Top 11 characteristics of a good report.
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This article throws light upon the top eleven characteristics of a good report. The characteristics are: 1. Simplicity 2. Clarity 3. Brevity 4. Positivity 5. Punctuation 6. Approach 7. Readability 8. Accuracy 9. Logical Sequence 10. Proper Form 11. Presentation.
Characteristic # 1. Simplicity:
The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is easily understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided. Even in a technical report there shall be restricted use of technical terms if it has to be presented to laymen.
Characteristic # 2. Clarity:
The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is intended to be expressed. For that the report has to be written in correct form and following correct steps.
Characteristic # 3. Brevity:
A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the reader is not lost and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be complete. A report is not an essay.
Characteristic # 4. Positivity:
As far as possible positive statements should be made instead of negative ones. For example, it is better to say what should be done and not what should not be done.
Characteristic # 5. Punctuation :
Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning of sentences may be misunderstood or misrepresented.
Characteristic # 6. Approach:
There are two types of approaches: (a) Person—When a report is written based on personal enquiry or observations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be in the first person and in direct speech, (b) Impersonal—When a report is prepared as a source of information and when it is merely factual (e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall be impersonal and the sentences shall be in the third person and in indirect speech.
Characteristic # 7. Readability:
The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation and the diction (use of words) shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he is compelled to read the report from the beginning to the end.’ Then only a report serves its purpose. A report on the same subject matter can be written differently for different classes of readers.
Characteristic # 8. Accuracy:
A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be biased with personal feelings of the writer.
Characteristic # 9. Logical Sequence:
The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by step and not in a haphazard manner. A planning is necessary before a report is prepared.
Characteristic # 10. Proper Form:
A report must be in the proper form. Sometimes there are statutory forms to follow.
Characteristic # 11. Presentation:
A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of typing or printing as well as quality of paper used. Big companies make very attractive and colourful Annual Reports.
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Literature Review
Discover the 12 best tools to streamline your research summary writing, ensuring clarity and precision every time.
Aug 29, 2024
Consider you finally find the time to tackle that research paper for your class. You pull up your literature search and see dozens of articles and studies staring back at you. As you scroll through the titles and abstracts, you realize you need to figure out how to summarize the research to get started on your paper.
Writing a practical research summary can feel daunting, but it doesn’t have to. In this guide, we’ll break down what a research summary is, why it’s essential, and how to write one. This information lets you confidently write your research summary and finish your paper.
Otio’s AI research and writing partner can help you write efficient research summaries and papers. Our tool can summarize academic articles so you can understand the material and finish your writing.
What is a research summary, purpose of a research summary, how do you write a research summary in 10 simple steps, what is a phd research summary, examples of research summary, supercharge your researching ability with otio — try otio for free today.
A research summary is a piece of writing that summarizes your research on a specific topic. Its primary goal is to offer the reader a detailed study overview with critical findings. A research summary generally contains the structure of the article.
You must know the goal of your analysis before you launch a project. A research overview summarizes the detailed response and highlights particular issues. Writing it may be troublesome. You want to start with a structure in mind to write a good overview.
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A research summary provides a brief overview of a study to readers. When searching for literature, a reader can quickly grasp the central ideas of a paper by reading its summary. It is also a great way to elaborate on the significance of the findings, reminding the reader of the strengths of your main arguments.
Having a good summary is almost as important as writing a research paper. The benefit of summarizing is showing the "big picture," which allows the reader to contextualize your words. In addition to the advantages of summarizing for the reader, as a writer, you gain a better sense of where you are going with your writing, which parts need elaboration, and whether you have comprehended the information you have collected.
Before writing a research summary , you must read and understand the entire research paper. This may seem like a time-consuming task, but it is essential to write a good summary. Make sure you know the paper's main points before you begin writing.
As you read, take notes on the main points of the paper. These notes will come in handy when you are writing your summary. Be sure to note any necessary information, such as the main conclusions of the author's writing. This helpful tip will also help you write a practical blog summary in less time.
Once you have finished reading and taking notes on the paper, it is time to start writing your summary. Before you begin, take a few minutes to organize your thoughts. Write down the main points that you want to include in your summary. Then, arrange these points in a logical order.
Now that you have organized your thoughts, it is time to start writing the summary. Begin by stating the author’s thesis statement or main conclusion. Then, briefly describe each of the main points from the paper. Be sure to write clearly and concisely. When you finish, reread your summary to ensure it accurately reflects the paper's content.
After you have written the summary, it is time to write the introduction. The introduction should include an overview of the paper and a summary description. It should also state the main idea.
The summary of a research paper should include a brief description of the paper's purpose. It should state the paper's thesis statement and briefly describe each of the main points of the paper.
When introducing the summary of a research paper, use keywords familiar to the reader. This will help them understand the summary and why it is essential.
The summary of a research paper should include a brief statement of the author's conclusions. This will help your teacher understand what the paper is trying to achieve.
A summary should be concise and to the point. It should not include any new information or arguments. It should be one paragraph long at maximum.
After you have written the summary, edit and proofread it to ensure it is accurate and precise. This will help ensure that your summary is effective and free of any grammar or spelling errors.
Knowledge workers, researchers, and students today need help with content overload and are left to deal with it using fragmented, complex, and manual tooling. Too many settle for stitching together complicated bookmarking, read-it-later, and note-taking apps to get through their workflows. Now that anyone can create content with a button, this problem will only worsen. Otio solves this problem by providing researchers with one AI-native workspace. It helps them:
2. extract key takeaways with detailed ai-generated notes and source-grounded q&a chat. , 3. create draft outputs using the sources you’ve collected. .
Otio helps you to go from a reading list to the first draft faster. Along with this, Otio also enables you to write research papers/essays faster. Here are our top features that researchers love: AI-generated notes on all bookmarks (Youtube videos, PDFs, articles, etc.), Otio enables you to chat with individual links or entire knowledge bases, just like you chat with ChatGPT, as well as AI-assisted writing.
Let Otio be your AI research and writing partner — try Otio for free today !
Like all the AI text summarizers on this list, Hypotenuse AI can take the input text and generate a short summary. One area where it stands out is its ability to handle various input options: You can simply copy-paste the text, directly upload a PDF, or even drop a YouTube link to create summaries.
You can summarize nearly 200,000 characters (or 50,000 words) at once.
Hypotenuse AI summarizes articles, PDFs, paragraphs, documents, and videos.
With the AI tool, you can create engaging hooks and repurpose content for social media.
You'll need a paid plan after the 7-day free trial.
There needs to be a free plan available.
The AI tool majorly focuses on generating eCommerce and marketing content.
Scalenut is one of the powerful AI text summarizers for beginners or anyone starting out. While it's not as polished as some other business-focused apps, it's significantly easier to use — and the output is just as good as others. If you want a basic online text summarizer that lets you summarize the notes within 800 characters (not words), Scalenut is your app.
With Scalenut, you get a dedicated summary generation tool for more granular control.
The keyword planner available helps build content directly from the short and sweet summaries.
The AI tool integrates well with a whole suite of SEO tools, making it a more SEO-focused summarizer.
You only get to generate one summary per day.
Scalenut's paid plans are expensive compared to other AI tools.
You must summarize long-form articles or blogs at most the limit of 800 characters.
SciSummary is an AI summarizer that helps summarize single or multiple research papers. It combines and compares the content summaries from research papers, article links, etc.
It can save time and effort for scientists, students, and enthusiasts who want to keep up with the latest scientific developments.
It can provide accurate and digestible summaries powered by advanced AI models that learn from feedback and expert guidance.
It can help users read between the lines and understand complex scientific texts' main points and implications.
