education technology introduction

Introduction to Educational Technology

• First Online: 28 February 2019

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• Ronghuai Huang 9 ,
• J. Michael Spector 10 &
• Junfeng Yang 11  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Educational Technology ((LNET))

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Educational technology refers to the use of tools, technologies, processes, procedures, resources, and strategies to improve learning experiences in a variety of settings, such as formal learning, informal learning, non-formal learning, lifelong learning, learning on demand, workplace learning, and just-in-time learning. Educational technology approaches evolved from early uses of teaching tools and have rapidly expanded in recent years to include such devices and approaches as mobile technologies, virtual and augmented realities, simulations and immersive environments, collaborative learning, social networking, cloud computing, flipped classrooms, and more. This chapter provides a historical overview, key definitions and principles, various perspectives and representative developments, all of which will be explored and elaborated in subsequent chapters.

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University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

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Huang, R., Spector, J.M., Yang, J. (2019). Introduction to Educational Technology. In: Educational Technology. Lecture Notes in Educational Technology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6643-7_1

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Educational Technology: An Overview

Educational technology is a field of study that investigates the process of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating the instructional environment and learning materials in order to improve teaching and learning. It is important to keep in mind that the purpose of educational technology (also referred to as instructional technology) is to improve education. We must define the goals and needs of education first and then we use all our knowledge, including technology, to design the most effective learning environment for students.

Instructional technology can also be seen as a process of solving educational problems and concerns, which might include motivation, discipline, the drop-out rate, school violence, basic skills, critical thinking, and the whole list of educational concerns. First, the problem is identified, an analysis of the factors of the problem is made, and possible solutions to the problem are presented. Then, the student population and the curriculum are analyzed. The next step is to select the most appropriate instructional strategies for the particular situation. Next, instructional materials and resources are selected that are suitable for the curriculum and the mode of instruction chosen. Finally, the program is implemented, evaluated, and revised as needed in order to meet the stated goals for school improvement.

The learning materials today have greatly expanded because of the various technological advances. Instructional materials include more conventional materials, such as the blackboard, overhead projectors, televisions, VCRs, overhead projectors, slide projectors, and opaque projectors, as well as newer materials, such as the computer, various software applications, LCD projectors, camcorders, digital cameras, scanners, the Internet, satellite, interactive TV, audio and video conferencing, artificial intelligence, and so on.

Teachers in the public schools and faculty at universities need to understand what types of materials are available, how to use them, why they should be used, when they should be used, and how to integrate them into the teaching/learning environment in order to meet the ultimate goal of improving education. Teachers also need to seriously consider how these newer materials can affect what and how we learn and teach.

The issue of what these materials are and how to use them is a first step. But we must quickly begin to discuss how these materials should be used and how they affect the curriculum and instruction in our schools. Technology can be used to perpetuate a teacher-led, knowledge-based learning approach or it can be used to help us implement a student-centered, constructivist, and progressive approach. We need to help teachers to understand the bigger picture of how technology can revolutionize education. Just teaching teachers how to use the technology will lead to enhancing a knowledge-level educational system. Teaching them the real potentials of technology will lead to promoting higher-level thinking, independent learning, and life-long learning.

The skills and issues that need to be addressed by teachers are vast. To help in understanding what these skills and issues are, the Coordinator of Educational Technology at UNCA has created a list of items regarding educational technology. These are items that the faculty at the universities need to understand so that they can incorporate them into their own teaching and thus help preservice teachers understand them so that they can more effectively utilize technology in their own teaching as well.

Remember, in all of these areas of educational technology that the goal of improving a specific aspect of teaching and learning comes first. The technology is selected to help us meet these goals.

For more information on Instructional Technology, click here .

Software Tools

Word processing, database, spreadsheet, telecommunications, presentation, authoring, graphic paint programs. Teachers need to know how to use them, how to teach them to students, and how and why to use them in the classroom.

Software Types

Drill and practice, tutorials or computer-based instruction, and simulations. Teachers need to know what these are as well as why, when, and how to incorporate them into their teaching.

Integrated Learning Systems

Also known as computer-managed instruction. Teachers need to know what this is, how to use it, when to use it, with what grade levels and subject areas to use it, with what students to use it, and its role in the educational process.

Equipment Use

Digital camera, scanner, camcorder, CD-writer, computer, modem, printer, VCR, LCD projector, laser-disc player, and others. Teachers need to know how to use them and how they can be used in the classroom.

Multimedia Integration

Create and find graphics, images, audio files, video files, and animations. Import these multimedia objects into their presentations and learning materials. Understand how and why the integration of multimedia helps them to teach and how it helps students to learn.

Audio and Video Conferencing

Understand what these are and how to incorporate them into the educational process. Understand various teaching methods that best utilize these tools. Understand how these can affect how we learn.

Distance Education

Understand what it is, types of instructional delivery systems and media to be used (i.e., self-instructional manuals, slides, satellite, videotaped instruction, interactive TV, and the Internet), how to design courses using distance education, the differences in this type of learning and teaching, techniques for delivering instruction in this method, and why and how this approach can be used at various grade levels.

Classroom Configurations

How to best equip and utilize technology in the classroom. How to use the technology in the classroom. Classrooms need multimedia technology in each classroom. Teachers need access to teaching computers, LCD projectors, scanners, and other equipment in the classroom. Teachers need to be able to quickly use this equipment and access software when needed. Teachers need to be able to access and display the Internet and know how to utilize the Internet, software programs, presentation software, videotapes, and so on, in their teaching methods. Classrooms also need software and equipment available to their students.

How to use it, how to set up discussion groups for students, how to post assignments and readings, and how to use it for students to post their assignments. Teachers need to understand how and why this technology can affect their teaching approach.

How to create web pages, how to use them in their teaching, and why they should use them. Web pages can have many functions for displaying information and creating student interaction. Web pages can also be used for helping students be more independent learners.

The Internet

What it is, how to use it, and how to incorporate it into the teaching/learning process. Teachers need to know how to search for information, how to critically analyze and evaluate this information, how to use FTP (file transfer protocol), telnet, email, mailing lists, and newsgroups. Teachers need to know how this powerful system can affect what is learned and how learning can best occur.

Software Review and Evaluation

How to select appropriate software for specific grade levels and content areas, how to evaluate the effectiveness of this software, and what types of software are available. Teachers need to be thoroughly familiar with many of the software options available and understand when and how to use them in the classroom.

Integration of Technology

Teachers need to understand the three technological configurations available – additive, integrated, and independent. They need to understand which configuration that they would like to implement, why this one is best for them and their students, and how to implement this method of integration. Teachers need to know how, when, and why to use any technology in the classroom. Teachers need to be able to modify how they teach in order to incorporate this technology.

Design and Create Instructional Materials

How to design and create various instructional materials for learners. Teachers need to understand design principles, how to create instructionally effective materials, what types of materials to create to best meet the learner needs, and how they can utilize these materials in their teaching. Instructional materials that teachers need to know how to create range from bulletin boards and transparencies to PowerPoint, HyperStudio, and web-based materials.

Moral, Legal, and Ethical Issues

Teachers need to understand these issues and how they might affect what and how they teach. These issues might be copyright and fair use issues to issues involving access to information. Teachers need to be aware of society’s view on the use of technology and how these issues might affect what they can do in the classroom.

New Software and Hardware

Teachers need to keep up with what types of instructional materials and tools that are being developed and how these new materials might be useful to them as teachers. They need to learn how to use these new materials and how to incorporate them into their teaching.

Philosophical Questions and Issues

What is the role of technology in education? How should technology be used for teaching and learning? When should it be used? What types of learners (learning styles, ages, ability levels, gender, etc.) can best benefit from what types of technology? How does technology affect what and how we teach? How does technology affect our lifestyles and our whole educational system? Should we reconstruct education because of technology? What should the educational system look like in the next few years because of these advancements in technology?

I am a professor of Educational Technology. I have worked at several elite universities. I hold a PhD degree from the University of Illinois and a master's degree from Purdue University.

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Education Technology: What Is Edtech? A Guide.

Edtech, or education technology, is the combination of IT tools and educational practices aimed at facilitating and enhancing learning.

What Is Edtech?

Edtech, or education technology, is the practice of introducing information and communication technology tools into the classroom to create more engaging, inclusive and individualized learning experiences.

Today’s classrooms have moved beyond the clunky desktop computers that were once the norm and are now tech-infused with tablets, interactive online courses and even robots that can take notes and record lectures for absent students.

The influx of edtech tools are changing classrooms in a variety of ways. For instance, edtech robots , virtual reality lessons and gamified classroom activities make it easier for students to stay engaged through fun forms of learning. And edtech IoT devices are hailed for their ability to create digital classrooms for students, whether they’re physically in school, on the bus or at home. Even machine learning and blockchain tools are assisting teachers with grading tests and holding students accountable for homework.

The potential for scalable individualized learning has played an important role in the edtech industry’s ascendance . The way we learn, how we interact with classmates and teachers, and our overall enthusiasm for the same subjects is not a one-size-fits-all situation. Everyone learns at their own pace and in their own style. Edtech tools make it easier for teachers to create individualized lesson plans and learning experiences that foster a sense of inclusivity and boost the learning capabilities of all students, no matter their age or learning abilities.

And it looks like technology in the classroom is here to stay. In a 2018 study , 86 percent of eighth-grade teachers agreed that using technology to teach students is important. And 75 percent of the study’s teachers said technology use improved the academic performance of students. For that reason, many would argue it’s vital to understand the benefits edtech brings in the form of increased communication, collaboration and overall quality of education.

Related Reading 13 Edtech Examples You Should Know

How Does Edtech Help Students and Teachers?

Benefits of edtech for students.

An influx of technology is opening up new avenues of learning for students of all ages, while also promoting collaboration and inclusivity in the classroom. Here are five major ways edtech is directly impacting the way students learn.

Increased Collaboration

Cloud-enabled tools and tablets are fostering collaboration in the classroom. Tablets loaded with learning games and online lessons give children the tools to solve problems together. Meanwhile, cloud-based apps let students upload their homework and digitally converse with one another about their thought processes and for any help they may need.

24/7 Access to Learning

IoT devices are making it easier for students to have full access to the classroom in a digital environment. Whether they’re at school, on the bus or at home, connected devices are giving students Wi-Fi and cloud access to complete work at their own pace — and on their own schedules — without being hampered by the restriction of needing to be present in a physical classroom.

Various apps also help students and teachers stay in communication in case students have questions or need to alert teachers to an emergency.

“Flipping” the Classroom

Edtech tools are flipping the traditional notion of classrooms and education. Traditionally, students have to listen to lectures or read in class then work on projects and homework at home. With video lectures and learning apps, students can now watch lessons at home at their own pace, using class time to collaboratively work on projects as a group. This type of learning style helps foster self-learning, creativity and a sense of collaboration among students.

Personalized Educational Experiences

Edtech opens up opportunities for educators to craft personalized learning plans for each of their students. This approach aims to customize learning based on a student’s strengths, skills and interests.

Video content tools help students learn at their own pace and because students can pause and rewind lectures, these videos can help students fully grasp lessons. With analytics, teachers can see which students had trouble with certain lessons and offer further help on the subject.

Instead of relying on stress-inducing testing to measure academic success, educators are now turning to apps that consistently measure overall aptitude . Constant measurements display learning trends that teachers can use to craft specialized learning plans based on each student’s strengths and weaknesses or, more importantly, find negative trends that can be proactively thwarted with intervention.

Attention-Grabbing Lessons

Do you remember sitting in class, half-listening, half-day dreaming? Now, with a seemingly infinite number of gadgets and outside influences vying for a student’s attention, it’s imperative to craft lesson plans that are both gripping and educational. Edtech proponents say technology is the answer. Some of the more innovative examples of students using tech to boost classroom participation include interacting with other classrooms around the world via video, having students submit homework assignments as videos or podcasts and even gamifying problem-solving .

Benefits of Edtech

• Personalized education caters to different learning styles.
• On-demand video lectures allow classroom time to focus on collaboration.
• Gamified lessons engage students more deeply.
• Cloud computing with 24/7 access lets students work from anywhere.
• Automated grading and classroom management tools help teachers balance responsibilities.

Benefits of Edtech for Teachers

Students aren’t the only group benefitting from edtech. Teachers are seeing educational tech as a means to develop efficient learning practices and save time in the classroom. Here are four ways edtech is helping teachers get back to doing what they do — teaching.

Automated Grading

Artificially intelligent edtech tools are making grading a breeze. These apps use machine learning to analyze and assess answers based on the specifications of the assignment. Using these tools, especially for objective assignments like true/false or fill-in-the-blank assessments, frees up hours that teachers usually spend grading assignments. Extra free time for teachers provides more flexibility for less prep and one-on-one time with both struggling and gifted students.     

Classroom Management Tools

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What is Educational Technology? [Definition, Examples & Impact]

• Tools & Media
• Theory & Practice
• Value of a Master’s Degree

From the ancient abacus to handheld calculators, from slide projectors and classroom film strips to virtual reality and next-generation e-learning, educational technology continues to evolve in exciting new ways — inspiring teachers and students alike.

Technology is continually changing the way we work and play, create and communicate. So it’s only natural that advancements in digital technology are also creating game-changing opportunities in the world of education.

For teachers, technology is opening up new possibilities to enrich and stimulate young minds. Today, there is growing excitement around the potential for assistive technology, virtual and augmented reality, high-tech collaboration tools, gamification, podcasting, blogging, 3D printing, artificial intelligence, personalized learning and much more.

Here, we’ll explore some of the most promising examples of educational technology and some specific edtech tools and trends. But first let’s take a closer look at what we mean when we talk about “educational technology,” because the discussion can refer to both:

• The theory and practice of educational approaches to learning, as well as
• The technological tools that assist in the development and communication of knowledge

What is Educational Technology?

One important definition of educational technology focuses on “the technological tools and media that assist in the communication of knowledge, and its development and exchange.”

Take augmented reality and virtual reality , for example. Writing about the “Top 6 Digital Transformation Trends In Education” in Forbes.com, technology innovation specialist Daniel Newman discusses using AR and VR to “enhance teacher instruction while simultaneously creating immersive lessons that are fun and engaging for the student.” He invites us to imagine using virtual reality to transport students to ancient Greece.

Gamification combines playing and learning by utilizing gaming as an instructional tool, according to Newman, who explains that incorporating gaming technology into the classroom “can make learning difficult subject matter more exciting and interactive.”

Regarding artificial intelligence , Newman notes that a university in Australia used IBM’s Watson to create a virtual student advisory service that was available 24/7/365. Apparently Watson’s virtual advisors fielded more than 30,000 questions in the first trimester, freeing up human advisors to handle more complex issues.

ProwdigyGame.com, whose free curriculum-aligned math game for Grades 1-8 is used by millions of students, teachers and parents, offers specific tips for leveraging educational technology tools in a report titled “25 Easy Ways to Use Technology in the Classroom.” Their ideas include:

• Running a Virtual Field Trip : Explore famous locations such as the Empire State Building or the Great Barrier Reef; or preview actual field trips by using technology to “visit” the locations beforehand.
• Participating in a Webquest : These educational adventures encourage students to find and process information by adding an interesting spin to the research process. For example, they could be placed in the role of detective to solve a specific “case,” collecting clues about a curriculum topic by investigating specified sources and web pages.
• Podcasting : Playing relevant podcasts — or assisting students in creating their own — can be a great way to supplement lessons, engage auditory learners and even empower students to develop new creative skills.

Educational technology strategist David Andrade reports in EdTechMagazine.com ( “What Is on the Horizon for Education Technology?” ) that current tools and trends include online learning and makerspaces, “with robotics and virtual reality expected to be widely adopted in the near future.” Peeking a little further into the future, Andrade says studies indicate that “artificial intelligence and wearable technology will be considered mainstream within four to five years.”

In practice, future innovation will come from the hearts and minds of the teachers who develop the knowledge and skills needed to discover the most engaging, effective ways to use educational technology strategies in classrooms, and virtual classrooms, far and wide.

Another essential definition of educational technology focuses on the theory and practice of utilizing new technology to develop and implement innovative educational approaches to learning and student achievement.

Behind all the high-tech tools, the digital bells and whistles, are the teachers who possess the skill — and the inspiration — to use these new technologies to expand the educational universe of their students.

According to a report by the International Society for Technology in Education ( “11 Hot EdTech Trends to Watch” ), “the most compelling topics among educators who embrace technology for learning and teaching are not about the tech at all, but about the students.”

Benefits for students include expanded opportunities for personalized learning , more collaborative classrooms and new strategies such as so-called “flipped learning,” in which students are introduced to the subject material outside the classroom (often online), with classroom time then being used to deepen understanding through discussion and problem-solving activities with peers.

For teachers who aspire to make an impact in this discipline, earning a master’s in educational technology is obviously about learning new tools, strategies and practices, but it’s also about understanding the supporting structures that must be in place to ensure the most successful outcomes. These include:

• Policy and legal issues
• Ethical issues (student privacy, etc.)
• Funding, grants and budgets
• Real-world applications (the world of work, partnership opportunities, etc.)
• Networking basics, hardware, learning management software
• Equity (community/school access and assets, student access)
• Ability to complete a school or district needs assessment/site tech survey analysis

Therefore, for educators who are inspired by the immense potential of educational technology, the value of a master’s degree cannot be overstated.

Careers in Educational Technology

“We need technology in every classroom and in every student and teacher’s hand,” says education technology pioneer David Warlick, “because it is the pen and paper of our time, and it is the lens through which we experience much of our world.”

In recent years, rising interest in educational technology has led to the emergence of new advanced degree programs that are designed to prepare educators to shift into an innovator’s mindset and become transformative technology leaders in their classroom, school or district.

The best programs are structured to impart a comprehensive understanding of the tools used in educational technology, the theories and practices, and critically important related issues (budgeting, legal/ethical considerations, real-world partnership opportunities, educational equity, etc.) that are essential for such technology-enhanced programs to deliver on their potential to inspire student learning, achievement and creativity.

For example, the University of San Diego, well-known for its innovative, online Master of Education program, is launching a new specialization. The program is designed to prepare teachers to become effective K-12 technology leaders and coaches, virtual educators and instructional innovators who embrace technology-influenced teaching practices to empower student learning.

The program’s fully online format — in which students learn from expert instructors who possess deep experience in the field, while also interacting with fellow teachers from across the country — enables busy education professionals to complete their master’s degree in 20 months while working full time.

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Foundations of Educational Technology

(2 reviews)

Penny Thompson, Oklahoma State University

Copyright Year: 2017

Publisher: Oklahoma State University

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

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Reviewed by Zita Podany, Adjunct Faculty, Education Dept., Portland Community College on 6/28/24

Chapter 1 A very short glimpse into educational technology. Two of the videos from YouTube basically say the same thing – one is cartoonish (created by SMARTboard technologies) the other provides additional information. However, it does not go in... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

Chapter 1 A very short glimpse into educational technology. Two of the videos from YouTube basically say the same thing – one is cartoonish (created by SMARTboard technologies) the other provides additional information. However, it does not go in depth about the history of computers and when they actually became adopted in schools as an educational tool with K12 students. This is just an overview from era BCE to current times as to how we came from cave paintings to using interactive devices in classroom. Not clear as to who the target audience is for this textbook. Is the target audience students in college classes who are planning on working in K12 education or is this geared towards educational technology in post-secondary settings?

Chapter 2.1 Video is no longer available – video of two children.

The problem with embedded videos and reliance upon external Internet resources is that they are here today and gone tomorrow. As an instructor it just makes time consuming finding a video that is no longer available and trying to figure out what the video contained to get an idea of what the intention of the video was and what it would add to the context of developmental psychology.

Chapter two does not give concrete examples of what sort of educational technology would be optimum at particular levels – recommendations in terms of devices and types of software being used currently in schools for those particular levels and would be inclusive to special education students and English language learners. If this textbook is geared towards individuals who are planning on working in K12, more resources need to be provided as to what software and tech tools are used at different stages of development (including students with special needs and language barriers).

Video of young adult and child is also no longer available so the following paragraphs in both instances of missing videos do not make sense as to what technology was used and to be able to see the child’s reaction. Was there technology being used?

Again, the use of YouTube videos (those external resources) are very transient resources and in their absence the subsequent narrative about the video does not make any sense.

Chapter 2 really goes over basic psychological stages of development -- Piaget’s and Erickson’s theories but there is no connective aspect in this chapter to how a K12 teacher would apply that to technology in a classroom setting – no concrete examples from students using technology at those levels and its effects on a child’s neurocognitive development and no mention of current research on how devices, such as cell phones, seem to affect and stimulate certain parts of the brain from being in passive to active cognitive states. No mention of how young students brain development can be affected by too much screen time or it addictive qualities.

This chapter is really a summation of chapters on from a basic psych course on Piaget and Erickson without drawing a connection or application to technology in K12 education. How do STEAM activities fit in? When is a good time to introduce keyboarding. How long should students at different neurocognitive stages be on device per day?

Chapter 3 discusses learning theory geared toward K12? There is some mention of programmed learning based on operant conditioning from drill and practice for basic skills (such as learning vocabulary and math skills), to gamification strategies such as “leveling up” to keep students engaged with certain types of content. However, this is only mentioned in one paragraph whereas the rest of the chapter deals with the more theoretical psychology of behavior modification found in basic psychology courses. There are no concrete examples of how some drill and practice software is really counterproductive and studies have shown that they really do not have lasting effects in learning concepts on a standalone basis. Would have been good to mention how MECC software in the past, such as the Oregon Trail and Where in the World is Carmen San Diego only reinforced guessing strategies and students when given pre and post tests did not learn anything from those particular “educational” games.

Chapter 3 also includes a page or two regarding social psychology aspects and provides a YouTube video of Albert Bandura explaining his research in modeling aggression in children using the Bobo doll. Again, this is very dated and does not provide current research of how social media has affected student behavior in terms of brain research, “social acceptance” for getting media clicks and the increase in reinforcing influences of negative behaviors to achieve “likes” and views and its addictive properties on developing minds. The high increase of anonymity in the digital sphere, the bullying tactics and its implication on mental and psychosocial health and development. The rise of young students using social medial platforms to bully and to body-shame others as well as staging and instigating school violence and posting videos on those platforms. These are all increasing and concerning issues in education as more technology is available to younger children without proper vetting by the adults in their lives.

