problems in real time and thus enable learning in the flow of work. This is consistent with Hannafin et al.’s (2002 , p. 100) conclusion that EPSS do not have fixed features or components but can be seen more as “a perspective on designing systems that support learning and/or performing”. Against this background, EPSS are still very relevant to address highly recent problems. They already contained the first approaches to adaptivity and context-sensitivity, that are still considered central in many current approaches, at an early stage. Today, thanks to new technological possibilities, they can be extended by numerous functionalities and realize the early goals much more effectively and successfully than in early implementations.

One of the most frequently mentioned benefits of EPSS is its potential to support employee performance ( Barker and Banerji, 1995 ; Gery, 1995 ; Chang, 2004 ; Nguyen and Klein, 2008 ) and as a result different aspects of employee productivity ( Bastiaens, 1999 ; Altalib, 2002 ). Several empirical studies have reported positive effects of EPSS on various measures of performance ( Bastiaens, 1999 ; van Schaik et al., 2002 ; Mao and Brown, 2005 ; Nguyen et al., 2005 ; Gal and Nachmias, 2011 ; Lanese and Nguyen, 2012 ; Rios et al., 2013 ; Nuss et al., 2014 ; Yakin and Yildirim, 2016 ; Gal et al., 2017 ; Ugur-Erdogmus and Cagiltay, 2019 ). These were, for instance, positive effects on expertise reports or speed of task completion of police officers in Turkey ( Yakin and Yildirim, 2016 ) and positive effects on time used for and quality of maintenance procedures of the engine air bleed system on a Boeing 737 aircraft ( Rios et al., 2013 ). Some studies compared the effect of EPSS with traditional training and found EPSS to be at least partly superior ( Bastiaens et al., 1995 ; Mao and Brown, 2005 ; Gal et al., 2017 ). Moreover, a few studies have investigated the effects of different EPSS types (external, extrinsic, and intrinsic EPSS) on employee performance and productivity ( Nguyen, 2005 ; Nguyen et al., 2005 ; Gal and Nachmias, 2011 ; Yakin and Yildirim, 2016 ). These were, for instance, employees’ time on task and the service quality in a service call ( Gal and Nachmias, 2011 ) and the performance in a task scenario within a company’s learning management system ( Nguyen et al., 2005 ). The results of these few studies are ambiguous and no general superiority of one EPSS type over other types can be inferred. As already mentioned, however, we believe that in studies that used more recent technological possibilities, such a general superiority of one type is not to be expected.

The Role of EPSS in Informal Workplace Learning

In addition to enhancing performance, EPSS are also supposed to foster (informal) workplace learning ( Gery, 1995 ; Raybould, 1995 ; van Schaik et al., 2002 ; Mao, 2004 ; van Schaik, 2010 ; Kert and Kurt, 2012 ; Kalota and Hung, 2013 ; Gal et al., 2017 ). This is possible through different aspects and functionalities of EPSS. EPSS deliver just enough granular knowledge for the task at hand. Hence, compared to comprehensive formal training, the problems of inert knowledge and inhibited learning transfer are reduced since the newly acquired knowledge is immediately applied ( Mao and Brown, 2005 ). In this context, EPSS can either replenish formal training or even substitute formal training in some cases ( Mao, 2004 ; Mao and Brown, 2005 ; Nguyen and Klein, 2008 ; Noe, 2017 ). In particular, EPSS can support occasional users that would not benefit from extensive training in advance because most of the acquired knowledge would have faded before its application ( Mao and Brown, 2005 ). Furthermore, EPSS can reduce cognitive load ( Tamez, 2012 ) and provide scaffolding during complex tasks ( Mao and Brown, 2005 ). Indeed, the few empirical studies on EPSS and workplace learning report positive effects ( Wild, 2000 ; van Schaik et al., 2002 ; Mao and Brown, 2005 ; Gal and Nachmias, 2011 ; Kert and Kurt, 2012 ; Kalota and Hung, 2013 ; Nuss et al., 2014 ). Another research project in the context of computer-mediated work included some adaptive and performance support functionalities, however, the authors did not call them an EPSS. Within the project, APOSDLE context-sensitive help and information as well as relevant experts regarding the working tasks at hand were suggested ( Lindstaedt et al., 2010 ). The authors also reported a positive effect on the knowledge of knowledge workers in highly specialized domains, however not in broad customer-driven domains.

EPSS primarily support informal learning through solving task-related problems during the flow of work ( Barker and Banerji, 1995 ; Mao, 2004 ). Since problems are defined as a situation in which an individual lacks the knowledge to achieve a current goal ( Newell and Simon, 1972 ), problem-solving requires searching for information and hence, enables the acquisition of new knowledge. According to Rausch’s (2011) and Rausch et al.’s (2015) classification of Approaches to Problem-Solving in the Workplace, solution approaches are based on either mental models or real-world experiences, and they are developed on either one’s own or adopted from someone else (see Table 1 ; similar activities are reported by Cuyvers et al., 2016 ). This matrix is meant to be conceptually exhaustive but, of course, further examples could be listed. However, in most problem situations, people will not only use one approach but instead utilize combinations of different approaches that will usually start with reflection on the problematic situation.

Approaches to problem solving in the workplace ( Rausch, 2011 , p. 98; Rausch et al., 2015 , p. 452).

This classification of approaches again addresses the two perspectives in which EPSS can be viewed. On the one hand, EPSS’ use for problem-solving and informal learning can be considered. In the case of a software-related problem, for instance a problem regarding an ERP system, different examples for the approaches can be mentioned. Typically, problem-solving processes will start with a reflection on what is already known from prior experience and formal training. If combining this prior knowledge does not lead to a solution, one has to search for further information by using other approaches, for example by asking colleagues or reading the manual. In their diary study on everyday problem-solving in the domain of controlling, Rausch et al. (2015) found that asking colleagues was the most frequently applied strategy for novices but also for skilled employees. Consulting codified information, such as manuals, was used by novices but hardly used by skilled employees. It is a commonplace that people do not like to read manuals ( Novick and Ward, 2006 ). On the other hand, EPSS can be seen as a resource that is designed and supplied to support employees. Thus, EPSS can be assigned to different approaches to problem-solving, depending on their design. For example, EPSS can enable employees to ask other people through a chat function integrated into the ERP system. EPSS can also provide codified information. For example, granular information that exactly matches the current task can be provided directly within the user interface. However, EPSS can also include multimedia content like short tutorials, again granular and matching to the problem at hand, or quick contact information about experts that can be approached. Moreover, they can provide videos of the current task that have been recorded by colleagues. In this way, others can be “observed” while performing the task. Thus, EPSS can support problem-solving processes and enable learning in a variety of ways.

