What does expatriate success mean? Developing a comprehensive definition through a systematic literature review

Career Development International

ISSN : 1362-0436

Article publication date: 7 September 2023

Issue publication date: 23 January 2024

Despite being one of the most used dependent variables in expatriate management research, no clear-cut understanding exists of what expatriate success means. Thus, this study aims to propose an integrative definition of expatriate success by providing an overview of expatriate success's dimensions, antecedents, and their interplay.

Design/methodology/approach

A systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted to achieve the purpose. A total of 249 empirical studies (quantitative 111, qualitative 50, mixed-methods 17), literature reviews (67) and meta-analyses (4) on expatriate success were reviewed from Web of Science and Scopus databases published from 1990 until December 2021. The study selection criteria followed the PRISMA flowchart steps, and then descriptive and network analyses were performed to identify expatriates' success dimensions, antecedents and their interplay.

The findings show the interplay among antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success across three levels (individual, interpersonal and organisational) to clarify the concept of expatriate success. Also, the study offers a comprehensive definition of expatriate success based on the dimensions identified.

Research limitations/implications

The suggested definition of expatriate success elucidates the “atheoretical”, multidimensional and socially constructed nature of the construct and hence, calls for more “theoretical”, multidimensional and subjective considerations of the term to ground human resource management practices addressed to attain expatriates' success.

Originality/value

This paper provides an integrative definition of expatriate success, giving greater insight into the construct, in addition to critically reflecting on it.

  • Expatriate success
  • PRISMA approach
  • Cross-cultural adjustment
  • Performance
  • Career development

El Amine, N.R. and Cascón-Pereira, R. (2024), "What does expatriate success mean? Developing a comprehensive definition through a systematic literature review", Career Development International , Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 3-79. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-12-2022-0326

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2023, Nour R. El Amine and Rosalía Cascón-Pereira

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

Despite the worldwide crises and current global turmoil ( PWC Global Crisis Survey, 2021 ), organisations largely remain dependent on expatriates for business success and expansion. They rely on them to establish business relations, transfer knowledge, control the subsidiary, or achieve goals set before the assignment ( DeNisi and Sonesh, 2016 ). Accordingly, expatriate success demonstrates a prominent position in the literature on expatriate management as the primary dependent variable (e.g. Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ; Reiche and Harzing, 2011 ).

Nevertheless, this literature presents no consensus on what expatriate success means or how it is measured ( Hemmasi et al ., 2010 ). Expatriate success has been conceptualised in various ways, from individual and organisational perspectives and through objective and objectivist measures. Traditionally success depended on whether the expatriate stayed or left the mission ( Caliguiri and Cascio, 1998 ) which is a direct, objective and observable fact from the organisational perspective. Next, the second and most extended conception of expatriate success has been an adjustment-defined as the extent to which expatriates are comfortable living abroad (e.g. Black, 1990 ; Black and Gregersen, 1991 )– to the new assignment and environmental context. However, this is an “objectivist measure” of career success since respondents rate their level of adjustment with researcher-imposed expatriate success criteria without considering the concept's subjective nature ( Briscoe et al ., 2021 ). A third and more contemporary conception of expatriate success is based on achieving the organisational goals for the assignment ( Harzing and Christensen, 2004 ). Even though this measure of success is not standard but adapts to the nature of each organisation and international mission, it still leaves out the phenomenological and subjective nature of the construct. The lack of consensus on expatriate success measures and definitions extends to the studies investigating their antecedents. For instance, they associated expatriate success with one or more of the following: adjustment ( Black et al ., 1991 ), withdrawal cognitions ( Shaffer and Harrison, 1998 ), job performance ( Caligiuri, 1997 ), organisational commitment ( Florkowski and Fogel, 1999 ) and assignment completion ( Reiche and Harzing, 2011 ). The most widely used dimension as a proxy measure of expatriate success is cross-cultural adjustment (CCA), performance, satisfaction and organisational commitment, respectively ( Hemmasi et al ., 2010 ). Also, this disagreement is evident in how studies used one concept (e.g. adjustment) as either a measure (e.g. DeNisi and Sonesh, 2016 ) or antecedent of success (e.g. Benson and Pattie, 2009 ; Templer, 2010 ; van Bakel et al ., 2011 ). Regarding this, a more comprehensive understanding of expatriate success that considers its multidimensionality is needed.

On another note, according to the dictionary, success is “the fact that an individual has achieved something they want and have been trying to do or get” ( Oxford University, 2022 ). Also, contemporary careers literature suggests that career success is “the experience of achieving goals that are personally meaningful to the individual, rather than those set by parents, peers, organisation, or society” ( Mirvis and Hall, 1994 , p. 366). Both definitions are synonymous with individual achievement and depend on objectives, which are subjective and differ from one individual to another. Hence, being “successful” holds different meanings for different people ( Nugin and Onken, 2010 . Furthermore, success is a socially constructed phenomenon ( Dries, 2011 ). However, this socially constructed, phenomenological and subjective nature has been overlooked in the extant definitions of expatriate success often disregarding various aspects of expatriate success depending on whether it's explored from an individual or organisational perspective (e.g. Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ; Van der Laken et al ., 2016 ). For instance, defining expatriate success as the completion of the assignment ( Tung, 1981 ) overlooks the expatriate performance throughout, the repatriate turnover from the organisational perspective (e.g. Mezias and Scandura, 2005 ), expatriate subjective perceptions of success (e.g. Mello et al ., 2020 ) or their perceived career expectations from the individual's perspective ( Haski–Leventhal et al ., 2020 ; Sokro et al ., 2021 ). Thus, this “objective” conception is insufficient to capture the multidimensionality of the construct of expatriate success particularly when recently the subjective dimension of expatriate success expressed as forms of work satisfaction, life satisfaction, or well-being related to career ( Canhilal et al ., 2015 ) has gained importance. Therefore, a broader conception of expatriate success that considers its subjective nature is needed.

Therefore, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of expatriate success by conducting a systematic literature review (SLR) guided by the following objectives: (1) identify the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success, (2) determine the interplay among them and (3) identify previous definitions of expatriate success in the literature and provide an integrative definition of it. By achieving these objectives, the contribution of this SLR to the expatriate literature is twofold. First, it provides greater insight into the different dimensions of expatriate success and their interplay, highlighting the construct's multidimensional and socially constructed nature. Second, it provides an integrative definition, combining individual and organisational perspectives with subjective and objective measures of success.

In what follows, we describe in detail how we proceeded with the SLR following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) steps (selection process, article risk of bias assessment, methods of analysis) and, then discuss the findings. Finally, we conclude and reflect on the possibilities for future research that this new integrative understanding of the construct provides.

Methods and methodology

Study selection process.

We conducted a SLR ( Tranfield et al ., 2003 ) to elucidate the concept of expatriate success further and critically analyse what has been missed from this concept. Compared to narrative literature reviews, SLR minimises the bias involved in identifying, selecting and analysing studies, as it is based on replicable methods ( Needleman, 2002 ). Our SLR documents were selected, and the findings reported according to the PRISMA approach ( Moher et al. , 2009 ). This approach is most suitable for SLR because it eliminates bias in the above tri-phasic (article selection, analysis and reporting) workflow ( Petticrew and Roberts, 2006 ; Priyashantha et al ., 2021a , b ).

Following the 3-step PRISMA flow diagram ( Figure 1 : Page et al ., 2021 ) for study selection, the first step involved determining search terms, selection criteria and electronic databases. Preliminary results show that “expatriate success' was commonly associated with keywords like adjustment, performance, productivity, satisfaction, turnover and withdrawal. Our inclusion criteria ( Table 1 ) were document types (book chapters, conference proceedings, journal articles), English language, and published between 1990 and 2021. Next, we searched Scopus and Web of Science separately using the combined terms (“expatriate success”) AND each keyword in the topic, title and abstract.

Searches on Scopus and WOS yielded 895 studies. After eliminating duplicates, we reviewed the titles and abstracts of 650 studies for relevance. We excluded 388 unrelated documents (e.g. seasonal marine life expatriation, novels). After which, we conducted a second round of inspection, resulting in 262 studies. Out of these, 13 studies were excluded because of inaccessibility. Then, we screened the remaining 249 eligible studies, recording the journal name, year, author, information on the nature of the study, theory(ies) adopted, variables used as either antecedents and/or dimensions, methods, themes and whether an explicit definition of expatriate success is provided ( Table A1 in appendix ).