The resources provided in this chapters are basic information found in most educational psychology textbooks without connective threads to today’s issues faced in schools and whether certain tech tools are appropriate for certain stages of human development.

The information is pretty dated without including more current research in these areas and how it relates to educational technology.

Chapter 4 covers goal orientation in terms of achievement of students in academic subjects, the failure-avoidant goals, social goals, and encouraging mastery goals in core academic subjects (math, English, science, history and foreign languages). Covers intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors. Yet our schools now have a lot more emphasis on other areas such as CTE, STEAM, music, art, ELL, special Ed. Schools now employ social workers, psychologists, SEL curriculum and trauma-informed practices to reach students from all backgrounds. The integration of technology as young as Kindergarten is a reality in terms of motivation, addictive properties, behavior, and attention spans. Would like to see more current research mentioned in these areas instead of the standard research from times prior to this infusion of digital tech in and out of school environments. We now have more students consuming digital content than ever before leading to increases in sleep disorders, depression, bullying, anti-social behaviors, divided attention, anxiety and unable to discern fact from fiction.

The Attribution section needs to include trauma-informed and SEL practices in addition to what is presented. Additional, more up-to-date examples need to be provided as well as a focus on creating inclusive classroom environments. In some regions we have dual language classroom which does impact the learning strategies to use. Would like to see more intercultural communication examples. Attributions as experienced by students from other cultures can be perceived in negative ways. Classrooms today have more of a diverse mix of students so being cognizant of cultural differences in how we address motivation, self-efficacy, expectations, rewards, and communication (verbal and non-verbal aspects). How do we build those classrooms that are inclusive, safe and will allow students to learn and be successful. How does technology and its use fit into this? Age-appropriate pedagogy and developmentally appropriate practices in the use of technology to create learning spaces needs to be addressed.

What do student need to know in terms of 21st Century skills and how do those models relate to teaching those skills at each stage of learning while navigating an increasing tech-driven society. How do we use those learning stages to teach with tech tools to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills especially with AI, Deep Fake, Social Media, Fake News, Disinformation/Misinformation, Immersive Technologies (VR/AR..), cultural divides and navigating in a glut of information. This textbook needs to include more of the current trends, modalities and issues related to our digital natives and the impact it has on teaching and learning venues (F2F, Remote, Fully-online, hybrid, etc.). During COVID-19 we a lot of issues crop up as schools went into fully-online mode and some of the fallout from that is as we returned back to classrooms has shown the disparities and the full impact on psycho-social health and learning.

Chapter 5 glosses over adult and workplace learning yet a connection is not made in terms of how it applies and what issues arise to the use of technology in various modalities.

Chapter 6 glosses over communication models and includes a YouTube video of “Death by PowerPoint by David Phillips from 10 years ago. It is a good video however, some of the language is now dated. Barring some of the dated phrasing, it is a good video on how NOT to create bulleted PowerPoint presentations but to use PowerPoint to tell compelling stories and keep the audience engaged. I too use that video in my classes but warn students not to take issue with a couple of the phrases used by Phillips. This is a brief chapter and I wish it had included some aspects of multi-cultural communication strategies to keep in mind as we are living in a more globalized digital sphere – such as assumptions, stereotypes, dated language, attention spans, etc. What about AI issues and the use of language and images? Are there biases there? How can we overcome some of those hurdles and assumptions when bots create content or narratives?

Chapter 7 -- Research in Educational Technology. Very generic overview of past and present research models. Would have like to see more integration of current research as it relates to gamification, drill and practice, various assessment strategies, project-based and simulations and how each different method affects learning and the retention of what has been learned as well as applying concepts to novel situations to synthesize and derive new meaning and content.

Chapter 8 -- Instructional Design Good videos on the topic. One video is no longer available: Dick and Carey. There is a link to an external website for the Dick and Carey model however, the ads and pop ups were just too much to tolerate. Wish there was a better way we could snag good content from websites without all those ads and popups, which really serve to distract from the readability of the information on those external website links.

Chapter 9 - Technology selection and integration – This chapter needs expansion and more up-to-date information as this is the crux of the whole concept of the book, Foundations of Educational TECHNOLOGY.

This is pretty dated now: “For example, when teachers use word processors to prepare and then continuously update teaching materials, or spreadsheet software to track and calculate grades, they are increasing their efficiency and productivity without fundamentally changing the task at hand. “ (chapter 9.2, paragraph 1)

We now have LMS software – fully integrated software packages that allow us to create content and upload to LMS platforms such as Moodle, Canvas, D2L and more. Most have integrated grading systems so no need to track grades via a spreadsheet anymore (at least not for the last 15 years). The content in this chapter is a bit dated and needs to highlight more current trends in K12 use and integration of technology across the curriculum. We have gone beyond the use of word processing and tracking student progress via spreadsheets.

Needed to highlight current resources, software, pedagogy and further reading from places such as Tech&Learning (https://www.techlearning.com/magazine).

The subsequent chapters are just short versions of how we adapt and adopt technology from a sociology angle as well as copyright and ethical issues. As things are changing rapidly would have like to see more expansion in this arena to also include current events and court cases.

Did not even mention the hurdles faced by schools and school districts in implementing technology, the issues involved and the budgetary concerns. Did not mention Internet safety curriculum, developing AUPs (acceptable use policies), equitable access to technology (Internet access, up-to-date devices).

As mentioned earlier, if this is a focus on K12, then more information and examples need to include how technology is being implemented in K12 learning environments and its impact on students and teachers.

Should include more relevant links to educational resources and websites.

Content Accuracy rating: 2

There are several links to YouTube videos that no longer work. The videos are no longer available. This covers fundamental information from introductory psychology and sociology coursework rather than looking at current trends in educational technology, its trends, applications, and results. Needs updating and needs to include current research specific to educational technology.

Not sure who the intended audience is? K12 teachers or adults?

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

A lot of the information is dated. Confusion as to who the audience is based on the content. If this is meant for K12 -- the use of technology in K12 education and is meant as a textbook for current or aspiring K12 teachers, then this content is too generic, dated and does not include current trends and research in K12 education, especially in the integration of technology across the curriculum.

YouTube videos are pretty dated and some YouTube video are not longer available. (broken links)

Clarity rating: 3

Glossary of terms and an index would be good. Would have been good to show some examples of current technology in use in K12 classrooms.

Consistency rating: 3

The chapters are short, include links to YouTube videos, have a summary, and resources page for each chapter. Includes heading in each chapter and chapter subsections.

Modularity rating: 3

Although the material presented in each chapter is short, there is not much content in each section beyond the summation of basic educational psychology content one would get in a course on Educational Psychology in a university teacher-prep program.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

The flow is good, the content is sparse and not current.

Interface rating: 4

Other than broken links to YouTube videos, the flow is good and the interface is easy to navigate. Would have been good to have glossary

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I did not find any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

There are some assumptions that may not be accurate. Concentration on core academics without mentioning dual language classroom, ELL, SPED, and highly diverse classrooms which have implications of how technology is used, consumed and taught. Needed to include more on trauma-informed pedagogy as well as SEL strategies (Social Emotional Learning).

The book title, based on the content, should really be, Foundations of Educational Psychology.

Reviewed by Erin Weldon, Instructional Design Specialist, Trine University on 11/22/22

This textbook maps out the foundations of educational technology into specific categories. Readers develop an understanding of the overall topic through the historical aspects of the idea of educational technology, followed by developmental... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This textbook maps out the foundations of educational technology into specific categories. Readers develop an understanding of the overall topic through the historical aspects of the idea of educational technology, followed by developmental theories, learning theories, motivation to increase engagement, adult and workplace learning, how communication impacts instructional design, thorough research and different views of educational technology, a chapter that covers the most critical aspects of instructional design, integrating technology and the selection process, acceptance and diffusion of technology, and ending with a chapter on professional ethics. The textbook provides instructional design opportunities in many different disciplines in addition to education. The textbook provides a table of contents; however, there is no index glossary. It might be beneficial to include a glossary of the terms used throughout the book that relate to educational technology. As an introduction to the topic, readers might find it helpful to understand the meaning of terms.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

Content is accurate and up-to-date on theories regarding Educational Technology. This textbook appears to be unbiased as it offers research on different perspectives and theories; however, I noticed in the Chapter 11.2: Conflicts of Interest, the last paragraph could come across as biased information as there could be opinionated information written.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

There are some videos throughout the textbook that represent relevant information; however, some a from more than five years ago. To avoid obsolete information, you might consider choosing content that has been created within the last five years. As many know, technology can change very quickly!

The text is clear and accessible to read most of the time. The URL links do not appear accessible. It might be helpful to include descriptive hyperlinks for each of the YouTube videos embedded into the book. Technology jargon is used occasionally throughout the text. It might be beneficial to include the definition of the terms at the end of the pages or a include a glossary at the end.

Consistency rating: 5

All terminology and the framework is consistent and relevant to Educational Technology.

Modularity rating: 4

The text is organized very well into specific categories and does not overwhelm the reader. I do find the videos a little distracting. It might be helpful to include the videos as a descriptive hyperlink rather than appear on the page.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Each chapter demonstrates a great understanding of the topic and the chapters lead into one another. The book flows in a way that readers will not be confused or feel as if something is missing before reading another chapter.

Overall, the textbook was simple to navigate; however, it might be useful to include page navigation at the bottom left and right corners. Readers can move from page to page without having to go back to the table of contents. Including the next topic with the navigational buttons would also increase ease of navigation.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive. I found the research to be very thorough and the text includes a variety of perspectives.

Overall, this textbook is a great introduction to Educational Technology and discusses the key points leaders will need to know about the discipline.

Table of Contents

Introduction to Educational Technology

Human Development

Learning Theory

Adult & Workspace Learning

Communication

Research in Educational Technology

Instructional Design

Technology Selection and Integration

Acceptance and Diffusion of Technology

Professional Ethics

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This text provides a a graduate level introduction to the field of educational technology. 

About the Contributors

I am an associate professor in the  Educational Technology program  at  Oklahoma State University .

My research interests center on areas where technology and human cognition intersect. I’m particularly interested in how immersion in digital technology may or may not be changing habits of mind and attitudes toward learning. My research also extends to how people learn from each other in technology-mediated environments, including both formal learning management systems and informal social networking and content sharing sites.

Before beginning my academic career I was an e-learning developer and an accounting systems developer.

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Introduction to EdTech

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Beginner level

No prior experience is required

What you'll learn

Understand the key components of EdTech

Understand the key drivers behind the rise of new edtech solutions, learning methodologies and business models

Understand how EdTech can be applied within institutions, in class and in our daily life

Understand how new technologies and business models are shaping the way learning is delivered and consumed

Skills you'll gain

• Online Education
• Digital Education

AI in Education

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There are 4 modules in this course

Co-developed by Supercharger Ventures and EDHEC Business School.

EdTech, short for Education Technology, is one of the most exciting sectors in the economy today poised to re-shape how education systems work and how people learn around the world. Introduction to EdTech MOOC is designed to explore EdTech fundamentals and build the foundational knowledge for educators, institutions, entrepreneurs and governments to appreciate the impact and potential of new tools, technologies, business models and learning methods in education. In this course, through a series of video lectures, expert interviews, case studies, and assessments you will learn about the major areas of EdTech including Alternative & Digital Education, Hybrid Learning, Challenger Universities, Learning Apps, How Institutions can apply EdTech, as well as, the core technologies driving EdTech including Artificial Intelligence (AI), Data and AR/VR. You will learn from leading academics and global experts who will share real-life examples about the innovations, technology and policies driving the transformation of education.

Foundations of EdTech

What's included.

8 videos 2 readings 1 quiz 2 discussion prompts

8 videos • Total 97 minutes

• Welcome to Introduction to EdTech MOOC • 2 minutes • Preview module
• What is EdTech? • 5 minutes
• The drivers behind EdTech • 5 minutes
• Interview with expert: Maria Spies, HolonIQ, Co-CEO and Co-Founder • 18 minutes
• The ABCDE of EdTech • 7 minutes
• Interview with expert: Pedro Vasconcellos, Pearson, Vice President Ventures & Strategic Investments • 27 minutes
• Investment Trends in EdTech • 8 minutes
• Interview with expert: Deborah Quazzo, GSV Ventures, Managing Partner • 22 minutes

2 readings • Total 50 minutes

• Additional Material - Foundations of EdTech - Part 1 • 10 minutes
• Additional Material - Foundations of EdTech - Part 2 • 40 minutes

1 quiz • Total 30 minutes

• Foundations of EdTech • 30 minutes

2 discussion prompts • Total 20 minutes

• Foundations of EdTech - Part 1 • 10 minutes
• Foundations of EdTech - Part 2 • 10 minutes

Digital and Alternative Education

7 videos 2 readings 1 quiz 2 discussion prompts

7 videos • Total 92 minutes

• What is digital and alternative education? • 5 minutes • Preview module
• Early childhood and K-12 • 6 minutes
• Interview with expert: Attila Gazdag, Albert Whitman Media, President • 13 minutes
• The rise of challenger universities • 7 minutes
• Interview with expert: Mayank Kumar, upGrad, Co-Founder and MD • 20 minutes
• Interview with expert: Will Fan, NewCampus, CEO and Head of School • 16 minutes
• Interview with expert: Neil Allison, The Adecco Group, Vice President Strategy and Transformation • 21 minutes

2 readings • Total 20 minutes

• Additional Material - Digital and Alternative Education - Part 1 • 10 minutes
• Additional Material - Digital and Alternative Education - Part 2 • 10 minutes
• Digital and Alternative Education • 30 minutes
• Digital and Alternative Education - Part 1 • 10 minutes
• Digital and Alternative Education - Part 2 • 10 minutes

EdTech for Institutions

19 videos 20 readings 3 quizzes 2 discussion prompts

19 videos • Total 86 minutes

• How Education Institutions are evolving in the post-covid era • 5 minutes • Preview module
• How is the traditional classroom changing? • 7 minutes
• What improvements does technology bring to the classroom? • 4 minutes
• Introduction from David Wood - IVEY BUSINESS SCHOOL • 1 minute
• Welcome • 2 minutes
• Designing for Online Learning • 3 minutes
• Teaching and Learning Online • 3 minutes
• Value of Online Learning for Educators • 3 minutes
• Course Design • 3 minutes
• Review • 1 minute
• EdTech as a strategic priority • 1 minute
• Funding: Building the business case • 2 minutes
• Building an EdTech team • 9 minutes
• Establishing content options: partnering versus go-it-alone • 4 minutes
• Building momentum - onboarding new technologies • 4 minutes
• How EdTech innovations have been applied • 3 minutes
• How EdTech innovations have been evaluated • 2 minutes
• How EdTech innovations have been integrated and deployed • 4 minutes
• Interview with expert: Olli Vallo, Education Alliance Finland, CEO • 15 minutes

20 readings • Total 200 minutes

• Intro Module 3 • 10 minutes
• Introduction to Arne Die Kieser - EDHEC BUSINESS SCHOOl • 10 minutes
• A Potential Future for Metaverse Business: What Does the Future Hold? • 10 minutes
• Additional Material: Evaluation of Education • 10 minutes
• Introduction from ESMT BUSINESS SCHOOL • 10 minutes
• Let's move on • 10 minutes
• Intro - Funding: Building the business case • 10 minutes
• Activity - Digital Upgrade versus Digital Transformation • 10 minutes
• Further Reading (optional) • 10 minutes
• Cost-benefit analysis and NPV • 10 minutes
• Intro: Positioning and building the EdTech team • 10 minutes
• Building an EdTech team • 10 minutes
• Intro - Establishing content options: partnering versus go-it-alone • 10 minutes
• Additional material - Establishing content options: partnering versus go-it-alone • 10 minutes
• Intro - Building momentum - onboarding new technologies • 10 minutes
• Additional material - Building momentum - onboarding new technologies • 10 minutes
• Summary • 10 minutes
• Introduction to Roland Fines - EDHEC BUSINESS SCHOOL • 10 minutes
• Lifelong learning:How to acquire new skills throughout your career? • 10 minutes

3 quizzes • Total 60 minutes

• EdTech for Institutions • 30 minutes
• Additional Material - EdTech as a strategic priority • 10 minutes
• Additional Material - Funding: Building the business case • 20 minutes
• EdTech as a strategic priority • 10 minutes
• Funding: Building the business case • 10 minutes

7 videos 3 readings 1 quiz 2 discussion prompts

7 videos • Total 85 minutes

• What is AI? • 6 minutes • Preview module
• How to apply AI in education • 5 minutes
• Interview with expert: Beth Porter, Riff Analytics, Co-Founder • 17 minutes
• Ethics of AI • 5 minutes
• Interview with expert: Douglas Arner, University of Hong Kong (HKU), , Kerry Holdings Professor in Law • 22 minutes
• AR/VR in Education • 5 minutes
• Interview with expert: Kai Liang, MEL Science, Director of Business Development • 21 minutes

3 readings • Total 22 minutes

• Additional Material - AI in Education - Part 1 • 10 minutes
• Additional Material - AI in education - Part 2 • 10 minutes
• Congratulations ! • 2 minutes
• AI in education • 30 minutes
• AI in Education - Part 1 • 10 minutes
• AI in education - Part 2 • 10 minutes

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Founded in 1906, EDHEC is now one of Europe’s top 15 business schools . Based in Lille, Nice, Paris, London and Singapore, and counting over 90 nationalities on its campuses, EDHEC is a fully international school directly connected to the business world. With over 40,000 graduates in 120 countries, it trains committed managers capable of dealing with the challenges of a fast-evolving world. Harnessing its core values of excellence, innovation and entrepreneurial spirit, EDHEC has developed a strategic model founded on research of true practical use to society, businesses and students, and which is particularly evident in the work of EDHEC-Risk Institute and Scientific Beta. The School functions as a genuine laboratory of ideas and plays a pioneering role in the field of digital education via EDHEC Online, the first fully online degree-level training platform. These various components make EDHEC a centre of knowledge, experience and diversity, geared to preparing new generations of managers to excel in a world subject to transformational change. EDHEC in figures: 8,600 students in academic education, 19 degree programmes ranging from bachelor to PhD level, 184 professors and researchers, 11 specialist research centres.

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Learner reviews

Showing 3 of 63

Reviewed on Jun 25, 2024

I am confident that this great course will prove beneficial to all who works as educators or EdTech practitioners.

Reviewed on May 30, 2022

Excellent and very complete course on the matter. Understanding EdTech via different lenses of different stakeholders provides a great diversity of information. Go for it you'll learn a lot !

Reviewed on Mar 8, 2023

Good information but I did not enjoy the interviews very much.

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REALIZING THE PROMISE:

Leading up to the 75th anniversary of the UN General Assembly, this “Realizing the promise: How can education technology improve learning for all?” publication kicks off the Center for Universal Education’s first playbook in a series to help improve education around the world.

It is intended as an evidence-based tool for ministries of education, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, to adopt and more successfully invest in education technology.

While there is no single education initiative that will achieve the same results everywhere—as school systems differ in learners and educators, as well as in the availability and quality of materials and technologies—an important first step is understanding how technology is used given specific local contexts and needs.

The surveys in this playbook are designed to be adapted to collect this information from educators, learners, and school leaders and guide decisionmakers in expanding the use of technology.  

Introduction

While technology has disrupted most sectors of the economy and changed how we communicate, access information, work, and even play, its impact on schools, teaching, and learning has been much more limited. We believe that this limited impact is primarily due to technology being been used to replace analog tools, without much consideration given to playing to technology’s comparative advantages. These comparative advantages, relative to traditional “chalk-and-talk” classroom instruction, include helping to scale up standardized instruction, facilitate differentiated instruction, expand opportunities for practice, and increase student engagement. When schools use technology to enhance the work of educators and to improve the quality and quantity of educational content, learners will thrive.

Further, COVID-19 has laid bare that, in today’s environment where pandemics and the effects of climate change are likely to occur, schools cannot always provide in-person education—making the case for investing in education technology.

Here we argue for a simple yet surprisingly rare approach to education technology that seeks to:

• Understand the needs, infrastructure, and capacity of a school system—the diagnosis;
• Survey the best available evidence on interventions that match those conditions—the evidence; and
• Closely monitor the results of innovations before they are scaled up—the prognosis.

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The framework.

Our approach builds on a simple yet intuitive theoretical framework created two decades ago by two of the most prominent education researchers in the United States, David K. Cohen and Deborah Loewenberg Ball. They argue that what matters most to improve learning is the interactions among educators and learners around educational materials. We believe that the failed school-improvement efforts in the U.S. that motivated Cohen and Ball’s framework resemble the ed-tech reforms in much of the developing world to date in the lack of clarity improving the interactions between educators, learners, and the educational material. We build on their framework by adding parents as key agents that mediate the relationships between learners and educators and the material (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The instructional core

Adapted from Cohen and Ball (1999)

As the figure above suggests, ed-tech interventions can affect the instructional core in a myriad of ways. Yet, just because technology can do something, it does not mean it should. School systems in developing countries differ along many dimensions and each system is likely to have different needs for ed-tech interventions, as well as different infrastructure and capacity to enact such interventions.

The diagnosis:

How can school systems assess their needs and preparedness.

A useful first step for any school system to determine whether it should invest in education technology is to diagnose its:

• Specific needs to improve student learning (e.g., raising the average level of achievement, remediating gaps among low performers, and challenging high performers to develop higher-order skills);
• Infrastructure to adopt technology-enabled solutions (e.g., electricity connection, availability of space and outlets, stock of computers, and Internet connectivity at school and at learners’ homes); and
• Capacity to integrate technology in the instructional process (e.g., learners’ and educators’ level of familiarity and comfort with hardware and software, their beliefs about the level of usefulness of technology for learning purposes, and their current uses of such technology).