It may only capture some nuances and details of the original articles or papers, which may be necessary for some purposes or audiences.
Some types of scientific texts, such as highly technical, specialized, or interdisciplinary, may require more domain knowledge or context.
Some sources of scientific information, such as websites, videos, or podcasts not in text format, may need help summarizing.
QuillBot uses advanced neural network models to summarize research papers accurately and effectively. The tool leverages cutting-edge technology to condense lengthy papers into concise and informative summaries, making it easier for users to navigate vast amounts of literature.
You can upload the text for summarization directly from a document.
It's excellent for summarizing essays, papers, and lengthy documents.
You can summarize long texts up to 1200 words for free.
The free plan is limited to professionals.
There could have been some more output types.
QuillBot's Premium plan only gives you 6000 words for summaries per month.
Scribbr is an AI-driven academic writing assistant with a summarization feature tailored for research papers. The tool assists users in the research paper writing process by summarizing and condensing information from various sources, offering support in structuring and organizing content effectively.
TLDR This uses advanced AI to effectively filter out unimportant arguments from online articles and provide readers only with vital takeaways. Its streamlined interface eliminates ads and distractions while summarizing key points, metadata, images, and other crucial article details.
TLDR This condenses even very lengthy materials into compact summaries users can quickly consume, making it easier to process a vast range of internet content efficiently.
Ten free "AI" summaries
Summarization of long text
Basic summary extraction
Premium option cost
No significant improvement in premium options
AI Summarizer harnesses artificial intelligence to summarize research papers and other text documents automatically. The tool streamlines the summarization process, making it efficient and accurate, enabling users to extract essential information from extensive research papers efficiently.
Easy-to-understand interface
1500-word limit
Multiple language support
Contains advertisements
Requires security captcha completion
Struggles with lengthy content summarization
Jasper AI is a robust summarizing tool that helps users generate AI-powered paper summaries quickly and effectively. The tool supports the prompt creation of premium-quality summaries, assisting researchers in distilling complex information into concise and informative outputs.
Jasper offers some advanced features, like generating a text from scratch and even summarizing it.
It integrates well with third-party apps like Surfer, Grammarly, and its own AI art generator.
It's versatile and can be used to create summaries of blogs, articles, website copy, emails, and even social media posts.
There's no free plan available — though you get a 7-day free trial.
You'll need to have a flexible budget to use Jasper AI.
The Jasper app has a steep learning curve.
Resoomer rapidly analyzes textual documents to determine the essential sentences and summarizes these key points using its proprietary semantic analysis algorithm.
By automatically identifying what information matters most, Resoomer can condense elaborate texts across diverse subjects into brief overviews of their core message. With swift copy-and-paste functionality requiring no signup, this specialized tool simplifies the reading experience by extracting only vital details from complex writings.
Clear and accurate summaries
Creative sentence combining
Variety of modes and options
Lengthy text summarization without word limit in premium mode
Confusing interface with irrelevant features
Long-winded summaries spread across multiple pages
When I saw Anyword's summary, I could easily state that the content was unique and worth sharing, making this AI tool an excellent choice for marketers. Plus, it's very easy to use.
Once you've copied-pasted the text and chosen a summary type, paragraph, keywords, or TL;DR, it generates a summary in minutes. Approve it; you can share the text directly without worrying about plagiarized content.
You can test the AI tool with the 7-day free trial.
The Anyword's text generator and summarizer are perfect for creating long-form pieces like blog posts with snippets.
You can give detailed prompts to the AI tool to customize the generated text.
Any word is expensive for a more limited set of features than other AI summarizers.
It can sometimes be slower to use.
There is no free Anyword plan available.
Frase is a powerful AI-powered summarizer that focuses on SEO. This means it can generate summaries that attract audiences and rank higher. Its proprietary model stands out, providing more flexibility, competitive pricing, and custom features.
Frase uses BLUF and Reverse Pyramid techniques to generate summaries, improving ranking chances.
It's free to use Frase's summary generator.
Instead of GPT-3.5 or GPT-4, Frase uses its proprietary model.
There's no way to add links to the blog or article to generate a summary.
You can input up to 600-700 words for summarization.
It might not be an ideal article summarizer for those who don't care about SEO.
A research summary for a PhD is called a research statement . The research statement (or statement of research interests) is included in academic job applications. It summarizes your research accomplishments, current work, and future direction and potential. The statement can discuss specific issues such as funding history and potential requirements for laboratory equipment and space and other resources, possible research and industrial collaborations, and how your research contributes to your field's future research direction.
The research statement should be technical but intelligible to all department members, including those outside your subdiscipline. So keep the “big picture” in mind. The strongest research statements present a readable, compelling, and realistic research agenda that fits well with the department's needs, facilities, and goals. Research statements can be weakened by: overly ambitious proposals lack of apparent direction lack of big-picture focus, and inadequate attention to the needs and facilities of the department or position.
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Introduction .
If the Yellowstone supervolcano erupted massively , the consequences would be catastrophic for the United States. The importance of analyzing the likelihood of such an eruption cannot be overstated.
An eruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano would be preceded by intense precursory activity manifesting a few weeks up to a few years in advance.
Statistical data from multiple volcanic eruptions happening worldwide show activity that preceded these events (in particular, how early each type of activity was detected).
Given that scientists continuously monitor Yellowstone and that signs of an eruption are normally detected much in advance, at least a few days in advance, the hypothesis is confirmed. This could be applied to creating emergency plans detailing an organized evacuation campaign and other response measures.
Weather events bring immense material damage and cause human victims.
Extreme weather events are significantly more frequent nowadays than in the ‘50s.
Several categories of extreme events occur regularly now and then: droughts and associated fires, massive rainfall/snowfall and associated floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, Arctic cold waves, etc.
Several extreme events have become significantly more frequent recently, confirming this hypothesis. This increasing frequency correlates reliably with rising CO2 levels in the atmosphere and growing temperatures worldwide.
In the absence of another recent significant global change that could explain a higher frequency of disasters, and knowing how growing temperature disturbs weather patterns, it is natural to assume that global warming (CO2) causes this increase in frequency. This, in turn, suggests that this increased frequency of disasters is not a short-term phenomenon but is here to stay until we address CO2 levels.
Researchers, students, and knowledge workers have long struggled with the initial stages of research projects. The early steps of gathering and organizing information , taking notes, and synthesizing the material into a coherent summary are vital for establishing a solid foundation for any research endeavor.
These steps can be tedious, overwhelming, and time-consuming. Otio streamlines this process so you can go from the reading list to the first draft faster. Along with this, Otio also helps you write research papers/essays faster. Here are our top features that researchers love:
AI-generated notes on all bookmarks (Youtube videos, PDFs, articles, etc.), Otio enables you to chat with individual links or entire knowledge bases, just like you chat with ChatGPT, as well as AI-assisted writing.
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Methodology
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
Discover proofreading & editing
Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples.
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This paper provides an overview of literature on the multiple-time recycling of concrete waste and meticulously analyzes the research findings. The paper begins by reviewing the characteristics of recycled materials such as recycled coarse aggregate, recycled fine aggregate, and recycled powder obtained from concrete waste in relation to the recycling cycle. The influence of each of these materials on the mechanical properties and durability of next-generation concrete is analyzed. Moreover, this paper introduces strategies reported in the literature that aim to enhance the performance of multi-recycled concrete. Lastly, this paper identifies and highlights limitations and research gaps, while providing insightful recommendations to drive future exploration of multi-recycling of concrete.
Literature review on multi-recycling of concrete waste.
Summary of effects of multi-recycling on properties of recycled materials/products.