Study risk of bias assessment

Study selection and subsequent analysis may be significantly influenced by the researcher's subjectivity, negatively affecting the review's quality ( Kitchenham and Charters, 2007 ). However, the empirical evidence in support of quality assessment is so little that no consensus exists on the basis of such assessments ( Thomas and Harden, 2008 ). As such, the selected studies were subjected to an assessment that is based on the relation with our focus on the research, and the inclusion and exclusion criteria only, and coupled with the fact that only WOS- and Scopus-retrieved publications were considered on the basis that such documents have already been peer-reviewed ( Xiao and Watson's, 2019 ). That was done independently and in parallel by the two authors of this article ( Brereton et al ., 2007 ) who formed a consensus regarding the 249 included studies.

Methods of analysis

We performed a ‘descriptive analysis (see Findings) by identifying the frequency that expatriate success-related variables were treated as dimensions and/or antecedents of success, authors, dates, journals, research methodologies, data collection techniques, unit of analysis (individual, interpersonal and organisational levels) and theories. This allowed us to satisfy objectives to (1) identify the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success ( Table A1 in the appendix ) and (3) clarify the definition of expatriate success in the previous literature ( Table A2 in the appendix ). Hence, antecedents, dimensions and definitions were the overarching themes or analytical codes extracted deductively from the research objectives.

Through inductive thematic analysis of the articles ( Thomas and Hardens, 2008 ), we were able to identify different dimensions (e.g, CCA, Performance, Satisfaction) and antecedents (e.g. CCA, Motivation to migrate, Interaction with HCNs) of success as first-order codes and classify them into three levels (individual, interpersonal and organisational). Subsequently, we used these first-order and second-order codes to analyse expatriate success definitions and trends based on the frequencies of these codes (see findings). Next, we conducted this analysis manually by tabulating the information in chronological order for a better understanding ( Table A1 in the appendix ) and to highlight the contrast and trend of expatriate success definition across the years ( Table A2 in the appendix ). Drawing on Rousseau et al. 's classification ( 2008 ), we used integration and interpretation methods to analyse and synthesise our data. Integration is a process of triangulation across different studies and methods to answer specific questions and examine the approaches taken to the topic. This enabled us to answer the following questions: What variables did the studies consider and how? How did the studies define expatriate success? And what theoretical framework did they adopt? Interpretation involves collecting descriptive data, pinpointing its common concepts and transferring them to new classifications to develop new constructs. Although, we didn't explicitly develop a new construct, however in systematically classifying its dimensions and critically indicating what is missed from the extant definitions we extended and developed the construct further.

We used VOSviewer version 1.6.11 ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2010 ) to generate a perceptual map of the final sample to satisfy objective (2), that is to determine the interplay between antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success. VOSviewer is a software tool that helps create and visualise maps based on network data using objects of interest (e.g. keywords). The relationship between these items is shown by the way they link together. All of the links and items constitute the network. After running our sample, the final list contained 29 terms ( Figure 2 ). These terms are connected by lines and are labelled with coloured nodes. The node's size is positively correlated with the occurrence of terms in the titles and abstracts. The more co-occurrences between two terms is evident in their closer proximity on the map, colour similarity and the stronger the link between them ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2010 ). Finally, we obtained a complex visualisation of clusters and networks ( Figures 3 and 4 ). The five clusters demonstrate how the antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success are interrelated, thus helping us to attain objective 2. For example, in the blue cluster-the biggest node- (CCA) is linked to HCNs, attitude, satisfaction and turnover intentions. This linkage helps answer our objective to determine the interplay between antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success.

Profile of included studies

This section explains the characteristics of the final 249 studies we included ( Table 2 ). The 249 studies were published between 1990 and 2021 across 104 journals, 14 books and 15 of which were conference proceedings. These studies involve 482 authors from 41 countries, indicating broad coverage. The average citation rate for each article during this period was 34. In total, 531 author keywords were determined. 111studies adopted quantitative methods (44.6%), 64 were conceptual (25.7%), 50 qualitative (20%), 17 mixed-methods (6.8%), four meta-analyses (1.7%) and three conducted SLRs (1.2%).

Identifying the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success

This section addresses our first objective: identifying the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success. Across 249 studies, relationships between factors considered antecedents or dimensions of expatriate success were investigated ( Table A1 ). Noticeably, 167 studies (67.1%) were atheoretical in contrast to, 82 (32.9%) which were theory-informed (the 10th column in Table A1 ). Although in this analysis, we do not distinguish between Oes (organisational expatriates) and SIEs (self-initiated expatriates), and our findings confirm Pinto et al .'s (2020) criticism of SIE's studies as atheoretical or theoretically fragmented without further understanding underlying motives and drivers of success. However, in the last 4 years, theory-based explanations of expatriate success increased ( Figure A1 in the appendix ).

Two dimensions received the most attention in expatriate studies, namely the individual (62.6%) and the organisational (45%). Recently, the interpersonal dimension gained further attention (6.8%). Various studies investigated the individual dimensions: subjective and self-reported such as CCA ( Webb and Wright, 1996 ; Cao et al. , 2013 ), satisfaction, whether life, self, career, or job ( Gabel et al. , 2005 ; Canhilal et al. , 2015 ), success, whether in the career, job or in self-development ( Cerdin and Le Pargneux, 2009 ; Bashir et al. , 2021 ), the expatriate's perspective on work-family balance ( Valk et al. , 2014 ), job security, personal growth, authenticity and ability to live contentedly ( Valk, 2021 ). Other dimensions investigated were knowledge gain ( Bonache and Zárraga-Oberty, 2008 ), financial gains (earnings, salaries) and promotions and the duration to obtain the latter after the assignment ( Bolino, 2007 ).

The organisational dimensions considered are expatriate performance (e.g. Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ; Caliguiri and Phillips, 2003 ), intention to complete the international assignment (IA) ( Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ), completing the IA ( Caliguiri, 1997 ), effectiveness during the IA ( Lee and Donohue, 2012 ), achieving organisational goals ( Porter and Tansky, 1999 ), job withdrawal intentions ( Harcar and Harcar, 2004 ), turnover intentions ( Bozionelos, 2009 ), commitment to the organisation ( Hemmasi et al. , 2010 ), tenure after repatriation ( Varner and Palmer, 2005 ), expatriate return on investment ( McNulty and Cieri, 2013 ), ability to work effectively ( Lee and Donohue, 2012 ) and the organisation's use of knowledge gain ( Toh et al. , 2012 ).

Lastly, the interpersonal dimensions are concerned with relationship building and identification with the team abroad ( Harrison and Shaffer, 2005 ), knowledge transfer among host-country nationals and their career capital gain ( Toh et al. , 2012 ), contribution to society and family ( Valk et al. , 2014 ) and work-family balance (from the family's perspective) ( Kempen et al. , 2015 ).

Despite the many studies covering the different dimensions, we rarely found studies that addressed those antecedents and dimensions across all three levels jointly except for Porter and Tansky (1999) and Toh et al. (2012) further clouding the meaning of expatriate success. This was evident in the 3 SLRs, which each address expatriate success's dimensions and antecedents differently. Van der Laken et al . (2016) focused on perceived organisational support's impact on expatriate success. Weisheit (2018) studied expatriate success from an individual standpoint, emphasizing the importance of an employee's readiness to relocate. Lastly, Faeth and Kittler (2020) explored expatriate management in hostile environments from a multi-stakeholder perspective. Despite the fragmented studies, our findings confirm that expatriate success is multidimensional, as indicated by previous literature ( Toh et al. , 2012 ) ( Table A1 ).

The interplay between individual, interpersonal and organisational antecedents and dimensions of expatriate success

This section addresses our second objective showing the intertwined relationships between the antecedents and dimensions. In what follows, we discuss the most frequently studied dimensions and show how some antecedents are related.

Depending on the study, adjustment was designated as an individual dimension or antecedent of success. The most widely studied dimension was CCA in its different forms (psychological, socio-cultural and work). Then, 111 studies (44.6%) considered CCA a dimension of expatriate success. In contrast, 33 articles (13.3%) considered it an antecedent of expatriate success, good performance, intention to complete the IA and expatriate well-being. Thus, adjustment has been mostly equated to success rather than an antecedent of it despite several individual antecedents shaping expatriates' CCA. For example, the Big Five personality characteristics explicitly related to expatriates' CCA ( Ones and Viswesvaran, 1997 ). Also, other antecedents of expatriate adjustment were also investigated: cultural intelligence (CQ, e.g. Huff, 2013 ) 12 studies (4.8%), (emotional intelligence (EQ; e.g. Cray et al. , 2018 ) six studies (2.4%); motivation to migrate ( Van den Bergh and Du Plessis, 2012 ) and willingness to go on IAs (e.g.  Wan, 2019 ) six studies (2.4%)). Other explored factors were language proficiency (e.g.  Caliguiri et al. , 2009 ; Huff, 2013 ), management and leadership skills ( Harjo, 2016 ).

