thematic essay on the crucible

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4 Most Important Themes in the Crucible

June 22, 2024

If you’ve read my other posts on Arthur Miller’s The Crucible , you know the basics of the plot – when accusations of witchcraft inflame Salem, Massachusetts, John Proctor refuses to confess and is hanged. His is the noble struggle of the rational individual against a superstitious theocracy. Miller was upfront with his intentions. In the leadup to the under-appreciated film version of the play starring Daniel Day-Lewis film, Miller explains the play’s relation to the “Red Scare” of the early 1950’s. At the same time, the play isn’t merely about McCarthyism. Tthere are other tensions flowing beneath the surface of the text. In this article, I want to talk about some of the main themes of The Crucible , including state power, religion, and misogyny. 

(You can read my summaries of the text at the following links: Act One , Act Two , Act Three , and Act Four )

All page numbers reference the 2015 edition of the text from Penguin Classics . 

1) From Autocracy to Democracy

The relationship between religion, power, and the state arrives early in Miller’s The Crucible. In Miller’s secondary commentary, he writes that the early Massachusetts settlers had established a community that was effectively “autocracy by consent…united top to bottom by a commonly held ideology” (15). Miller argues that while this autocracy was necessary in the early days of the colony, the people in Salem in 1692 had come to expect a greater degree of personal freedom than their predecessors. In Miller’s words, “the old disciplines were beginning to rankle” (14). Growing individualism can ever only be destabilizing to a theocracy. Indeed, in Miller’s reading, the historical moment depicted in the text is “a perverse manifestation of the panic which set in…when the balance of power began to turn toward greater individual freedom” (16). 

Themes in The Crucible (Continued)

What’s more, Miller argues that in this societal upheaval, religion became a cover for baser desires – both sexual and economic. Thus, according to Miller, it was now “possible…patriotic and holy…for a man to say that Marth Corey had come into his bedroom at night, and…laid herself down on his chest and ‘nearly suffocated him’” (17). In Miller’s reading, sexual desire and sexual guilt manifested in accusations of witchery. Greed could also be expressed in these accusations. While “land-lust” had previously been limited to legal bickering, such greed “could now be elevated to the arena of morality” (17). 

2) Religion and State Power

We can see the tension between theological and administrative power clearly at the beginning of the text. While Reverend Parris is ostensibly concerned for his daughter’s health, he is also very aware of how an accusation of witchcraft could affect his political standing in the community. We see this when he first questions Abigail. While he certainly wants to know what Abigail has done in the forest (for Betty’s sake), he’s also concerned because “surely my enemies will [know], and they will ruin me with it” (19). Even at the earliest stages of this tragedy, religion and power are intermingled. 

Reverend Parris’ concerns with his authority become clearer once John Proctor arrives at Parris’ house. After complaining about his salary and his (lack of) firewood, Parris makes his political concerns clear, accusing John Proctor of leading a “faction and a party…against him and all authority” (35). Establishing his firebrand bona fides, John states, “I like not the smell of this ‘authority’” (35). 

Miller gives a useful gloss of how the political and the religious combine to produce paranoia and, ultimately, violence. In his secondary narration, he writes that “political policy is equated with moral right, and opposition to it with diabolical malevolence” (38). We can see from the beginning of the play that John’s disobedience has already laid the groundwork for the accusations against him. Insofar as John aligns himself against a political policy (Parris’ authority) his actions become “diabolical.” ( You can read a detailed summary of act one of The Crucible here. )

The character of Thomas Putman provides an excellent example of the potent combination of religion and more material concerns. In Miller’s secondary narration, he presents Putman as having a “vindictive nature” whose accusations seem motivated by resentment and greed. As Miller tells it, the historical Putnam, eldest son of the richest man in the village, had advanced a candidate for minister of Salem who was rejected by the community. According to Miller, this was a slight that Putnam could not let go of.

3) Danforth, “Andover,” and the Power of the State

There is perhaps no better example in the play of how religion and political power are linked than the character of Deputy Governor Danforth. While ostensibly a secular leader, his authority is explicitly theological. We see this most clearly in act three. After Francis Nurse gives Danforth a list of people who have signed their support for his wife and for Elizabeth Proctor, Danforth orders everyone on the list arrested “for examination.” Francis is horrified, but Danforth “reassures” him. He states, “a person is either with this court or he must be counted against it, there be no road between,” (85). In saner times, such a statement might be read as asking for a general support for the judicial process. Needless to say, these are not sane times.

Danforth goes on to equate the law explicitly with religion. According to Danforth, no longer is “evil mixed with good” – rather, “by God’s grace, the shining sun is up, and them that fear not light will surely praise it” (85). In Danforth’s worldview, any good Christian must necessarily be happy for the arrest, torture, and confessions elicited by this court, as the court is the infallible manifestation of God’s presence in the land. (You can read a detailed summary of act three of The Crucible here.)