Model of Informal Workplace Learning Through Problem-Solving

In order to investigate EPSS’ role in technology-related problem-solving, we developed a holistic model, as problem-solving is dependent on the person of the problem-solver and embedded in the organizational and social context. Figure 2 shows our model of Informal Workplace Learning Through Problem-Solving as a synthesis of several already existing other models. It combines basic assumptions of Tynjälä’s (2013) 3-P model, the Job Demand Control Support (JDCS) model ( Karasek, 1979 ; Johnson and Hall, 1988 ; Karasek and Theorell, 1990 ), the Approaches to Problem-Solving in the Workplace ( Rausch, 2011 ; Rausch et al., 2015 ), the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM 3; Davis et al., 1989 ; Venkatesh and Bala, 2008 ), and the Affective Events Theory (AET) by Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) .

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Model of informal workplace learning through problem-solving.

The basic structure of the model is based on Tynjälä’s (2013) 3-P model. Individual factors—which we also refer to as personal resources—and contextual factors influence through the process of interpretation, problem-solving activities, and the use of resources in this context. These problem-solving activities then may result in problem-solving performance as well as competence development. Both interpretation and problem-solving activities can be influenced by emotional experiences and can themselves influence emotional experiences. Relevant personal resources include user characteristics and personality traits. User characteristics can comprise for example the user role, experience in this role and prior knowledge or experience. There is empirical evidence that prior usage experience with a technology can influence technology use ( Lee et al., 2003 ; Eckhardt et al., 2013 ) and that work experience can significantly negatively affect a technology’s perceived usefulness ( Laumer et al., 2016 ). Prior knowledge is also an important antecedent of informal learning processes in general ( Tynjälä, 2013 ; Cerasoli et al., 2018 ). Regarding personality, the big five personality traits were found to influence or moderate technology acceptance ( Devaraj et al., 2008 ). The big five personality traits ( Noe et al., 2013 , 2014 ; Cerasoli et al., 2018 ) and a proactive personality ( Carmeli et al., 2009 ; Noe et al., 2014 ) are important antecedents of informal workplace learning as well. A proactive person can be described as someone “who is relatively unconstrained by situational forces, and who effects environmental change” ( Bateman and Crant, 1993 , p. 105). Thus, we assume that this disposition may also influence the choice of problem-solving activities (e.g., asking colleagues). Empirical studies have shown that proactive personality is positively related to information exchange with other people ( Gong et al., 2012 ).

Contextual factors include aspects of job demands and job control, aspects shaping social resources, and aspects shaping technological resources. There are several studies that found job characteristics, such as job demands and job control to be related to informal workplace learning ( Rausch, 2013 ; Noe et al., 2014 ; Cerasoli et al., 2018 ). In our model, we included work methods autonomy, task variety, job complexity, information-processing requirements, problem-solving demands, work-scheduling autonomy, and decision-making autonomy. These are work task characteristics that are conducive to emotion and learning ( Rausch, 2012 ). Autonomy is also an antecedent of a technology’s perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use ( Arsal et al., 2009 ) as well as technology use ( Ahuja and Thatcher, 2005 ). In our model, social resources include team size, a person’s potential geographical separation from his or her team as well as the team psychological safety. Empirical evidence on the influence of team size in the context of technology use is, for instance, provided by Bradner et al. (2005) . Their results show that interactions between team members, the willingness to communicate with others in the team, and the use of communication technology in the team differ significantly between distributed teams of different team sizes. Furthermore, geographical and possibly associated temporal and perceived distance in virtual teams can influence for example the communication within teams as well as the synchronous availability of colleagues ( Morrison-Smith and Ruiz, 2020 ). A study by Liu et al. (2021) showed that the geographical separation in online professional networks can lead to information cocoons within geographic regions. Based on this empirical evidence, we suppose in our model that geographic distance could have an influence on the preferred problem-solving activity. Moreover, team psychological safety, defined as “a shared belief that the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking” ( Edmondson, 1999 , p. 354), affects learning in the workplace ( Edmondson and Lei, 2014 ; Frazier et al., 2017 ; Newman et al., 2017 ). We expect team psychological safety to also influence the choice of problem-solving activities, since, for example, a low team psychological safety, in a problem situation, could lead to the fact that asking colleagues and superiors is rather avoided. The model part of technological resources comprises system characteristics, codified information, and tools (e.g., EPSS). We expect the presence of these aspects of technological resources as well as their interpretation to influence their actual use, as it is suggested by TAM ( Davis et al., 1989 ; Venkatesh and Bala, 2008 ). TAM’s assumed relationships were investigated many times empirically ( Lee et al., 2003 ; Marangunić and Granić, 2015 ) and also in the context of learning technologies ( Granić and Marangunić, 2019 ). This assumption already sheds light on another important aspect of our model. Contextual factors not only affect workplace learning directly ( Cerasoli et al., 2018 ; Jeong et al., 2018 ; Rintala et al., 2019 ), but also indirectly through an individual’s interpretation ( Tynjälä, 2013 ). In case of a problem within a current work activity, the given individual factors/personal resources and contextual factors are subjectively and maybe unconsciously interpreted in terms of potential personal, social, and technological resources. Based on cognitive and non-cognitive processes, one or more problem-solving activities can be applied. These problem-solving activities result from the given individual factors/personal resources and contextual factors and are conceptually based on the Approaches to Problem-Solving in the Workplace ( Rausch, 2011 ; Rausch et al., 2015 ). In this vein, Carvalho (2019) found that the organizational environment, tool features, and task requirements were relevant factors for EPSS adoption and use. The use of one or more problem-solving activities ultimately results in outcomes, such as problem-solving performance and competence development ( Tynjälä, 2013 ; Rintala et al., 2019 ), which can include cognitive as well as behavioral and affective aspects ( Kraiger et al., 1993 ).