Also, interpersonal antecedents played a significant role in expatriates' CCA: the family's (and spouse's) adjustment and their willingness to go on IAs (e.g. Van Vianen et al. , 2008 ) and interaction with HCNs (e.g. Varma et al. , 2012 ; Van Bakel, 2019 ). Several organisational antecedents also affected expatriates' CCA such as selection criteria. Organisations whose primary selection criteria were the expatriate's mental ability, Big Five personality characteristics and EQ facilitated the expatriate's CCA ( Gabel et al. , 2005 ). Selecting the right candidate, providing them and their accompanying families with adequate cross-cultural training (CCT) and preparation (e.g. Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ; McCabe, 1993 ) were crucial to adjustment. Organisational support also contributed to CCA ( Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ; Webber and Vögel, 2019 ). Kraimer and Wayne (2004) believe that this perceived organisational support and efforts is crucial for expatriates' CCA and well-being. David et al. (2021) showed that POS and family-supportive work perceptions could enhance the odds of an expatriate's success as it alleviates the burdens they potentially face when accompanied by their family. If expatriates perceive the company's support positively, they will adjust more readily.

Performance is the second most frequent dimension involved in expatriate success. Although only one study (0.4%) considers it an antecedent of success, 80 (32.1%) consider it one of the critical dimensions of success from the organisational perspective. Similarly, various individual antecedents shaped CCA and satisfaction and impacted expatriates' performance. For instance, in addition to Big Five personality characteristics, CQ ( Huff, 2013 ), EQ ( Cray et al. , 2018 ), motivation to migrate ( van den Bergh and Du Plessis, 2012 ), willingness to go on IAs (e.g. Wan, 2019 ), language proficiency (e.g. Caliguiri et al. , 2009 ; Huff, 2013 ), management and personal leadership skills ( Harjo, 2016 ) have also been correlated with expatriate performance as a dimension of success.

Furthermore, to ensure optimal performance, organisations must also consider the expatriate candidate's technical abilities, stress tolerance, flexibility, communication skills, cultural empathy, spouse adaptability and subsidiary-parent company relations ( Hiltrop and Janssens, 1990 ). Harvey et al. (2001) showed the impact of a candidate's level of motivation on their performance. Lee and Kartika (2014) suggest that both CCA and expatriate performance and knowledge transfer are influenced by interpersonal factors, for example. Similarly, performance is primarily shaped by the same interpersonal and organisational antecedents.

The third most frequent dimension of expatriate success was expatriate satisfaction. Satisfaction appeared as a dimension of success in 35 studies (14.1%) but as an antecedent in only three (1.2%), which indicates that satisfaction was mainly considered an essential dimension of success but not a contributing factor, and various antecedents shaped it. Although satisfaction is one of the critical dimensions of expatriate success, unlike CCA, it is not considered a dimension of success on its own. Instead, satisfaction complements other dimensions of success, such as CCA ( Supangco and Mayrhofer, 2014 ), intention to complete the IA ( Mezias and Scandura, 2005 ), turnover intention ( Bozionelos, 2009 ) and withdrawal cognition ( Canhilal et al. , 2015 ). Further, several factors contribute to expatriate satisfaction. Interaction with HCNs relates to expatriate job satisfaction and intention to complete the IA ( Konanahalli et al. , 2011 ; Templer, 2010 ). Organisational support and the extent to which expatriates and HCN support perceive it contributes to their satisfaction with their career and intention to complete the assignment ( Cao et al. , 2014 ). Similarly, this perceived organisational support affects their life and family satisfaction ( David et al. , 2021 ).

Other dimensions of expatriate success from the organisational perspective were the completion of the IA (e.g. Lazarova et al. , 2015 ) and willingness to remain (e.g. Braga and Kubo, 2010 ), both with 20 studies (8%); intention to stay with 13 studies (5.2%) (e.g. Cao et al. , 2014 ); premature returns with four studies (1.6%) (e.g. Canhilal et al. , 2015 ); and withdrawal cognition with four studies (1.6%) (e.g. Davis et al. , 2018 ). Ten studies (4%) address commitment to the organisation as another dimension of success ( Chen, 2015 ; Gallego-Toledo, 2015 ; Van Der Laken et al. , 2016 ). To a lesser extent, other organisational dimensions of expatriate success that were considered sporadically were knowledge transfer (2%), tenure after repatriation (0.4%) and effectiveness (2%). As for achieving organisational goals like financial targets and market shares (0.2%), Porter and Tansky (1999) showed that specific individual antecedents (e.g. assimilation, endurance, psychological factors and career expectations) play a significant role in increasing expatriate chances of achieving such goals, adjusting better and completing the IA.

Finally, knowledge transfer was considered one of the interpersonal dimensions in only three articles (1.2%). While Toh et al. (2012) investigated the role played by organisations in providing adequate CCT to expatriates to ensure this transfer, Wang and Varma (2018) highlighted the critical role of HCNs. Bonache and Zárraga-Oberty (2008) echoed this and added the need for the right abilities and motivation. Contribution to home country society and family, work-family balance and satisfaction were other dimensions of expatriate success at this level ( Valk et al. , 2014 ). Moreover, as one key interpersonal dimension of expatriate success, CCA affects relationship building and identification with the team abroad ( Harrison and Shaffer, 2005 ; Denisi and Sonesh, 2016 ). Hence, the interplay of individual, interpersonal and organisational antecedents shapes these interpersonal dimensions.

To complement these findings, we used VOS viewer to generate several maps highlighting our sample's networks of the keywords co-occurrence. These maps represented five clusters, namely the following: International career success (Cluster 1 in red); Success determined by selection based on personal characteristics (Cluster 2 in green); Success as adjustment and satisfaction influenced by interpersonal factors (Cluster 3 in blue); Success as the lack of expatriate failure facilitated by spouse's organisational support and training (Cluster 4 in yellow); and finally, success linked to commitment and performance enabled by social support (Cluster 5 in purple).

Figure 3 represents the network of co-occurrences of all 29 terms in the five clusters. Figures 2 and 3 show that the “Expatriate success' node is the largest in our sample. It occurred 233 times and is linked to the other terms. This is expected as the studies in our sample specifically relate to expatriate success, the main keyword. The “Expatriate adjustment” node has the highest total strength link (1,364). This node has 27 links (out of 28), reflecting that expatriate adjustment was highly researched and considered the most frequent dimension or antecedent of success. “Performance” has 26 links, the third strongest links (920) and occurred 139 times.

The five clusters show that expatriate success is not a uni- or bi-dimensional concept. Instead, it is multidimensional and affected by diverse factors at differing levels. The main dimensions considered were adjustment, performance, satisfaction, commitment, effectiveness, turnover intentions, career success and repatriation success, therefore, taking the individuals' and the organisation's perspectives into account.

This map ( Figure 4 ) echoes our previous finding about expatriate success, shifting to focus on global career success and involving the whole career, not only the IA. For instance, none of the terms is shaded in blue (oldest), and most are in light orange (more recent). Although authors explored adjustment, performance and expatriate success since the 1990s, these terms appear to be emphasised more recently (light orange) as the research intensity increased as of 2009. Our findings show that research on these dimensions tripled from 67 articles between 1990 and 2006 to 182 articles from 2007 to 2021. The dimensions considered from 2009 onward are career success, repatriation, satisfaction and turnover intention.

Definitions of expatriate success

In this section we satisfy the third objective, by reviewing the existing definitions of expatriate success and suggesting an integrative one. Although researchers studied expatriate success in many ways and from various lenses, no consensus on one definition exists. As mentioned, different dimensions have been considered for the same concept making comparing them difficult. Our findings reveal that very few studies explicitly define expatriate success: only 31 (12.4%) studies, from which only half, 16 (51.6%), were grounded in some theory ( Table A2 in the appendix ). In 5 out of 16 studies, authors adopted Human Capital Theory ( Becker, 1964 ) thus reflecting the predominance of the organisational perspective when defining expatriate success. Conversely, the importance of the interaction and exchange between the organisation and the individual to define expatriate success also seems relevant, with 5articles out of 16 using either Person-Environment Fit Theory ( Kristof, 1996 ), Social Exchange Theory ( Blau, 1964 ) or relational models of procedural justice ( Tyler and Lind, 1992 ), thus highlighting the organisational perspective in the definition of expatriate success. The use of psychological theories focussing on the subjective dimension of expatriate success at the individual level, such as Anxiety and Uncertainty Management Theory ( Gudykunst and Nishida, 2001 ), Conservation of Resources Theory ( Hobfoll, 1989 ) and Regulatory Focus Theory ( Higgins, 1997 ) are less used to define success, with only three articles out of 16.