Review of strengthening methods for multi-recycled concrete.
Identifying research gaps and proposing directions for future studies.
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
The utilization and recycling of concrete waste originated from the need for urban reconstruction following World War II (Buck 1977 ). In the present day, extensive research on recycling concrete waste has been undertaken to address issues such as landfill scarcity, the depletion of natural resources, and increased concern over environmental protection. Although most previous studies report that the performance of concrete containing recycled materials is inferior to that of concrete based on natural materials (Guo et al. 2018 ; Kim et al. 2016 ; Lin et al. 2023 ; Padmini et al. 2009 ), promising results have been reported, demonstrating the ability to produce concrete with performance similar to that of concrete made with natural materials through the application of various methods: reduced material replacement rate (Etxeberria et al. 2007 ; Ozbakkaloglu et al. 2018 ); improved mixing technique (Hiremath and Yaragal 2017 ; Sicakova and Urban 2018 ; Tam et al. 2007 ); material carbonation and CO 2 curing (Tam et al. 2020 ; Zhan et al. 2013 ); enhanced material quality (Kim 2022 ; Wei et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, replacing natural materials with recycled materials in concrete can reduce waste generation (Hossain et al. 2016 ; Martínez-Lage et al. 2020 ) and lower concrete production costs (Suárez Silgado et al. 2018 ). Due to these benefits, many studies have discussed various strategies to encourage the practical utilization of recycled concrete materials (De Brito and Silva 2016 ; Kim 2021 ; Ma et al. 2023 ; Makul et al. 2021 ).
Consequently, actual cases of utilizing recycled aggregates in real-scale concrete structures are being reported worldwide (Kim 2021 ; Li 2008 ; Poon and Chan 2007 ; Silva et al. 2019 ; Xiao et al. 2022a ; Yoda and Shintani 2014 ). Concrete containing recycled materials can generally be referred to as recycled concrete, but the term ‘recycled concrete’ used in literature commonly implies one-time recycling. Tomosawa et al. ( 2005 ) emphasize that if a recycled product cannot be recycled again, it will merely contribute to waste generation for the next generation. Therefore, recycling should aim to reproduce identical products in the original sense of the term, creating a loop.
In this context, there has been a growing interest in the multi-recyclability of concrete waste as a genuine contribution to sustainable development, with studies on this subject being consistently documented (Brito et al. 2006 ; Kim and Jang 2024 , 2022 ). The mechanical properties, durability, and economic and environmental benefits of multi-recycled concrete have been investigated by a few researchers. However, investigations into the repeated recycling of concrete have taken place relatively recently, resulting in a scarcity of comprehensive review on this topic. Therefore, the objective of this study is to conduct a thorough literature review on the multi-recycling of concrete waste. Commencing with an explanation of the conceptual distinctions between one-time and multiple-times recycling of concrete, this study reviews the effects of repeated recycling of concrete on the characteristics of recycled materials obtained from it. This paper also analyzes the effect of using these recycled materials on the properties of next-generation concrete and introduces methods to enhance the performance of multi-recycled concrete. Then, it reviews the environmental and economic analyses of multi-recycled concrete. To conclude, limitations and gaps of the literature are identified, and recommendations for further research are provided.
The concept of multi-recycling of concrete waste is presented in Fig. 1 . After undergoing specific recycling technologies, often involving crushing, concrete waste turns into recycled materials. In general, concrete waste can yield recycled coarse aggregate (RCA), recycled fine aggregate (RFA), and recycled powder (RP) (hereafter, recycled materials mentioned in this article refer to RCA, RFA, and RP), and concrete incorporating them can be classified into recycled coarse aggregate concrete (RCAC), recycled fine aggregate concrete (RFAC), and recycled powder concrete (RPC), respectively. This recycled concrete, which has undergone recycling once, is referred to as first-generation recycled concrete (RCAC1, RFAC1 and RCP1 depending on the recycled material used). Crushing the first-generation recycled concrete yields recycled materials again, which have been recycled twice (RCA2, RFA2 and RP2). These are prefixed with ‘multi’ and are designated as multi-recycled coarse aggregate (multi-RCA), multi-recycled fine aggregate (multi-RFA) and multi-recycled powder (multi-RP). And concrete incorporating these multi-recycled materials is termed multi-recycled concrete: multi-recycled coarse aggregate concrete (multi-RCAC), multi-recycled fine aggregate concrete (multi-RFAC), multi-recycled powder concrete (multi-RPC). An explanation of the key terms used in this study is provided in Table 1 .
Concept of multi-recycling of concrete (based on (Kim and Jang 2022 ))
Given that the quality of recycled concrete materials is one of the many factors influencing the properties of concrete (Kim 2022 ), it is of great significance to comprehend the influence of multi-recycling of concrete on material characteristics. Various indicators represent the quality of aggregates, with density and water absorption being the most commonly reported, and occasionally, attached mortar content, Los Angeles abrasion, and crushing index are reported.
The fluctuations of density and water absorption of RCA are shown in Fig. 2 a and b, respectively, clearly indicating a decrease in density and an increase in water absorption for increasing recycling cycles. Over three times of recycling, the density of multi-RCA can be reduced from 4.2% (Lei et al. 2023b ) to up to 24% (Huda and Alam 2014 ) than that of natural coarse aggregate (NCA). For water absorption, NCA exhibits clustered values of 0.32–1.8%, whereas the values for RCA and MRCA vary from 4.45 to 11.2%. In the same recycling cycle, the difference between the minimum and maximum absorption values tends to gradually increase as the number of recycling cycles increased. In previous studies, apart from a study by Yang et al. ( 2022 ), the variation between the minimum and maximum absorption values for RCA1 was 1.95%, the value that escalated to 2.73% and 3.74% for the second and third generations RCAs (RCA2 and RCA3, respectively). In Fig. 2 a and b, the lines representing both density and water absorption exhibit a steep slope during the first recycling (from NCA to RCA1) and then gradually level out during the second recycling (from RCA1 to RCA2) and the third recycling (from RCA2 to RCA3). As noted by Abreu et al. ( 2018 ), the characteristics of coarse aggregate stabilize as the recycling cycle increases.
Characteristics of coarse aggregates over the number of recycling cycles: a density; b water absorption; c LA abrasion; d crushing index (Abed et al. 2020 ; Abreu et al. 2018 ; Chen et al. 2020 ; Huda and Alam 2014 ; Kim and Jang 2022a; Lei et al. 2023b ; Salesa et al. 2022 , 2017a , b ; Visintin et al. 2022 ; Yang et al. 2022 ; Zhu et al. 2016 , 2019b )
Figure 2 c and d show the Los Angeles abrasion and crushing index of coarse aggregates. As the recycling cycle increases, there is a corresponding increase in both the abrasion and crushing index. Higher values for these properties indicate that the aggregate is more susceptible to abrasion and (Mohajerani et al. 2017 ; Zhang et al. 2017 ), suggesting that repeated recycling weakens the aggregate. In contrast, in studies by Salesa et al. ( 2017a , b ), the abrasion resistance of RCA1 was found to be stronger than that of NCA, but the studies did not note whether the RCA1 was obtained from concrete made with the NCA. Nonetheless, when comparing only RCA1, RCA2, and RCA3 used in these studies, it becomes clear that increasing the recycling cycle weakens the abrasion resistance of aggregate.