In the context of ERP-related problems, employees interpret their own user roles and competences, the characteristics of the present task, of their team, and their technological environment. One might, for instance, not trust his or her own competences and hence consult a colleague instead, while someone else might not consider his or her colleagues to be sufficiently competent or might not dare to bother them. Similarly, regarding technological resources, the availability, the perceived usefulness, and the perceived ease of use are important for the intent to utilize a software tool, such as an EPSS. Problem-solving is not a linear process. For instance, one might start reflecting on a problem confidently, but self-confidence decreases if no solution is in sight. This may lead to a re-interpretation of the technological resources or to overcoming the threshold to ask colleagues. Typically, more than one approach to problem-solving is applied. Once, a problem with the ERP system is resolved and given that the solution path is memorized, the same situation will not pose a problem in the future, hence, competence development has taken place.

Finally, we expect both, the interpretation and the problem-solving activities, to be influenced by emotional experiences. We base this assumption on empirical evidence on emotional experiences’ effect on workplace learning ( Hökkä et al., 2020 ) as well as on technology acceptance constructs ( Venkatesh, 2000 ; Lee et al., 2003 ) and technology use ( Lee et al., 2003 ; Beaudry and Pinsonneault, 2010 ). In addition, we assume that an influence in the other direction is also plausible, since learning activities ( Hökkä et al., 2020 ) and technology use ( Loderer et al., 2020 ) can also have an impact on emotions.

We conducted two survey studies which are the first step in a larger research project. The first study addresses HR employees’ rating of EPSS as a learning opportunity. In this study, EPSS are viewed primarily as a technological resource designed to support employees. The second study focuses on ERP users’ experiences of EPSS in solving software-related problems and is based on the developed model. Here, EPSS are seen primarily in light of their actual use for solving ERP-related problems. The second study comprises different activities for solving ERP-related problems (e.g., EPSS use) that are based on the perception of the availability of the individual factors/personal resources and contextual factors. Therefore, not all aspects of the theoretical model are investigated empirically. Model components that are not part of the two questionnaire studies are grayed out in Figure 2 .

Materials and Methods

Procedure and sample.

To address the research questions presented in the introduction, two questionnaire studies with different target groups were conducted. Thus, a cross-sectional research design was applied ( Bickman and Rog, 2009 ). The first survey study addressed RQ1 and RQ2. A total of 301 HR employees participated, most of whom worked in Germany ( n = 285). We drew a non-probability convenience sample, as we looked particularly for participants working in HR-related departments and functions ( Henry, 2009 ). The majority of participants were recruited via mail and direct messages via LinkedIn. The participants worked in HR management ( n = 104), HR development ( n = 78), training and development ( n = 77) and other areas.

The second survey study addressed RQ3 to RQ6. The questionnaire was completed by 652 ERP users, most of whom worked in Germany. Again, we drew a non-probability convenience sample, because we required participants with experience using an ERP system in different industries to take part in the study ( Henry, 2009 ). The majority of participants were approached by a professional research institute. In addition, participants were recruited by open calls for participation via LinkedIn and other networks. In the sample, 284 persons were female and 365 persons were male. Participants were relatively evenly distributed across age intervals between 20–69 years and reported an average work experience of 17.5 years. A subsample of 28% of the participants reported that they were occasional ERP users who use the system, for example, to have their vacation approved, to submit a travel request, or for actions that only occur rarely. Half of the participants indicated that they were regular ERP end users who use the ERP system as part of their everyday work activities. Another 14% of the participants described themselves as experts, which means that they have the key user role and/or that they were the person in their team or department that is contacted for questions regarding the ERP system. The last user group comprised 9% who were administrators or SAP consultants. Administrators are responsible for the configuration and adaption of the ERP system. SAP consultants advise other companies regarding SAP software. We refer here to SAP because the company is the market leader for ERP systems and their systems are widely used in German-speaking countries. Table 2 provides an overview of all participants in both studies.

Overview participants study 1 and study 2.

All questionnaires were distributed in German and in English. However, most participants answered the German version. All translations were checked by an English native speaker. The items used in the two questionnaires are included in the Supplementary Materials .

Study 1: Questionnaire for HR Employees

Significance of different learning measures for employees.

Participants rated the significance of six different measures (face-to-face training, coaching, e-learning, augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR), social software, EPSS) in their company at present and in the future (i.e., next 3–5 years) on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = irrelevant to 5 = very relevant .

Advantages and Obstacles Concerning the Implementation and Use of EPSS

Participants were requested to tick as many options as they wanted from a selection of eight potential advantages (e.g., “Reduction of search and problem-solving time”) and seven obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS (e.g., “A digital help system will find little or no acceptance among employees”).

Study 2: Questionnaire for ERP Users

Erp user type.

At the beginning of the questionnaire, participants should assign themselves to the user types (1) occasional user, (2) end user, (3) expert, and (4) administrator or SAP consultant, each of which was described.

Self-Assessed Skills in Using the ERP System

The participants assessed cognitive, behavioral, and affective facets of using the ERP system (e.g., “When using the ERP system I feel very safe with the applications I need regularly” for the affective facet) on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = not agree at all to 5 = strongly agree . The scale comprised three items and its consistency was good (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85).

Proactive Personality

Proactive personality was measured, using four of the five items, one slightly modified, from Goller (2017) (e.g., “I like to fight for my ideas, even against the resistance of others”), selected from the German version of the Proactive Personality Scale ( Kaschube, 2003 ; Lang-von Wins and Triebel, 2005 ). The items were rated on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = not agree at all to 5 = strongly agree . The internal consistency was satisfactory (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.73).

Big Five Personality Traits

To reduce participant burden, each of the five personality traits was measured by only one item that included four adjectives (e.g., “extroverted, talkative, communicative, cheerful” for extraversion) based on Saucier’s (1994) Mini Markers and its German version by Weller and Matiaske (2009) . The items were rated on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = not agree at all to 5 = strongly agree .