Of these 31 articles that define success, 12 (38.8%) considered either individual (e.g. CCA) or organisational (e.g. performance) dimensions, 17 (54.8%) took both dimensions into account, 1 (3.2%) considered the individual and interpersonal dimensions (e.g. knowledge transfer) and 1 (3.2%) highlights all three.

Also, these studies differed in how they refer to success: 12 (38.8%) used the term “expatriate success”, eight (25.8%) used “career success”, eight (25.8%) used “success in the IA”, 2 (6.4%) contrasted “expatriate success” and “failure” and one (3.2%) combined “expatriate success” with “success in the IA”. More than half, 16 (51.6%), focused on the success of OEs. The rest either investigated SIEs (five studies, 16.2%), did not specify the type of expatriate of interest (eight studies; 25.8%), or investigated both OEs and SIEs (two studies, 6.4%). So, comparably, fewer studies defining expatriate success were referred to as SIEs. It is also worth noting that when referring to success in the IA, which is bound to the assignment's corporate goals, authors studied OEs solely, whereas both OEs and SIEs were the subjects of the studies on career success with a broader focus going beyond the attainment of the corporate goals.

The first to suggest a definition of expatriate success was Zeynep Aycan in 1997. She considered both individual and organisational perspectives and proposed that success can be defined by expatriates' levels of adjustment and performance. Also, Caligiuri (1997) explored these two dimensions and suggested that the three most common criteria for evaluating expatriate success were the following: completion of the foreign assignment, CCA and performance on the foreign assignment in this order. Also, Porter and Tansky (1999) considered success "in terms of the expatriate achieving specific objectives but considered from the organisational perspective. These objectives often include some financial goals but might also be in the form of market share gain, introducing a new product or service, cycle time improvements, or quality objectives” (p. 47). Other researchers ( Caligiuri, 1997 ; Kraimer and Wayne, 2004 ) reported similar definitions of expatriate success and related it to adjustment, performance, completion of the IA, or even the organisation's return on investment on its expatriates ( McNulty, 2008 ). Hence, authors have been more interested in equating expatriate success to tangible and organisational dimensions rather than subjective and individual dimensions, showing a predominance of the organisational perspective in their definitions of expatriate success.

Another trend observed when analysing these definitions is that while previous studies mainly emphasised objective and factual measures of success, such as completing the IA or promotions, more recent definitions started incorporating more subjective measures. For instance, Gabel et al. (2005) introduced life satisfaction as an additional measure of success. Other subjective measures, such as expatriates' gain in knowledge from IAs, fulfilled psychological contracts reflecting the individuals' perspective ( Kumarika Perara et al. , 2017 ), and career and job satisfaction ( Traavik and Richardsen, 2010 ) have been considered. Hence, research attempted to provide greater insight into expatriate success by simultaneously focussing on subjective and objective measures that capture the individual's and the organisation's perspectives.

Finally, another consideration that can be drawn from the findings is that of a broader time scope that goes beyond success in the IA and encompasses long-term career success. Cerdin and Le Pargneux (2009) proposed this idea and incorporated both the IA and the long-term career. They added expertise, career, job and development success concepts. They also shed light on the importance of measuring all these during expatriation and after repatriation to define success. Traavik and Richardsen (2010) also explored career success and proposed subjective (e.g. career, job satisfaction) and objective outcomes (e.g. rewards, promotions) to measure it. Valk et al. (2014) considered new dimensions of expatriate success while relating it to career success. They found that the outcome of a successful international career is the work-family balance, self-satisfaction and contribution to the family and home-country society. Three other studies ( Blanco and Castillo, 2020 ; Hamori and Koyuncu, 2011 ; Schmid and Wurster, 2017 ) also related expatriate success to career success but considered the time required to get to the top as the measure of this success. Blanco and Castillo pointed out that the longer expatriates are away from the HQ, the longer they will take to get to the top and, therefore, the less successful they will be. Conversely, Ramaswami et al. (2016) considered that the more international experience expatriates exhibit, i.e. the more time spent on IAs, the more human capital they possess, the more rewards they obtain and, therefore, the more successful they are.

This perspective was recently updated. Harry et al. (2019) , Waxin and Brewster (2020) , Mello et al. (2020) and Lazarova et al. (2021) all provided more recent definitions of expatriate success and linked it to career success and its objective and subjective outcomes. Mello et al. (2020) defined expatriate success as including different subjective and objective measures at the individual level. They mainly focused on the accomplishment of desirable, positive psychological or work-related outcomes, on tangible, objective and measurable features such as promotions or salaries as objective outcomes, and career satisfaction, career success and finally, the multidimensional evaluation criteria of career facets, such as growth and development, personal life and authenticity as subjective outcomes. Then, we found that the definitions by Valk et al. (2014) and Mello et al. (2020) are the most integrative, comprehensive and inclusive. They tackle the individual, interpersonal and organisational aspects and use the subjective and objective measures of an expatriate's success to describe this complex and multi-faceted concept, even though their definitions apply to SIE.

In sum, over time, the definition of expatriate success evolved. First, it was associated with merely completing an assignment measured factually and objectively. Then, it incorporated the expatriates' ability to adjust, measured in a self-reported way, perform well and achieve organisational goals, measured by the organisation. Finally, it considered the efficient transfer of knowledge and expertise and several subjective dimensions of career success.

Research on expatriate success often overlooked the construct's multidimensionality and subjective and socially constructed nature failing to achieve a consensus on defining it. Our findings support this notion and show the various antecedents and dimensions to understand expatriate success. These antecedents and dimensions were not independent, as a visible interplay was found among them across individual, interpersonal and organisational levels. Considering the dimensions identified and discriminating them from antecedents, we suggested a comprehensive definition, complementing the extant ones (e.g. Aycan, 1997 ; Mello et al ., 2020 ). Next, we discuss each of our findings to their respective objectives next.

The first objective of identifying the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success has been thoroughly fulfilled through our findings, which comprehensively address individual, interpersonal and organisational ones. Specifically, our SLR clarifies the concept by systematically categorising and integrating the antecedents and dimensions that were previously primarily investigated separately and only rarely in combination. It also identifies which dimensions (CCA, performance and satisfaction in this order) have been most frequently studied as proxies of expatriate success, which level of analysis (individual and organisational mostly) and which perspective (primarily organisational). From these findings, we conclude that expatriate success is a multidimensional construct that needs to be analysed individually, interpersonally and organisationally from two perspectives, namely individual and organisational (e.g. Harry et al ., 2019 ; Lazarova et al ., 2021 ) jointly to be adequately measured. While each level is essential to understanding expatriate success, no single level can be considered the sole determiner. Thus, categorising these antecedents and dimensions ( Table A1 ) provides a much-needed boundary-clarification of the concept of expatriate success. This clarification calls for attention for future studies in expatriate management research to specify what they mean by success when analysing it as a variable. This specification is necessary to compare studies and create an integrated corpus of knowledge.

Our second objective of the SLR, the interplay among the factors across the different levels is evident in the five clusters that emerged from VOSviewer. Interestingly, four out of the five clusters evidenced the importance of interpersonal and organisational factors on the dimensions of success. The interplay between the antecedents and outcomes at the individual and interpersonal levels contributes to understanding expatriate success. Personality traits play a significant role in facilitating the expatriates' adjustment and, subsequently, success in their IA. Also, the HCNs' attitudes toward expatriates are equally important as emphasized by some studies that a good level of communication between the two parties often leads to a better CCA, performance, intention to complete the IA and overall satisfaction ( Templer, 2010 ; Konanahalli et al ., 2011 ; Cao et al. , 2014 ). All these factors increase expatriates' satisfaction with their job and career, which will likely be reflected in their decreased turnover and withdrawal intentions. Furthermore, the interplay is also evident across the three levels together. For instance, expatriates' commitment to the mission and organisation and their performance seems to be highly influenced by the level of social support provided at the interpersonal level. The social support from the expatriates' family, community, and new work surroundings can play either a positive or a negative role in an expatriate's commitment levels to the job, performance and CCA, all of which consequently reflect on their success ( Goby et al. , 2002 ). Undoubtedly, this success is also ensured by a positive performance which is also impacted by the level of social support ( Konanhalli et al. , 2011 ; Araci, 2015 ).