Before engaging in any new data collection exercise, school systems should take full advantage of existing administrative data that could shed light on these three main questions. This could be in the form of internal evaluations but also international learner assessments, such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), and/or the Progress in International Literacy Study (PIRLS), and the Teaching and Learning International Study (TALIS). But if school systems lack information on their preparedness for ed-tech reforms or if they seek to complement existing data with a richer set of indicators, we developed a set of surveys for learners, educators, and school leaders. Download the full report to see how we map out the main aspects covered by these surveys, in hopes of highlighting how they could be used to inform decisions around the adoption of ed-tech interventions.

The evidence:

How can school systems identify promising ed-tech interventions.

There is no single “ed-tech” initiative that will achieve the same results everywhere, simply because school systems differ in learners and educators, as well as in the availability and quality of materials and technologies. Instead, to realize the potential of education technology to accelerate student learning, decisionmakers should focus on four potential uses of technology that play to its comparative advantages and complement the work of educators to accelerate student learning (Figure 2). These comparative advantages include:

• Scaling up quality instruction, such as through prerecorded quality lessons.
• Facilitating differentiated instruction, through, for example, computer-adaptive learning and live one-on-one tutoring.
• Expanding opportunities to practice.
• Increasing learner engagement through videos and games.

Figure 2: Comparative advantages of technology

Here we review the evidence on ed-tech interventions from 37 studies in 20 countries*, organizing them by comparative advantage. It’s important to note that ours is not the only way to classify these interventions (e.g., video tutorials could be considered as a strategy to scale up instruction or increase learner engagement), but we believe it may be useful to highlight the needs that they could address and why technology is well positioned to do so.

When discussing specific studies, we report the magnitude of the effects of interventions using standard deviations (SDs). SDs are a widely used metric in research to express the effect of a program or policy with respect to a business-as-usual condition (e.g., test scores). There are several ways to make sense of them. One is to categorize the magnitude of the effects based on the results of impact evaluations. In developing countries, effects below 0.1 SDs are considered to be small, effects between 0.1 and 0.2 SDs are medium, and those above 0.2 SDs are large (for reviews that estimate the average effect of groups of interventions, called “meta analyses,” see e.g., Conn, 2017; Kremer, Brannen, & Glennerster, 2013; McEwan, 2014; Snilstveit et al., 2015; Evans & Yuan, 2020.)

*In surveying the evidence, we began by compiling studies from prior general and ed-tech specific evidence reviews that some of us have written and from ed-tech reviews conducted by others. Then, we tracked the studies cited by the ones we had previously read and reviewed those, as well. In identifying studies for inclusion, we focused on experimental and quasi-experimental evaluations of education technology interventions from pre-school to secondary school in low- and middle-income countries that were released between 2000 and 2020. We only included interventions that sought to improve student learning directly (i.e., students’ interaction with the material), as opposed to interventions that have impacted achievement indirectly, by reducing teacher absence or increasing parental engagement. This process yielded 37 studies in 20 countries (see the full list of studies in Appendix B).

Scaling up standardized instruction

One of the ways in which technology may improve the quality of education is through its capacity to deliver standardized quality content at scale. This feature of technology may be particularly useful in three types of settings: (a) those in “hard-to-staff” schools (i.e., schools that struggle to recruit educators with the requisite training and experience—typically, in rural and/or remote areas) (see, e.g., Urquiola & Vegas, 2005); (b) those in which many educators are frequently absent from school (e.g., Chaudhury, Hammer, Kremer, Muralidharan, & Rogers, 2006; Muralidharan, Das, Holla, & Mohpal, 2017); and/or (c) those in which educators have low levels of pedagogical and subject matter expertise (e.g., Bietenbeck, Piopiunik, & Wiederhold, 2018; Bold et al., 2017; Metzler & Woessmann, 2012; Santibañez, 2006) and do not have opportunities to observe and receive feedback (e.g., Bruns, Costa, & Cunha, 2018; Cilliers, Fleisch, Prinsloo, & Taylor, 2018). Technology could address this problem by: (a) disseminating lessons delivered by qualified educators to a large number of learners (e.g., through prerecorded or live lessons); (b) enabling distance education (e.g., for learners in remote areas and/or during periods of school closures); and (c) distributing hardware preloaded with educational materials.

Prerecorded lessons

Technology seems to be well placed to amplify the impact of effective educators by disseminating their lessons. Evidence on the impact of prerecorded lessons is encouraging, but not conclusive. Some initiatives that have used short instructional videos to complement regular instruction, in conjunction with other learning materials, have raised student learning on independent assessments. For example, Beg et al. (2020) evaluated an initiative in Punjab, Pakistan in which grade 8 classrooms received an intervention that included short videos to substitute live instruction, quizzes for learners to practice the material from every lesson, tablets for educators to learn the material and follow the lesson, and LED screens to project the videos onto a classroom screen. After six months, the intervention improved the performance of learners on independent tests of math and science by 0.19 and 0.24 SDs, respectively but had no discernible effect on the math and science section of Punjab’s high-stakes exams.

One study suggests that approaches that are far less technologically sophisticated can also improve learning outcomes—especially, if the business-as-usual instruction is of low quality. For example, Naslund-Hadley, Parker, and Hernandez-Agramonte (2014) evaluated a preschool math program in Cordillera, Paraguay that used audio segments and written materials four days per week for an hour per day during the school day. After five months, the intervention improved math scores by 0.16 SDs, narrowing gaps between low- and high-achieving learners, and between those with and without educators with formal training in early childhood education.

Yet, the integration of prerecorded material into regular instruction has not always been successful. For example, de Barros (2020) evaluated an intervention that combined instructional videos for math and science with infrastructure upgrades (e.g., two “smart” classrooms, two TVs, and two tablets), printed workbooks for students, and in-service training for educators of learners in grades 9 and 10 in Haryana, India (all materials were mapped onto the official curriculum). After 11 months, the intervention negatively impacted math achievement (by 0.08 SDs) and had no effect on science (with respect to business as usual classes). It reduced the share of lesson time that educators devoted to instruction and negatively impacted an index of instructional quality. Likewise, Seo (2017) evaluated several combinations of infrastructure (solar lights and TVs) and prerecorded videos (in English and/or bilingual) for grade 11 students in northern Tanzania and found that none of the variants improved student learning, even when the videos were used. The study reports effects from the infrastructure component across variants, but as others have noted (Muralidharan, Romero, & Wüthrich, 2019), this approach to estimating impact is problematic.

A very similar intervention delivered after school hours, however, had sizeable effects on learners’ basic skills. Chiplunkar, Dhar, and Nagesh (2020) evaluated an initiative in Chennai (the capital city of the state of Tamil Nadu, India) delivered by the same organization as above that combined short videos that explained key concepts in math and science with worksheets, facilitator-led instruction, small groups for peer-to-peer learning, and occasional career counseling and guidance for grade 9 students. These lessons took place after school for one hour, five times a week. After 10 months, it had large effects on learners’ achievement as measured by tests of basic skills in math and reading, but no effect on a standardized high-stakes test in grade 10 or socio-emotional skills (e.g., teamwork, decisionmaking, and communication).

Drawing general lessons from this body of research is challenging for at least two reasons. First, all of the studies above have evaluated the impact of prerecorded lessons combined with several other components (e.g., hardware, print materials, or other activities). Therefore, it is possible that the effects found are due to these additional components, rather than to the recordings themselves, or to the interaction between the two (see Muralidharan, 2017 for a discussion of the challenges of interpreting “bundled” interventions). Second, while these studies evaluate some type of prerecorded lessons, none examines the content of such lessons. Thus, it seems entirely plausible that the direction and magnitude of the effects depends largely on the quality of the recordings (e.g., the expertise of the educator recording it, the amount of preparation that went into planning the recording, and its alignment with best teaching practices).

These studies also raise three important questions worth exploring in future research. One of them is why none of the interventions discussed above had effects on high-stakes exams, even if their materials are typically mapped onto the official curriculum. It is possible that the official curricula are simply too challenging for learners in these settings, who are several grade levels behind expectations and who often need to reinforce basic skills (see Pritchett & Beatty, 2015). Another question is whether these interventions have long-term effects on teaching practices. It seems plausible that, if these interventions are deployed in contexts with low teaching quality, educators may learn something from watching the videos or listening to the recordings with learners. Yet another question is whether these interventions make it easier for schools to deliver instruction to learners whose native language is other than the official medium of instruction.

Distance education

Technology can also allow learners living in remote areas to access education. The evidence on these initiatives is encouraging. For example, Johnston and Ksoll (2017) evaluated a program that broadcasted live instruction via satellite to rural primary school students in the Volta and Greater Accra regions of Ghana. For this purpose, the program also equipped classrooms with the technology needed to connect to a studio in Accra, including solar panels, a satellite modem, a projector, a webcam, microphones, and a computer with interactive software. After two years, the intervention improved the numeracy scores of students in grades 2 through 4, and some foundational literacy tasks, but it had no effect on attendance or classroom time devoted to instruction, as captured by school visits. The authors interpreted these results as suggesting that the gains in achievement may be due to improving the quality of instruction that children received (as opposed to increased instructional time). Naik, Chitre, Bhalla, and Rajan (2019) evaluated a similar program in the Indian state of Karnataka and also found positive effects on learning outcomes, but it is not clear whether those effects are due to the program or due to differences in the groups of students they compared to estimate the impact of the initiative.

In one context (Mexico), this type of distance education had positive long-term effects. Navarro-Sola (2019) took advantage of the staggered rollout of the telesecundarias (i.e., middle schools with lessons broadcasted through satellite TV) in 1968 to estimate its impact. The policy had short-term effects on students’ enrollment in school: For every telesecundaria per 50 children, 10 students enrolled in middle school and two pursued further education. It also had a long-term influence on the educational and employment trajectory of its graduates. Each additional year of education induced by the policy increased average income by nearly 18 percent. This effect was attributable to more graduates entering the labor force and shifting from agriculture and the informal sector. Similarly, Fabregas (2019) leveraged a later expansion of this policy in 1993 and found that each additional telesecundaria per 1,000 adolescents led to an average increase of 0.2 years of education, and a decline in fertility for women, but no conclusive evidence of long-term effects on labor market outcomes.

It is crucial to interpret these results keeping in mind the settings where the interventions were implemented. As we mention above, part of the reason why they have proven effective is that the “counterfactual” conditions for learning (i.e., what would have happened to learners in the absence of such programs) was either to not have access to schooling or to be exposed to low-quality instruction. School systems interested in taking up similar interventions should assess the extent to which their learners (or parts of their learner population) find themselves in similar conditions to the subjects of the studies above. This illustrates the importance of assessing the needs of a system before reviewing the evidence.

Preloaded hardware

Technology also seems well positioned to disseminate educational materials. Specifically, hardware (e.g., desktop computers, laptops, or tablets) could also help deliver educational software (e.g., word processing, reference texts, and/or games). In theory, these materials could not only undergo a quality assurance review (e.g., by curriculum specialists and educators), but also draw on the interactions with learners for adjustments (e.g., identifying areas needing reinforcement) and enable interactions between learners and educators.

In practice, however, most initiatives that have provided learners with free computers, laptops, and netbooks do not leverage any of the opportunities mentioned above. Instead, they install a standard set of educational materials and hope that learners find them helpful enough to take them up on their own. Students rarely do so, and instead use the laptops for recreational purposes—often, to the detriment of their learning (see, e.g., Malamud & Pop-Eleches, 2011). In fact, free netbook initiatives have not only consistently failed to improve academic achievement in math or language (e.g., Cristia et al., 2017), but they have had no impact on learners’ general computer skills (e.g., Beuermann et al., 2015). Some of these initiatives have had small impacts on cognitive skills, but the mechanisms through which those effects occurred remains unclear.

To our knowledge, the only successful deployment of a free laptop initiative was one in which a team of researchers equipped the computers with remedial software. Mo et al. (2013) evaluated a version of the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) program for grade 3 students in migrant schools in Beijing, China in which the laptops were loaded with a remedial software mapped onto the national curriculum for math (similar to the software products that we discuss under “practice exercises” below). After nine months, the program improved math achievement by 0.17 SDs and computer skills by 0.33 SDs. If a school system decides to invest in free laptops, this study suggests that the quality of the software on the laptops is crucial.

To date, however, the evidence suggests that children do not learn more from interacting with laptops than they do from textbooks. For example, Bando, Gallego, Gertler, and Romero (2016) compared the effect of free laptop and textbook provision in 271 elementary schools in disadvantaged areas of Honduras. After seven months, students in grades 3 and 6 who had received the laptops performed on par with those who had received the textbooks in math and language. Further, even if textbooks essentially become obsolete at the end of each school year, whereas laptops can be reloaded with new materials for each year, the costs of laptop provision (not just the hardware, but also the technical assistance, Internet, and training associated with it) are not yet low enough to make them a more cost-effective way of delivering content to learners.

Evidence on the provision of tablets equipped with software is encouraging but limited. For example, de Hoop et al. (2020) evaluated a composite intervention for first grade students in Zambia’s Eastern Province that combined infrastructure (electricity via solar power), hardware (projectors and tablets), and educational materials (lesson plans for educators and interactive lessons for learners, both loaded onto the tablets and mapped onto the official Zambian curriculum). After 14 months, the intervention had improved student early-grade reading by 0.4 SDs, oral vocabulary scores by 0.25 SDs, and early-grade math by 0.22 SDs. It also improved students’ achievement by 0.16 on a locally developed assessment. The multifaceted nature of the program, however, makes it challenging to identify the components that are driving the positive effects. Pitchford (2015) evaluated an intervention that provided tablets equipped with educational “apps,” to be used for 30 minutes per day for two months to develop early math skills among students in grades 1 through 3 in Lilongwe, Malawi. The evaluation found positive impacts in math achievement, but the main study limitation is that it was conducted in a single school.

Facilitating differentiated instruction

Another way in which technology may improve educational outcomes is by facilitating the delivery of differentiated or individualized instruction. Most developing countries massively expanded access to schooling in recent decades by building new schools and making education more affordable, both by defraying direct costs, as well as compensating for opportunity costs (Duflo, 2001; World Bank, 2018). These initiatives have not only rapidly increased the number of learners enrolled in school, but have also increased the variability in learner’ preparation for schooling. Consequently, a large number of learners perform well below grade-based curricular expectations (see, e.g., Duflo, Dupas, & Kremer, 2011; Pritchett & Beatty, 2015). These learners are unlikely to get much from “one-size-fits-all” instruction, in which a single educator delivers instruction deemed appropriate for the middle (or top) of the achievement distribution (Banerjee & Duflo, 2011). Technology could potentially help these learners by providing them with: (a) instruction and opportunities for practice that adjust to the level and pace of preparation of each individual (known as “computer-adaptive learning” (CAL)); or (b) live, one-on-one tutoring.

Computer-adaptive learning

One of the main comparative advantages of technology is its ability to diagnose students’ initial learning levels and assign students to instruction and exercises of appropriate difficulty. No individual educator—no matter how talented—can be expected to provide individualized instruction to all learners in his/her class simultaneously . In this respect, technology is uniquely positioned to complement traditional teaching. This use of technology could help learners master basic skills and help them get more out of schooling.

Although many software products evaluated in recent years have been categorized as CAL, many rely on a relatively coarse level of differentiation at an initial stage (e.g., a diagnostic test) without further differentiation. We discuss these initiatives under the category of “increasing opportunities for practice” below. CAL initiatives complement an initial diagnostic with dynamic adaptation (i.e., at each response or set of responses from learners) to adjust both the initial level of difficulty and rate at which it increases or decreases, depending on whether learners’ responses are correct or incorrect.

Existing evidence on this specific type of programs is highly promising. Most famously, Banerjee et al. (2007) evaluated CAL software in Vadodara, in the Indian state of Gujarat, in which grade 4 students were offered two hours of shared computer time per week before and after school, during which they played games that involved solving math problems. The level of difficulty of such problems adjusted based on students’ answers. This program improved math achievement by 0.35 and 0.47 SDs after one and two years of implementation, respectively. Consistent with the promise of personalized learning, the software improved achievement for all students. In fact, one year after the end of the program, students assigned to the program still performed 0.1 SDs better than those assigned to a business as usual condition. More recently, Muralidharan, et al. (2019) evaluated a “blended learning” initiative in which students in grades 4 through 9 in Delhi, India received 45 minutes of interaction with CAL software for math and language, and 45 minutes of small group instruction before or after going to school. After only 4.5 months, the program improved achievement by 0.37 SDs in math and 0.23 SDs in Hindi. While all learners benefited from the program in absolute terms, the lowest performing learners benefited the most in relative terms, since they were learning very little in school.

We see two important limitations from this body of research. First, to our knowledge, none of these initiatives has been evaluated when implemented during the school day. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish the effect of the adaptive software from that of additional instructional time. Second, given that most of these programs were facilitated by local instructors, attempts to distinguish the effect of the software from that of the instructors has been mostly based on noncausal evidence. A frontier challenge in this body of research is to understand whether CAL software can increase the effectiveness of school-based instruction by substituting part of the regularly scheduled time for math and language instruction.

Live one-on-one tutoring

Recent improvements in the speed and quality of videoconferencing, as well as in the connectivity of remote areas, have enabled yet another way in which technology can help personalization: live (i.e., real-time) one-on-one tutoring. While the evidence on in-person tutoring is scarce in developing countries, existing studies suggest that this approach works best when it is used to personalize instruction (see, e.g., Banerjee et al., 2007; Banerji, Berry, & Shotland, 2015; Cabezas, Cuesta, & Gallego, 2011).

There are almost no studies on the impact of online tutoring—possibly, due to the lack of hardware and Internet connectivity in low- and middle-income countries. One exception is Chemin and Oledan (2020)’s recent evaluation of an online tutoring program for grade 6 students in Kianyaga, Kenya to learn English from volunteers from a Canadian university via Skype ( videoconferencing software) for one hour per week after school. After 10 months, program beneficiaries performed 0.22 SDs better in a test of oral comprehension, improved their comfort using technology for learning, and became more willing to engage in cross-cultural communication. Importantly, while the tutoring sessions used the official English textbooks and sought in part to help learners with their homework, tutors were trained on several strategies to teach to each learner’s individual level of preparation, focusing on basic skills if necessary. To our knowledge, similar initiatives within a country have not yet been rigorously evaluated.

Expanding opportunities for practice

A third way in which technology may improve the quality of education is by providing learners with additional opportunities for practice. In many developing countries, lesson time is primarily devoted to lectures, in which the educator explains the topic and the learners passively copy explanations from the blackboard. This setup leaves little time for in-class practice. Consequently, learners who did not understand the explanation of the material during lecture struggle when they have to solve homework assignments on their own. Technology could potentially address this problem by allowing learners to review topics at their own pace.

Practice exercises

Technology can help learners get more out of traditional instruction by providing them with opportunities to implement what they learn in class. This approach could, in theory, allow some learners to anchor their understanding of the material through trial and error (i.e., by realizing what they may not have understood correctly during lecture and by getting better acquainted with special cases not covered in-depth in class).

Existing evidence on practice exercises reflects both the promise and the limitations of this use of technology in developing countries. For example, Lai et al. (2013) evaluated a program in Shaanxi, China where students in grades 3 and 5 were required to attend two 40-minute remedial sessions per week in which they first watched videos that reviewed the material that had been introduced in their math lessons that week and then played games to practice the skills introduced in the video. After four months, the intervention improved math achievement by 0.12 SDs. Many other evaluations of comparable interventions have found similar small-to-moderate results (see, e.g., Lai, Luo, Zhang, Huang, & Rozelle, 2015; Lai et al., 2012; Mo et al., 2015; Pitchford, 2015). These effects, however, have been consistently smaller than those of initiatives that adjust the difficulty of the material based on students’ performance (e.g., Banerjee et al., 2007; Muralidharan, et al., 2019). We hypothesize that these programs do little for learners who perform several grade levels behind curricular expectations, and who would benefit more from a review of foundational concepts from earlier grades.

We see two important limitations from this research. First, most initiatives that have been evaluated thus far combine instructional videos with practice exercises, so it is hard to know whether their effects are driven by the former or the latter. In fact, the program in China described above allowed learners to ask their peers whenever they did not understand a difficult concept, so it potentially also captured the effect of peer-to-peer collaboration. To our knowledge, no studies have addressed this gap in the evidence.

Second, most of these programs are implemented before or after school, so we cannot distinguish the effect of additional instructional time from that of the actual opportunity for practice. The importance of this question was first highlighted by Linden (2008), who compared two delivery mechanisms for game-based remedial math software for students in grades 2 and 3 in a network of schools run by a nonprofit organization in Gujarat, India: one in which students interacted with the software during the school day and another one in which students interacted with the software before or after school (in both cases, for three hours per day). After a year, the first version of the program had negatively impacted students’ math achievement by 0.57 SDs and the second one had a null effect. This study suggested that computer-assisted learning is a poor substitute for regular instruction when it is of high quality, as was the case in this well-functioning private network of schools.

In recent years, several studies have sought to remedy this shortcoming. Mo et al. (2014) were among the first to evaluate practice exercises delivered during the school day. They evaluated an initiative in Shaanxi, China in which students in grades 3 and 5 were required to interact with the software similar to the one in Lai et al. (2013) for two 40-minute sessions per week. The main limitation of this study, however, is that the program was delivered during regularly scheduled computer lessons, so it could not determine the impact of substituting regular math instruction. Similarly, Mo et al. (2020) evaluated a self-paced and a teacher-directed version of a similar program for English for grade 5 students in Qinghai, China. Yet, the key shortcoming of this study is that the teacher-directed version added several components that may also influence achievement, such as increased opportunities for teachers to provide students with personalized assistance when they struggled with the material. Ma, Fairlie, Loyalka, and Rozelle (2020) compared the effectiveness of additional time-delivered remedial instruction for students in grades 4 to 6 in Shaanxi, China through either computer-assisted software or using workbooks. This study indicates whether additional instructional time is more effective when using technology, but it does not address the question of whether school systems may improve the productivity of instructional time during the school day by substituting educator-led with computer-assisted instruction.