Characteristics of the Work Task

Task characteristics were measured, using selected items from Rausch (2012) that were answered on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = not agree at all to 5 = strongly agree . Four items were used to measure task variety (e.g., “At my workplace, I do a lot of different things”; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79), four items for job complexity (e.g., “… my job requires that I only do one task or activity at a time”; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80), four items for information-processing requirements (e.g., “… my job requires me to monitor a great deal of information”; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79) and four items for problem-solving demands (e.g., “… my job involves solving problems that have no obvious correct answer”; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75). Autonomy was assessed by four items. One item each covered work methods autonomy and work-scheduling autonomy and two items covered decision-making autonomy (e.g., “At my workplace I can plan how I do my work” for work-scheduling autonomy; Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79).

Geographical Separation

The participants indicated in one item whether they were usually geographically separated from the core of their team (e.g., other site or home office) and whether they were in home office recently due to the Corona pandemic (yes or no).

Team Psychological Safety

Team psychological safety was measured using the scale of Harvey et al. (2019) (e.g., “In my team people are usually comfortable talking about problems and disagreements”), that comprises four items. Again, the five-point Likert scale from 1 = not agree at all to 5 = strongly agree was used. The internal consistency was α = 0.74.

Availability of Problem-Solving Activities

The availability of problem-solving activities according to the above classification of Approaches to Problem-Solving in the Workplace (see Table 1 ) was measured by one single item on each activity (e.g., “At my workplace, if I have problems with the ERP system, I basically have the possibility to ask my colleagues for help”). With regard to our research focus, we included four items on potentially available EPSS features, that cover the three EPSS types external, extrinsic, and intrinsic. All items were answered on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = not agree at all to 5 = strongly agree .

Frequency of Use of Problem-Solving Activities

If a participant indicated that a problem-solving activity was at least partly available (from 3 = partly to 5 = strongly agree ), then a further item “I often use this possibility” was administered and answered on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = not agree at all to 5 = strongly agree .

Perceived Usefulness of EPSS Characteristics

Regardless of their availability and frequency of use, participants were asked to rate the usefulness of various (hypothetical) characteristics of EPSS by six items. The self-developed items cover all three EPSS types (external, extrinsic and intrinsic) and are roughly based on Nguyen (2005) . All items (e.g., “In the ERP system, you can use information provided next to the user interface of the ERP system to complete the current problem” for intrinsic EPSS) were rated on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = not helpful at all to 5 = very helpful .

Statistical Analysis

To address the research questions, we applied various statistical methods. For RQ1, we calculated two one-way repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) to determine if there were statistically significant differences between the learning measures’ current and future significance for employee learning. RQ2 was evaluated descriptively to identify which advantages and obstacles concerning EPSS were mentioned most frequently by the participants. For RQ3, we again calculated two one-way repeated measures ANOVAs to determine if there were statistically significant differences between the problem-solving activities’ availability and frequency of use. To investigate if the ERP user types differ in terms of availability and frequency of use of EPSS (RQ4), we calculated two one-way multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA). RQ5 was investigated by a hierarchical multiple regression analysis to identify significant predictors of EPSS’ frequency of use. For RQ 6, a one-way repeated measures ANOVA was calculated to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the perceived usefulness of the different EPSS characteristics. In addition, to investigate if the ERP user types differ in their assessment of the perceived usefulness, a one-way MANOVA was performed.

Significance of EPSS as a Measure for Learning (RQ1)

HR employees rated the current and future significance of six different learning measures for employees. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA with a Huynh–Feldt correction determined that mean current significance showed a statistically significant difference between the learning measures, F (4.151, 1236.97) = 150.821, p < 0.001, partial η 2 = 0.34. Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analysis revealed several significant differences between the learning measures for current significance indicating substantial differences in perceived current significance between these learning measures. A second one-way repeated measures ANOVA with a Huynh–Feldt correction determined that mean future significance showed a statistically significant difference between the learning measures as well, F (4.087, 1217.91) = 139.604, p < 0.001, partial η 2 = 0.32. Again, Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analysis revealed several significant differences between the learning measures for future significance. Again, this result shows that there are substantial differences in terms of future significance among these learning resources. Figure 3 shows all significant post-hoc results as well as the mean values and confidence intervals.

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Current and future significance of different learning measures for employees as rated by HR employees. Significant differences, means, and confidence intervals. N = 299. Scale: 1 = irrelevant, 3 = partly relevant, 5 = very relevant. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Results show the HR employees rated e-learning, social software, and coaching as the most significant measures. EPSS were currently considered less important which could be due to the limited scope of EPSS as compared to e-learning that can be applied for almost any learning goals. In the future, the same three learning measures are seen as most significant. But with a clearly greater increase in significance, EPSS will also play an important role in employee learning in the future.

EPSS Advantages and Obstacles Concerning Their Implementation and Use (RQ2)

The participants selected from eight predefined potential advantages of EPSS those they considered to be applicable to their company. For potential obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS, there were seven options to choose from. For both research questions, multiple answers were possible. Table 3 shows the proportions of participants that selected the given advantages.

Perceived advantages of EPSS.

Percentage of participants that selected the respective advantage. 1,142 answers in total (multiple answers possible).

The most frequently selected advantages were (1) an increased employee efficiency, (2) the possibility to supplement face-to-face training, and (3) the reduction of search and problem-solving time. Thus, about two-thirds of the HR employees agreed that EPSS supports employee efficiency. Surprisingly, a learning-related advantage—the possibility to supplement face-to-face training by EPSS—takes second place before further performance-related advantages. Only 20% of the respondents considered EPSS a substitute for face-to-face training.

Table 4 shows the proportions of participants that selected the given obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS. The results show that obstacles were seen in (1) a lack of resources to produce and maintain content, (2) too high technical effort, and (3) an already implemented, competing Learning Management Systems (LMS) as an alternative to an EPSS. Therefore, the HR employees considered monetary and technical efforts to be the biggest barriers to the implementation of EPSS, while acceptance problems by employees or work councils were expected by a small percentage of respondents. Altogether, the agreement with advantages (see Table 3 ) of EPSS significantly outweighed the agreement with disadvantages and obstacles.

Perceived obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS.