Finally, in line with our third objective, we propose an integrative, multidimensional and multi-level definition of expatriate success. Expatriate success is a socially and scholarly constructed term that comprehensively and integratively evolved and acquired new dimensions at the individual, interpersonal and organisational levels. The trend in this evolution has been divergent rather than convergent making the concept more broadly defined with new, previously unnoticed dimensions. The definition we put forward reflects this expansive trend and incorporates less-noticed dimensions and perspectives for a more holistic understanding of the construct. Hence, we propose the following definition: “expatriate success encompasses all dimensions: the individual (adjustment, satisfaction, career success and work-life balance), the interpersonal (HCNs and expatriate relationship, HCN career capital gain, knowledge transfer and work-family balance) and the organisational (performance, commitment, completion of IA, achieving organisational goals, repatriation success, turnover intention, knowledge transfer and effectiveness).” The interplay between these three dimensions shows that expatriate success can only happen when all the stakeholders across the three levels can capitalise on the expatriation process. Moreover, expatriate success is the outcome of pre-, during and post-assignment factors that ensure the appropriate candidate selection, transition into the assignment and environment through the various individual, interpersonal and organisational factors, and a post-assignment path forward. Our definition integrates all the dimensions previously addressed fragmentedly, to offer a broader conception of expatriate success. It also incorporates a new processual and more comprehensive focus on the long-term rather than short-term success. This long-term view shows that expatriate success is conceived as the overall career success that extends s beyond the termination of an assignment, as suggested in recent research addressing both subjective and objective measures and outcomes (e.g. Harry et al ., 2019 ; Lazarova et al ., 2021 ).

The attainment of these objectives has allowed for covering an extant gap in previous expatriate research where the concept of success had been differently and incongruently addressed ( Hemmasi et al ., 2010 ) leading to a lack of comparability among studies ( Black, 1990 ; Caliguiri and Cascio, 1998 ; Harzing and Christensen, 2004 ). Also, satisfying our objectives allowed the crafting of a broader conception of expatriate success that considers its subjective and socially constructed nature in line with the career's literature ( Briscoe et al ., 2021 ). As we indicate below, this new conception opens a range of avenues for future research.

Limitations and future research

This research is not without its limitations. The studies included do not investigate different kinds of expatriates, such as flex-patriates, short-term assignees, international commuters, business travellers and non-traditional and minority expatriates ( Mäkelä et al. , 2017 ; Hutchings, 2021 ). Instead, it focuses only on OEs and SIEs, which we distinguish between ( Table A2 ). However, understanding whether the measures and definitions of success differ among different groups of expatriates is critical to enriching the conception of expatriate success and should be further investigated by future studies. Specifically, a SLR can be conducted to explore the dimensions of success considered in the studies using these atypical samples of expatriates. Furthermore, delving into the subjective nature of success, it will be interesting to compare the key dimensions used by organisations and the different groups of expatriates to define success (i.e. the protean career of SIEs in contrast to other kinds of expatriates might emphasize individual dimensions such as work–life balance or satisfaction). In a similar line, comparing the dimensions used by expatriates to define success with those of migrants can be also a fruitful avenue for research to enrich the understanding of the socially constructed nature of this concept.

The suggested conception of expatriate success exhibits three important implications for further research in expatriate management. First, given that 15 out of the 31 articles (48.39%) defining expatriate success are not theoretically grounded, it might be time to abandon the concept of expatriate success altogether and instead focus on the overall career success of our international employees. HRM and occupational psychology theoretical models on career achievement and success ( Pinto et al ., 2020 ) such as the Theory of Work Adjustment ( Dawis and Lofquist, 1984 ) can be drawn upon to further enrich, ground and theorise the understanding of career success concerning international workers' work-life experience, and subsequently success. These theoretical models can enrich and complement the existing organisational perspective ( Kristof, 1996 ; Becker, 1964 ) in the definition of expatriate success by giving more prominence to the individual level and subjective nature of this construct.

Second, the suggested broader and multidimensional understanding of expatriate success highlights a necessary shift in the measurement criteria of it and for considering its subjective and socially constructed nature. Multiple indicators covering the highlighted dimensions should be employed to measure the complex nature of expatriate success, as it is neither limited to “objectivist” measures such as CCA, job, life or career satisfaction and organisational commitment, nor to observable measures such as financial compensation or promotions, assignment completion, knowledge transfer, or performance measures, but also expands to include the expatriates' subjective perceptions of their career success defined in their terms ( Spurk et al. , 2019 ). While subjective and objective career success measures were addressed in the career development literature ( Briscoe et al. , 2021 ), they have not been so in expatriate research, often ignoring the multidimensional, subjective and socially constructed nature of expatriate success. To further understand expatriate success, objective and subjective measures must be accounted for. Thus, to account for the subjective experience of success, we suggest that future studies include subjective measures of expatriates' success. We recommend incorporating the expatriates' perspective into studies on expatriate success by exploring their expectations before, during and after the assignment and how they define success through qualitative or mixed-methods designs.

A third research avenue on expatriate success is to develop and validate a questionnaire with the previously qualitatively identified meanings and idiosyncratic definitions of subjective expatriate success. Given that the meanings of success, like all personal meanings, are particularly sensitive to cultural differences, we recommend conducting this study cross-culturally to account for possible differences across cultures and to develop a culturally sensitive scale.

Implications for practice

Also, the evolution of the concept of expatriate success entails practical implications for organisations. In line with the new, more integrative conception of expatriate success, organisations should now not merely focus on selection and training but also incorporate career development support and career path planning in harmony with the expatriates' perceptions and expectations of their career success which contributes to expatriates' career success, their willingness to share their acquired knowledge and experience with others and ultimately contribute to the organisation's success.

But before deploying HR actions to facilitate expatriate success, organisations should ask expatriates to define what success means to them in their own words, to clarify expectations, help to satisfy them or understand some paradoxical situations that are assessed as expatriate success. Also, this knowledge should be translated into using multiple rather than single indicators (e.g. the completion of the IA) by HR professionals when evaluating expatriates' success. With these steps, organisations may also overcome the issue of expatriates disengaging after repatriation or abandoning the organisation despite completing the IA and outperforming during it, because their expectations and mental representations of success have not been considered by their organisations.

Further, capitalising on these considerations can foster a sense of loyalty and commitment among their expatriates particularly when they realise that their organisations are concerned with the expatriates' perceptions and expectations of success, not just the organisational goals, which align with the move toward protean and boundaryless career models ( McDonald and Hite, 2008 ).

This study (1) identified the dimensions and antecedents of expatriate success, (2) determined the interplay among them and (3) clarified the definitions of expatriate success in the previous literature to provide an integrative definition of it. Following the PRISMA guidelines, 249 studies were included for the review from WOS and Scopus databases, These studies were thoroughly reviewed, coded and analysed manually and with VOSviewer.

In attaining these objectives, the review has made two important theoretical contributions: first, to highlight the construct's multidimensional, subjective and socially constructed nature, calling for this consideration in future research. Second, to suggest an integrative definition incorporating all the dimensions and combining individual and organisational perspectives with subjective and objective measures of success.

PRISMA article selection flow diagram

Links, total strength links and occurrences of the terms in the VOSviewer maps

Network visualisation of terms’ co-occurrences

Overlay visualisation of terms

Trend of theory's grounding over the years

Inclusion criteria

Inclusion criterionFocus on
1Published studies starting 1990 to December 2021
2Various document types (journal articles, books, book chapters, conference proceedings)
3Publications address expatriate success and related factors
4Publications must be in English
Studies investigating expatriates and their success started to emerge after the seminal work by , who addressed expatriate adjustment. Our cut-off date was December 2021, as we started the search in January 2022

Authors ‘own (2023)

DescriptionResults
Timespan1990:2021
Journals104
Journal articles220
Conferences15
Books14
Authors482
Countries41
Average citation per article34.166
Authors keywords531
Authors ‘own (2023)