As act three continues, Danforth’s insistence on the Godliness of his authority becomes more explicit. When Giles Corey refuses to name a source, Reverend Hale finally says what everyone is thinking, that “There is a prodigious fear of this court in the country—” (88). Given that his authority derives from God, Danforth cannot be swayed, saying, “there is fear in the country because there is a moving plot to topple Christ in the country” (88). Combining state and religious authority gives Danforth absolute power but allows for no possible dissent. In other words, insofar as faith authorizes the court, any protest becomes a theological attack. (In case you believe this sort of absolutism is a relic of the past, think about the “Love It or Leave It” sentiment in the US that shuts down all criticism.) 

With his secondary narration, Miller provides a societal explanation for Danforth’s absolutism. According to Miller, “social disorder in any age breeds…mystical suspicions” (16). In act four, we finally see the “social disorder” against which Danforth struggles – “Andover.” When Danforth and Hawthorne arrive at the jail, they wonder if Reverend Hale has not been “preaching at Andover lately” (109). This is no euphemism, nor is it purely fictional. During this period of witch-hysteria, Andover had more people accused of witchcraft than any other community. After several people were executed, one of the ministers in Andover formed a resistance that managed to turn public opinion against the courts. When we remember that the court is both the vessel of state power and the manifestation of Christianity in Massachusetts, we can understand why Danforth considers “Andover” such a threat.  

The fact that the court is necessarily invested with both theological and judicial authority makes it difficult – if not impossible – to change course. We can see this lack of flexibility in act four, when Danforth refuses to pardon any of the remaining prisoners. He states that “reprieve or pardon must cast doubt upon the guilt of them that died till now” (113). In other words, insofar as the court represents the word of God, it cannot allow for any error. To do so would be to admit that the law is fundamentally a human construction rather than divine. With this in mind, it’s not surprising that Miller writes in the epilogue that after the events of The Crucible , “To all intents and purposes, the power of theocracy in Massachusetts was broken” (127). 

4) Sex, Shame, and Misogyny

I want to put in a gentle word for the character of Abigail. Hers was a difficult life, circumscribed by violence and structural misogyny. Abigail was an orphan – she saw “Indians smash [her] dear parents’ heads” – and was taken in by her uncle, a strict, unpopular minister (27). As a seventeen-year-old, single woman, Abigail’s options were limited to marriage and motherhood. Her dalliance with John Proctor – an established man in his mid-thirties – is marked by an extreme power asymmetry. Furthermore, once there are rumors of her harlotry in the community, her marriageability goes to nearly nil. (Remember, adultery was technically punishable by death.) Even her uncle Parris has sufficient cause to ask Abigail if her reputation is “entirely white” in the town (20). 

Given all this, it makes sense for Abigail to do anything she can to establish herself as the future Mrs. John Proctor. When she drinks Tituba’s blood-charm to kill Elizabeth Proctor, she’s making an understandable choice to pursue some measure of economic stability. Miller remarks that “Sex, sin, and the Devil were…linked,” but, for Abigail, sex with John Proctor was one of the only ways to raise her status in the community. In other words, structural misogyny has limited Abigail’s options to such an extent that even witchcraft becomes palatable. ( If you’re interested, TeenVogue has a good article on the role misogyny played in the Salem witch trials. ) 

A final note on misogyny – I can’t help but feel that John Proctor’s actions don’t come in for nearly enough condemnation. I understand that he is the tragic hero of the story, After all, it’s his resolve that ostensibly breaks the power of theocracy in Massachusetts. But still – he had sex with his 17-year-old orphan housekeeper (in a barn!). What’s more, John’s wife blames herself for John’s actions when she states, “It needs a cold wife to prompt lechery” (119). While the social mores of the time make it impossible for John’s sexual guilt to be absolved, it does feel like the women in The Crucible get short shrift. 

Wrapping Up – Themes in The Crucible

It’s no great insight to talk about John Proctor as a tragic hero. At the same time, John’s sacrifice is made all the more affecting against the thematic richness of the text. While Miller certainly intended his text to hold a mirror up to McCarthyism, he also believed in its continued relevance. For Miller, The Crucible speaks to the fact that any organization of people must be founded “on the idea of exclusion and prohibition” (16). It’s up to every society in every age to figure out if the benefits of this repression have become too much.  If you’ve found this article useful or interesting, I’ve also written on 1984 , The Great Gatsby , Hamlet , and Brave New World . 

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Devon Wootten

Devon holds a bachelor’s degree in Creative Writing & International Relations, an MFA in Poetry, and a PhD in Comparative Literature. For nearly a decade, he served as an assistant professor in the First-Year Seminar Program at Whitman College. Devon is a former Fulbright Scholar as well as a Writing & Composition Instructor of Record at the University of Iowa and Poetry Instructor of Record at the University of Montana. Most recently, Devon’s work has been published in Fugue , Bennington Review , and TYPO , among others. 

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