Increasing learner engagement

Another way in which technology may improve education is by increasing learners’ engagement with the material. In many school systems, regular “chalk and talk” instruction prioritizes time for educators’ exposition over opportunities for learners to ask clarifying questions and/or contribute to class discussions. This, combined with the fact that many developing-country classrooms include a very large number of learners (see, e.g., Angrist & Lavy, 1999; Duflo, Dupas, & Kremer, 2015), may partially explain why the majority of those students are several grade levels behind curricular expectations (e.g., Muralidharan, et al., 2019; Muralidharan & Zieleniak, 2014; Pritchett & Beatty, 2015). Technology could potentially address these challenges by: (a) using video tutorials for self-paced learning and (b) presenting exercises as games and/or gamifying practice.

Video tutorials

Technology can potentially increase learner effort and understanding of the material by finding new and more engaging ways to deliver it. Video tutorials designed for self-paced learning—as opposed to videos for whole class instruction, which we discuss under the category of “prerecorded lessons” above—can increase learner effort in multiple ways, including: allowing learners to focus on topics with which they need more help, letting them correct errors and misconceptions on their own, and making the material appealing through visual aids. They can increase understanding by breaking the material into smaller units and tackling common misconceptions.

In spite of the popularity of instructional videos, there is relatively little evidence on their effectiveness. Yet, two recent evaluations of different versions of the Khan Academy portal, which mainly relies on instructional videos, offer some insight into their impact. First, Ferman, Finamor, and Lima (2019) evaluated an initiative in 157 public primary and middle schools in five cities in Brazil in which the teachers of students in grades 5 and 9 were taken to the computer lab to learn math from the platform for 50 minutes per week. The authors found that, while the intervention slightly improved learners’ attitudes toward math, these changes did not translate into better performance in this subject. The authors hypothesized that this could be due to the reduction of teacher-led math instruction.

More recently, Büchel, Jakob, Kühnhanss, Steffen, and Brunetti (2020) evaluated an after-school, offline delivery of the Khan Academy portal in grades 3 through 6 in 302 primary schools in Morazán, El Salvador. Students in this study received 90 minutes per week of additional math instruction (effectively nearly doubling total math instruction per week) through teacher-led regular lessons, teacher-assisted Khan Academy lessons, or similar lessons assisted by technical supervisors with no content expertise. (Importantly, the first group provided differentiated instruction, which is not the norm in Salvadorian schools). All three groups outperformed both schools without any additional lessons and classrooms without additional lessons in the same schools as the program. The teacher-assisted Khan Academy lessons performed 0.24 SDs better, the supervisor-led lessons 0.22 SDs better, and the teacher-led regular lessons 0.15 SDs better, but the authors could not determine whether the effects across versions were different.

Together, these studies suggest that instructional videos work best when provided as a complement to, rather than as a substitute for, regular instruction. Yet, the main limitation of these studies is the multifaceted nature of the Khan Academy portal, which also includes other components found to positively improve learner achievement, such as differentiated instruction by students’ learning levels. While the software does not provide the type of personalization discussed above, learners are asked to take a placement test and, based on their score, educators assign them different work. Therefore, it is not clear from these studies whether the effects from Khan Academy are driven by its instructional videos or to the software’s ability to provide differentiated activities when combined with placement tests.

Games and gamification

Technology can also increase learner engagement by presenting exercises as games and/or by encouraging learner to play and compete with others (e.g., using leaderboards and rewards)—an approach known as “gamification.” Both approaches can increase learner motivation and effort by presenting learners with entertaining opportunities for practice and by leveraging peers as commitment devices.

There are very few studies on the effects of games and gamification in low- and middle-income countries. Recently, Araya, Arias Ortiz, Bottan, and Cristia (2019) evaluated an initiative in which grade 4 students in Santiago, Chile were required to participate in two 90-minute sessions per week during the school day with instructional math software featuring individual and group competitions (e.g., tracking each learner’s standing in his/her class and tournaments between sections). After nine months, the program led to improvements of 0.27 SDs in the national student assessment in math (it had no spillover effects on reading). However, it had mixed effects on non-academic outcomes. Specifically, the program increased learners’ willingness to use computers to learn math, but, at the same time, increased their anxiety toward math and negatively impacted learners’ willingness to collaborate with peers. Finally, given that one of the weekly sessions replaced regular math instruction and the other one represented additional math instructional time, it is not clear whether the academic effects of the program are driven by the software or the additional time devoted to learning math.

The prognosis:

How can school systems adopt interventions that match their needs.

Here are five specific and sequential guidelines for decisionmakers to realize the potential of education technology to accelerate student learning.

1. Take stock of how your current schools, educators, and learners are engaging with technology .

Carry out a short in-school survey to understand the current practices and potential barriers to adoption of technology (we have included suggested survey instruments in the Appendices); use this information in your decisionmaking process. For example, we learned from conversations with current and former ministers of education from various developing regions that a common limitation to technology use is regulations that hold school leaders accountable for damages to or losses of devices. Another common barrier is lack of access to electricity and Internet, or even the availability of sufficient outlets for charging devices in classrooms. Understanding basic infrastructure and regulatory limitations to the use of education technology is a first necessary step. But addressing these limitations will not guarantee that introducing or expanding technology use will accelerate learning. The next steps are thus necessary.

“In Africa, the biggest limit is connectivity. Fiber is expensive, and we don’t have it everywhere. The continent is creating a digital divide between cities, where there is fiber, and the rural areas.  The [Ghanaian] administration put in schools offline/online technologies with books, assessment tools, and open source materials. In deploying this, we are finding that again, teachers are unfamiliar with it. And existing policies prohibit students to bring their own tablets or cell phones. The easiest way to do it would have been to let everyone bring their own device. But policies are against it.” H.E. Matthew Prempeh, Minister of Education of Ghana, on the need to understand the local context.

2. Consider how the introduction of technology may affect the interactions among learners, educators, and content .

Our review of the evidence indicates that technology may accelerate student learning when it is used to scale up access to quality content, facilitate differentiated instruction, increase opportunities for practice, or when it increases learner engagement. For example, will adding electronic whiteboards to classrooms facilitate access to more quality content or differentiated instruction? Or will these expensive boards be used in the same way as the old chalkboards? Will providing one device (laptop or tablet) to each learner facilitate access to more and better content, or offer students more opportunities to practice and learn? Solely introducing technology in classrooms without additional changes is unlikely to lead to improved learning and may be quite costly. If you cannot clearly identify how the interactions among the three key components of the instructional core (educators, learners, and content) may change after the introduction of technology, then it is probably not a good idea to make the investment. See Appendix A for guidance on the types of questions to ask.

3. Once decisionmakers have a clear idea of how education technology can help accelerate student learning in a specific context, it is important to define clear objectives and goals and establish ways to regularly assess progress and make course corrections in a timely manner .

For instance, is the education technology expected to ensure that learners in early grades excel in foundational skills—basic literacy and numeracy—by age 10? If so, will the technology provide quality reading and math materials, ample opportunities to practice, and engaging materials such as videos or games? Will educators be empowered to use these materials in new ways? And how will progress be measured and adjusted?

4. How this kind of reform is approached can matter immensely for its success.

It is easy to nod to issues of “implementation,” but that needs to be more than rhetorical. Keep in mind that good use of education technology requires thinking about how it will affect learners, educators, and parents. After all, giving learners digital devices will make no difference if they get broken, are stolen, or go unused. Classroom technologies only matter if educators feel comfortable putting them to work. Since good technology is generally about complementing or amplifying what educators and learners already do, it is almost always a mistake to mandate programs from on high. It is vital that technology be adopted with the input of educators and families and with attention to how it will be used. If technology goes unused or if educators use it ineffectually, the results will disappoint—no matter the virtuosity of the technology. Indeed, unused education technology can be an unnecessary expenditure for cash-strapped education systems. This is why surveying context, listening to voices in the field, examining how technology is used, and planning for course correction is essential.

5. It is essential to communicate with a range of stakeholders, including educators, school leaders, parents, and learners .

Technology can feel alien in schools, confuse parents and (especially) older educators, or become an alluring distraction. Good communication can help address all of these risks. Taking care to listen to educators and families can help ensure that programs are informed by their needs and concerns. At the same time, deliberately and consistently explaining what technology is and is not supposed to do, how it can be most effectively used, and the ways in which it can make it more likely that programs work as intended. For instance, if teachers fear that technology is intended to reduce the need for educators, they will tend to be hostile; if they believe that it is intended to assist them in their work, they will be more receptive. Absent effective communication, it is easy for programs to “fail” not because of the technology but because of how it was used. In short, past experience in rolling out education programs indicates that it is as important to have a strong intervention design as it is to have a solid plan to socialize it among stakeholders.

Beyond reopening: A leapfrog moment to transform education?

On September 14, the Center for Universal Education (CUE) will host a webinar to discuss strategies, including around the effective use of education technology, for ensuring resilient schools in the long term and to launch a new education technology playbook “Realizing the promise: How can education technology improve learning for all?”

file-pdf Full Playbook – Realizing the promise: How can education technology improve learning for all? file-pdf References file-pdf Appendix A – Instruments to assess availability and use of technology file-pdf Appendix B – List of reviewed studies file-pdf Appendix C – How may technology affect interactions among students, teachers, and content?

About the Authors

Alejandro j. ganimian, emiliana vegas, frederick m. hess.

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What is Educational Technology and Why is it Important?

What is Educational Technology?

Educational Technology is the field of study that investigates the process of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating the instructional environment, learning materials, learners, and the learning process in order to improve teaching and learning.

Why is Educational Technology in Education Important?

Educational technology in education is important because it helps today’s teachers to integrate new technologies and tools into their classroom. Teachers are able to upgrade and improve the learner-centeredness of their classroom. It enables teachers to engage their students in unique, innovative, and equitable ways. Teachers are also able to expand their network and connect with other teachers and educators nationally and globally.

What can I do with a Master’s in Educational Technology degree?

Many teachers pursue a Master’s degree in Educational Technology because they want to improve their use of educational technology—they want to learn how to more effectively integrate the use of 1:1 devices, or how to teach in a hybrid or fully online setting, or how to improve student engagement and achievement with technology. Not only do they learn all of these skills and more, they also learn how to integrate research-supported strategies to improve their teaching and how to coach their peers to do the same. 

Graduates of a Master’s in Educational Technology degree have gone on to become:

• National Board-Certified Teachers
• School Administrators
• Technology Facilitators and Coordinators
• Personnel at Ed Tech Start Ups
• Instructional Designers (both within and outside of education)
• Online preK-12 Teachers
• STEM Teachers and Coordinators
• Professional Learning Leaders and Liaisons
• Curriculum Developers

Here are some of the recent promotions that 2020 graduates of Loyola University Maryland’s Master’s in Educational Technology program have accepted:

• Technology Teacher and Musician Joanna Edwards accepted a new position as Technology Teacher at Elizabeth Seton High School.
• With her MEd in Educational Technology, Julia Goffredi started a new position as Coordinator of Educational Technology at Notre Dame Preparatory School.
• Michele Baskin recently accepted a position at Great Minds to be a Digital Curriculum Developer on their PhD Science program.

What are the Top 5 Advantages of Loyola’s Educational Technology Program? 

• Create engaging and transformative online instruction
• Learn multimedia design for the classroom
• Become a technology leader in your school
• Understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of technology, and how to address both in the classroom.
• Active professional networking with other teachers and educators nationally and globally.

Learn more about Loyola University Maryland’s fully online M.Ed. in Educational Technology program.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Educational Technology

Introduction, definitions and overviews, organizations, history and pioneers, research and methodologies, achievement and productivity, training and development, educational tools, implementation and integration, accessibility and inclusiveness, international perspectives, impact of educational technology in the future, related articles expand or collapse the "related articles" section about, about related articles close popup.

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• Artificial Intelligence and Learning
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• Digital Divides
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• The Digital Age Teacher

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Educational Technology by Pearl Sims , Steven Stone LAST REVIEWED: 15 December 2011 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0011

The theoretical foundations for modern-day educational technology were laid by the early Greeks, arguably the creators of the world’s first computer. The emerging field of educational technology has been intimately intertwined with the growth of learning and human development theories and research throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. The rapid creation and field deployment of military and industrial technology during the world wars marked the marriage of technology and education. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, research and development regarding the use of technology to develop skills and competencies was driven by businesses and industries seeking higher productivity. In more recent years, the boom in communication and collaborative and social media has propelled and responded to contemporary problems of human learning. Educational technology as an academic domain is relatively new, and much debate exists as to how to clearly define the discipline (see Lowenthal and Wilson 2010 , cited in Definitions and Overviews ). The debate, at its core, is a discussion about how to incorporate studies regarding the ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources ( Richey 2008 ), cited in Definitions and Overviews ) with the ongoing and constantly changing development of software, hardware, and Internet applications that can be used to improve teaching and learning. The selections of citations for this topic were determined partially in response to Walter B. Waetjen’s paper, “Shaping the Future of a Profession” ( Waetjen 1992 , cited in Definitions and Overviews ), which has challenged technology educators who have been helping to shape this emerging field to remember the four core elements common to all disciplines: domain, history, mode of inquiry, and instructive capability. The section Definitions and Overviews recommends articles related to the difficulty of defining educational technology as a domain. This section includes prominent journals, textbooks, and associations related to both education and technology. History and Pioneers offers a brief history of educational technology and of the early pioneers of technology in education and training. The Research and Methodologies section presents sources of quality information regarding models of inquiry into the field and introduces some of the researchers that have significantly influenced this evolving field. The sections on Teaching and Learning address how technology is currently being used in education to enhance teaching and learning. The section on Assessment puts forward a few examples of articles pertaining to the tools and the infrastructure necessary to use technology in the service of teaching and learning. The Educational Tools , Implementation and Integration , International Perspectives and Impact of Educational Technology in the Future sections provide glimpses, from international and futuristic viewpoints, of the potential impact of educational technology.

Defining the robust and emerging field of educational technology is still very much in flux, as attested to in Czerniewicz 2008 and Januszewski and Molenda 2008 . Waetjen 1992 challenges researchers and scholars of educational technology to take the necessary steps in helping to shape their studies into an accepted academic field of study. Although the respected professional organization Association for Education Communications and Technology (AECT) puts forth working definitions for what this domain could encompass, Richey 2008 and Lowenthal and Wilson 2010 argue that even what to include and exclude from such definitive statements about the field must still be strongly debated. Three of the works chosen in this section contextualize the nature and complexity of defining education technology as a domain by offering overviews of the current and emerging technologies ( Office of Educational Technology 2010 ), of the impact of the technologies on human learning ( Means and Roschelle 2010 ), and of the issues and challenges related to using technology in educational settings ( Spector 2010 ).

Czerniewicz, Laura. 2008. Distinguishing the field of educational technology . Electronic Journal of e-Learning 6.3: 171–178.

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This article defines educational technology as an emerging field from both academic and professional perspectives. Provides frameworks for distinguishing fields and the implications that this distinction will have on educational technology as a field in the future.

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Januszewski, Alan, and Michael Molenda, eds. 2008. Educational technology: A definition with commentary . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Based on the AECT’s definition of educational technology as a field, this book discusses the individual words of the definition at length. Helps provide a common taxonomy for those in the field.

Lowenthal, Patrick R., and Brent G. Wilson. 2010. Labels DO matter! A critique of AECT’s redefinition of the field. TechTrends 54.1 (January): 38–46.

DOI: 10.1007/s11528-009-0362-y Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A critique of the AECT’s definition of educational technology, which claims that the definition that was current at the time of writing limited the potential of the field because of its effect on the views of external audiences.

Means, B., and J. Roschelle. 2010. An overview of technology and learning. In International encyclopedia of education . 3d ed. Edited by Penelope L. Peterson, Eva L. Baker, and Barry MacGaw, 1–10. Oxford: Elsevier.

A brief overview of the field that details the current and emerging technologies in education and their uses in specific subjects. A valuable introduction and reference for instructional technology.

Office of Educational Technology. 2010. Transforming American education: Learning powered by technology . Washington, DC: Office of Educational Technology.

Report from the US Department of Education that defines the most important issues in educational technology and lays out a national plan for the future of the field. Vital information for the current state and future of instructional technology.

Richey, Rita C. 2008. Reflections on the 2008 AECT definitions of the field. TechTrends 52.1: 24–25.

DOI: 10.1007/s11528-008-0108-2 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Provides multiple perspectives on the AECT’s 2008 definition of educational technology and points out key implications. Available online by subscription.

Spector, J. Michael. 2010. An overview of progress and problems in educational technology. Interactive Educational Multimedia 3:27–37.

This article provides a current analysis of the state of the field of educational technology while also taking a critical perspective to identify the necessary steps for future progress.

Waetjen, Walter B. 1992. Shaping the future of a profession. In Critical issues in technology education . Edited by International Technology Education Association, 25–30. Reston, VA: International Technology Education Association.

One of the first significant definitions and plans for the future of the field of educational technology. Details the need to set forth a research agenda in order to be fully accepted as an academic field of study.

Especially for those teaching in the field of educational technology, textbooks on educational technology are a valuable and complete resource. The textbooks listed in this section cover important content related to educational technology in a coherent and comprehensive way. In addition, the textbooks were chosen because they divide content regarding often-complex technology and education issues into comparatively small and manageable chunks while maintaining a sound pedagogy approach to the topics being explored. Bates 2005 , Schrum and Levin 2009 , and Smaldino and Lowther 2008 all provide complete overviews of the uses of technology in learning and education. These resources are valuable because they detail a breadth of topics including theory, practice, and implementation. The other books were chosen because they are authoritative reviews of specific topics in the field. Boss and Krauss 2007 covers all of the important issues concerning project-based learning in educational and training applications. Clark and Mayer 2007 focuses more on the proven guidelines concerning the implementation of technology in educational settings. Collins and Halverson 2009 and Reiser and Dempsey 2007 provide evaluations of the current trends and issues as well as offer prognostications on future developments and challenges in the field. For a more critical perspective, Robins and Webster 2002 focuses on the implications that technology has on the entire field of education.

Bates, Tony. 2005. Technology, e-learning and distance education . 2d ed. London and New York: Routledge.

A comprehensive guide that explores the strengths and weaknesses of current and emerging technologies in the field of education. This book also discusses challenges and barriers to technology implementation and provides models to manage these issues.

Boss, Suzie, and Jane Krauss. 2007. Reinventing project-based learning: Your field guide to real-world projects in the digital age . Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education.

This book focuses on topics concerning the utilization of technology in project-based learning, including integration, training, and design. Offers guided learning activities and features classroom examples and teacher interviews that provide an international perspective.

Clark, Ruth Colvin, and Richard E. Mayer. 2007. E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This book presents guidelines for technology-based instructional design that are backed up by empirical data. Referencing well-researched findings, the authors discuss the usefulness of many design issues and make recommendations on how to maximize effectiveness in the classroom.

Collins, Allan, and Richard Halverson. 2009. Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital revolution and schooling in America . New York: Teachers College Press.

Explores the effects that technological advances have had on the educational system as compared to on other areas of society. Also prognosticates on the future of education and presents competing viewpoints from supporters and skeptics to provide a more thorough perspective.

Reiser, Robert A., and John V. Dempsey, eds. 2007. Trends and issues in instructional design and technology . 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Using the writings of a number of leading figures in the field of instructional design and technology, this book offers a good overview of the field of educational technology. The authors focus on the convergence of instructional design, instructional technology, and performance technology and the implications of that convergence.

Robins, Kevin, and Frank Webster, eds. 2002. The virtual university? Knowledge, markets, and management . Oxford and New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

This book provides a more diverse perspective on the current changes occurring in higher education. In addition to technological issues, the book studies the array of complex issues that are transforming the academic system.

Schrum, Lynne, and Barbara B. Levin. 2009. Leading 21st century schools: Harnessing technology for engagement and achievement . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

A good overview of instructional technology that is best-suited for newcomers to the field. The intended audience is primarily the administrators and decision makers who are responsible for technology implementation in schools.

Smaldino, Sharon E., Deborah L. Lowther, and James D. Russell. 2008. Instructional technology and media for learning . 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

This instructor-focused book provides an overview of educational technologies and a methodology for implementing them in the classroom. Focus is placed more on entry-level practice and lesson planning than on emerging technologies.

Numerous professional associations and organizations have played a significant role in developing the field of educational technology. At this time, no single organization is entrusted with maintaining control or oversight of legitimate practices or certification standards within this fledgling field. Thus, the organizations cited below were selected based primarily on their viability and vitality and on their history of successfully providing high-quality resources to inform or engage the field. The Association for Education Communications and Technology (AECT) is generally viewed as the “father” of professional organizations in this field and continues to play a significant role in the development and promotion of sound public policies and ethical practices related to the use of technology in education. The IEEE Technical Committee on Learning Technology and the Society for Applied Learning Technology (SALT) focus on matters related to the professional development and information sharing among those interested in researching and using technology in the service of learning. Another well respected organization, the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE) focuses primarily on promoting the use of technology in education. The Consortium for School Networking (COSN) takes a closer look at the challenges and promises of implementing technology in K–12 education primarily in the United States, while The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) seeks to bring the international community of P-12 educators together to learn from one another. Although not a professional association, the Office of Educational Technology serves as a clearinghouse for organizing and disseminating materials, models, strategies, and research that can inform educators from K–12 and higher education settings regarding the use of technology in the service to teaching and learning.

Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education .

Founded in 1981 to promote the use of technology in education, AACE serves members through international conferences, multiple journals, a digital library, and other career-advancing services. Members include the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education.

Association for Educational Communications and Technology .

AECT is the oldest professional organization in the field of educational technology, and the member base is intended to have representation in all fields that utilize it. In its two publications, Educational Technology Research and Development and TechTrends , the association focuses not only on design and practice but also on ethical and policy issues.

Consortium for School Networking .

This organization, founded in 1992, is focused primarily on K–12 school districts and their implementations of technology. Membership consists mostly of leaders, policy creators, and decision makers at the district level.

This nonprofit organization is dedicated to advancing education through the intelligent use of technology in instructional settings. Provides a wide range of resources to members and the field, including publications, applied research, policy advocacy, and other informational services.

IEEE Technical Committee on Learning Technology .