SerialSourceAuthors (year)MethodToolsStudy fociAntecedentsDimensionsExplicit definition of expat. successTheory/ies employed
IndividualInterpersonalOrganizationalIndividualInterpersonalOrganizational
1EMJ LR Personal characteristics of the expatriate manager, Spouse's adaptability, Selection, Training, Support - Dimensions: Performance Atheoretical
2TDJ LR CCA - Performance, Efficiency Atheoretical
3SLMR QualCase studies Commitment to parent and local firm Atheoretical
4JIBS MixPersonal narratives - Surveys/ANOVA Job Satisfaction, Internal Work Motivation, Feelings of influence, Mastery over the new environment Atheoretical
5IJVBM LR Selection, Pre-departure trainings for expatriates and their families Atheoretical
6PP QuanSurvey/MANOVA Job knowledge, Motivation, Relational Skills, Flexibility, Adaptability Atheoretical
7HRMR LR Training and Pre-departure visits to host country to enhance the interaction of expatriates with HCNs - CCA Atheoretical
8APJHR QuanSurvey Organizational Support Atheoretical
9LQ LR CCT - CCA Atheoretical
10CDI LR Selection (traits and technical skills), Preparing the employee for the expatriate assignment, CCT - CCA Atheoretical
11IJLE QualCase studies Cultural, Social and Health causes - CCA Atheoretical
12IJCM LR Pre-departure preparation of expatriate Atheoretical
13NAEM LR CCA, Performance Social Exchange Theory ( ), Vernon's Life Cycle Theory ( ), Social Learning Theory ( ), and Adaptation-Level Theory ( )
14IJHRM LR Expatriate's competencies and skills, Support and assistance prior and during IA Social Exchange Theory ( ), Social Learning Theory ( ), Attribution Theory (Heider
15NAEM QuanSurvey/CFA Completion of the IA, CCA, Performance Theory of Expatriate Performance, including contextual
16NAEM LR Big Five (Emotional stability, Extraversion, Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness) - Performance, CCA, Satisfaction, Adaptation, Completion Rate, Premature Returns, Culture Shock, Effectiveness, Professional Effectiveness, Interpersonal Effectiveness, Acculturation, Overseas Success Atheoretical
17JWB MixIn-depth interviews/FG - Survey Selection, Training (pre, during and after the assignment) of the expatriate and the accompanying spouse - Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
18Book 5 QuanSurvey/CFA CCA (affected by Job Knowledge and Motivation, Relational skills, Flexibility/Adaptability, Extra-cultural openness, Family situation) - Performance Atheoretical
19JTI . (1997)QuanSurvey Selection, Training, Support Atheoretical
20IJHRM QuanSurvey Spouse's career difficulties - Performance, Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
21LODJ LR : Openness to experience, Extroversion, Low anxiety/neuroticism, Relational ability, Cultural sensitivity, Linguistic skills, and the ability to handle stress Selection CCA, Personal Growth, Performance Atheoretical
22IJHRM QuanSurvey/CA/Moderated RA/ANOVA Characteristics (e.g., Language skills, technical skills, Open-minded Personality), Interpersonal (Family: supportive and well-adjusted spouse and children), HCNs' Support, Support from headquarters, Maintaining the psychological contract - Adjustment, Desire to terminate the IA and Supervisor rated performance Atheoretical
23IJHM QuanSurvey Adjustment and Adaptation skills, Interpersonal relations skills, Cultural stress management skills Atheoretical
24HRM LR Assimilation, Endurance, Psychological Factors, Career Expectations - Achieving the goals (financial, market share etc), CCA, Completion of IA Atheoretical
25PP QuanSurvey/RA/DM/BC Personality type - Willingness to complete IA, Performance ( ; )
26JCCP QuanSurvey NEO PI-R Big five personality characteristics - Performance Atheoretical
27EJP QuanSurvey (MPQ) Openness, Flexibility, Social Initiative, Emotional stability Atheoretical
28IJIR QuanSurvey/HRA Balance between personal and work life, Organizational support - CCA, Performance, Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
29IJHRM . (2001)LR Candidate motivation level, Selection of fitting candidates, Parent host: Information Asymmetry, Goal Congruence Agency Theory ( ; ; ) and Expectancy Theory ( ; ; )
30JEIT QualSemi-structured interviews/Cross-case analysis - Breaking the glass ceiling, Accompanying spouse's Adjustment status, Mentorship, Interpersonal networks Atheoretical
31IJIR . (2001)QuanSurvey Traits and Skills (Orientation to action, Adventurousness, Open-mindedness, Flexibility, Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Cultural Empathy, Perseverance, Commitment to the company) - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
32CCMIJ QuanSurvey High LMX -- Communication, Success Leader-Member Exchange Theory ( )
33WMR . (2002)QuanSurvey (WAMS)/CFA/MANOVA and ANOVA HCNs' Support – CCA, Social and Work Adjustments Atheoretical
34ITJ QuanSurvey/RA Selection Criteria (Task-Cross-cultural) Atheoretical
35JTMD . (2002)QuanSurvey Harmony between the perception of expats (and the spouse) and the HRDs about social and employment support - Job Commitment, Organization Loyalty, Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
36JWB LR CCA Atheoretical
37IJHRM QualSemi-structured interviews/Workshops, seminars and FG Host nation's culture, Level of economic development of the host country Atheoretical
38WMR QuanSurvey/Small group interviews/MANOVA Status as foreigners, Gender Atheoretical
39JSP . (2002)QuanSurvey/CA/HRA Performance, CCA, Job Satisfaction, Identification with the work team abroad Atheoretical
40IJIR QualIn-depth interviews Training - Performance Atheoretical
41CTRJ . (2002)QuanSurvey Selection, Training, Support - Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
42IJIR . (2003)QuanSurvey/HRA CCA (Enhanced by the adjustment of the spouse) Atheoretical
43IJHRM QuanExperiment (pre-test and post-test) Realistic job preview's effect on expat's self-efficacy and his/her ability in making informed decision - Performance Atheoretical
44JMP . (2003)QuanSurvey (NEO-PI-R, HPI) Social and Psychological adjustments, Family Situation, Job Knowledge and Motivation, Relational Skills, Flexibility, Adaptability, Extra-Cultural Openness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness Atheoretical
45IJHM LR Technical Competencies, Learning Abilities - CCA Atheoretical
46JIM QuanSurvey/RA Performance expectation, Clarification, Consideration of the local environment, Frequency of PA, Fairness, Career development - Expatriate's performance system Atheoretical
47HR QualQualitative interviews Psychoanalytical approach to look into the past to find determinants that shed light on success on IA Work Role Transition Theory ( ) and Psychoanalytical Theory ( )
48JTMD LR Family Issues, HR Policies - Job Withdrawal Intentions, Performance Spillover Theory (Pleck, 1977)
49IJIR LR CCA Atheoretical
50JM QuanSurvey/CFA/SEM CCA, Commitment to the organization, Performance, Intentions to complete IA Atheoretical
51JIBS QuanSurveys/SEA Premature Returns, CCA, Effectiveness Work Role Transition Theory ( ), Uncertainty Reduction Theory ( ), and Contact Theory ( )
52JCCP . (2004)QuanSurvey Psychological Adaptation, Sociocultural Adaptation (both are affected by neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, less discrepancy between extraversion and host-culture norms less discrepancy between openness and host-culture norms) Atheoretical
53IJHRM MixSemi-structured interviews - Survey Selection (Technical and interpersonal skills, Family situation) Atheoretical
54CDI . (2005)MixSemi-structured interviews - Survey Mental Ability (Perf), Big five characteristics (Perf), EQ (CCA, Perf, Satisfaction, Withdrawal decisions) Selection - CCA, Performance, Completion of IA, Life Satisfaction Atheoretical
55IJHRM QuanSurvey/FA CCA - Task Performance, Relationship Building, Overall Performance Work motivation Theory (e.g. Vroom's VIE theory, 1964; ., 1980), Withdrawal Theory (e.g. ), also referred to as Reduction of Inputs Theory ( ) or Propensity to Withhold Effort Theory ( )
56PR QuanSurvey (longitudinal)/DM/RA Personal Characteristics - completion of IA, CCA, Performance Atheoretical
57IJHRM . (2005)QuanSurvey Big five personality characteristics - CCA Theory of Personality ( ; )
58JIBS LR Mentoring - CCA, Completion of IA, Successful Repatriation, Transfer of Knowledge Development of International Mentoring Theory by integrating current perspectives on protean and boundaryless careers with the literature on mentoring and expatriates
59JCCP . (2005)MA Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