The above trend is also observed in RFA and RP. Figure 3 a and b show the change in density and water absorption of fine aggregate, and Fig. 3 c shows the change in powder density over the recycling cycle. The fine aggregate in the study by Jung ( 2023 ) and the powder in the study by Kim et al. ( 2023b ) were obtained by crushing multi-RCAC, and the fine aggregate in the studies by Zhu et al. ( 2018 , 2019a ) was obtained from multi-RFAC. However, a common observation across these studies is that as the recycling cycle of concrete increases, density decreases and water absorption increases.
Characteristics of recycled materials over the number of recycling cycles: a density; b water absorption of fine aggregate; c density of cement and recycled powder (Jung 2023 ; Kim et al. 2023b ; Zhu et al. 2018 , 2019a )
Based on the variations in the characteristic over recycling cycles (i.e., decreased density, increased water absorption, abrasion, and crushing index), it can be expected that multi-recycling of concrete diminishes recycled materials quality and is responsible for the poor performance of concrete with those materials. This degradation is attributed to the attached mortar, which makes them looser, more porous, and less rigid than natural materials (Tam et al. 2021 ). Figure 4 shows the attached mortar content in RCA as a function of recycling cycles. Kim et al. ( 2023a ) and Zhu et al. ( 2016 , 2019b ) reported attached mortar content of 32%, 55%, and 62% over three times of recycling, while Thomas et al. ( 2018 ) reported attached mortar content of up to 88% at the given recycling cycles.
Attached mortar content of coarse aggregate over the number of recycling cycles (Chen et al. 2020 ; Kim et al. 2023a ; Thomas et al. 2018 ; Zhu et al. 2016 , 2019b )
The increase in attached mortar content with increasing recycling cycles is associated with changes in the proportion of materials that make up the concrete. Since recycled aggregate contains a certain amount of attached mortar, the volume fraction of recycled concrete is larger than that of natural aggregate concrete (NAC). As a result, as the recycling cycle increases, the fraction of aggregate in concrete decreases, and the fraction of total mortar (fresh mortar and attached mortar) increases. Therefore, more recycled concrete consists of a larger volume of mortar, and the aggregate obtained from it has a higher attached mortar content (Fig. 5 ).
Material proportions of various concretes: a illustration of concretes with natural-, recycled-, and multi-recycled aggregates; b cross-section of the concretes (Thomas et al. 2020 )
The attached mortar in RCA, RFA and RP increases their water absorption. Therefore, when water compensation methods, such as adding extra mixing water and increasing the plasticizer dosage, are not applied, the slump of recycled concrete is generally lower than that of natural concrete. Figure 6 shows the slump of RCAC, RFAC and RPC without the water compensation. As the number of recycling increases, the slump decreases noticeably. This can be attributed to the gradual increase in the water absorption of RCA and RFA, as reviewed in the previous section.
Variation in concrete slump over recycling cycles (Huda and Alam 2014 ; Jung 2023 ; Kim et al. 2023a ; Kim and Jang 2022 ; Salesa et al. 2017a )
Hence, to achieve comparable slump values, additional water is demanded, and the quantities of additional water reported in previous studies are listed in Table 2 . As expected, as the replacement rate and the number of recycling cycles increase, higher quantities of water are required. When replacing 25% of NCA with RCA, it demands 5.2% to 6.9% more mixing water during three times of recycling cycles, whereas 100% replacement requires 28.9% more water (Abreu et al. 2018 ). Similarly, RFA requires 6.4%, 19.2%, and 25.2% of additional water at replacement rates of 25%, 75%, and 100% to achieve similar slumps in the third recycling cycle (Zhu et al. 2018 ).
Due to the presence of additional factors influencing slump, such as particle shape and the moisture state of recycled materials, which were not addressed in the original research articles, an intercomparison between studies was not performed.
An adequate level of air content in concrete improves its frost resistance (Hosseinzadeh and Suraneni 2021 ; Tanesi and Meininger 2007 ), while both insufficient and excessive air content can cause mechanical properties and durability-related issues (Özcan and Emin Koç, 2018 ; Wang et al. 2022a , b ). Hence, some specifications specify permissible air content ranges for concrete under specific exposure conditions (e.g. 3.5–7.5% depending on aggregate size for ASTM C94 (ASTM C94/C94M-21b, 2021 )).
Typically, recycled material-based concrete exhibits higher air content compared to natural material-based concrete. This is attributed to factors such as rough surface textures, greater angularity, and the presence of pores in the attached mortar (Silva et al. 2018 ). As the multi-recycling increases the attached mortar content, the air content in concrete increases progressively in proportion to the recycling cycle (Fig. 7 ). When concrete is recycled multiple times as coarse aggregate (i.e., multi-RCAC), the air content increases gradually. Huda and Alam ( 2014 ) reported air content of 3.6%, 3.9%, and 4.4% for the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd generations, respectively. The air content of NAC was 3.4%. Similar results were also reported in the following literature (Yang et al. 2022 ). Salesa et al. ( 2017a ) even reported no change in air content in the 1st and 2nd generations. Considering the tolerance of air content (e.g. ± 1.5% for ASTM C94 (ASTM C94/C94M-21b 2021 )), the effect of repeated recycling on the air content of concrete can be acceptable. However, unlike RCA, RFA can significantly affect the air content (Silva et al. 2018 ). In a study conducted by Jung (Jung 2023 ), the air content of concrete containing 30% RFA during the three generations was 5.4%, 6.2%, and 7.3%, showing a sharp increase compared to NAC (4.3%).
Variation in concrete air content over recycling cycles (Huda and Alam 2014 ; Jung 2023 ; Salesa et al. 2017a ; Yang et al. 2022 )
The most fundamental property of hardened concrete is its compressive strength. Figure 8 a and b show the 28-day compressive strength for multi-RCAC in absolute and relative scales, respectively. Most previous studies agree that multi-recycling has an unfavorable effect on the compressive strength of concrete. The compressive strength of RCAC decreases to 82.1–96.4% of NAC in the first recycling cycle, 83.4–93.8% in the second recycling cycle, and 57.6–90.1% in the third recycling cycle. The strength loss in RCAC is a consequence of the increased content of attached mortar in RCAs as the number of recycling cycles increases. As discussed earlier, RCAs become more porous with an increasing number of recycling cycles. Additionally, the compressive strength decreases with each recycling cycle due to a variety of complex factors, including the instability of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and the formation of micropores and cracks in RCA resulting from repeated crushing processes (Abreu et al. 2018 ; Huda and Alam 2014 ; Lee and Choi 2013 ; Zhu et al. 2019b ).
Compressive strength of multi-recycled coarse aggregate concrete over recycling cycles in absolute ( a ) and relative scales ( b ) (Abreu et al. 2018 ; Huda and Alam 2014 ; Lei et al. 2023b ; Salesa et al. 2017a ; Visintin et al. 2022 ; Yang et al. 2022 ; Zhu et al. 2016 , 2019b )
Conflicting trends have been found in the following studies (Salesa et al. 2017a ; Visintin et al. 2022 ). Salesa et al. reported an increase in compressive strength of 4.4–5.1% over three recycling cycles compared to that of NAC. The authors concluded that high-quality RCA obtained from precast members and the presence of unhydrated cement in the RCA contributed to the improvement in compressive strength. A similar case was also observed in the study by Kim et al. ( 2023a ). In that study, in which precast concrete members were crushed and used as RCA in concrete repeatedly, the compressive strength of RCAC up to the second recycling cycles was 99–111% of that of NAC. In a study by Visintin et al. ( 2022 ), the compressive strengths of RCAC1, RCAC2 and RCAC3 were 3.1–9.8% higher than that of the control concrete. The authors noted that the internal curing by the additional mixing water to compensate for the high water absorption of RCA would have resulted in the similar compressive strengths over the three times of recycling. According to a study by Domingo-Cabo et al. ( 2009 ), when the effective water-cement ratio is constant, several properties of concrete (slump, compressive strength and elastic modulus) can be similar regardless of RCA replacement rate, and Eckert and Oliveira ( 2017 ) reported that extra mixing water can improve the ITZ structure without significantly affecting the effective water-cement ratio. However, other studies, where the effective water-cement ratio was kept constant for concretes by adjusting additional water, report a decrease in compressive strength with the recycling cycle (Abreu et al. 2018 ; Zhu et al. 2016 , 2019b ). While there may be various factors contributing to these conflicting results, Sosa et al. ( 2021 ) highlight the uncertainty arising from the absence of a reliable method to quantify the actual effective water-cement ratio.