Percentage of participants that selected the respective obstacle. 564 answers in total (multiple answers possible).

Availability and Frequency of Use of Problem-Solving Activities (RQ3)

Based on study 2, Figure 4 shows to which degree different problem-solving activities are available to the surveyed ERP users and how frequently they use these activities. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA with a Greenhouse–Geisser correction determined that mean availability showed a statistically significant difference between the activities, F (5.92, 3709.56) = 66.74, p < 0.001, partial η 2 = 0.10. Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analysis revealed several significant differences between the activities for availability. The differences between these groups can be interpreted as substantial. A second one-way repeated measures ANOVA with a Huynh–Feldt correction determined that mean frequency of use showed a statistically significant difference between the activities as well, F (7.04, 1245.80) = 5.42, p < 0.001, partial η 2 = 0.03. Again, Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analysis revealed several significant differences between the activities for frequency of use, which are substantial differences. All significant post-hoc results are displayed in Figure 4 .

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Significant differences, means, and confidence intervals of the availability and frequency of use of different problem-solving activities for ERP-related problems. Scale: 1 = not agree, 3 = partly, 5 = strongly agree. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Unsurprisingly, reflecting on one’s own as well as consulting and observing colleagues were perceived as the most available activity and were also used most frequently when confronted with ERP-related problems, however with less significant differences. External and extrinsic types of EPSS are already available to many users, while intrinsic EPSS are less often available. However, when available, they are used quite often, but only for extrinsic EPSS with information presented next to the user interface (UI) with few significant differences.

Differences Between the ERP User Types in Terms of Availability and Frequency of EPSS Use (RQ4)

Two one-way MANOVAs were calculated to address RQ4. The first MANOVA was performed to determine the effect of ERP user types on the availability of EPSS. The test revealed statistically significant differences between the ERP user types on the combined dependent variables [ F (12, 1,688) = 3.247, p < 0.001, Wilks’ Λ = 0.941, partial η 2 = 0.020]. Follow-up univariate one-way ANOVAs were performed with Bonferroni adjustment due to alpha error inflation. Statistically significant differences were found for the availability of external EPSS and extrinsic EPSS with small effect sizes each. Tukey post-hoc tests showed that the group of administrators and SAP consultants has external EPSS more often available than end users, and extrinsic EPSS significantly more often available than occasional users and end users ( Table 5 ). All other pairwise comparisons were not statistically significant.

Descriptive statistics and MANOVA results among the four ERP user types for the availability of EPSS.

N = 645. 1 = occasional user; 2 = end user; 3 = expert; 4 = administrator or SAP consultant.

The second one-way MANOVA investigated the effect of ERP user types on the frequency of EPSS use. We only used a subset of 286 participants because the frequency of use was only asked for if the respective problem-solving activity was available. There are statistically significant differences between the ERP user types on the combined dependent variables [ F (12, 738) = 2.055, p < 0.05, Wilks’ Λ = 0.917, partial η 2 = 0.029] due to differences in the use of external EPSS with a small effect size. Follow-up univariate one-way ANOVAs with Bonferroni adjustment showed that the frequency of use of external EPSS differed statistically significantly between the user groups [ F (3, 282) = 6.417, p < 0.001, partial η 2 = 0.061]. Tukey post-hoc tests showed that administrators and SAP consultants ( M = 4.18, SE = 0.16) use external EPSS significantly more often compared to occasional users ( M = 3.37, SE = 0.10), p < 0.001, end users ( M = 3.64, SE = 0.08), p < 0.05, and experts ( M = 3.64, SE = 0.13), p < 0.05. All other pairwise comparisons were not statistically significant.

Predictors of the Frequency of EPSS Use (RQ5)

A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was calculated in order to answer RQ5. Since not all respondents provided information on all investigated predictors, a subset of 568 participants was used. For each participant, the highest rating of frequency of EPSS use across all problem-solving activities including EPSS served as the dependent variable. Predictors were added in the course of five steps. In the first step, self-assessed ERP skills and the ERP user types were added as user characteristics. ERP user types were included by dummy coding (0/1) for each ERP user type with the group of administrators and SAP consultants as the reference group. In the second step, task characteristics regarding job demands and job control were added. Step three comprised the inclusion of the availability of the respective EPSS with the highest rating of frequency of use. This addresses the availability of the respective problem-solving activity. In step 4, we added the big five and proactive personality as personality traits. In the last step, team psychological safety as well as geographical separation were included. These are aspects regarding the social resources of a person and its working place. The results of the regression analysis are shown in Table 6 . The correlation table for all variables included in the hierarchical regression can be found in the Supplementary Materials .

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis summary for the MAX frequency of EPSS use.

MAX frequency of EPSS use = highest frequency of use across all problem-solving activities including EPSS. Availability for MAX frequency of EPSS use = availability of the problem-solving activity with the highest frequency of use across all problem-solving activities including EPSS. N = 568.

The user characteristics contributed significantly to the regression model and explained 6.2% of the variance in the frequency of EPSS use. The inclusion of the job characteristics in step 2, F (5, 561) = 8.054, p < 0.001, as well as the inclusion of the availability of the respective EPSS in step 3, F (1, 560) = 140.901, p < 0.001, lead to significant increases in the explained variance of 6.3% respective 17.6%. Adding the personality traits in step 4, F (6, 554) = 1.587, p = n.s., and the aspects regarding the social resources in step 5, F (2, 552) = 2.332, p = n.s., did not improve the explained variance in the frequency of EPSS significantly. Of these variables only agreeableness ( β = −0.12, p < 0.05) was a significant predictor of frequency of EPSS use. Both models were still statistically significant, R 2 = 0.313, F (16, 554) = 15.740, p < 0.001, adjusted R 2 = 0.293, respective R 2 = 0.318, F (18, 552) = 14.318, p < 0.001, adjusted R 2 = 0.296. However, as there were no significant increases in the explained variance, the variables included in the last two steps have only a very small influence on the frequency of EPSS use. Referring to the significant predictors, EPSS availability was a positive and also the strongest predictor of EPSS use. Furthermore, the dummy variables for the ERP user types were significant predictors and indicate that more intensive ERP users also use EPSS more frequently, while the self-assessed ERP skills were not significant. In addition, agreeableness as well as the task complexity and information-processing requirements showed small negative effects.