60JEIT . (2005)QualCritical incidents interviews/Needs assessment The development of professional skills (Leadership, management), Personal characteristics (Patience, Flexibility, Confidence, Innovation, Experience, Maturity) Atheoretical
61JCP QuanSurvey/HMR CCA Atheoretical
62CCMIJ . (2005)LR CCA Atheoretical
63AME LR HCNs' Support - CCA Atheoretical
64SMR LR Self-knowledge, Selection, Training Effectiveness, Knowledge Gain, Tenure after repatriation Atheoretical
65IMDS QuanSurvey/HRA CCT - CCA Atheoretical
66HRDR . (2006)LR CCT Expatriate's early return, Delayed productivity and start-up time, Disruption of the relationship between the expatriate and HCN, Damage to the MNC's image, Lost Opportunities, Problematic repatriation resulting in high turnover rates Atheoretical
67IEJ . (2006)QuanSurvey CCA Social Learning Theory ( )
68IM LR Spouse's Adjustment Atheoretical
69IJCHM LR Holistic approach in selection and training while taking in consideration the family status, EQ, Learning orientation and lifestyle habits (diet and exercise) Atheoretical
70JIBS LR [Subjective] satisfaction with one's career/[Objective] promotions Human Capital Theory ( ; ., 1995; ., 1999), Career-Cone Model ( )
71IJHRM QuanSurvey Well-being of the spouse before, during and after the IA Atheoretical
72IJHRM . (2007)MixIn depth interviews - Survey/ANOVA HCN's Support (influenced by perceived compensation's gap) - CCA Equity Theory ( )
73JOB LR HCNs' Support - CCA Social Identity Theory ( ; )
74IJHRM LR Abilities, Motivation, Quality of relationship between the individuals - Success of knowledge transfer Atheoretical
75Book 2 LR Personal characteristics, Families, HCNs Atheoretical
76IJFIP QuanSurvey Locus of control - CCA, Performance Locus of Control Theory (Rotter, 1966, 1975, 1990)
77IJIR . (2008)MixInterviews - Survey/CA/HR/MRA Social Support, Ibasho, Stressor - Satisfaction, CCA, Well-being Atheoretical
78SBP QuanSurvey/CFA/SEM/ANOVA Personality Characteristics, Social Support - CCA, Performance Theory of Evolutionary Personality Psychology ( )
79GBOE QualCase studyROI: a calculation in which the financial and non-financial benefits to the firm are compared with the financial and non-financial costs of the IA, as appropriate to the assignment's purpose Atheoretical
80IJHRM QualEmail questionnaire containing open-ended questions Selection (traits and technical skills), Preparing the employee for the expatriate assignment, CCT - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
81Book 6 . (2008)LR Selection (self-assessment, family's opinion, organisation's opinion)- Completion of the IA, Meet performance standards, CCA Atheoretical
82JCAF LR Selection (right skills), Training and Support during the different stages of the IA - CCA Atheoretical
83HRM QuanSurvey/RA LMX Interactions - CCA, Performance Leader-Member Exchange Theory ( )
84HRM QuanSurvey/ANCOVA/HRA CCT, Protégé Experience (Affected by gender), Peer Support (affected by gender), Cultural clusters of the home and host countries - Job Satisfaction, Turnover Intentions Atheoretical
85HRMR . (2009)LR Selection (Personal Characteristics, Language Skills, International experience as predictors) Atheoretical
86HRM LR Career Success, Job Success, Development Success, Performance Theory of Fit (e.g. ), Human Capital Theory ( ) and Signal Theory ( )
87IJMR LR Selection (motivation), Training, Repatriation Atheoretical
88IJHRM LR Performance Atheoretical
89HRM LR HCN's Support - CCA Social Identity Theory ( ; )
90IJHRM . (2009)MixIn-depth interviews - Survey Cultural Distance - CCA Atheoretical
91HRM QuanMail survey/interviews with HR professionals/Comparative analysis Premature Termination, CCA, Performance Atheoretical
92Book 3 LR Strong Organizational Culture - Willingness to remain till the end of IA, Premium Pay Atheoretical
93PR QuanSurvey/SEM/OLS regression Selection, Predicting individual's value, Orientations - Performance Atheoretical
94BAR MixInterviews - Survey Commitment, Interdependence, Coordination, Communication Atheoretical
95CRIBJ . (2010)QuanSurvey/MRA Expatriate's personality - CCA, Performance, Assignment Value Atheoretical
96IJHRM . (2010)QuanSurvey/Scale development CCA, Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Performance Professional development, Career advancement, Macro-organizational Contribution, Effectiveness Atheoretical
97AJBM QualIn-depth interviews IQ, CQ, EQ - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
98ARCOM 2010 )QualA face-to-face questionnaire interview Cross-Cultural Difference Atheoretical
99IJHRM QuanSurvey/HRA HCN's perceived importance of expatriate's personal attributes, Ethnocentric attitudes of HCNs - Work Adjustment, Subordinate Commitment, Job Satisfaction, Unit Performance Atheoretical
100IJHRM QuanSurvey [Objective] Earnings and Promotions/[Subjective] Career and Job Satisfaction Atheoretical
101IJCHM . (2011)QuanSurvey CCT - Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
102AOM 2011 QuanSurvey/HRA Career Satisfaction, Job Satisfaction, Intention to leave the organization Person-Environment Fit Theory (e.g. ) and the Boundaryless Career Perspective (e.g. )
103COBRA 2011 QualCase studies/In depth interviews Selection (Learning Orientation Skills) - CCA Atheoretical
104IJHRMHamori and Koyuncunot (2011)QuanSurveys/HRA Shortest time to get promoted to the top Human Capital Theory ( ; ., 2005)
105AJCEB . (2011)QualIn-depth interviews HCNs' Support, Job Parameters, Organizational Parameters - CCA, Completion of IA, Job Satisfaction, Performance Atheoretical
106AJBM QuanSurvey/MRA Selection, Training, Family Support (Specialty Capacity, Interface Ability, Leadership, Family Status and Cultural Perception) Atheoretical
107AJBM QuanSurvey Person-Organization Fit, Psychological Climate, CCA, Personality Traits, Innovative Climate - Performance Psychological Climate Theory ( ) and Personality-Job Fit Theory ( )
108JMP QuanSurvey/ANOVA MANCOVA/RA Demands-Abilities Fit, Supplies-Values Fit, Perceived Fit - Job Satisfaction, Work Engagement, Satisfaction with life Theory of Vocational “Fit” ( )
109IJHM . (2011)QualIn-depth semi-structured interviewsSuccess of multiple stakeholders is the ultimate expatriate's success Atheoretical
110IJHRM QuanSurvey/RA CCA, Turnover Intention, Performance Atheoretical
111CDI QualIn-depth interviews Psychosocial Support, Expatriates' developmental networks - CCA Atheoretical
112JWB QualOpen-ended questions interviews Salient Factors, Person Factors, System Factors - Performance Institutional Theory ( ; , ; )
113TIBR . (2011)QuanExperiment (longitudinal study)/ANOVA MANCOVA HCNs' support - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
114GBOE QualCase studies Soft Skills (the need for diversity of ideas, perspectives, cross-cultural experience, and people management), Hard Skills (the specific knowledge and technical expertise), Local spouse increases the chance of the expatriate to have better networking in the host country - CCA Atheoretical
115JMD . (2012)LR Selection (Career Capital, Protean Career Attitude, CQ), Training - CCA Career Capital Theory ( ., 1995; )
116TQR . (2012)QualOpen ended questions interview : CCA accompanying spouse – Expatriate's CCA Atheoretical
117IJHRM MixSemi-structured interviews - Survey Previous IAs - CCA Atheoretical
118IJHRM MixIn-depth interviews - Survey/HRA Local Identification (through language proficiency and adopting of communication styles of the subsidiary) - CCA, Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
119IJHRM MixInformal interviews - Survey Willingness to accept IA - Completion of IA, CCA Role-Identity Salience Theory ( ., 2008)
120IJHRM QuanSurvey/PA CCA - Completion of IA, Achieving expected outcomes, On the job effectiveness Job Performance Theory ( ., 2005)
121IJHRM . (2012)QuanSurvey/RA/SEM Systematic selection expatriate's preparation, Spouse's ability to adjust, Acceptance and Support of HCN Similarity Attraction Paradigm ( ) and Social Identity Theory ( ., 1971; ; )
122Book 11 . (2012)LR CCT (Cultural Sensitivity, Communication, Management) - Knowledge Transfer (Expats, HCNs, Organization) Social Identity Theory ( ; ) and Justice Theories (e.g., ; ; ; )
123JMD QualIn-depth qualtiative interactive FG/NVivo Status, Identity, Motivation to migrate - Career Success The Adult Learning Theory ( )
124EJIM . (2012)QuanSurvey/ANOVA HCN and Expatriate interactions - CCA Atheoretical
125CER LR CCA The psychic distance theory ( ), Theory of Reasoned Action ( ), and Cultural Intelligence Theory ( )