The compressive strength of concrete containing RFA and RP is shown in Fig. 9 . The change in compressive strength with respect to the recycling cycle is consistent with that of RCAC, i.e., a decrease in compressive strength as the recycling cycle increases. In particular, RP can cause significant strength loss at relatively low replacement rates, which is attributed not only to the micropores and cracks in RP itself but also to the replacement of cement by RP, reducing hydration products (Kim et al. 2023b ; Kourounis et al. 2007 ).
Compressive strength of multi-recycled fine and powder concretes over recycling cycles in absolute ( a ) and relative scales ( b ) (Kim and Jang 2022 ; Zhu et al. 2018 , 2019a )
Based on the above review, it can be concluded that, in general, multi-recycling has an unfavorable effect on the compressive strength of concrete. Identifying the factors that contribute to the deterioration of properties in repeatedly recycled concrete is essential for sustainability. Practically, it is nearly impossible to track how many times concrete has been recycled. Although studies specifically designed to investigate the effects of multi-recycling may use 100% recycled aggregate, it is uncommon for recycled aggregate to entirely replace natural aggregate in real-world structures. Additionally, industrial regulations in some countries restrict high replacement rates (Tam et al. 2018 ). Due to this complexity, it is necessary to identify the factors that lead to the deterioration of properties in multi-recycled concrete. To understand the relationship between the characteristics of recycled aggregates and the properties of the concrete containing them, Fig. 10 illustrates how the density and water absorption of recycled aggregates correlate with the compressive strength of the concrete, irrespective of the number of recycling cycles. Generally, an increase in aggregate density enhances the compressive strength of the concrete, whereas a higher aggregate water absorption diminishes it.
Relationship between specific gravity of aggregates and compressive strength of concrete ( a ) and water absorption of aggregates and compressive strength of concrete ( b ) (Yang et al. 2022 ; Salesa et al. 2017a ; Huda and Alam 2014 ; Abreu et al. 2018 ; Lei et al. 2023b ; Kim et al. 2023a ; Kim and Jang 2022 ; Zhu et al. 2016 , 2018 , 2019a , b )
Tensile strength is one of the crucial mechanical property of concrete since concrete cracks tend to occur in tension, exerting a significant influence on crack formation under load (Zain et al. 2002 ). Figure 11 illustrates the variation in tensile strength over recycling cycles. Generally, with an increase in the number of recycling cycles, the tensile strength decreases. This trend is commonly observed irrespective of the type of recycled materials. On rare occasions, some studies have reported an increase in tensile strength with an increase in recycling cycles. For instance, in a study by Huda and Alam ( 2014 ), the tensile strength of RCAC1 and RCAC2 was observed to be 3–4% higher than that of NAC. The authors interpreted this phenomenon as a decrease in the water-cement ratio in the ITZ due to absorption of mixing water by the RCA. Consequently, the reduced water-cement ratio enhances the bond between RCA and the cement paste. However, in the case of R3, the tensile strength sharply decreased, and the authors attributed this to the low quality of RCA and the multiple layers of ITZ. Similar results were also reported by Yang et al. ( 2022 ).
Tensile strength of multi-recycled concretes over recycling cycles: a and b concrete with multi-recycled coarse aggregate in absolute and relative scale; c and d concrete with multi-recycled fine aggregate and powder in absolute and relative scale (Yang et al. 2022 ; Visintin et al. 2022 ; Huda and Alam 2014 ; Abreu et al. 2018 ; Kim et al. 2023a ; Kim and Jang 2022 ; Zhu et al. 2016 , 2018 , 2019b )
Drying shrinkage occurs when water in the pores of the cementitious matrix evaporates in a dry environment (Wu et al. 2017 ). Due to the characteristics of recycled materials, such as low stiffness, high porosity, and water absorption, recycled concrete has weak resistance to shrinkage deformation (Mao et al. 2021 ; Wang et al. 2020 ; Wu et al. 2022 ; Xiao et al. 2022b ). The characteristics of recycled materials further deteriorate with repeated recycling, causing concrete recycled for more cycles to exhibit greater shrinkage than concrete recycled for fewer cycles. Silva et al. ( 2021 ) and Kim et al. ( 2023a ) recorded the drying shrinkage of multi-RCAC for 91 days, respectively. Silva et al. ( 2021 ) reported that drying shrinkage is associated with an increase in both aggregate replacement rates and recycling cycles (Fig. 12 a). Similarly, Kim et al. ( 2023a ) noted that drying shrinkage increases as the recycling cycle increases but suggested that the mix design method, so called an equivalent mortar volume (EMV) method (Fathifazl et al. 2009 ; Kim et al. 2016 ; Yang and Lee 2017 ), which deducts the amount of new mortar equal to the amount of mortar attached to RCA, can help suppress drying shrinkage. According to the study, the drying shrinkage of EMV-based concrete with 100% RCA in the 1st-, 2nd- and 3rd generations was 8.5%, 12.2%, and 5.5% lower than that of concrete proportioned by a traditional mix design (Fig. 12 b).
Drying shrinkage of multi-recycled aggregate concrete by Silva et al. ( 2021 ) ( a ) and Kim et al. ( 2023a ) ( b )
One notable difference between the two studies is shrinkage deformation at early ages: Silva et al. ( 2021 ) found that the shrinkage behavior of NAC and RCAC was similar regardless of the recycling cycle up to 7 days, whereas the study by Kim et al. ( 2023a ) showed clear differences in drying shrinkage deformation caused by the recycling cycle at 7 days. In the former study, the moisture compensation for achieving consistent workability was carried out at each recycling cycle, while in the latter case, it was not. Additional water absorbed into RCA is later released, acting as a moisture source for curing, and this internal curing effect can delay the initial drying shrinkage of multi-recycled concrete (Yildirim et al. 2015 ; Zhang et al. 2013 ; Zhutovsky and Kovler 2017 ).
Water is the main transport medium for the penetration of harmful substances such as chlorides and sulfides into the pore structure of concrete (Wang et al. 2019 ). Therefore, understanding the movement of water in concrete is important from a durability perspective and some researchers have investigated the relevant properties. Figure 13 shows water absorption of concrete by immersion. As expected, the absorption capacity increases with the number of recycling cycles, and this trend is similarly observed in absorption through capillary action as shown in Fig. 14 . Both of these properties are associated with porosity (Silva et al. 2021 ). Due to the presence of attached mortar, which increases with repeated recycling, recycled aggregates and RP exhibit higher porosity and water absorption capacity than natural aggregates and cement, respectively, leading to more permeable pores. These changes affect the absorption capacity of the next-generation concrete (Salesa et al. 2017b ).