Perceived Usefulness of EPSS Characteristics (RQ6)

The ERP users indicated the perceived usefulness of different EPSS characteristics for solving ERP-related problems ( Figure 5 ). A one-way repeated measures ANOVA with a Huynh–Feldt correction determined that mean usefulness showed a statistically significant difference between the EPSS characteristics, F (3.86, 2488.19) = 21.18, p < 0.001, partial η 2 = 0.03. Bonferroni-adjusted post-hoc analysis revealed several significant differences between the EPSS characteristics for usefulness. These are substantial differences that can be interpreted. Significant differences are also displayed in Figure 5 .

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Significant differences, means and confidence intervals of the perceived usefulness of EPSS characteristics. Scale: 1 = not helpful at all, 3 = partly helpful, 5 = very helpful. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; and *** p < 0.001.

All EPSS characteristics presented to the ERP users were rated as useful but only on a medium level. The displaying of context-sensitive information within the UI, the possibility to save one’s own notes but also displaying information in an extra window were considered to be slightly more useful. As theoretically already expected, there was no general preference for intrinsic over extrinsic characteristics.

In order to investigate if the ERP user types differ in their assessment of the perceived usefulness, a one-way MANOVA was performed. The analysis revealed statistically significant differences between the ERP user types on the combined dependent variables [ F (18, 1,802) = 1.776, p < 0.05, Wilks’ Λ = 0.951, partial η 2 = 0.016] but no significant results for the follow-up univariate one-way ANOVAs with Bonferroni adjustment were found. This indicates that there are no substantial differences between the user groups that can be reported.

Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) are considered to support problem-solving and learning in the context of complex software tools, such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. In two survey studies, we asked 301 HR employees about their perception of EPSS as a learning measure in companies and 652 ERP users about their perception of EPSS when solving ERP-related problems. In general, EPSS can be viewed from two perspectives. On the one hand, EPSS can be viewed as a technological resource created to support employees’ performance, problem-solving, and learning. This is a more general view on EPSS that includes, for example, how they are designed and supplied. On the other hand, EPSS can be considered regarding their actual use for problem-solving and potentially informal learning. Study 1 addressed the former perspective, while study 2 was based mostly on the latter perspective.

EPSS as a Trend in In-Company Learning Support

Asked about trends in in-company learning measures (RQ1), the HR employees rated e-learning, social software. and coaching as the most significant measures. EPSS were currently considered less important which could be due to the limited scope of EPSS as compared to e-learning that can be applied for almost any learning goals. Another reason might be the quite low penetration rate of EPSS in companies, which is also evident in the survey of ERP users in study 2. Furthermore, EPSS are primarily designed to support performance and only as a by-product do they also support learning. Thus, they are a less obvious learning measure compared to e-learning. Still, HR employees assign high future significance to EPSS.

Asked about advantages and obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS (RQ2), the HR employees selected significantly more pros than cons which again confirms their positive attitude toward EPSS. The most frequently selected advantages were (1) an increased employee efficiency, (2) the possibility to supplement face-to-face training, and (3) the reduction of search and problem-solving time. Obstacles were seen in (1) a lack of resources to produce and maintain content, (2) too high technical effort, and (3) an already implemented, competing Learning Management Systems (LMS) as an alternative to an EPSS. Anticipated acceptance problems on part of the employees or work councils played a minor role.

EPSS Use as an Activity for Solving ERP-Related Problems

Everyday problem-solving and informal learning go hand in hand. Starting from a classification of problem-solving approaches in the workplace (see Table 1 ), we developed a Model of Informal Workplace Learning Through Problem-Solving (see Figure 2 ), which integrates assumptions of Tynjälä’s (2013) 3-P model, the JDCS model ( Karasek, 1979 ; Johnson and Hall, 1988 ; Karasek and Theorell, 1990 ), the Approaches to Problem-Solving in the Workplace ( Rausch, 2011 ; Rausch et al., 2015 ), the Technology Acceptance Model ( Davis et al., 1989 ; Venkatesh and Bala, 2008 ), and the Affective Events Theory (AET) by Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) . When confronted with an ERP-related problem, available personal, social, and technological resources are assessed, more or less consciously, regarding their potential contribution to the solution (i.e., usefulness) and regarding the effort required (i.e., ease of use). Ideally, EPSS provide useful and easy-to-use support that fosters problem-solving and learning. Therefore, EPSS conserve (social) resources in the short term (i.e., experts’ working time, time spent on the problem) and expand personal resources in the long term (i.e., competence development). However, empirical research on EPSS use is scarce. While study 1 covered the potential that EPSS could have for competence development and workplace learning, study 2 investigated the contextual factors and individual factors/personal resources, including possible problem-solving activities (e.g., EPSS use), as well as the components of the interpretation and activities’ frequency of use.

Regarding the availability and frequency of use of problem-solving activities (RQ3), the ERP users reported that consulting colleagues is the most frequently available and most frequently used activity, which was also reported in a diary study by Rausch et al. (2015) . Reflecting is the second most frequently used activity, although it is assumed that reflecting on a problem is included in any problem-solving process, at least to some degree. However, high time pressure or low self-efficacy could lead to shorter reflection. Observing colleagues was also rated as a frequently available and well-used activity. When colleagues show a problem solution, it can be assumed that they were asked beforehand. External and extrinsic types of EPSS are also available and used similarly frequently while intrinsic EPSS are less frequently available but if so, they are used intensively. This shows that EPSS, regardless of their categorization, are generally perceived as useful and easy to use. In line with our expectation, the results do not indicate a fundamental superiority of one EPSS type over another.

Investigating differences between the user types (RQ4) revealed that the group with the supposedly highest skills, administrators or SAP consultants, have external (i.e., company wiki, help desks, communities, FAQs, and forums) and extrinsic EPSS (i.e., manuals, documentations, and tutorials from the provider of the ERP system) more often available than other user groups and they also use external EPSS more often than other user groups. This could be related to the fact that forums and question-and-answer websites, for instance, fall into the category of external EPSS and that these are suitable for very specific and complex problems and questions, especially from experienced ERP users. It is conceivable that experts, in particular, may even only find help for their complex problems in such external EPSS because there is not enough expertise in their own team. In software programming, for instance, a lot of experts use Stack Overflow (a question-and-answer website for professional programmers) for their more complex problems.