Part of the larger IEEE professional association, this committee was founded on the idea that education can be greatly improved by utilizing emerging technology. The committee seeks to facilitate information sharing and professional development through workshops, conferences, online forums, and a newsletter.

International Society for Technology in Education .

One of the most prominent organizations in the field, the ISTE serves educators and leaders in pre-K–12 and teacher education. The society makes publications, conferences, research, advocacy, and a number of other resources available to its members.

Office of Educational Technology .

Under the aegis of the US Department of Education, this government agency develops the national educational technology policy and plans of implementation. Provides publications detailing the state of instructional technology and models and plans for educators and leaders to utilize.

Society for Applied Learning Technology .

An individual-focused professional society that provides information on the field through publications and networking/learning opportunities through conferences. More focused on professional applications of instructional technology than on K–12 and higher education.

The field of educational technology is constantly evolving, and peer-reviewed journals provide the most up-to-date and high-quality information and research. The use of journals for academic research in the field is absolutely necessary for complete and current findings and perspectives. The journals chosen in this section were evaluated primarily on the quality of articles, their reputation in the academic community, and the focus of research. For journals that cover the entire field of educational technology, Computers and Education is rated by Thompson-Reuters as the highest-impact journal in the field. The Journal of Computer Assisted Learning , the Journal of Computing in Higher Education , and the Journal of Research on Technology in Education all provide high-quality articles that cover a wide range of topics dealing with both theory and practice. Educational Technology Research and Development is narrower in scope, featuring articles that concentrate primarily on the research concerning the emerging technologies in the field. The Journal of Educational Computing Research focuses more on the empirical research in the field, and it also provides some perspectives from the industrial applications. The British Journal of Educational Technology and the International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning are both high-quality journals with a broad focus and also provide an international perspective.

British Journal of Educational Technology . 1998–2006.

This journal features articles that cover the entire range of both educational and technological issues and their integration in various settings. The journal provides an international perspective and places a special focus on new information and communication technologies.

Computers and Education . 1976–.

This highly rated journal is an interdisciplinary forum that explores the impact of the integration of technological advances on all aspects of cognition, education, and training.

Educational Technology Research and Development . 1989–.

This journal focuses entirely on research and development in educational technology. The “Research” section focuses on original studies relating to the application of technology in education settings, and the “Development” section publishes works that explore multiple aspects of the instructional design in instructional technology.

International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning . 2006–.

Rated as high impact, this international peer-reviewed journal covers all aspects of computer-aided learning and teaching. Its scope includes applications in both educational and business sectors, as well as the psychological, social, and individual implications.

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning . 1985–.

This journal covers the whole range of applications of information and communication technology to support learning and teaching, and it is intended to reach both researchers and practitioners.

Journal of Computing in Higher Education .

This journal routinely publishes works related to the issues, problems, and research of and about instructional technologies and higher educational environments. The featured articles include original research, literature reviews, evaluation studies, and theory and policy papers that focus on the applications of information technology in higher education institutions.

Journal of Educational Computing Research . 1985–.

This journal focuses specifically on the outcomes, designs, and implications of computing-based educational applications and research. The educational focus is broad, as it applies to formal education, business, and industry and informal and formal learning environments.

Journal of Research on Technology in Education . 1987–2001.

This blind, peer-reviewed journal is international in scope and focuses on the state-of-the-art and emerging technologies in educational environments. It features theoretical and conceptual articles, as well as original research, evaluations, and literature reviews.

The works in this section were chosen because they are good representations of the hundreds of works of individuals that have transformed the world’s thinking about the use of technology to improve education. As early as 1884, Edwin Abbot understood that the world would be shaped in multidimensional ways that few could imagine at the time. Two early pioneers took up the banner of Abbot’s original challenge in Abbott 1998 : B. F. Skinner and Alan Turing. Skinner 1985 , which concerns his now-famous “teaching machines,” and Turing 1950 , which concerns artificial intelligence, were watershed pieces of work for understanding the power of education technology. In addition, Weiser 1991 (the author’s introduction to ubiquitous computing) and Negroponte 1995 (an article about the emerging digital age) are included because they helped lay the groundwork for the prevalence and acceptance of technology in our everyday lives. Three other works offer quality overviews and historical perspectives of education technology. The first, Saettler 2004 , looks back across the decades to trace the evolution of education theories and their impact on the use of technology in education. The second, Stahl and Koschmann 2006 , looks back on how computers have fostered and deepened our understanding of collaborative learning through technology. The third, Culp, et al. 2005 , offers a twenty-year chronology of the major US public policies that have shaped our understanding of the role of technology in education.

Abbott, Edwin A. 1998. Flatland: A romance of many dimensions . New York: Penguin.

This 1884 satire, written by an English educator, offers an examination of the third dimension, at that time a relatively new concept of space. The book remains immensely popular among mathematicians, physicists, and computer scientists because of its enduring challenge to see the world multidimensionally and not as a flatland.

Culp, Katie McMillan, Margaret Honey, Ellen Madinach, and Education Development Center, Center for Children and Technology. 2005. A retrospective on twenty years of educational technology policy . Journal of Educational Computing Research 32.3: 279–307.

DOI: 10.2190/7W71-QVT2-PAP2-UDX7 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This report details the development of policy decisions regarding educational technology in the past two decades. Approaches topic from three views: the why, the how and processes, and the underlying assumptions.

Negroponte, Nicholas. 1995. Being digital . New York: Knopf.

One of early works to examine the frontiers of digital technology and its impact on the human social life, work, entertainment, and commerce.

Saettler, L. Paul. 2004. The evolution of American educational technology . Englewood, CO: Information Age.

This book traces the theoretical foundations of American educational technology by focusing on the underlying processes rather than the individual products and technologies.

Skinner, B. F. 1958. Teaching machines. Science 128:969–977.

B. F. Skinner (b. 1890–d. 1904) was a famous American psychologist, author, and inventor. This article discusses his invention, a teaching machine aimed at administering a programmed curriculum that rewarded the student as he or she learned. Skinner was one of the first people to combine technology and psychology in an effort to impact student achievement.

Stahl, Gerry, and Timothy Koschmann, and Daniel D. Suthers. 2006. Computer-supported collaborative learning: An historical perspective. In The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences . Edited by R. Keith Sawyer, 409–426. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

This article looks at the evolution of computer-based education from an international perspective. Details the development of current technologies in order to offer perspectives on the future.

Turing, Alan M. 1950. Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind 59:433–460.

DOI: 10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this article, Turing, one of the first scientists to put forth the question, asks “Can machines think?” Turing is credited with offering the first philosophy of artificial intelligence.

Weiser, Mark. 1991. The computer for the twenty-first century. Scientific American 265.3 (September): 94–104.

Mark Weiser (b. 1952–d. 1999) is often referred to as the “father” of “ubiquitous computing.” He believed that the future will be filled with “calm technology”—that is, the ability to embed technology in everyday objects.

Research studies in the field of education and technology are plentiful. A good place to start in understanding the research and methodology for the field of educational technology is with Resta and Laferriere 2007 , a comprehensive review of the research and literature on the technology-supported collaborative learning that has been put forth over the last twenty years. In addition, two well-respected handbooks offer relevant, critical, and practical overviews. The first, Kidd and Song 2008 , offers a comprehensive view of the research related to a wide spectrum of issues related to the field of education technology. The second, Mayer 2005 , takes a closer look at research that seeks to understand the impact of technology on classroom instructional design. Other texts in this section were chosen because they do a thorough job of both describing and modeling methods used to study the education technology field, including the research design, the population studied, and the research instruments, or tools. Spector, et al. 2008 offers an overview of research methodologies that are appropriate to employ to better understand the impact of technology on teaching and learning. This is also done by Randolph 2007 , which offers practical suggestions on multidisciplinary research methods for studying education technology. Three additional citations were selected because of their current relevance and application in the field. Tallent-Runnels, et al. 2006 reviews research regarding teaching courses online. Mikropoulos and Natsis 2011 offers a ten-year review of empirical research regarding the use of virtual environments for educational purposes. Pollard and Pollard 2004 suggests education technology research priorities for the future.

Kidd, Terry T., and Holim Song, eds. 2008. Handbook of research on instructional systems and technology . Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-59904-865-9 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A very comprehensive handbook that covers the full spectrum of issues concerning research in the field of instructional technology. Subjects covered include instructional design, implementation, and system support.

Mayer, Richard E., ed. 2005. The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning . Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

A definitive handbook of multimedia learning and instruction design in the field. Subject matter ranges from foundational learning theory to specific computer-based applications of multimedia learning.

Mikropoulos, Tassos A., and Antonis Natsis. 2011. Educational virtual environments: A ten year review of empirical research (1999–2009). Journal of Computers & Education 56.3 (April): 769–780.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.020 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A critical review of research into the use of virtual reality environments in educational settings. Summarizes trends and findings, and details the implications for the future.

Pollard, Constance, and Richard Pollard. 2004. Research priorities in educational technology: A Delphi study . Journal of Research on Technology in Education 37.2 (Winter): 145–160.

Reports the findings about research priorities in the field from a three-round panel study of experts and practitioners. Sets a research framework and agenda based on this needs assessment.

Randolph, Justus J. 2007. Multidisciplinary methods in educational technology research and development . Hämeenlinna, Finland: HAMK Univ. of Applied Sciences.

This e-book addresses the unique methodological factors and common research questions that researchers in educational technology face. The author also provides practical information on conducting research in the field.

Resta, Paul, and Therese Laferriere. 2007. Technology in support of collaborative learning. Educational Psychology Review 19.1 (March): 65–83.

DOI: 10.1007/s10648-007-9042-7 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A comprehensive review of the research and literature on technology-supported collaborative learning over the last twenty years. Available online by subscription.

Spector, J. Michael, M. David Merrill, Jeroen van Merriënboer, and Marcy P. Driscoll, eds. 2008. Handbook of research on educational communications and technology . 3d ed. New York: Taylor & Francis.

This handbook presents a thorough overview of the subject or educational technology, but specific focus is put on the research methodologies in the field. A valuable resource for any researcher or practitioner in instructional technology.

Tallent-Runnels, Mary K., Julie A. Thomas, William Y. Lan, et al. 2006. Teaching courses online: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research 76.1 (Spring): 93–135.

DOI: 10.3102/00346543076001093 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A comprehensive research and literature review of online teaching. Describes the current state of the literature and research and makes recommendations for future research. Available online by subscription.

All selections in this section put forth well-researched tools, models, and/or strategies for using technology to improve classroom teaching across various settings and with a variety of student populations. Two of the works cited were chosen because they seek to deepen our understanding of the role of teachers in meeting the social and psychological underpinnings of today’s students. Bransford, et al. 2008 explains the needs of digital age learners, whereas Alonso, et al. 2005 offers an instructional model for developing web-based blended learning for the classroom that can meet the needs of students. However, if and how well technology is integrated into the curriculum depends a great deal on the classroom teacher’s preexisting beliefs about how learning occurs, as explored in Ertmer 2005 and Hartley 2007 . Scardamalia and Bereiter 2006 offers examples of how teachers’ views of themselves as facilitators of knowledge influences their use of technology. The research in Windschitl and Sahl 2002 offers insight from the teachers’ perspectives about the problems (and the promises) of integrating technology into the curriculum. Lawless and Pellegrino 2007 maintains that the way to have teachers better understand and use technology to meet learners’ needs is through the provision of targeted, well-evaluated teacher professional development. Mishra and Koehler 2006 offers examples of professional development that resulted in teachers who integrated technology in the service of learning.

Alonso, Fernando, Genoveva López, Daniel Manrique, and José M. Vines 2005. An instructional model for web based e-learning education with a blended learning process approach. British Journal of Educational Technology 36.2 (March): 217–235.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00454.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article researches the learning challenges that accompany e-learning and proposes a content-based psychopedagogical instructional model to deal with them. This model is characterized by an approach that blends psychology and social constructivism.

Bransford, John, Mary Slowinski, Nancy Vye, and Nancy Mosborg. 2008. The learning sciences, technology and designs for educational systems: Some thoughts about change. In Learners in a changing learning landscape: Reflections from a dialogue on new roles and expectations . Edited by Jan Visser and Muriel Visser-Valfrey, 37–67. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

In this article, Bransford and colleagues focus on the idea that technology can be used to create new models of instruction, rather than just assimilating technological advances into existing ones.

Ertmer, Peggy A. 2005. Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integration? Educational Technology Research and Development 53.4: 25–39.

DOI: 10.1007/BF02504683 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article explores the idea that the primary factor holding back technological integration in schools is teachers’ preexisting beliefs about learning, since the necessary infrastructure already exists. Ertmer details how these beliefs affect practice and the implications for the future. Available online by subscription.

Hartley, James. 2007. Teaching, learning and new technology: A review for teachers. British Journal of Educational Technology 38.1 (January): 42–62.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00634.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article studies the influences that new technology has on teaching by observing five teaching situations in five different contexts. The author gains perspective by looking at multiple instructional realms and seeks to inform teachers on how to best utilize technology. Available online by subscription.

Lawless, Kimberly A., and James W. Pellegrino. 2007. Professional development in integrating technology into teaching and learning: Knowns, unknowns, and ways to pursue better questions and answers. Review of Educational Research 77.4 (December): 575–614.

DOI: 10.3102/0034654307309921 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article explores the challenges and implications of professional teacher development in regard to implementing technology. The author reviews the literature on this topic and offers a systematic evaluation plan to deal with it. Available online by subscription.

Mishra, Punra, and Matthew J. Koehler. 2006. Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record 108.6 (June): 1017–1054.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

By researching teacher and faculty development, the authors attempt to synthesize a new situated form of knowledge that is intended to act as a theoretical grounding for research in educational technology. They detail this framework and provide teaching examples.

Scardamalia, Marlene, and Carl Bereiter. 2006. Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and technology. In Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences . Edited by R. Keith Sawyer, 97–118. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

A comprehensive article describing the process of teaching as facilitating knowledge building. The author details the underlying theoretical framework and also provides real-world examples of practice.

Windschitl, Mark, and Kurt Sahl. 2002. Tracing teachers’ use of technology in a laptop computer school: The interplay of teacher beliefs, social dynamics, and institutional culture. American Educational Research Journal 39.1 (Spring): 165–205.

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Presents a two-year research project that observed teachers who were learning to use technology in the classroom and the barriers they faced in implementation. The author gives insight into the entire process of integrating more technology into schools from the teachers’ perspective. Available online by subscription.

The selections in this section put forth well-researched tools, models, and/or strategies for using technology to improve student learning. One of the most significant works is How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience ( Bransford, et al. 2000 ). Published by the National Academy of Sciences, this book remains a seminal work about how people learn and the construction of technology environments that promote the building of knowledge. Four articles were chosen because they offer examples of how specific technology applications can be used in the service of student learning. Although the examples of technology used in the article are outdated, Jonassen, et al. 1999 , discussing the interplay between the construction of knowledge and technology, remains an important article in the field. Anderson 2008 looks at online learning’s impact on students’ learning, whereas Sharples, et al. 2007 details methods for using mobile technology in educational settings. Dede 2005 offers a provocative look at how virtual worlds and augmented realities can propel student learning. Brown and Adler 2008 cautions us that learning in the future will be more “open, collaborative, and participatory”; thus, educators must grow comfortable with the use of instructional technology. Siemens 2005 states that the use of technology in the classroom is not adequate without an undergirding theory of learning. The author puts forth an emerging learning theory of connectivism, a theory in which student learning is dependent on access to and the use of information technology. Bennett, et al. 2008 offers a thoughtful debate regarding how well our current education system meets the needs of digital-age learners.

Anderson, Terry. 2008. Toward a theory of online learning. In The theory and practice of online learning . Edited by Terry Anderson, 45–74. Vancouver: Univ. of British Columbia Press.

In this chapter, the author presents a working model of online learning that is intended to lead theorists and educators toward a more-concrete theory. The chapter builds on the constructivist theories of learning by studying how online instruction influences learning.

Bennett, Sue, Karl Maton, and Lisa Kervin. 2008. The “digital natives” debate: A critical review of the evidence. British Journal of Educational Technology 39.5 (September): 775–786.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00793.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article takes a critical look at the ongoing debate about the current generation of “digital natives.” The authors detail the current claims and analyze the research about these assumptions. They conclude that the research does not support the claim that the education system is not equipped for this new generation. Available online by subscription.

Bransford, John D., et al., eds. 2000. How people learn: Brain, mind, experience . 2d ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

This book remains a definitive work of cognitive learning theory and serves, in part, as a basis for many technology-specific learning frameworks. Chapter 9, “Technology to Support Learning,” is especially relevant and useful.

Brown, John Seely, and Richard P. Adler. 2008. Minds on fire: Open education, the long tail, and learning 2.0 . Educause Review 43.1 (January/February): 16–32.

Brown and Adler address the educational trends in collaborative and participatory learning in online spaces and how they will affect learners. The authors assert that education will move toward a learner-demand-focused niche learning, based on practice.

Dede, Chris. 2005. Planning for neomillennial learning styles: Implications for investments in technology and faculty . Educause Quarterly 28.1.

The article discusses the unique learning styles and challenges of newer generations and the tools that can be used to maximize learning in a fast-changing educational landscape. The author primarily focuses on the role that virtual worlds and augmented realities can play in teaching for these emerging learning styles.

Jonassen, David H., Kyle L. Peck, and Brent G. Wilson. 1999. Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

This book presents multiple examples of instructional uses of technology from a constructivist viewpoint. Though the technology is outdated, this remains a seminal work concerning technology and constructivist learning theory.

Sharples, Mike, Josie Taylor, and Giasemi Vavoula. 2007. A theory of learning for the mobile age. In The SAGE handbook of e-learning research . Edited by Richard Andrews and Caroline Haythornthwaite, 221–247. London and Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

This chapter details different methods in which to implement mobile technology in educational settings and the ways the methods affect the learning process. The chapter also explores the conflict between mobile learning styles and traditional instruction and suggests ways to deal with it.

Siemens, George. 2005. Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age . International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 2.1: 3–10.

Siemens discusses the emerging learning theory of connectivism, many of whose key principles are dependent on information technology and its increasing role in society and educational domains.

The selections in this section represent well-researched tools, models, and strategies for using technology to formatively and/or summatively assess students’ learning. The works are of two major types: The first type offers broad overviews of the use of technology for student assessment, whereas the second type takes a closer look at practical applications of the use of technology for assessment within the classroom and/or subject area. The selections end with a challenge issued in Clarke-Midura and Dede 2010 to educators to more fully explore and adopt the use of technology for student assessment. One of the few comprehensive handbooks on a broad spectrum of issues concerning computer-based testing is Hricko and Howell 2006 . The Pellegrino and Quellmalz 2010 article supplements this handbook by presenting case studies, examples, strategies, and an evaluation of the current and future potential of technology-based student assessment. In addition, Tucker 2009 delves into the history and offers an overview of the current state of technology-based assessment, and Scalise and Gifford 2006 proposes a taxonomy for computer-based assessment to provide a practical resource for the development and discussion of assessment tools. At the classroom level, Beatty and Gerace 2009 presents a pedagogical theory based on classroom response systems (CRS) that is intended to help teachers connect educational research and practical strategies in the science classroom. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Technology-Based Assessment Project, sponsored by the US Department of Education and conducted in the Bennett, et al. 2007 study, measures eighth-grade students’ ability to use technology in problem-solving situations. This study demonstrates and explores the use of computers for developing, administering, scoring, and analyzing the results of NAEP assessments. Gaytan and McEwen 2007 looks at multiple types of learning and assessment used in online learning environments.

Beatty, Ian D., and William J. Gerace. 2009. Technology-enhanced formative assessment: A research-based pedagogy for teaching science with classroom response technology. Journal of Science Education and Technology 18.2: 146–162.

DOI: 10.1007/s10956-008-9140-4 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors present a pedagogical theory based on classroom response systems (CRS) that is intended to help teachers connect educational research and practical strategies in the classroom.

Bennett, Randy Elliot, Hilary Persky, Andrew R. Weiss, and Frank Jenkins. 2007. Problem solving in technology-rich environments: A report from the NAEP technology-based assessment project . Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

A government-sponsored empirical research initiative that measured eighth-grade students’ ability to use technology in problem-solving situations. Comprehensive study of productivity and student demographics.

Clarke-Midura, Jody, and Chris Dede. 2010. Assessment, technology, and change. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 42.3: 309–328.

The authors make the claim that assessment has not progressed with technology as other elements of education have in recent years. They describe their early research to attempt to lay the groundwork for future utilization of information and communication technology (ICT) in assessment.

Gaytan, Jorge, and Beryl C. McEwen. 2007. Effective online instructional and assessment strategies. American Journal of Distance Education 21.3 (September): 117–132.

DOI: 10.1080/08923640701341653 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

For this article, the authors researched forms of learning and assessment used in online learning environments. The most effective forms of assessment and feedback are detailed in their findings. Available online by subscription.

Hricko, Mary, and Scott L. Howell, eds. 2006. Online assessment and measurement: Foundations and challenges . Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

A comprehensive handbook that covers a broad spectrum of issues concerning computer-based testing, including conceptual frameworks, best-demonstrated practices, and challenges of design and implementation.

Pellegrino, James W., and Edys S. Quellmalz. 2010. Perspectives on the integration of technology and assessment. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 43.2: 119–134.

A comprehensive and up-to-date examination of the innovative uses of technology for educational assessment. A valuable resource for educators and instructional designers in that it provides case studies, examples, strategies, and an evaluation of the current and future potential of technology-based assessment. Available online by subscription.

Scalise, Kathleen, and Bernard Gifford. 2006. Computer-based assessment in e-learning: A framework for constructing “intermediate constraint” questions and tasks for technology platforms . Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment 4.6 (June).

This article proposes a taxonomy of many items used for computer-based assessment to provide a practical resource for the development and discussion of assessment tools.

Tucker, Bill. 2009. Beyond the bubble: Technology and the future of student assessment . Washington, DC: Education Sector.

This report presents a brief history and review of the current state of technology-based assessment and then makes recommendations and offers models for educators and designers to utilize in the changing landscape of educational assessment.