Water absorption of multi-recycled concretes over recycling cycles (Kim et al. 2023a ; Salesa et al. 2017a , b ; Silva et al. 2021 ; Thomas et al. 2020 ; Visintin et al. 2022 )
Water absorption of multi-recycled concretes over recycling cycles by immersion ( a ) and capillary action ( b ) (Silva et al. 2021 )
Chloride resistance is a key indicator of concrete durability. Due to variations in the quality of recycled materials, as discussed in previous sections, the resistance of multi-recycled concrete to chloride penetration weakens with an increasing number of recycling cycles. Zhu et al. ( 2019b ) and Kim et al. ( 2023a ) demonstrated a weakening of chloride resistance in RCAC due to repeated recycling, based on the increase in electrical conductivity with recycling cycles. In the former study, the charge passed during three recycling cycles increased from 1537 to 3300 C, while in the latter study, it increased from 2931 to 4331 C over three recycling cycles. Silva et al. ( 2021 ) and Zhu et al. ( 2019b ) also reported an increase in the chloride diffusion coefficient of RCAC by 47.4% and 85%, respectively, compared to that of NAC after three recycling cycles. The deterioration in chloride resistance can be more pronounced when RFA is repeatedly recycled. In another study conducted by Zhu et al. ( 2018 ), the diffusion coefficient of concrete using 100% RFA ranged from 1.33 × 10 –12 m 2 /s to 3.50 × 10 –12 m 2 /s over three recycling cycles, which was 233%, 419%, and 614% higher than that of NAC. Nevertheless, with the chloride diffusion coefficient of multi-RCAC and multi-RFAC satisfying the 100-year design life requirement in severe environments specified in the Chinese code (GB 50010-2010), the authors concluded that the feasibility of multi-recycling of concrete is promising.
Carbonation is a chemical reaction where hydrated cement paste reacts with CO 2 . This promotes a decrease in the pH of concrete, which is also associated with the corrosion of reinforcement bars.
The lower quality of recycled materials, characterized by low density, high porosity, and microcracks compared to natural materials, is known to promote CO 2 influx, reducing the carbonation resistance of concrete containing them (Silva et al. 2015 ; Tang et al. 2018 ). As multi-recycling further deteriorates these characteristics of recycled materials, a gradual decrease in carbonation resistance of multi-recycled concrete with increasing recycling cycles is expected, and indeed, such experimental results have been reported in studies (Silva et al. 2021 ; Zhu et al. 2019a ).
The carbonation resistance of multi-recycled concrete is further deteriorated in aggressive environments. After undergoing 300 freeze–thaw cycles, the carbonation depth of RCAC3 increased by more than double (117.3%) compared to the concrete before freeze–thaw action (Liu et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, the carbonation depth of RCAC1 and RCAC2, exposed to chloride ions, increased by 2.5 times and 2.7 times, respectively, compared to their pre-exposure levels (Chen et al. 2020 ). Both freeze–thaw action and chloride penetration loosen the pore structure of concrete, increasing its porosity. This increased porosity facilitates the CO 2 diffusion, resulting in a decrease in carbonation resistance. Nonetheless, the authors emphasize the promising result that the carbonation resistance of multi-recycled concretes exposed to harsh environments satisfied the 50-year design service life requirements of the design code (JGJ/T193-2009 and GB/T 50476-2019).
Frost resistance of concrete refers to the ability of concrete to withstand freeze–thaw cycles without significant damage and is a key parameter that determines the service life of concrete in cold regions. Generally, recycled materials absorb more water and this absorbed water is discharged into the cement paste, weakening its cold resistance. Zhu et al. ( 2019b ) investigated the frost resistance of multi-RCAC. During 800 freeze–thaw cycles, both the dynamic elastic modulus and weight decreased in the order of NAC, RCAC1, RCAC2, and RCAC3 (i.e., NAC has the highest modulus and weight, while RCAC3 has the lowest). In particular, RCAC3 after 600 cycles showed a higher mass loss than RCAC2 after 800 cycles of freeze–thaw, clearly indicating a deterioration in frost resistance as concrete was repeatedly recycled. To complement this, Wang et al. ( 2022a , b ) have stated that, in order to maintain a multi-cycle recycling system in an environment subject to freeze–thaw action, the parent concrete needs to be a high-performance concrete to prevent durability damage during its service life.
The scanning electron microscope results of concretes undergoing three cycles of recycling are shown in Fig. 15 . For NAC, one ITZ between the NCA and the fresh mortar is observed, along with a few microcracks due to moisture evaporation (Fig. 15 a). As recycling progresses multiple times, the cement matrix becomes complex. In RCAC1, there are two ITZs: ITZ1 between NCA and the existing hardened mortar, and ITZ2 between this RCA1 and the new mortar (Fig. 15 b). RCAC2 has three ITZs, including the two observed in RCAC1 and ITZ3 between RCA2 and the fresh mortar (Fig. 15 c). RCAC3 shows four ITZs, including the three observed in RCAC2 and ITZ4 between RCA3 and the fresh mortar (Fig. 15 d) (Belabbas et al. 2024 ). The ITZ is a weak point where concrete is more prone to cracking. In particular, the ITZ between new and old mortar provides a weaker bond than the ITZ between aggregate and mortar (Zuo et al. 2020 ). This explains why the performance of concrete recycled more times is lower than that of concrete recycled fewer times.
Scanning electron microscopy analysis of concrete with various recycling cycles (Belabbas et al. 2024 )
Reduction in replacement rate of recycled materials.
One of the simplest way to mitigate performance loss in recycled concrete is to reduce the replacement of natural materials with recycled ones (Bai et al. 2020 ; Kim et al. 2022 ). Some studies have attempted to compensate for the performance loss from multi-recycling by including natural aggregate in each recycling cycle (Abed et al. 2020 ; Marie and Quiasrawi 2012 ; Shmlls et al. 2022 ). For example, in a study by Marie and Quiasrawi ( 2012 ), RCAC1 was prepared with 20% RCA replacement rate (i.e., 80% of the coarse aggregate in RCAC1 was natural aggregate), from which RCA2 was obtained. RCAC2 was prepared with 20% RCA2 (i.e., 80% of the coarse aggregate in RCAC2 was natural aggregate) (Fig. 16 ). As shown in Table 3 , this approach enhanced the workability, mechanical strength, and water absorption of the second generation RCAC. However, it should be noted that the environmental benefits diminish as natural aggregate is used for each recycling cycle. Furthermore, due to the 80% NCA used in RCAC1, the RCA2 obtained from RCAC1 does not truly represent ‘multi-recycled’ aggregate.
Multi-recycling of concrete with and without natural aggregates
In recent times, numerous studies have emerged focusing on the utilization of CO 2 in concrete. When the hydration products in RCA, RFA, and RP are exposed to CO 2 , calcium carbonate and silica gel are formed, and this reaction fills the pores and cracks of the recycled materials, making the microstructure dense (Fang et al. 2021 ; Lu et al. 2018 ; Luo et al. 2018 ; Xuan et al. 2017 ). Liu et al. ( 2022 ) applied this carbonation technique to second-generation RCA and investigated the effect of its use on the properties of concrete. The RCA2 was carbonated under the following conditions: a temperature of 20 °C; relative humidity of 55%; CO 2 concentration of 20%, and a CO 2 gas pressure of 0.5 MPa. Table 4 shows the characteristics of RCAs before and after carbonation treatment, and the properties of concrete containing the RCAs. The carbonated RCA2 has better characteristics (higher density, lower water absorption) as an aggregate for concrete than non-carbonated RCA2. The quality of aggregates plays a crucial role in concrete performance (Kim 2022 ); consequently, concrete containing carbonated RCA2 exhibits higher compressive strength, a denser pore structure, and improved durability. In particular, it is worth noting that concrete containing carbonated RCA2 performed better than RCAC1, suggesting the possibility that carbonation treatment can offset performance losses by multi-recycling. A positive effect of carbonated RCA can also be found in other study (Wang et al. 2022a , b ).