Addressing contextual and individual/personal antecedents of the frequency of EPSS use (RQ5), a hierarchical multiple regression revealed that personality as well as aspects regarding the social resources were only less relevant for predicting frequency of EPSS use. EPSS availability was the strongest predictor, which is, of course, not surprising. Regarding further contextual factors, complexity and information-processing requirements were significant negative predictors of EPSS use. This would be in line with the results presented above that indicated a high frequency of use of external EPSS by experts with probably more complex problems. Regarding user characteristics, the ERP user role explained additional variance. This result also confirms the above findings that the most experienced user group uses EPSS rather frequently, due to the availability of external EPSS also in the case of more complex problems. The self-assessed ERP skills were not a predictor of EPSS use. Regarding the general personality traits, only agreeableness was a negative predictor which is not in line with the results by Devaraj et al. (2008) who found agreeableness to be a positive predictor of technology acceptance. Since people high in agreeableness tend to cooperate ( McCrae and Costa, 1987 ), they may also tend to consult others instead of using the EPSS. However, the same could be expected for extraverted people but was not found in our data. Altogether, general personality traits do not seem to play an important role in the use of EPSS. The same is true for team psychological safety and a person’s geographical separation from the team as potential social resources.

Asked for the most favored characteristics of EPSS (RQ6), ERP users particularly valued context-sensitive information displayed within the UI of the ERP software, the possibility to save one’s own notes within the system, and information displayed in an extra window. However, all EPSS characteristics were assessed as only moderately useful with small mean differences and participants did not receive detailed explanations or demos to illustrate the different characteristics. Therefore, the results should be interpreted with caution and further empirical results from the actual use of these characteristics are necessary. The possibility to watch a video that experienced colleagues have recorded about this work activity was rated as partly useful but only in fifth place. This is surprising as several authors emphasize the importance of employees’ possibility to document and share their knowledge for colleagues ( Gorecky et al., 2014 ; Ley et al., 2014 ). Perhaps the item was not worded precisely enough. Furthermore, results showed that there were no significant differences found between the ERP user groups’ assessment of the usefulness of the different EPSS characteristics.

Altogether, HR employees attach a greater significance to EPSS in the future. They see an increased efficiency and a supplement to face-to-face training as the biggest advantages. External EPSS, including Web 2.0 services and applications, and extrinsic EPSS types are already available quite often, while intrinsic EPSS are less common. However, all EPSS types are actively used when available. The ERP users indicated context-sensitive information, integrated into the ERP system’s UI, the option to save one’s own notes for similar cases in the future, and information displayed in an extra window as more useful EPSS characteristics. In general, EPSS are more often available for more experienced users, such as ERP administrators and SAP consultants; and this user group uses external EPSS, such as company wikis, help desks, communities, FAQs, and forums more often than others. Still, consulting and observing colleagues are more common approaches when being confronted with ERP-related problems.

Regarding the developed Model of Informal Workplace Learning Through Problem-Solving, the results of study 2 found some of the individual factors/personal resources and contextual factors to be significantly related to EPSS use for solving ERP-related problems. Furthermore, the various activities for problem-solving generally available in the workplace according to the model could also be identified as empirically relevant. In addition, study 1 confirms the potential of EPSS for employee workplace learning, that is proposed by the model.

Limitations and Future Research

First of all, as the participants of both survey studies participated voluntarily, the results could be biased due to self-selection ( Bickman and Rog, 2009 ; Henry, 2009 ). Furthermore, the participants of both survey studies were mainly from Germany, which also limits the generalizability of the results ( Bickman and Rog, 2009 ). Moreover, given the cross-sectional study design, causal interpretations should be treated with caution ( Bickman and Rog, 2009 ; Kelley and Maxwell, 2019 ).

Regarding study 2, we included a measure for the big five personality traits based on Saucier’s (1994) Mini Markers and their German version by Weller and Matiaske (2009) . However, we did not use separate items for each adjective, but to reduce participant burden, we used an array of adjectives in one item for each personality trait. This may have resulted in less accurate measurement of the big five personality traits, which could have affected the regression results by either overestimating or underestimating the effects. Furthermore, for measuring the availability and frequency of use of EPSS, as well as the perceived usefulness of EPSS characteristics, we generally referred to ERP-related problems in the workplace without specifying them in more detail. This allowed each participant to imagine a different ERP-related problem. It might be possible that depending on the problem imagined, the items on availability, frequency of use, and usefulness were rated differently. This may have negatively affected the precision and reliability of the results and further limited the generalizability of the results. In addition, as already mentioned, the EPSS characteristics and their function were only described verbally without seeing them in a system. This was very hypothetical and gave participants room for interpretation. This, again, may have led to less precise assessments of usefulness, on the one hand, and may limit the generalizability of the results on the other. Another limitation of our research is that we did not include the possibility that EPSS can proactively indicate a problem to the user, and only then does the user become aware of the problem. Such a feature would be feasible with AI. A further limitation of the study is that we did not investigate all components of the developed model. The components of contextual factors, individual factors/personal resources, interpretation, and problem-solving activities are covered, however not the actual outcomes as well as users’ emotional experiences.

Addressing the above limitation, future research should also investigate actual EPSS use near the process, for instance, by using research diaries. They measure not only closer to the object under investigation but also reduce memory bias of retrospective questionnaires ( Bolger et al., 2003 ; Ohly et al., 2010 ; Rausch et al., 2017 ). Furthermore, future studies could also investigate proactive EPSS as mentioned above. Regarding the developed model, further studies addressing the assumed impact of the individual factors/personal resources and contextual factors should be conducted, as only some aspects of these factors were found to be empirically related to EPSS use so far. Moreover, the link between EPSS use, respective the use of information sources in general, and learning as well as the influence of emotional experiences were not investigated empirically yet. Thus, these variables should also be included in future empirical studies.