The following texts were chosen because they offer objective insight into the possibilities and challenges related to using technology to improve student achievement and/or teacher productivity (effectiveness) in K–12 and/or higher education settings. There continues to be much conflicting information about if and how the use of technology impacts student achievement and teacher productivity. This debate is reflected in the selections chosen for this section. Gulek and Demirtas 2005 , a three-year longitudinal study, indicates that the use of laptops had a significant beneficial effect on student performance. Likewise, both an analysis of the data from a National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) study of twelfth-grade students ( Wenglinsky 2006 ) and a two-year study of the academic achievement of teenage students ( Chandra and Lloyd 2008 ) suggest a positive correlation between test scores and technology use. However, Dynarski, et al. 2007 , a US government sponsored-empirical study, found no significant improvement in achievement by students who use computer-based educational tools. Balancing this debate, Lei and Zhao 2007 describes a longitudinal study on the effects that using technology has on students’ GPAs and found that how technology is used in the classroom is more important than how much it is used. Taking this line of thought a little deeper, Herrington, et al. 2003 reports that the potential benefits of using technology for student achievement are correlated with how well authentic activities in online environments are constructed by the teachers. Turning attention toward the use of technology by the teachers, Xu and Meyer 2007 suggests that there is a positive correlation between Internet usage and teaching effectiveness. Laurillard 2007 posits that the ongoing struggle to more fully measure the efficiency and usefulness of computers to improve student achievement will be resolved only if another lens for studying this impact is used, and the author recommends that a forward-looking “benefits-oriented cost model” be adopted.

Chandra, Vinesh, and Margaret Lloyd. 2008. The methodological nettle: ICT and student achievement. British Journal of Educational Technology 39.6: 1087–1098.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00790.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A two-year study that maps the achievement of teenage students in two cohorts, one utilizing a blending learning model. The results suggest overall improvement in test scores but also that there are some discrepancies in improvement concerning gender and performance level. Available online by subscription.

Dynarski, Mark, Roberto Agodini, Sheila Heaviside, et al. 2007. Effectiveness of reading and mathematics software products: Findings from the first student cohort . Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

A government-sponsored empirical study that measured the productivity and achievement of students using computer-based educational tools. The lack of significant improvement over the control implies that there is still room for improvement in the field.

Gulek, James Cengiz, and Hakan Demirtas. 2005. Learning with technology: The impact of laptop use on student achievement . Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment 3.2 (January): 1–39.

In this article, the authors report on the results of a three-year longitudinal study that observed students who were issued individual laptop computers and measured achievement through GPA, course grades, and state testing. The outcomes indicate that the laptops had a significant beneficial effect on student performance.

Herrington, Jan, Ron Oliver, and Thomas C. Reeves. 2003. Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology 19.1: 59–71.

After a brief literature review, the authors examine the benefits and setbacks of using authentic activities in online environments to improve student performance. They present both current patterns of engagement and ten characteristics of these activities based on their research.

Laurillard, Diana. 2007. Modelling benefits-oriented costs for technology enhanced learning. Higher Education 54.1: 21–39.

DOI: 10.1007/s10734-006-9044-2 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article explores the issue of the effectiveness of educational technology in terms of the costs/benefit and productivity. The author suggests that the use of a forward-looking benefits-oriented cost model is the most efficient and useful. Available online by subscription.

Lei, Jing, and Yong Zhao. 2007. Technology uses and student achievement: A longitudinal study. Computers and Education 49.2 (September): 284–296.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2005.06.013 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This longitudinal study researched students’ level of technology use and the effects on GPA at an American middle school. The results denote some positive benefits, but the data implies that the quality of the technology is more important than how much the technology is used.

Wenglinsky, Harold 2006. Technology and achievement: The bottom line. Educational Leadership 63.4: 29–32.

This article analyzed the data (test scores and questionnaires) from a National Assessment of Educational Progress study of twelfth-grade students to look for relationships between technology use and achievement. The data suggests a positive correlation between test scores and technology use. Available online by subscription.

Xu, Yonghong, and Katrina A. Meyer. 2007. Factors explaining faculty technology use and productivity. The Internet and Higher Education 10.1: 41–52.

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This study attempted to determine whether there is a relationship between technology usage and productivity among higher education faculty. The research indicates that there is a positive correlation between Internet usage and teaching productivity. Available online by subscription.

There is a significant increase in the use of technology to create and deliver learning opportunities to workers seeking professional development and growth. The articles in this section offer insight into the rapidly growing field of workplace training and development. That this is one of the fastest-growing fields related to employees’ growth and development in the workplace is evident by the rapid expansion of learning management (the tools to track learning progression through content) and knowledge management (content) software applications. Chatti, et al. 2007 and Dagger, et al. 2007 underscore that the future of workplace learning will see deeper interconnections between learning management and knowledge management technology-based tools. Mack, et al. 2010 takes this thinking a step further and suggests that learning management and knowledge management systems can and should be used to facilitate workplace collaboration, allowing workers to access one another’s knowledge. Knowing how to use these tools effectively in the service of teaching and learning is increasingly becoming an important skill. Indeed, the results of a study reported in Fallery, et al. 2010 indicate that today’s workers prefer virtual training to learning in a traditional classroom. For those desiring to use learning management and knowledge management tools in the workplace, Maier 2007 is a comprehensive guide that discusses a breadth of issues concerning the implementation of knowledge management systems. Likewise, the most important aspects of selecting a learning management system for schools or business are well articulated in Siemens 2006 . Of course, knowledge management systems are only as good as the training for workplace skills they deliver, as put forth in Driscoll and Carliner 2005 . This article offers models and frameworks for using web-based training in the workplace. Of equal importance in the provision of technology-delivered workplace training and development efforts is the empirical evaluation of the effectiveness of such training. Wang, et al. 2007 explores one model of an empirically validated evaluation instrument for such purposes.

Chatti, Mohamed Amine, Matthias Jarke, and Dirk Frosch-Wilke. 2007. The future of e-learning: A shift to knowledge networking and social software. International Journal of Knowledge and Learning 3.4: 404–420.

DOI: 10.1504/IJKL.2007.016702 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors of this article claim that knowledge management and learning management are completely interconnected by the same ultimate goal. They claim that the use of emerging technology is the best way to unify these separate yet similar functions. Available online by subscription.

Dagger, Declan, Alexander O’Connor, Seamus Lawless, Eddie Walsh, and Vincent P. Wade. 2007. Service-oriented e-learning platforms: From monolithic systems to flexible services. Internet Computing, IEEE 11.3 (May–June): 28–35.

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This article describes the current change from learning management system–based education to more service-oriented learning platforms. The authors explore the future of these service-learning applications. Available online by subscription.

Driscoll, Margaret, and Saul Carliner. 2005. Advanced web-based training: Adapting real world strategies in your online learning . San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

Focuses on the best-demonstrated practices for implemented web-based training in the workplace. Provides models and frameworks for those in the learning management field.

Fallery, Bernard, Roxana Ologeanu-Taddei, and Sylvie Gerbaix. 2010. Acceptance and appropriation of videoconferencing for e-training: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction 6.3 (July–September): 37–52.

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This article observes real-life training situations to determine employee acceptance of videoconferencing training systems. The results indicate that workers prefer the virtual training to a traditional class. Available online by subscription.

Mack, Robert L., Yael Ravin, and Roy J. Byrd. 2010. Knowledge portals and the emerging digital knowledge workplace. IBM Systems Journal 40.4: 925–955.

DOI: 10.1147/sj.404.0925 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A key aspect of knowledge management in business organizations is collaboration and knowledge sharing. This report describes the growing role of knowledge portals as facilitators of collaboration.

Maier, Ronald 2007. Knowledge management systems: Information and communication technologies for knowledge management . 3d ed. Berlin and New York: Springer-Verlag.

A comprehensive guide to a breadth of issues concerning the implementation of knowledge management systems that are technology based. The authors provide strategy and examples but also explore organizational and system contexts.

Siemens, George. 2006. Learning or management system? A review of learning management system reviews . Manitoba, Winnipeg: Learning Technologies Centre.

This article explores the most important criteria for schools and businesses that are selecting an enterprise learning management system. It also addresses the current state of learning management systems (LMS) and implies where they might be headed in the future.

Wang, Yi-Shun, Hsiu-Yuan Wang, and Daniel Y. Shee. 2007. Measuring e-learning systems success in an organizational context: Scale development and validation. Computers in Human Behavior 23.4 (July): 1792–1808.

DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2005.10.006 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Based on prior research, this article creates an empirically validated evaluation instrument for the effectiveness of e-learning programs. It is useful for human resources and knowledge management workers. Available online by subscription.

This section provides definitions of key technology components and relevant examples of technology tools being used in educational settings. The selections exemplify the myriad tools that may enhance administrative, teacher, and student capabilities and performance. Because technology applications are changing faster than they can be empirically researched, some of the articles included in this section were chosen based on the relevance of the findings rather than on the implications of using the tools themselves. Two of the works offer a broader view of the tools available to educators. The first, Richardson 2010 , attempts to tie many of the tools discussed by other scholars into a broad introduction to most of the current web-based tools being used in education. The second, Beldarrain 2006 , reviews the effectiveness of the most common tools currently used for distance learning, as well as the implications. The rest of the selections in this section take a closer look at particular tools being used in today’s classrooms. Fernandez, et al. 2009 implies that podcasting may have many benefits as a supplementary form of instruction. Kim 2008 reviews the research concerning blogs in educational settings and offers both the challenges and the promises of using them effectively in educational settings. Kolb 2008 details how K–12 educators can innovatively use cell phones in the classroom as instructional tools. Parker and Chao 2007 looks at how wikis can be used in educational settings to support a constructivist approach to learning. Smith, et al. 2005 presents a critical literature review on specific topics and issues concerning interactive whiteboard technology. In Moreno and Mayer 2007 , the authors put forth a cognitive-affective theory of learning with media by reviewing multiple experimental studies. Their review finds empirical support for five instructional design principles for using technology tools in education: guided activity, reflection, feedback, control, and pretraining.

Beldarrain, Yoany. 2006. Distance education trends: Integrating new technologies to foster student interaction and collaboration. Distance Education 27.2 (August): 139–153.

DOI: 10.1080/01587910600789498 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Reviews the effectiveness of the most common tools currently used for distance learning, as well as the implications they may have on educational infrastructure and theory. Available online by subscription.

Fernandez, Vicenc, Pep Simo, and Jose M. Sallan. 2009. Podcasting: A new technological tool to facilitate good practice in higher education. Computers and Education 53.2 (September): 385–392.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2009.02.014 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A research study that summarizes the subject of podcasting and then attempts to connect empirical studies of the effectiveness of podcasting with theories of good practice in higher education. The research implies podcasting has many benefits as a supplementary form of instruction.

Kim, Hyung Nam. 2008. The phenomenon of blogs and theoretical model of blog use in educational contexts. Computers and Education 51.3 (November): 1342–1352.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2007.12.005 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article reviews the research concerning blogs in educational settings in order to develop a model of effective implementation. Explores the strengths and shortcomings of the technology and suggests implications for the future.

Kolb, Liz. 2008. Toys to tools: Connecting student cell phones to education . Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education.

Cell phone usage by students is already near ubiquitous; this book details how K–12 educators can capitalize on this trend. Details innovative applications of the technology and offers implementation strategies.

Moreno, Roxana, and Richard Mayer. 2007. Interactive multimodal learning environments. Educational Psychology Review 19.3 (September): 309–326.

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This article presents an overview of interactive learning environments and details the five most important design issues. The authors offer a theory of learning in these environments and directions for future research. Available online by subscription.

Parker, Kevin R., and Joseph T. Chao. 2007. Wiki as a teaching tool . Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects 3:57–72.

Explores the current uses of wikis in education and learning, and compares them to other technologies like blogging. Also identifies how wikis fit into a constructivist learning theory.

Richardson, Will. 2010. Blogs, wikis, podcasts, and other powerful web tools for classrooms . 3d ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

A broad introduction to most of the current web-based tools being used in education. Presents a number of both practical and theoretical examples of concepts and educates about how to best utilize these tools.

Smith, Heather J., Steve Higgins, Kate Wall, and Jen Miller. 2005. Interactive whiteboards: Boon or bandwagon? A critical review of the literature. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 21.2: 91–101.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2005.00117.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article presents a critical literature review of specific topics and issues concerning interactive whiteboard technology. The research indicates that there is support for their use by teachers and policy makers in spite of some inherent problems.

Because computer-based communications technologies are continually evolving and because their distribution throughout the education system is continually changing, this section responds to the demand for information regarding implementation and integration in education settings. The materials in this section present essential implementation and infrastructure considerations that decision makers should think about when implementing or integrating technology in educational settings. As Bielaczyc 2006 exhorts, these considerations are important for educators in broadly understanding some of the critical factors affecting the successful integration of technology in US schools, if the tools available are to be used well in the service of teaching and learning. Gülbahar 2007 builds on this exhortation and explores the people and processes that must be involved in technology integration in US schools. Hew and Brush 2007 and Law, et al. 2008 explore these same issues from an international perspective. Another two works were selected because they take a deeper look at implementation issues within specific and relevant contexts—in the workplace and in higher education: Selim 2007 attempts to identify the most important factors in successfully implementing e-learning and distance learning in education and training programs; Selwyn 2007 takes a critical look at computer-based educational technology in university classrooms. Cuban, et al. 2001 and Penuel 2006 discuss evidence that both accessibility to technology and the level of use and knowledge of teachers and faculty are important to obtaining quality implementation and integration of technology in schools. These articles emphasize that the use of technology to propel student learning depends on the teachers’ ability to use the tools well in classrooms.

Bielaczyc, Katerine. 2006. Designing social infrastructure: Critical issues in creating learning environments with technology. Journal of the Learning Sciences 15.3: 301–329.

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In this article, the author creates a “social infrastructure framework” to frame the critical social factors affecting technology integration in schools. The article details implementation design issues and describes how to utilize the framework most effectively.

Cuban, Larry, Heather Kirkpatrick, and Craig Peck. 2001. High access and low use of technologies in high school classrooms: Explaining an apparent paradox. American Educational Research Journal 38.4: 813–834.

DOI: 10.3102/00028312038004813 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article presents evidence that accessibility is not the only factor to obtaining high levels of technological use in schools. The level of use and knowledge of teachers and faculty are also significant factors affecting the use of technology by students.

Gülbahar, Yasemin. 2007. Technology planning: A roadmap to successful technology integration in schools. Computers and Education 49.4: 943–956.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2005.12.002 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Explores all of the pertinent people and entities involved in technology integration and schools and proposes some effective practices for successful implementation. Available online by subscription.

Hew, Khe Foon, and Thomas Brush. 2007. Integrating technology into K–12 teaching and learning: Current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. Educational Technology Research and Development 55.3: 223–252.

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In this article, the authors identify the most common barriers to technology implementation in schools around the world. The authors also identify related knowledge gaps and make recommendations for the future.

Law, Nancy, Willem J. Pelgrum, and Tjeerd Plomp, eds. 2008. Pedagogy and ICT use in schools around the world: Findings from the IEA SITES 2006 study . CERC Studies in Comparative Education 23. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Provides an international perspective on the barriers and obstacles facing educators and administrators in the integration of educational technology. This is a comprehensive report on many issues affecting implementation based on a 2006 worldwide study.

Penuel, William R. 2006. Implementation and effects of one-to-one computing initiatives: A research synthesis. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 38.3 (Spring): 329–348.

This research study looks at the effect that teacher knowledge and skill has on the implementation of instructional technology. Penuel finds that adequate time and support were the most important factors in the implementation.

Selim, Hassan M. 2007. Critical success factors for e-learning acceptance: Confirmatory factor models. Computers and Education 49.2 (September): 396–413.

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This article seeks to identify the most important factors to success in implementing e-learning and distance learning in higher education programs. The factors found are presented and ranked. Available online by subscription.

Selwyn, N. 2007. The use of computer technology in university teaching and learning: A critical perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 23.2: 83–94.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00204.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The article takes a critical look at computer-based educational technology in universities to identify the most significant challenges and setbacks it faces. It also identifies the ways in which technology is not being used effectively for instruction. Available online by subscription.

Since the passage of laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, educators have been increasingly required to provide access to information technology resources for people with disabilities. The studies in this section offer insight into the critical issues related to using technology to create inclusive environments for all students. Also included in this section is a look at the impact of student socialization and motivation on the use of technology as an instructional tool. Bechard, et al. 2010 offers a broad overview of the critical issues facing inclusive design and suggests future research that will help educators know how to use technology well in inclusive settings. Plowing a little deeper into these issues, Edyburn, et al. 2005 looks at specific technologies, instructional design, and current trends and issues for those educators and instruction designers who seek to meet the needs of children with special needs. Dini, et al. 2007 and Kelly, et al. 2007 present effective models, approaches, best-demonstrated practices, and evaluation guidelines for the use of technology in inclusive settings. Seale and Cooper 2010 implies, on the other hand, that the best approach may be to blend a variety of accessibility tools and methods into the general education curriculum. Two additional works included in this section move beyond the tools to take a look at motivation and socialization as factors affecting the use of technology in inclusive settings. The first, Heemskerk, et al. 2005 , questions if the use of technology has the same motivating effects on all student achievement, especially those with learning disabilities. The second, Vekiri and Chronaki 2008 , takes a closer look at gender as a socialization factor impacting the use of technology in the classroom. Drawing on case studies, Warschauer 2004 concludes that the lack of technology usage in inclusive schools is not a case of imbalanced resources but rather a case of educators’ inability to facilitate a meaningful use of technology for student achievement.

Bechard, Sue, Jan Sheinker, Rosemary Abell, et al. 2010. Measuring cognition of students with disabilities using technology-enabled assessments: Recommendations for a national research agenda . Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment 10.4 (November).

Based on the proceedings of the 2009 Invitational Research Symposium on Technology-Enabled and Universally Designed Assessments, this report identifies the four critical issues facing design for inclusive classrooms and their implications on future research.

Dini, Silvia, Lucia Ferlino, Anna Getani, Cristina Martinoli, and Michela Ott. 2007. Educational software and low vision students: Evaluating accessibility factors. Universal Access in the Information Society 6.1: 15–29.

DOI: 10.1007/s10209-006-0056-6 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Presents effective examples-in-practice and evaluation guidelines for educators and instruction designers of inclusive classrooms. Available online by subscription.

Edyburn, Dave L., Kyle Higgins, and Randall Boone, eds. 2005. Handbook of special education technology research and practice . Whitefish Bay, WI: Knowledge by Design.

A comprehensive collection of articles from notable authorities that includes research on specific technologies, instructional design, and current trends and issues.

Heemskerk, Irma, Anouk Brink, Monique Volman, and Geert ten Dem 2005. Inclusiveness and ICT in education: A focus on gender, ethnicity and social class. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 21.1: 1–16.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2005.00106.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This research in this article questions whether the use of technology has the same motivating effects on all students. The research indicates that gender does make a difference, and females see improvement with greater inclusiveness in the educational tools. Available online by subscription.

Kelly, Brian, David Sloan, Stephen Brown, et al. 2007. Accessibility 2.0: People, policies and processes. In Proceedings of the 2007 International Cross-Disciplinary Conference on Web Accessibility (W4A) : 2007, Banff, Canada, May 07–08, 2007 . Edited by Yeliz Yesilada and Simon Harper, 138–147. New York: ACM Press.

DOI: 10.1145/1243441.1243471 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Summarizes and reviews previous work of the Web Accessibility Initiative. Describes a number of models and approaches and identifies the best-demonstrated practices. Available online by subscription.

Seale, Jane, and Martyn Cooper. 2010. E-learning and accessibility: An exploration of the potential role of generic pedagogical tools. Computers and Education 54.4: 1107–1116.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2009.10.017 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article studies a range of accessibility tools for e-learning and how they can best be used by educators of disabled students. The authors imply that the best approach may be to blend accessibility tools with the general education curriculum. Available online by subscription.

Vekiri, Ioanna, and Anna Chronaki. 2008. Gender issues in technology use: Perceived social support, computer self-efficacy and value beliefs, and computer use beyond school. Computers and Education 51.3: 1392–1404.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2008.01.003 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This study of elementary school children suggests that there are significant differences in the frequency and type of computer usage in and out of the classroom. The authors identify gender socialization as the primary causes of these differences. Available online by subscription.

Warschauer, Mark. 2004. Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Drawing on case studies and theoretical frameworks, this book concludes that the “digital divide” is not simply due to imbalanced resources but also to a lack of facilitation of meaningful use of the technology.

The resources in this section discuss, compare, and/or contrast the use of education technology in various international settings. The selections offer examples of issues related to the use of technology to support teaching and learning in diverse settings. Edmundson 2007 establishes a good framework for understanding some of the unique cultural challenges that accompany the globalization of instructional technology. In addition, Bonk and Graham 2006 highlights some of the issues, particularly within academic, workplace, and military settings, from a global viewpoint. Other researchers focus on various aspects of using technology in the service of teaching and learning. For example, Law, et al. 2009 offers perspectives on technology research, instructional design, and pedagogical practices from around the world, and Kozma 2003 details research and analysis from twenty-eight countries regarding trends and best practices in the implementation of technology. Zhang, et al. 2010 takes a closer look at these issues from one country’s viewpoint—China. Hawkins 2002 and Olaniran 2010 detail the most important issues related to using technology, specifically in e-learning, in the developing world. Wright, et al. 2009 offers more detail regarding some of the economic, cultural, and social issues that educators and administrators face in using technology within the developing world.

Bonk, Curtis Jay, and Charles Ray Graham, eds. 2006. The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs . San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

A comprehensive book that highlights current trends in blended e-learning from a global viewpoint. The scope and audience of the book is very broad; it covers academic, workplace, and military applications of blended learning.

Edmundson, Andrea, ed. 2007. Globalized e-learning cultural challenges . Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

A collection of articles that detail the unique cultural challenges that accompany the globalization of e-learning. Provides theoretical framework and cultural perspectives.