Yang et al. ( 2022 ) investigated the effect of vibration mixing on multi-recycled concrete. Table 5 summarizes the properties of vibrated and non-vibrated concretes, showing that the vibrated concrete exhibits better workability and strengths. This performance improvement is attributed to vibration breaking the viscous connection between cement particles, preventing the cement agglomeration and allowing RCA to be better coated with fresh mortar (Xiong et al. 2019 ; Zhao et al. 2021 ). This vibration mixing method has the advantage of being applicable without changing the mixing components of concrete.
As represented in Fig. 5 , due to the presence of attached mortar, recycled concrete exhibits a larger volume of mortar compared to NAC, with a smaller proportion of original aggregates. To control this imbalance in material proportions, the EMV mix design method has been proposed (Fathifazl et al. 2009 ). The primary principle of the EMV method is to offset the volume of fresh mortar by the volume of attached mortar, thereby making the total mortar volume of recycled concrete equivalent to that of NAC. The performance efficiency and environmental benefits of this method have been reported in various literature (Fathifazl et al. 2011 ; Jiménez et al. 2014 ; Rajhans et al. 2019 ; Yang and Lee 2017 ). Kim et al. ( 2023a ) applied the EMV method to multi-cycle recycling. The EMV-based concretes with the same material volume were prepared and tested over three recycling cycles. and the test results are summarized in Table 6 . While concrete designed using conventional methods demonstrated a gradual loss of performance with increasing recycling cycles, the EMV-based concrete exhibited no obvious loss in the performance at each recycling cycle, indicating the importance of mix design that takes into account the characteristics of recycled aggregate.
As mentioned in the previous section, it was discussed that one of the consequences of multi-recycling is a reduction in concrete workability. In response, Kim et al. ( 2023c ) aimed to improve the workability of RCAC3 by increasing the plasticizer dosage and investigated its influence on the concrete properties. In the study, plasticizer dosages in RCAC3 were increased from 0.8 to 1.2% of cement in 0.1% increments. Except for the plasticizer dosage, the rest of the mix design remained the same, and the control group was RCAC1 with 0.8% plasticizer. Table 7 summarizes the experimental results. The slump of RCAC3 increased with increasing plasticizer dosage. In addition, for the hardened properties, the density, mechanical strength, and capillary absorption were improved, and some properties (tensile strength and capillary absorption) achieved similar performance to that of the RCAC1 as the plasticizer dosage was increased to 1.0%. This is related to the fact that free water due to the increase in plasticizer is used to promote hydration of the cement (Zhao et al. 2021 ). However, this positive effect diminishes when the plasticizer dosage exceeds the threshold. Therefore, the authors recommended determining the appropriate dosage.
The environmental aspects of multi-recycling of concrete have been discussed in some studies. In a study by Visintin et al. ( 2022 ), it was found that the benefits of using RCA were insignificant as the process of recycling concrete waste into aggregate is similar to the process of converting natural stone into aggregate. However, the authors noted that the effect of transportation distance should be investigated. Generally, in urban areas, the generation of construction waste and the demand for concrete coexist, resulting in shorter transportation distances for RCA compared to NCA. In the life cycle assessment by Lei et al. ( 2024 ), RCAC1, RCAC2, RCAC3 demonstrated superior environmental performance compared to NAC in terms of Global Warming Potential (GWP), Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP), Acidification Potential (AP), Eutrophication Potential (EP), and Cumulative Energy Consumption (CED). For example, the GWP of RCACs with three different recycling cycles was 8.5%, 12.1%, and 15.8% lower than that of NAC. The authors attributed these environmental benefits to two main factors: (i) the shorter transportation distance of RCA from construction waste recycling plants to concrete production facilities (20 km) compared to NCA from quarries to concrete production facilities (380 km); (ii) avoiding landfilling of concrete waste through recycling. They particularly emphasized that these effects are amplified when concrete is repeatedly recycled. Similar results were reported in other study (Shmlls et al. 2023 ), where the use of RCAC1 and RCAC2 resulted in approximately 20% and 25% reduction in GWP. Kim and Jang ( 2022 ) analyzed the environmental impact of using multi-RP as a partial replacement for cement. According to their study, incorporating 20% RP recycled three times reduced GWP by 15% while achieving the target strength. Furthermore, it was observed that concrete containing 10% RP offered greater environmental benefits compared to concrete containing 100% RCA, which is due to the significantly higher CO 2 emissions from cement compared to other materials used in concrete.
The economic viability of multi-recycling of concrete has been relatively underexplored, and its benefits can vary depending on the circumstances. In the study by Kim and Jang ( 2022 ), the production cost of RCAC2 was approximately 5% lower than that of NAC. However, the compressive strength was 13% lower, leading the authors to emphasize that economic discussions should consider both intended properties and production costs together. The modification of multi-RAC for better performance could potentially worsen its economic viability. In a study (Shmlls et al. 2023 ), replacing NCA with RCA1 by 30% increased the cost per cubic meter of concrete from $147.4 to $152.9. Even with a 70% replacement rate of RCA1, the cost remained higher than that of NAC at $151.9. Similarly, replacing RCA1 with RCA2 resulted in the costs of $149.0 and $148.1 at 30% and 70% replacement rates, respectively, still higher than that of NAC. This is because natural aggregate is not inherently expensive material, and additionally, more additives are required proportionally to the number of recycling to enhance the workability of multi-RAC. While the primary purpose of recycling is environmentally driven, economic feasibility is essential for sustained implementation in actual industries. Further comprehensive research is necessary to understand the economic viability of multi-recycling.
According to the findings of this review, multiple-time recycling is responsible for the performance loss in concrete, and the extent of this loss becomes more pronounced with an increase in the number of recycling cycles. Nevertheless, it is crucial to comprehend that the loss does not imply restricting the utilization of multi-recycled concrete. Even when no strengthening methods are applied, multi-recycled concrete can be used as normal strength (e.g., 20 MPa) as well as high strength concrete (e.g., 50 MPa) (see Figs. 9 and 10 ), and this strength range satisfactorily meets the requirements in many industry standards. For instance, Zhu et al. (Zhu et al. 2019b ) reported that the 1st and 2nd generation concrete met the 100-year design life requirement in harsh and cold environments according to the Chinese design code, while the 3rd generation concrete satisfied the 50-year design life requirement.
Despite the limited number of publications on multi recycling, several research gaps could be identified. In most previous studies, concrete waste was recycled multiple times as coarse aggregate, and few studies treated it as fine aggregate and powder (Fig. 17 a). Considering that fine particles are inevitably generated during the concrete multiple recycling process (Salesa et al. 2017b ; Zhu et al. 2019b ), further research on their utilization is needed to achieve multi-and-zero waste recycling. It is well known that the properties of concrete are significantly influenced by the materials used. Modern concrete may incorporate additives such as fibers, nanomaterials, water reducers and air-entraining agents to achieve optimal performance (Kidalova et al. 2012 ; Kowalik and Ubysz 2021 ; Sánchez-Pantoja et al. 2023 ). Furthermore, for environmental benefits, industrial by-products like fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag, as well as industrial waste such as glass, brick, clay, plastic, and ceramic wastes, are used as supplementary cementitious materials (Shirdam et al. 2019 ; Sičáková et al. 2017 ; Tawfik et al. 2024 ). However, the effect of the repeated recycling of concrete containing these materials on the properties of next-generation concrete has not been investigated. Another research gap can also be clearly found in the types of concrete. The majority of previous studies have focused on conventional concrete, which requires compaction. Little study was carried out on self-compacting concrete and mortar (Fig. 17 b). Additionally, very limited research has been conducted on steel and fiber reinforced concrete.