Practical Implications

Our findings suggest a positive impact of EPSS on employee performance in solving ERP-related problems, and also indicate that EPSS might positively influence employees’ informal learning on some aspects. These results can be relevant for ERP system vendors as well as companies using ERP systems. For both, it can be recommended to integrate different EPSS characteristics into ERP systems. For vendors, this primarily includes content on standard processes and applications, as well as general content that supports rapid onboarding of new employees into the system. For the vendors, this can also serve as an USP. Companies that use ERP systems can then augment this content, for example, with more detailed help on specific processes or error-prone items as well as special aspects and areas of application. Although the possibility to watch videos that were recorded by experienced colleagues was not rated as especially helpful in our study, in our opinion, this is nevertheless a possibility that companies should take a closer look at. Our results suggest that external EPSS can be especially important for more experienced users. Here we assume that social communities, implemented through social technology, are of central importance. These can be established and explicitly promoted within the company. Furthermore, an additional link to user and competence profiles is conceivable. This would allow for the incorporation of prior knowledge and training already completed to provide context-specific and tailored support.

In line with Clark (1992) , we assume that EPSS only foster particular skills, namely, the use of software tools, which are only one part of a broader set of professional competences that are required today ( Rausch and Wuttke, 2016 ). Therefore, interaction with experienced coworkers and participation in collaborative problem-solving will still play an important role in workplace learning and socialization ( Gery, 1991 ; Billett, 2001 ). It is not a question of either EPSS or other learning resources, but of an appropriate combination of different opportunities to learn in the workplace.

Data Availability Statement

Author contributions.

All listed authors have made a substantial, a direct, and an intellectual contribution to this work and approved it for publication.

This research was partly funded by SAP SE. The funder was not involved in the study design, collection, analysis, interpretation of data, the writing of this article or the decision to submit it for publication. Open access publication fee was partly funded by the Open Access Publishing Fund at the University of Mannheim, Germany.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.869428/full#supplementary-material

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5 Performance Management Problems and How to Solve Them

Performance management success is closely associated with business success – you are only as good as the people you employ, certain wisdom reminds us. But having the best talent on your team is more than just good hiring practices – it involves nurturing, training, assessment, and feedback to help support growth, encourage good performance, and increase productivity.

Many HR groups in various businesses focus some of their efforts into finding the right performance management solution for their business, but even the best-laid plans and policies can run into some challenges. How you handle performance management problems can be foundational to the overall success of your performance management process, employee relationships, and even in meeting business goals.

The most common performance management problems and their solutions

Here are some of the most prevalent performance management problems that pop up in modern performance management and how your business should best address them.

1. Lack of strategy or focus

Performance management is meant to help support employees and guide their success in a way that helps the business meet their overarching goals. Sales employees, for instance, need to have performance managed in such a way that enables them to sell more in order to help grow the revenue for the business. But does the business also have goals that include building long-term relationships for repeat business? It’s important to make sure that performance management includes the kinds of ongoing support – such as training – that support the most important goals of your business. The keyword here is “important” – you can’t deliver any real value to your business by trying to do too many things at once. Digitalist Mag notes, “Having too many company goals…will likely leave your employees feeling confused, unaligned, and inefficient. Simplify and prioritize your company goals, and focus your performance management on a few critical goals that are key to your business growth. Then help your employees understand how their everyday work and individual goals will help achieve these objectives.” It’s important to start with a solid, well-defined strategy in order to effectively manage performance in a way that supports business goals.

2. Stakeholder feedback, design, and buy-in

While establishing a strategy is one of the crucial starting points of any effective performance management, it’s also important to get the feedback for the overall process from those who will be using it – managers, HR, and others. Digital Mag points out, “ Without proper consultation with your key stakeholders, your performance management process may not address all the needs of the business, and you risk losing time, resources, and buy-in implementing a system that no one wants or knows how to use.” In addition to that, if leadership teams aren’t on board with the importance of performance management, you’ll have a hard time implementing a successful process, because it’s unlikely you’ll have access to or authority to get the tools that are needed for the most successful performance management. Make sure to expose your leadership team – or anyone who is unconvinced in the importance of consistent, holistic performance management – to statistics and research that discusses its impact and business cases that show how it impacts success.

3. Feedback

A huge part of effective performance management is timely, meaningful feedback. Most employers and managers mistake the feedback element of performance management to mean annual reviews, but it’s important to create open lines of communication and convey feedback much more often than one formal review per year. The most engaged, productive, and high-performing employees are the ones who receive performance feedback as both positive behaviors and performance issues come up. Regular encouragement, suggestions, and direction are necessary for employee morale, engagement, and performance at the employee and business level.

4. Unbalanced reviews

While performance appraisals are only one part of the process, one performance management problem that businesses run into is a lack of balanced feedback that doesn’t truly address all parts of the performance. Many businesses have come around to a 360-degree performance appraisal model , which involves soliciting feedback from not just managers and supervisors, but also peers, customers, and direct reports. This gives employees a better overall sense of what they’re doing well and what challenges they need to focus on.

5. Post-feedback support

The feedback of managers and others is crucial, but without the proper follow-up, training, and development opportunities, the feedback won’t shape real change. Employees who have performance issues need to be trained on how to address these issues in order to keep up employee morale and also positively affect the business. Employees who are praised for their good behavior need to see acts of encouragement and recognition – and even career development and guidance – in order to believe that their contributions matter and encourage continued hard work and dedication. Both are key to retaining employees and growing business success.

The importance of performance management – and addressing performance management problems – is critical. Performance management problems cost your business money, reduces employee engagement, and can hinder business growth. When your performance management is successful and effective, you can increase revenue and keep valuable employees from leaving your organization.

Marianne Chrisos | Born in Salem, Massachusetts, growing up outside of Chicago, Illinois, and currently living near Dallas, Texas, Marianne is a content writer at a company near Dallas and contributing writer around the internet. She earned her master's degree in Writing and Publishing from DePaul University in Chicago and has worked in publishing, advertising, digital marketing, and content strategy.

Marianne Chrisos | Born in Salem, Massachusetts, growing up outside of Chicago, Illinois, and currently living near Dallas, Texas, Marianne is a content writer at a c...

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