Hawkins, Robert J. 2002. Ten lessons for ICT and education in the developing world. In The global information technology report 2001–2002 : Readiness for the networked world . Edited by Geoffrey Kirkman, Peter K. Cornelius, Jeffrey D. Sachs, and Klaus Schwab, 38–43. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

This pilot study succinctly details the ten most-important issues related to using technology in the developing world. Lessons and recommendations are offered.

Kozma, Robert B., ed. 2003. Technology, innovation, and educational change: A global perspective . Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education.

This book provides detailed research and analysis from twenty-eight countries to identify trends and best practices in the implementation of technology in education around the world.

Law, Nancy, Tjeerd Plomp, and Willem J. Pelgrum, eds. 2009. Pedagogical practices and ICT use in schools around the world: Findings from the IEA SITES study 2006 . Hong Kong: Springer.

A summary of the SITES 2006 study, which focused on international perspectives on research design, pedagogy, and secondary support systems. Also offers a comparative analysis of nation-specific case studies from South Africa, Denmark, and Hong Kong.

Olaniran, Bolanle A., ed. 2010. Cases on successful e-learning practices in the developed and developing world: Methods for the global information economy . Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

A professionally focused collection of case studies that presents successful implementations of e-learning in developing countries. Covers a broad array of topics and is intended for practitioners and executives of knowledge management.

Wright, Clayton R., Gajaraj Dhanarajan, and Sunday A. Reju. 2009. Recurring issues encountered by distance educators in developing and emerging nations . International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 10.1.

This article takes a holistic approach at looking beyond just technological infrastructure in developing nations. Details the economic, cultural, and social issues that educators and administrators face.

Zhang Jingtao, Fang Yuanyuan, and Ma Xiaoling. 2010. The latest progress report on ICT application in Chinese basic education. British Journal of Educational Technology 41.4 (July): 567–573.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01083.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

China is one of the fastest growing countries in the world. This article assesses whether technology use in education in the country has kept up with other developments. It concludes that strides have been made but not in rural communities. Available online by subscription.

Educators need to understand the possible impacts of emerging technologies on teaching and learning. Toward this end, Kurzweil 2005 posits a coming technology singularity that will consist of an ability to augment our bodies and minds with technology. The author’s perspective underscores the ubiquitous nature of technology in the future. Cannon-Bowers and Bowers 2009 discusses the ubiquitous nature of emerging leadership from the perspectives of instructional designers and technology administrators within the training and development fields. Most of the selections chosen for this section explore specific emerging technology applications and their impact on teaching and learning. For instance, Dunleavy, et al. 2009 studies the potential and barriers involved with using augmented reality (AR) in educational settings, and Warburton 2009 considers the benefits and barriers of virtual worlds as an instructional tool. Kiili 2005 offers a theoretical framework for using gaming-based applications for student learning, and Sharples, et al. 2009 discusses the implications of mobile technology on the contexts of learning. Moving away from specific technology applications, Johnson, et al. 2010 highlights some of these emerging technologies, their importance to education, and their “time-to-adoption horizon.” Likewise, Siemens and Tittenberger 2009 discusses some of the issues related to integrating and implementing these kind of emerging technologies into educational settings.

Cannon-Bowers, Jan, and Clint Bowers. 2009. Synthetic learning environments: On developing a science of simulation, games, and virtual worlds for training. In Learning, training, and development in organizations . Edited by Steve W. J. Kozlowski, and Eduardo Salas, 229–262. SIOP Organizational Frontier Series. New York: Routledge.

This chapter focuses emerging technologies from a professional perspective. A good resource for a designer or administrator in the training and development field.

Dunleavy, Matt, Chris Dede, and Rebecca Mitchell. 2009. Affordances and limitations of immersive participatory augmented reality simulations for teaching and learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology 18.1: 7–22.

DOI: 10.1007/s10956-008-9119-1 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Introduces the technology and applications of augmented reality (AR) in educational settings. This study of US middle and high school students’ use of AR found that this technology has high positive potential but also faces some unique technological, administrative, and cognitive barriers. Available online by subscription.

Johnson, L., S. Adams, and K. Haywood. 2010. The NMC horizon report: 2011 K–12 edition . Austin, TX: New Media Consortium.

An essential resource for anyone interested in the future of the educational technology field. Briefly details the most important emerging technologies in education, why they’re important to the field, and their “time-to-adoption horizon.”

Kiili, Kristian. 2005. Digital game-based learning: Towards an experiential gaming model. The Internet and Higher Education 8.1: 13–24.

DOI: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.12.001 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Gaming-based applications change rapidly, but this article attempts to create a solid theoretical learning framework despite changes in technology. This experiential game model should be useful for designers and educators.

Kurzweil, Ray. 2005. The singularity is near: When humans transcend biology . New York: Viking.

Because of what is being learned in the fields of genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics (including artificial intelligence), Kurzweil posits a coming technology singularity—an ability to augment our bodies and minds with technology. Although Kurzweil’s reasoning and selective use of growth indicators have been challenged, the work offers one scenario of the future.

Sharples, Mike, Inmaculada Arnedillo-Sánchez, Marcelo Milrad, and Giasemi Vavoula. 2009. Mobile learning: Small devices, big issues. In Technology-enhanced learning IV. Edited by N. Balacheff, S. Ludvigsen, T. de Jong, A. Lazonder, and S. Barnes, 233–249. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer,

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-9827-7 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This chapter details the central issues of mobile learning in the educational community. It discusses the learning contexts created by mobile technology and the results of recent projects and research.

Siemens, George, and Peter Tittenberger. 2009. Handbook of emerging technologies for learning . Winnipeg, Canada: Univ. of Manitoba.

Focuses more on the underlying theoretical learning frameworks for implementing emerging technology than the individual technologies. Good for instructional designers and educators considering integrating technology.

Warburton, Steven. 2009. Second life in higher education: Assessing the potential for and the barriers to deploying virtual worlds in learning and teaching . British Journal of Educational Technology 40.3: 414–426.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00952.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Presents a brief history of virtual worlds to provide context, and details the unique characteristics of Second Life compared to other virtual worlds. Considers benefits and barriers to usage to prognosticate the future of the technology in education.

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How technology is reinventing education.

New advances in technology are upending education, from the recent debut of new artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots like ChatGPT to the growing accessibility of virtual-reality tools that expand the boundaries of the classroom. For educators, at the heart of it all is the hope that every learner gets an equal chance to develop the skills they need to succeed. But that promise is not without its pitfalls.

“Technology is a game-changer for education – it offers the prospect of universal access to high-quality learning experiences, and it creates fundamentally new ways of teaching,” said Dan Schwartz, dean of  Stanford Graduate School of Education  (GSE), who is also a professor of educational technology at the GSE and faculty director of the  Stanford Accelerator for Learning . “But there are a lot of ways we teach that aren’t great, and a big fear with AI in particular is that we just get more efficient at teaching badly. This is a moment to pay attention, to do things differently.”

For K-12 schools, this year also marks the end of the Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) funding program, which has provided pandemic recovery funds that many districts used to invest in educational software and systems. With these funds running out in September 2024, schools are trying to determine their best use of technology as they face the prospect of diminishing resources.

Here, Schwartz and other Stanford education scholars weigh in on some of the technology trends taking center stage in the classroom this year.

AI in the classroom

In 2023, the big story in technology and education was generative AI, following the introduction of ChatGPT and other chatbots that produce text seemingly written by a human in response to a question or prompt. Educators immediately  worried  that students would use the chatbot to cheat by trying to pass its writing off as their own. As schools move to adopt policies around students’ use of the tool, many are also beginning to explore potential opportunities – for example, to generate reading assignments or  coach  students during the writing process.

AI can also help automate tasks like grading and lesson planning, freeing teachers to do the human work that drew them into the profession in the first place, said Victor Lee, an associate professor at the GSE and faculty lead for the  AI + Education initiative  at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning. “I’m heartened to see some movement toward creating AI tools that make teachers’ lives better – not to replace them, but to give them the time to do the work that only teachers are able to do,” he said. “I hope to see more on that front.”

He also emphasized the need to teach students now to begin questioning and critiquing the development and use of AI. “AI is not going away,” said Lee, who is also director of  CRAFT  (Classroom-Ready Resources about AI for Teaching), which provides free resources to help teach AI literacy to high school students across subject areas. “We need to teach students how to understand and think critically about this technology.”

Immersive environments

The use of immersive technologies like augmented reality, virtual reality, and mixed reality is also expected to surge in the classroom, especially as new high-profile devices integrating these realities hit the marketplace in 2024.

The educational possibilities now go beyond putting on a headset and experiencing life in a distant location. With new technologies, students can create their own local interactive 360-degree scenarios, using just a cell phone or inexpensive camera and simple online tools.

“This is an area that’s really going to explode over the next couple of years,” said Kristen Pilner Blair, director of research for the  Digital Learning initiative  at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning, which runs a program exploring the use of  virtual field trips  to promote learning. “Students can learn about the effects of climate change, say, by virtually experiencing the impact on a particular environment. But they can also become creators, documenting and sharing immersive media that shows the effects where they live.”

Integrating AI into virtual simulations could also soon take the experience to another level, Schwartz said. “If your VR experience brings me to a redwood tree, you could have a window pop up that allows me to ask questions about the tree, and AI can deliver the answers.”

Gamification

Another trend expected to intensify this year is the gamification of learning activities, often featuring dynamic videos with interactive elements to engage and hold students’ attention.

“Gamification is a good motivator, because one key aspect is reward, which is very powerful,” said Schwartz. The downside? Rewards are specific to the activity at hand, which may not extend to learning more generally. “If I get rewarded for doing math in a space-age video game, it doesn’t mean I’m going to be motivated to do math anywhere else.”

Gamification sometimes tries to make “chocolate-covered broccoli,” Schwartz said, by adding art and rewards to make speeded response tasks involving single-answer, factual questions more fun. He hopes to see more creative play patterns that give students points for rethinking an approach or adapting their strategy, rather than only rewarding them for quickly producing a correct response.

Data-gathering and analysis

The growing use of technology in schools is producing massive amounts of data on students’ activities in the classroom and online. “We’re now able to capture moment-to-moment data, every keystroke a kid makes,” said Schwartz – data that can reveal areas of struggle and different learning opportunities, from solving a math problem to approaching a writing assignment.

But outside of research settings, he said, that type of granular data – now owned by tech companies – is more likely used to refine the design of the software than to provide teachers with actionable information.

The promise of personalized learning is being able to generate content aligned with students’ interests and skill levels, and making lessons more accessible for multilingual learners and students with disabilities. Realizing that promise requires that educators can make sense of the data that’s being collected, said Schwartz – and while advances in AI are making it easier to identify patterns and findings, the data also needs to be in a system and form educators can access and analyze for decision-making. Developing a usable infrastructure for that data, Schwartz said, is an important next step.

With the accumulation of student data comes privacy concerns: How is the data being collected? Are there regulations or guidelines around its use in decision-making? What steps are being taken to prevent unauthorized access? In 2023 K-12 schools experienced a rise in cyberattacks, underscoring the need to implement strong systems to safeguard student data.

Technology is “requiring people to check their assumptions about education,” said Schwartz, noting that AI in particular is very efficient at replicating biases and automating the way things have been done in the past, including poor models of instruction. “But it’s also opening up new possibilities for students producing material, and for being able to identify children who are not average so we can customize toward them. It’s an opportunity to think of entirely new ways of teaching – this is the path I hope to see.”

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AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY.pdf

AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY - A SUMMARY ON USE OF TECHNOLOGY FOR MODERN CLASSROOM

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Asian Journal of Distance Education

Ankuran Dutta , Gitali Kakati

Studies have claimed that use of multimedia technologies motivate and stimulate the learning of students as compared to using traditional teaching methods alone. Multimedia aids are therefore significant in effective teaching learning process. It is even more significant in open and distance learning where the learners are separated from their teachers by distances. The study has been done by using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Data has been collected from all the fifteen Open Universities of India. In this study, the researchers have attempted to understand the availability and delivery mechanism of different multimedia courseware in institutions imparting distance learning in India. The study will also provide interesting findings like commonly used or most preferred multimedia technology in these institutions.

Indrajit Bhattacharya

The authors at the Department of Electronics Accreditation for Computer Courses (India) present the basis and a way forward for a knowledge-based economy in India through expanded utilization of e-learning techniques. This paper makes a strong case for investing in information technologies for increasing the human resource capital to raise the economy of the country. In a country of more than one billion people and of continental dimension, economic development can only be reached through better utilization of e-learning. Here we have reviewed various elearning aspects including the technologies and projects to facilitate e-learning, and have proposed some suggestions for improving the management of e-learning. Academic bodies such as the University Grants Commission, the Knowledge Commission, the Institutes of Information Technology, and software companies should pool their efforts to establish knowledge processing techniques to help teachers and students pursue learning, and thus contribute to long-term economic development. Accelerated telecommunication growth, better internet The authors at the Department of Electronics Accreditation for Computer Courses (India) present the basis and a way forward for a knowledge-based economy in India through expanded utilization of e-learning techniques. This paper makes a strong case for investing in information technologies for increasing the human resource capital to raise the economy of the country. In a country of more than one billion people and of continental dimension, economic development can only be reached through better utilization of e-learning. Here we have reviewed various elearning aspects including the technologies and projects to facilitate e-learning, and have proposed some suggestions for improving the management of e-learning. Academic bodies such as the University Grants Commission, the Knowledge Commission, the Institutes of Information Technology, and software companies should pool their efforts to establish knowledge processing techniques to help teachers and students pursue learning, and thus contribute to long-term economic development. Accelerated telecommunication growth, better internet penetration with wider bandwidth and more software applications for e-education are needed for overcoming the digital divide to achieve growth, in coordination with grass-roots developmental work in schools. We urge and support traditional institutions to put their energies into information and communication technologies for providing e-instruction..

International Journal of Creative Research Thought

Dr. Arnab Kundu

In the modern era, almost every learner would have come across the word E-learning and every part of education and training system enthusiastically explores and implements E-learning in one form or another. E-learning is a broad concept. It refers to a wide range of techniques and methods. It is often employed as a unifying term to describe the fields of online learning, web-based teaching and technology delivered instruction. With the amazing development of Internet, the field of education has tried to exploit web as a communication channel to connect distant learners with their learning resources. E-learning creates awareness in modern education and it offers a greater degree of freedom in Teaching Learning Process (TLP). E-learning activities are important for the development of any country on this globalised globe when in modern era everybody is thinking about growth and Educational development. In this research paper the up-to-date developments through E-learning in India is observed with the objective to comprehend the rapid popularity, the concept of e-learning is gaining as well as its possibility to be the focal wheel of development of education sector of India in near future.

deivam muniyandi

With the advent of 21 st century, revolutionary changes in the communication system is occurring, every citizen of the country is now having a communication device. Therefore, if ICT is properly utilized then there will be equal opportunity for quality education to all the people of the country. Indian Government has taken a number of initiatives, and awarded a no. of e-content development projects under NME-ICT for the growth and development of e-learning environment. The targeted users are not fully availing the e-learning opportunity of such initiatives. NME-ICT creates high quality e-content for the target groups and on the others. In

The new millennium heralds exciting opportunities to diversify the ways in which education is offered. Everything went electronic; today the words like e-health, e-government, e-shopping, e-business and e-learning are frequently encountered. A greater flexibility is provided through online access to learning – when, where and how to do it. Breaking the shackles of tradition empowers all learners, as their diverse needs are increasingly accommodated in education programs that are supported by information technology. E-learning is one important avenue for promoting greater access to all learners. The rapid development of technology makes it possible for almost anyone to access computing resources. These types of technologies include special hardware and software that allow individuals with a wide range of skills to make productive use of computers. The generation of humans whose generational location places their birth and developmental experiences during a time of widespread access to digital computing technologies and whose exposure to and experience with those technologies led to a technological comfort and expertise with that technology that surpasses those of prior generations. In this paper authors discussed E-learning, Initiated by Government of India, and E-learning Advantages for digital generation.

Imran Ansari

Machunwangliu Kamei

Advancements in Information Communication Technologies (ICT) have resulted in the falling cost and rising efficiency in the transmission, retrieval and analysis of information. The paper introduces India's Higher education policies on ICT for Education (ICT4E). The main focus of the paper is to see how the Policies are being communicated by different stakeholders in Tezpur University with special emphasis on how it is translated by faculties and students who are the end-users. A Qualitative interpretive case study methodology is followed using Grounded Theory to interpret and analyze data based on interviews, document study and observations. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis from different stakeholder's perspective further highlights the advantages and the challenges faced in the actual implementation of ICT4E in Tezpur University situated in a remote location in a developing country like India.

Journal of the Gujarat Research Society

Deeksha Mishra

New trends are emerging which affects the field of education such as Artificial intelligence, Virtual education, Digital Liberty, Game-based curricula, Paperless textbooks, Involvement of social media, Open education resources (OER), Collaborative learning, learning analytics, flipped learning, Blended learning, Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs) etc. Most of the above trends do involve the internet or web-based, and all these trends are emerging as Modern electronic educational technology. Modern electronic educational technology is an essential part of society today (Selwyn, 2011). Web-based technique uplifted the entire education system into the next level. Web-based education involves a world wide web (www)for exchanging the information. It is a powerful tool of communication

Tian Belawati

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New advances in technology are upending education, from the recent debut of new artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots like ChatGPT to the growing accessibility of virtual-reality tools that expand the boundaries of the classroom. For educators, at the heart of it all is the hope that every learner gets an equal chance to develop the skills they need to succeed. But that promise is not without its pitfalls.

“Technology is a game-changer for education – it offers the prospect of universal access to high-quality learning experiences, and it creates fundamentally new ways of teaching,” said Dan Schwartz, dean of Stanford Graduate School of Education (GSE), who is also a professor of educational technology at the GSE and faculty director of the Stanford Accelerator for Learning . “But there are a lot of ways we teach that aren’t great, and a big fear with AI in particular is that we just get more efficient at teaching badly. This is a moment to pay attention, to do things differently.”

For K-12 schools, this year also marks the end of the Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) funding program, which has provided pandemic recovery funds that many districts used to invest in educational software and systems. With these funds running out in September 2024, schools are trying to determine their best use of technology as they face the prospect of diminishing resources.

Here, Schwartz and other Stanford education scholars weigh in on some of the technology trends taking center stage in the classroom this year.

AI in the classroom

In 2023, the big story in technology and education was generative AI, following the introduction of ChatGPT and other chatbots that produce text seemingly written by a human in response to a question or prompt. Educators immediately worried that students would use the chatbot to cheat by trying to pass its writing off as their own. As schools move to adopt policies around students’ use of the tool, many are also beginning to explore potential opportunities – for example, to generate reading assignments or coach students during the writing process.

AI can also help automate tasks like grading and lesson planning, freeing teachers to do the human work that drew them into the profession in the first place, said Victor Lee, an associate professor at the GSE and faculty lead for the AI + Education initiative at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning. “I’m heartened to see some movement toward creating AI tools that make teachers’ lives better – not to replace them, but to give them the time to do the work that only teachers are able to do,” he said. “I hope to see more on that front.”

He also emphasized the need to teach students now to begin questioning and critiquing the development and use of AI. “AI is not going away,” said Lee, who is also director of CRAFT (Classroom-Ready Resources about AI for Teaching), which provides free resources to help teach AI literacy to high school students across subject areas. “We need to teach students how to understand and think critically about this technology.”

Immersive environments

The use of immersive technologies like augmented reality, virtual reality, and mixed reality is also expected to surge in the classroom, especially as new high-profile devices integrating these realities hit the marketplace in 2024.

The educational possibilities now go beyond putting on a headset and experiencing life in a distant location. With new technologies, students can create their own local interactive 360-degree scenarios, using just a cell phone or inexpensive camera and simple online tools.

“This is an area that’s really going to explode over the next couple of years,” said Kristen Pilner Blair, director of research for the Digital Learning initiative at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning, which runs a program exploring the use of virtual field trips to promote learning. “Students can learn about the effects of climate change, say, by virtually experiencing the impact on a particular environment. But they can also become creators, documenting and sharing immersive media that shows the effects where they live.”

Integrating AI into virtual simulations could also soon take the experience to another level, Schwartz said. “If your VR experience brings me to a redwood tree, you could have a window pop up that allows me to ask questions about the tree, and AI can deliver the answers.”

Gamification

Another trend expected to intensify this year is the gamification of learning activities, often featuring dynamic videos with interactive elements to engage and hold students’ attention.

“Gamification is a good motivator, because one key aspect is reward, which is very powerful,” said Schwartz. The downside? Rewards are specific to the activity at hand, which may not extend to learning more generally. “If I get rewarded for doing math in a space-age video game, it doesn’t mean I’m going to be motivated to do math anywhere else.”

Gamification sometimes tries to make “chocolate-covered broccoli,” Schwartz said, by adding art and rewards to make speeded response tasks involving single-answer, factual questions more fun. He hopes to see more creative play patterns that give students points for rethinking an approach or adapting their strategy, rather than only rewarding them for quickly producing a correct response.

Data-gathering and analysis

The growing use of technology in schools is producing massive amounts of data on students’ activities in the classroom and online. “We’re now able to capture moment-to-moment data, every keystroke a kid makes,” said Schwartz – data that can reveal areas of struggle and different learning opportunities, from solving a math problem to approaching a writing assignment.

But outside of research settings, he said, that type of granular data – now owned by tech companies – is more likely used to refine the design of the software than to provide teachers with actionable information.

The promise of personalized learning is being able to generate content aligned with students’ interests and skill levels, and making lessons more accessible for multilingual learners and students with disabilities. Realizing that promise requires that educators can make sense of the data that’s being collected, said Schwartz – and while advances in AI are making it easier to identify patterns and findings, the data also needs to be in a system and form educators can access and analyze for decision-making. Developing a usable infrastructure for that data, Schwartz said, is an important next step.

With the accumulation of student data comes privacy concerns: How is the data being collected? Are there regulations or guidelines around its use in decision-making? What steps are being taken to prevent unauthorized access? In 2023 K-12 schools experienced a rise in cyberattacks, underscoring the need to implement strong systems to safeguard student data.