Number of studies categorized by material type ( a ) and mixture type ( b )
Table 8 summarizes the types of tests conducted in literature. Workability and compressive strength tests, as the most representative properties of fresh and hardened concrete, were the most frequently performed. Following these, properties such as tensile strength, water absorption and elastic modulus were also often measured. On the other hand, relatively little testing has been performed on the durability of concrete, such as abrasion resistance and freeze–thaw resistance.
In summary, current studies on multi- recycling of concrete primarily focus on the basic properties of traditional compacted concrete containing RCA, which may provide directions for further research. For example:
The utilization of fine particles generated from multi-cycle recycling needs to be studied. The use of fine particles is directly related to achieving zero waste, and their counterparts, i.e., sand and cement, emit more CO 2 than coarse aggregates. Therefore, fine particles have the potential to make a significant contribution to reducing CO 2 emissions.
A more systematic investigation is needed into how the raw materials of parent concrete affect the properties of next-generation concrete. This will help identify which factors have favorable or unfavorable influences on repeated recycling.
Examining various types of cementitious mixtures, including self-compacting mortar and concrete, can provide an expanded understanding of multi- recycling. Furthermore, given that concrete is often used in combination with fibers and rebar, it is essential to investigate the effect of multi-recycling on reinforced concrete.
One notable weakness of recycled concrete is its low durability, which is a major impediment to using recycled materials in concrete. Thus, it is crucial to conduct various tests on the durability properties of multi-recycled cementitious mixtures and explore ways to enhance their performance.
The environmental benefits of multi-recycling of concrete need to be better understood, and an investigation into establishing an economic model to sustain this recycling practice is also necessary.
These exemplary further studies are expected to build the body of knowledge on multi- recycling of concrete and contribute to better utilization of waste.
This paper has conducted a literature review on the multi- recycling of construction waste, and the following conclusions can be drawn:
The number of times concrete is recycled affects the quality of the recycled material obtained from it. As the number of recycling increases, the recycled aggregate and powder have more micro cracks and pores.
Recycled materials downgraded by multi-recycling have a negative influence on the workability, mechanical properties, and durability of concrete.
Performance losses resulting from multiple cycles of concrete recycling can be offset by various strengthening methods, such as carbonation of recycled materials, modified mix design and mixing techniques.
It should be noted that the lack of available data limits a clear assessment of the effect of multi-recycling of concrete and the identification of key contributing factors for the effect. Nevertheless, in this study, clear research gaps in existing studies were identified, and the limitations and potential of multi-recycling of concrete were discussed. Further comprehensive research is needed on the various types and properties of multi-recycled concrete.
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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This research was funded in whole by the National Science Centre, Poland (Grant number 2022/45/N/ST8/01782).
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Jeonghyun Kim
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Kim, J. Sustainable Construction Exploration: A Review of Multi-Recycling of Concrete Waste. Int J Environ Res 18 , 103 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-024-00652-z
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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-024-00652-z
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A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus. Their effectiveness often hinges on whether ...
Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.
Features of a Research Report So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. It is written in a formal language. A research report is usually written in the third person. It is informative and based on first ...
Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing information gather by conducting organized research. Learn all about research reports definition, components, and tips on writing research reports.
Abstract. This guide for writers of research reports consists of practical suggestions for writing a report that is clear, concise, readable, and understandable. It includes suggestions for terminology and notation and for writing each section of the report—introduction, method, results, and discussion. Much of the guide consists of ...
A research report is one type that is often used in the sciences, engineering and psychology. Here your aim is to write clearly and concisely about your research topic so that the reader can easily understand the purpose and results of your research.
In this section, we look at how to write an APA-style empirical research report, an article that presents the results of one or more new studies. Recall that the standard sections of an empirical research report provide a kind of outline.
Write up a state-of-the-art research report. Understand how to use scientific language in research reports. Develop a structure for your research report that comprises all relevant sections. Assess the consistency of your research design. Avoid dumbfounding your reader with surprising information.
This review covers the basic elements of a research report. This is a general guide for what you will see in journal articles or dissertations. This format assumes a mixed methods study, but you can leave out either quantitative or qualitative sections if you only used a single methodology.
An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test. Literature Review. Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction. A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant ...
What are the implications of the findings? The research report contains four main areas: Introduction - What is the issue? What is known? What is not known? What are you trying to find out? This sections ends with the purpose and specific aims of the study. Methods - The recipe for the study. If someone wanted to perform the same study ...
A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.
Research Report Meaning. A research report is a document that conveys the outcomes of a study or investigation. Its purpose is to communicate the research's findings, conclusions, and implications to a particular audience. This report aims to offer a comprehensive and unbiased overview of the research process, methodology, and results.
This handout provides a general guide to writing reports about scientific research you've performed. In addition to describing the conventional rules about the format and content of a lab report, we'll also attempt to convey why these rules exist, so you'll get a clearer, more dependable idea of how to approach this writing situation ...
science research reports, socio - demographic characteristics of the study participants or sample are usually either described briefly in the s ample sub-section of the
Learn how to write a research report with this PDF guide from ResearchGate, the leading network for scientists and researchers.
Preparation of a comprehensive written research report is an essential part of a valid research experience, and the student should be aware of this requirement at the outset of the project. Interim reports may also be required, usually at the termination of the quarter or semester. Sufficient time should be allowed for satisfactory completion ...
Research Reports Research reports present the results of formal investigations into the properties, behavior, structures, and principles of material and conceptual entities. Almost any physical phenomenon or concept may be investigated in a research framework. The following are some key differences between formal research, and other less structured kinds of inquiry.
Key Highlights A research report is a document that gives a quick overview of a research study. Types of research reports offer a standardized format and structure, making it easier for readers to navigate and comprehend the information. They are useful in fields like academia, business, healthcare, social sciences, and more.
A research report is one big argument how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, distinct issues need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your...
A research report is an end product of research. As earlier said that report writing provides useful information in arriving at rational decisions that may reform the business and society. The findings, conclusions, suggestions and recommendations are useful to academicians, scholars and policymakers.
Top 11 Characteristics of a Good Report. This article throws light upon the top eleven characteristics of a good report. The characteristics are: 1. Simplicity 2. Clarity 3. Brevity 4. Positivity 5. Punctuation 6.
6. Introduce The Report's Purpose. The summary of a research paper should include a brief description of the paper's purpose. It should state the paper's thesis statement and briefly describe each of the main points of the paper. 7. Use Keywords To Introduce The Report. When introducing the summary of a research paper, use keywords familiar to ...
Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
The research team was juggling infusing the mare's uterus with Tris-EDTA, waiting a few hours, and then adding an antibiotic to catch the now-vulnerable bacteria in the broken-up biofilm, but ...
Associations with other child variables (e.g., age, gender, and race) and family characteristics were also examined. Findings indicate that children were currently receiving a mean of 6.1 (SD = 3.5) different types of therapy treatments; the most common treatments was speech-language therapy currently received by 73%.
This paper provides an overview of literature on the multiple-time recycling of concrete waste and meticulously analyzes the research findings. The paper begins by reviewing the characteristics of recycled materials such as recycled coarse aggregate, recycled fine aggregate, and recycled powder obtained from concrete waste in relation to the recycling cycle. The influence of each of these ...
All Info for H.R.9436 - 118th Congress (2023-2024): To establish a National Science Foundation grant program to provide and strengthen opportunities for peer-led research regarding autism spectrum disorder and its characteristics in women, and for other purposes.