Technology is “requiring people to check their assumptions about education,” said Schwartz, noting that AI in particular is very efficient at replicating biases and automating the way things have been done in the past, including poor models of instruction. “But it’s also opening up new possibilities for students producing material, and for being able to identify children who are not average so we can customize toward them. It’s an opportunity to think of entirely new ways of teaching – this is the path I hope to see.”

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The term education technology may seem straightforward— mashing the two together in order to embed information technology in education. However education technology, or EdTech, covers a wider breadth of subject areas, doing more than just improving educational capabilities.

Through the use of technology in education, teachers are better able to meet the varying needs and skill levels of their students, as well as manage classroom tasks more efficiently. Once cemented by the demands of a physical classroom, EdTech has also provided new spaces for educational opportunities to blossom, regardless of geography.

The use of technology in the classroom to enhance teaching and learning uses innovative and cost-effective methods, prioritizing genuine interaction and engagement while preparing students for an increasingly digitized world. 

Today we’ll be conducting a deep dive into the ins and outs of education technology: what it is, how it is being used in the classroom and education sector, and how educators and students can receive maximum benefits by adding this technology into their learning environment. 

We’ll also explore future EdTech trends coming down the pipe, as well as the ideal setup of gadgets for establishing an online presence in the classroom.

What is education technology?

Education technology is the advancement of education, teaching and learning through the use of technology. It encompasses all software and hardware utilized to educate students on a virtual level, ultimately improving learning environments for the better through online means. 

When working in tandem, education and information technologies not only facilitate an understanding of technology among students, but also improve educational outcomes through increased engagement. Google Classroom and other learning management systems are often seen in a standard hybrid classroom environment, and EdTech also encompasses games, hardware.

Credit: Unsplash

EdTech also allows for more accessible education. With more than 258 million children , adolescents, and youth worldwide reportedly out of school as of 2018, EdTech fills the gaps for those without access to a classroom and encourages improved attendance. With the help of technology for teaching and learning, distance learning and EdTech platforms help to combat barriers for students to receive a fulsome education.

How is technology used in education?

Technology has become a presence in the classroom in a number of ways, from serving as the platform students use to access assignments, to enabling participation from students who need to learn from home, to helping educators teach in new ways with games and tech-forward activities.

With a school system full of digital natives, access to technology has improved student engagement in class and opened up new ways of learning. The hybrid classroom is utilized in a way that grants students the opportunity to take on a more active role, with increased responsibility in directing their education.

Technology used in online education across varying age levels and grades through online courses and self-paced learning resources , which provide the optimal smart classroom experience when blended with in-school teachings. This also helps to create space for enjoyment and collaboration throughout the learning process.

EdTech Around the World

Many countries provide cost-effective solutions for students faced with financial difficulties or who are unable to afford EdTech equipment. Australia lends laptops to its students , while Bulgaria provides students in grades one through ten with free online textbooks . An even wider range of countries including Argentina, Croatia, and Fiji broadcast free educational programming on national radio and television.

How Technology Can Help in the Classroom

EdTech equips teachers to meet the various skill levels and demands of their students, providing opportunities to craft personalized lesson plans in order to meet individual needs. Those with special needs and specialized learning plans can access the tools they need to succeed in class thanks to advancements in classroom tech.

Education technology companies continuously produce new forms of software, hardware, and equipment, improving both synchronous and asynchronous learning capabilities in the classroom and at home. 

Top EdTech companies such as Chegg offer students online textbooks, reducing associated classroom costs as well as eliminating concerns to do with shortages of class resources. EdTech products like smart video cameras (including the Meeting Owl Pro ) allow students to feel seen and heard when participating in class remotely.

Ways Teachers Use EdTech

The introduction of EdTech to the classroom not only creates spaces for more interactive learning, but also allows for the incorporation of alternative teaching strategies. Traditional teaching methods are disrupted for the better by making use of common technology, such as laptops and tablets and meeting students where they are on the tech they’re already comfortable with.

1. Collect Data from In-Class Quizzes and Games

Teachers now have the power to collect rea l -time results from digitized quizzes and tests thanks to EdTech apps that relay this data, while also saving precious time on student assessments. 

2. Improve In-Class Engagement

Students remain included in classroom activities no matter their location with the utilization of platforms such as Engageli . The software offers teachers the ability to run both live and pre-recorded classes and allows students to digitally sit together in breakout groups. This makes up for lost social interaction otherwise achievable with students physically present in class.

3. Monitor Students’ Engagement in the Classroom

Monitoring students' attention spans throughout remote learning is made easy with EdTech applications like Class Technologies . Proving especially beneficial in tracking student engagement levels, it’s Focus Tracking feature allows educators to see when students don’t have Class open as their primary app. Redirecting attention back to the lesson and it’s course materials, keeps students engaged and on track with their learning progress.

When introducing students to new technologies in the classroom, it’s important for educators to provide students with ample time and opportunity to get accustomed to using EdTech software. Thorough training and preparation with new tech prevents future classroom hiccups, as well as makes students feel included and on the same page as their classmates.

Ways Students Use EdTech

One of the most beneficial uses of EdTech is that it grants students educational ownership. When assigned digital projects such as multimedia videos or audio assignments,, this encourages students to get creative with technology, while making class assignments relevant to the digitized world. It also educates students about the importance of becoming informed netizens and more intentional with the ways they consume media and information.

Credit: Photo by Compare Fibre/Amvia on Unsplash

A smart classroom may also involve gamifying classroom activities and lessons with EdTech. This lends to the concept of gamification theory which suggests learners learn best when having fun. Gamification also provides opportunities to collaborate, learn by doing and problem-solving, and develop healthy communication among classmates.

While pupils may be somewhat restricted when following lesson plans and course materials, EdTech creates space for self-directed learning. This is often a crucial component for students who require a slower pace to retain information or grasp core concepts. Self-directed learning at home also provides increased in-class class time for student collaboration, group projects, and valuable social interaction.

EdTech and COVID-19

Although education technology was originally intended as a single component within hybrid classrooms, the COVID-19 pandemic abruptly repositioned EdTech software and equipment. As teachers pivoted lesson plans to be designed for remote learning, this proved especially difficult for younger students , who benefit from the structure, guidance, and social interaction of in-person teachings.

If there’s anything the pandemic taught us about the usage of education technology, it is the importance of using EdTech deliberately and with intention, in a balanced format. Using education technology in a way that enhances the in-class learning experience for students and educators, is the most effective way of keeping the amount of screen time in check, while maintaining a healthy level of engagement.

Future EdTech Trends to Watch

Many EdTech trends predicted to manifest in the future are already beginning to appear, such as  the emergence of accessible education. 

Free + Open Source Educational Resources

Open source educational resources will continually be made available to students. Free and accessible learning and research material not only reduces costs for students but can also break-down complex information into more digestible formats.

VR in the Classroom

The presence of virtual reality (VR) in classrooms will become more prevalent, although we are already seeing it’s presence in the educational sphere. With the value of augmented reality in education set to reach $700 million by 2023 , virtual reality will be at the forefront of delivering immersive experiences to the classroom. Covering a diverse range of subjects from history to chemistry, students can now view 3D depictions of dinosaurs or the human body , something a PowerPoint slideshow could ever do. 

AI in the Classroom

This also includes artificial intelligence. Tools such as voice assistants and chatbots are easily adaptable to home and school environments. 

A Data-Driven Educational Curriculum

An increase in data-driven insights will also become more prevalent in future trends. The pivot to remote learning equaled reduced supervision during test taking and quizzes, as well as the ability to keep students’ attention from waning due to screen fatigue. Data and analytics will help to provide valuable information regarding student behavior, and interaction with educational content .

Finding Balance in EdTech

The future of education technology is exciting, and has assisted in navigating the abrupt transition to remote learning amidst the pandemic. It proves beneficial in making education more accessible to students facing barriers, whether those be mental, physical or geographical. It also helps reduce costs associated with education, including textbooks and learning resources. 

While we may at times push the limits of what is considered too much screen time, finding the right balance both in and out of the classroom setting, is key to achieving the maximum benefits from EdTech.

• Current affairs

Kazakh as an Unwritten Language: The Case of Astrakhan Oblast

• September 28, 2023
• 12 minute read

An ethnically diverse region that abuts the Caspian Sea in southwestern Russia, Astrakhan Oblast is home to the country’s largest Kazakh community. Almost 150,000 people, or 18 percent of the oblast’s population, identify as ethnic Kazakhs. Although Astrakhan does border Kazakhstan, most of them are not recent immigrants from the neighboring country. Their families have been living in what is now Astrakhan since long before the current national borders were drawn.

Dor Shabashewitz

Dor Shabashewitz is a Russia-born Israeli journalist and political analyst with a background in anthropology and sociolinguistics. He worked as a junior researcher at the RAS Institute for Linguistic Studies and conducted extensive fieldwork in Astrakhan’s Kazakh and Nogai rural communities as a part of his Master’s studies at the European University at St. Petersburg. In 2021, the Russian Federal Security Service forced him to leave the country following politically motivated accusations of “extremism” and “separatism.” These days, he covers ethnic minority rights and regional politics in the Lower Volga and Central Asia for RFE/RL ’s Tatar-Bashkir Service.

* The article that follows provides a brief overview of the sociolinguistic situation among those Kazakhs living in the Russian part of the Volga River delta. It is based on field research conducted by the author during his master’s studies between 2019 and 2021.

In the Middle Ages, Astrakhan was part of the Golden Horde and, later, an independent khanate. In 1556, it was conquered by the Russians and eventually incorporated into the Russian Empire as a governorate. The first major wave of Kazakh migration to Astrakhan Governorate began between 1799 and 1801, when Bökey Khan, son of the Junior jüz leader Nuraly, led several thousand nomadic families from across the Ural River to a more fertile area in the Volga River delta. A steady influx of Kazakh settlers continued well into the mid-nineteenth century. The new Astrakhan Kazakh community led by Bökey enjoyed the status of a semi-independent vassal state for several decades before gradually ceding most of its autonomy under pressure from the Russian authorities.

The early Soviet years revived the idea of a Kazakh autonomous area in Astrakhan. In 1919, some of the Kazakh districts of Astrakhan Governorate were grouped together under the name Volga-Caspian Kirghizia and transferred to what later became the Kazakh SSR. Most of them stayed and became part of Kazakhstan upon its independence, but some of the transfers were reversed in the 1920s. Thus, the Volodarsky and Krasny Yar districts ended up in Russia’s Astrakhan Oblast despite 70 percent and 50 percent of their inhabitants, respectively, being ethnic Kazakhs.

Notwithstanding the omnipresent linguistic Russification of the Soviet era, Kazakh enjoyed certain formal privileges in the Kazakh SSR as a co-official language that was used in many schools, especially in rural areas. State-funded magazines, newspapers, books, and movies were produced in the language. Government support for the national language and its social prestige only increased after Kazakhstan became a sovereign country in 1991. This was not the case in Astrakhan Oblast—the region’s Kazakh community had no linguistic autonomy or representation under the Soviets, and this did not change when the USSR fell apart.

Vitality Factors

In what state, then, is the Kazakh language among Astrakhan’s Kazakhs after decades without formal recognition? In what domains is it still spoken? What do the Astrakhan Kazakhs think of their ethnic language, and what role does it play in their identity? These were the questions I hoped to answer when I set off on a fieldwork trip to my home region’s Volodarsky district as a master’s student in social anthropology back in 2019.

During my fieldwork, I visited numerous rural settlements of varying sizes, ethnic compositions, locations, histories, and economic conditions. It became evident that all of these factors played a significant role in the vitality of Kazakh in any given village, but the relative weight of each factor was rather unexpected. My analysis showed that the share of ethnic Kazakhs in a village did not correlate strongly with how much they used the language in their daily lives. I have been to monoethnic Kazakh villages that spoke almost exclusively Russian, as well as mixed ones where Kazakh was still maintained by some members of the younger generations.

Geography and the perceived history of a settlement turned out to be the two most defining factors. Inhabitants of villages that are close to Astrakhan City and have a stable public transport connection to the city tend to switch to Russian more quickly than residents of more remote ones. Career opportunities in rural areas are scarce, prompting villagers to look for jobs in the urban center. When logistically possible, many opt to continue living in their villages and commute to work several times a week instead of moving to the city. Despite its impressive ethnic diversity, Astrakhan City is overwhelmingly Russian-speaking. Kazakh rural commuters tend to integrate into this environment and “bring it home” after work, influencing the linguistic landscape of their communities.

“Perceived history” deserves an anthropological study of its own. Many of the Astrakhan Kazakhs I interviewed explained that their villages were originally founded by Russian peasants or created by the Soviets in a centralized way and populated by collective farm workers of diverse origins. Many settlements with such histories gradually became majority-Kazakh, but most locals believed they were “not really Kazakh villages” and thus considered Kazakh a rather inappropriate language to use in public spaces. In settlements such as Vinny, this mentality led to Kazakh becoming a family language only, with Russian as the sole means of communication in all other domains—even between Kazakhs.

This stands in stark contrast to the village of Altynzhar, which was founded by Kazakh settlers and has a long tradition of local pride. The renowned nineteenth-century Kazakh composer Qurmangazy is buried in Altynzhar; the village hosts a museum dedicated to his life and to the culture of the region’s Kazakh community more generally. Altynzhar was also home to the Kazakh poet and language activist Mäjilis Ötejanov. Due to its history and cultural significance, Altynzhar is often viewed as the informal capital of the Astrakhan Kazakhs. This status, combined with the lack of reliable public transportation, helps the local population to maintain their language and identity better than elsewhere.

Language Use

Despite the differences between individual settlements, home is by far the most common domain of use for the Kazakh language across Astrakhan Oblast. For most of my respondents, constant code-switching between Russian and Kazakh is the default register when they talk to their relatives. The ratio of elements from the two languages, however, varies widely. Kazakh may dominate or it may only be represented by several words—but, as my experience shows, it is never fully absent.

In Vinny, I interviewed a young Kazakh man who was born and raised in the village but went to an urban high school and later moved to a different part of Russia for university. These days, he lives and works in Astrakhan City. At the time I met him, he was visiting Vinny to see his parents, who still lived there permanently. During the interview, he said he spoke no Kazakh at all: “I do not speak Kazakh… Never wanted to learn it, thought it was useless. Grandma would talk to me in Kazakh, and I am like… I do not understand everything, but I can get the general idea.”

Just an hour later, I overheard him using numerous Kazakh words in a Russian-language conversation with his mother. Answering my ensuing question, the young man explained: “There are still some words that are easier for me to say in Kazakh. Like ‘scoop’ or ‘ladle’—I just say ojaw .” Later, I discovered other Kazakh words in the speech register he used at home. They were terms related to farming, as well as the names of certain traditional foods and houseware items.

This case is by no means unique—in fact, it is very typical. Lexical domains related to rural ways of life and things you find in a traditional household seem to be the least likely to be forgotten by young and predominantly Russian-speaking Astrakhan Kazakhs. This may be because they lack any similar rural experience gained in a non-Kazakh context.

Leaving the “Kazakh” village for the “Russian” city, one practically replaces one’s entire vocabulary—but with exceptions. The array of subjects discussed in urban settings is at least as wide as that in rural areas, but the two sets of lexical domains do not always coincide. Traditional ethnic cuisine, cattle farming, agriculture, and culturally specific rural household items are not things that city dwellers usually speak of, hence the words for them are not as easily replaced with Russian equivalents in the speech of first-generation urbanites. Sometimes, the Kazakh words remain the only ones they know. The lack of need or even opportunity to talk about these things in Russian makes this set of Kazakh vocabulary more resistant to attrition. It is only natural for urban Kazakhs to use these terms when they go to a rural area to visit their family. This may be viewed as a “light version” of cue-dependent language retrieval .

Equally, even among those Astrakhan Kazakhs who live in rural settlements and use Kazakh-Russian code-mixing as their default home register, one can point to specific domains that almost universally trigger the use of a much higher share of Russian-language elements. This includes all of the “complicated” domains, as the respondents call them. For example, a middle-aged man from the village of Novy Rychan said: “When fixing a TV set, we are most definitely talking in Russian.” In a different settlement, I witnessed four men talking in almost “pure” Kazakh—that is, using few Russian elements. Then one of them mentioned the COVID-19 pandemic, and this change of subject, combined with “complex” vocabulary related to healthcare and government policies, triggered an instant switch to almost equally “pure” Russian.

As is evident from these situations, Kazakh is often regarded and used as a rural and “simplistic” language, fitting for discussions of farming but not technology or anything modern. This set of associations speaks to its low social prestige—but may also be viewed positively by some. Many heritage speakers of Astrakhan Kazakh associate the language with a sense of home and strong family ties. “Kazakh is… It is something about your home, you know, where you feel most comfortable and secure. It is the mother language, after all. Whenever I hear it, I think of those evenings I spent in the village of Multanovo with my parents and grandma as a kid. I miss this feeling now that I live in the city,” said one of my respondents.

Two other important domains associated with Kazakh, which are intertwined with each other, are religion and ethnic celebrations. While overwhelmingly secular in daily life, most Astrakhan Kazakhs identify as Muslim. Many hardly ever go to mosques—in fact, there are large, exclusively Kazakh villages with no mosques at all. Moreover, the minority that does adhere to a strictly Islamic way of life is viewed as odd and even suspicious by the more secular majority.

Still, events such as weddings and funerals almost universally have an Islamic element to them. Interestingly enough, many of my respondents think of Islam as inseparable from the Kazakh language. “When the Quran is being recited, you are supposed to talk in Kazakh,” said a middle-aged man from Novy Rychan. Obviously, the recitation itself happens in Arabic, and one is supposed to listen to it rather than talk simultaneously. What this respondent meant was that the “religious” and “traditional” atmosphere of such events triggered increased use of Kazakh before and after the recitation and other rituals.

Kazakh as an Unwritten Language

While still widely spoken in some of the more remote villages, Astrakhan Kazakh remains a practically unwritten language. In the early Soviet years, Kazakh was used at numerous village schools as the primary language of instruction, but it was quickly downgraded to being taught as a subject only. By 1966, it had disappeared from the region’s school system entirely.

The perestroika era brought a surge in ethnic activism, with Kazakh language lessons being reintroduced in almost a hundred village schools in the late 1980s and 1990s. Unfortunately, this did not last long: Vladimir Putin’s rule brought another wave of linguistic Russification as part of his “unity through uniformity” policy. Kazakh was soon downgraded to an optional, once-a-week class. Today, fewer than 20 Astrakhan Oblast schools offer it in any form, even though over 140 of the region’s rural localities have a Kazakh majority or plurality.

This lack of Kazakh at school has resulted in entire generations having little exposure to written Kazakh and being functionally illiterate in it, even when perfectly literate in Russian. This can be seen from the way the names of many Astrakhan Kazakhs are written in their Russian IDs and passports. When giving their children legal names, many parents opt for naive phonetic approximations that do not match the way a name is normally spelled in Kazakhstan (eg., Kuvanshkirey rather than the more typical Qwanışkereý in Kazakh or Kuanyshkerey in Russian). Many of my respondents said they had trouble understanding and distinguishing the “weird letters” used in Standard Kazakh, referring to the additional and modified Cyrillic characters that are absent from the Russian alphabet.

Russian dominates all of the “formal” domains in Astrakhan Oblast, from education to technology and interactions with the government

Lack of language-specific literacy is not the only linguistic barrier between Kazakh-speakers in Astrakhan and those in Kazakhstan. As explained above, Russian dominates all of the “formal” domains in Astrakhan Oblast, from education to technology and interactions with the government. This means that most Astrakhan Kazakhs never discuss these topics in Kazakh and may be unfamiliar with the more “complex” vocabulary in that language, even when fully proficient in the registers related to home, family, traditions, and rural lifestyle.

“The Kazakh word for ‘proof’ is dälel , which I only know because I looked it up. My neighbor grew up speaking Kazakh, but she would not understand me if I used it when talking to her. She just uses the Russian word, dokazatelstvo ,” said a respondent from Multanovo. This is a perfect example of a term perceived as “complex” and thus unknown to many Astrakhan Kazakhs.

Most Astrakhan Kazakhs are well aware of the differences between their ethnic language and the Kazakh of Kazakhstan. A middle-aged, native Kazakh-speaking respondent from Novy Rychan talked about his trip to Atyrau, Kazakhstan, saying that he felt insecure about his Kazakh skills while there. He opted to talk to locals in Russian because he feared they would mock his “incorrect” Kazakh. This perception of Astrakhan Kazakh as “simplified” and “Russified” is fairly common among its speakers. While somewhat negative, it may also serve as a marker of the community’s identity, helping to distinguish between “us” (Astrakhan Kazakhs) and “them” (Kazakhstan Kazakhs).

Future of Kazakh in Astrakhan

The case of an Astrakhan Kazakh person looking up and memorizing a “complex” word associated with the Kazakh language of Kazakhstan illustrates a small but important tendency. A growing number of young, native Russian-speaking Astrakhan Kazakhs are deliberately immersing themselves in Kazakhstani media, explaining that they want to learn the “proper” way to speak their language and reconnect with their culture, which has been partially lost to colonization and assimilation.

While most young Astrakhan Kazakhs seem to have no interest in using their ethnic language in any form, this minority tendency offers hope that Kazakh will live on in Astrakhan Oblast. If the language policy does not change in the decades to come, the local dialect may eventually die out as a natural form of communication in rural communities, but Standard Kazakh is likely to be maintained by the conscious activist minority.

That being said, the continuity of the language policy is a big “if.” Russia’s government has been increasingly unstable since the beginning of the war in Ukraine. In many regions, ethnic minorities feel that they are unfairly overrepresented among those sent to fight in Ukraine, and this is especially true for Astrakhan Kazakhs. At the same time, the federal government is cracking down on indigenous activism more heavily than ever.

The growing dissent among minorities has led to the emergence of numerous secessionist organizations. An overview of pro-independence movements that view Astrakhan as a part of their hypothetical states can be found in my recent article for New Eastern Europe . It is hard to make predictions about the success of these movements, but in the event that they succeed, language policy and power dynamics between the region’s ethnic groups are more than likely to change.

All photos by

Dor Shabashewitz and Valery Maslov

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