126CDI . (2013)QuanSurvey/SEM Protean Career Attitude - CCA Developmental-Contextual Career Theory ( )
127MRR QuanSurvey/HSFA/HMR CQ, Language Proficiency - CCA, Willingness to complete IA Atheoretical
128IJHRM MixIn-depth interviews - Survey Expatriate's Position, Expatriate's Expectations, Work-Life Balance - Satisfaction with IA Atheoretical
129CDI . (2013)QuanSurvey/SEM Social Support (Socialization of HCN's, CQ), Transformational Leadership - Performance, CCA Social Learning Theory ( ) and Social Exchange Theory ( ., 1997)
130GBOE QualCase study Expatriate ROI Psychological Contract Theory ( )
131IJHRM . (2013)QuanSurvey/RA Goal Congruence (between the sending supervisor and the expatriate) - Performance, Turnover Intention Goal Congruence Theory ( ; ; , 2005) and Leader-Member Exchange Theory ( )
132JGM QualIn depth interviews Family, Work Interface - Family Adjustment Atheoretical
133WASJ . (2013)QuanSurvey Organisational Support Training (Language and Cultural aspect of the host country), Communication between HCN's and expatriates - CCA Atheoretical
134IJHRM LR CCA Atheoretical
135IJHRM LR Selection, Compensation - Performance Atheoretical
136IJHRM . (2014)QuanSurvey POS, HCNs and expatriates' interactions - Career satisfaction, Intention to stay Social Capital Theory ( ) and Theory of Transnational Network for Migrants ( )
137IJHRM QuanSurvey Protean Career Attitude, Boundaryless Career Attitude, Careerist Orientation - Career Satisfaction, Job Satisfaction, Intention to leave IA Person-Environment Fit Theory (e.g. )
138KSSJ QualIn-depth interviews NVIVO Previous IA's experiences - Expatriate's attitude towards the new culture Atheoretical
139Book 12 . (2014)LR CCA - Performance, Retention, Career Satisfaction Person-Environment Fit Theory (e.g. ) and Theory of Work ( )
140IJRDM . (2014)QualSemi-structured interviews/Open, axial and selective coding Training targeting managerial decision-making, Organizational culture, Management vision, International market mind-set Personality Trait Theory ( )
141JCPS LR CCA, Performance, Completion of IA Atheoretical
142APBR QuanSurvey/ANCOVA ANOVA CCA, Time to proficiency, Performance, Satisfaction Atheoretical
143Book 9 QuanSurvey/CFA/RA Individual factors, Family factors, Social factors - CCA, Performance, Knowledge Transfer, Innovation Work Behaviour Social Learning Theory ( ), Family System Theory ( ) and Spillover Theory ( )
144JGM QuanSurvey/RA Self- efficacy, Role conflict, Role discretion, Supervisory support, POS - Satisfaction, CCA Atheoretical
145SAJHRM . (2014)QualIn-depth interviews/Kodani 1.2 Work-family balance, Self-satisfaction, Contribution to the family and home country society Career Capital Theory ( , 1995; )
146SOSE . (2014)QualIn-depth interviews CCA Atheoretical
147EDP Sciences . (2014)QuanSurvey CCA Atheoretical
148IJOA QualStructured face-to-face interviews Leadership (Enhanced by EI) Atheoretical
149SBS MA Selection, Training (Intercultural), Organisational and Social Supports - Performance Atheoretical
150JSOD LR Selection (Knowledge, Skills and Abilities) Atheoretical
151JGM . (2015)QualSemi-structured interviews/content analysis Job and Personal well-being, Satisfaction, Withdrawal Cognition, Premature Termination, Performance Atheoretical
152IJIR QuanSurvey/HRA CCA (affected by CQ) - Organizational Commitment, Job Satisfaction, Turnover Rate, Performance Atheoretical
153JGM . (2015)QuanSurvey/CFA/ANCOVA Spouse's Adjustment Status - CCA Relational Demography Theory ( )
154JCHRM QualCase study Well-being, Job satisfaction, Performance, Trainings - Organizational Commitment, Job Commitment Atheoretical
155IJIR . (2015)LR Targeted expatriate's expectation - CCA Atheoretical
156IJHRDM . (2015)LR Performance, Completion of IA Atheoretical
157JWB . (2015)QuanSurvey Language proficiency - CCA Atheoretical
158BJM QuanSurvey/CA/HRA Role ambiguity, Role novelty, Organizational support, Supervisor support Role Theory ( )
159IJHRM . (2015)QuanSurvey/CFA/BCs/HRA Role overload, Role ambiguity, Work–family, CCA Atheoretical
160Book 4 LR Spouse's adjustment status - CCA Atheoretical
161PJMES QualIn depth interviews Organizational support, CCT - Performance Atheoretical
162Book 4 . (2015)QuanSurvey Spouse and family adjustment, Willingness to go on IA- Completion of IA, CCA, Performance Work/Life Balance ( ; , ), Family Systems Theory ( ., 1998a, ; ; ), Crossover Theory ( ; ., 2004), and the Job Demands-Resources Model ( ; ., 2001; )
163APJHR QualIn-depth interviews CCA Theory of Anxiety and Uncertainty Management in Intercultural Communication , , )
164JGM MixPersonal interviews and expert interviews - Survey/PLS-SEM Leadership - CCA Symbolic Leadership Theory ( )
165Book 1 QualIn-depth interviews/Analytic induction approach followed by coding and generation of meaning Personal Attributes, Knowledge and skills, Effective management of operations Atheoretical
166JWB . (2015)QuanSurvey/Multiple RA/Logistic RA Engagement - Performance Self-Determination Theory ( ) and Relative Deprivation Theory ( ; )
167JGM QualIPA/Semi-structured interviews Coaching Integral Theory of Ken , ,
168IJHRM QuanSurvey/MRA Expatriate's self-efficacy, Family problems, POS - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
169IJOA . (2016)QualStructured face-to-face interviews Leadership (Enhanced by CQ) Atheoretical
170JGM . (2016)QualIn-depth interviews Know-why, Know-how, Know-whom - CCA Atheoretical
171JWB LR Change in individuals' competencies as a function of living and working in another country, Personality characteristics, Motivation for success abroad Atheoretical
172IJTD QuanSurvey subscale of (NEO-PI-R) NEO – FFI Personality traits (e.g., Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Agreeableness Conscientiousness) Atheoretical
173JGM . (2016)QuanSurvey/RA HCN's Support (depends on his/her ethnocentrism and cultural humility) - Performance Atheoretical
174Book 10 QuanSurvey Willingness to complete IA Atheoretical
175JGM LR CCA, Absorptive Capacity - Task performance, Relationship building, Contextual Performance, Retention Atheoretical
176APJHR QuanSurvey/MRA Selection, Pre-departure trainings. Organizational support - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
177ISBCD-16 LR CQ - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
178HRDR LR CCA Atheoretical
179ISCLO 015 QuanSurvey/MRA Big 5 personality characteristics, Language proficiency, Leadership and management skills - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
180TIBR . (2016)QuanSurvey Salary development or Promotions Atheoretical
181ER LR Corporate ROI, Individual ROI Psychological Contract Theory (e.g, ; ., 2002)
182IJCCM QuanSurvey/HRA/CA CCA Atheoretical
183JMD QualSemi-structured interviews/Thematic content analysis Interpersonal contacts, Organizational Contacts Social Capital Theory ( )
184HR . (2016)QuanSurvey Renumeration (relation between human capital and compensation building) Human Capital Theory ( )
185JIBE . (2016)QuanSurvey Selection, Training - Expatriate's success Atheoretical
186JGM . (2016)SLR Social support by supervisor, Organizational support - Performance, Retention, CCA, Commitment Stress Management Theories ( ; ., 1964; ; ; ., 2010; ), Social Capital Theory ( ), Social Networks Theory ( ), Social Learning Theory ( ), Exchange theories ( ; ), Psychological Contracts Theory ( ) and Leader-Member Exchange Theory ( )
187JGM QualBiographical narrative interviews Strong mental composure (provided by social support and problem-focused coping strategies) - Performance, CCA Atheoretical
188HRMJ MixInterviews - Survey CCT - CCA Atheoretical
189EMJ QuanSurvey/ANCOVA MANCOVA/RA Personality Characteristics (Less Neurotic, More Extraverted, Agreeable, Openness, Conscientiousness) - CCA Atheoretical
190HRM . (2017)LR Psychological contract (parent and host companies) - Performance, Intention Turnover Social Exchange Theory ( ; )
191REEP LR Expatriate selection criteria, Training, Teaching techniques, Family and social Support, Organisation's Support, Compensation Atheoretical
192IJSA QuanSurvey/SEA/BC CCA, Performance, Intention of early returns Atheoretical
193IBR QuanSurvey/MRA Shortest time to get promoted to the top after IAs Human Capital Theory ( ) and Elite Theory (e.g., ; )
194BJM . (2017)QuanSurvey/CFA/SEM Satisfaction, Intention to withdraw Regulatory Focus Theory ( )
195Book 7 LR Relational skills and abilities - Communication Atheoretical
196JGM . (2018)MA Flexibility, Adaptability Mobility intentions Atheoretical
197PJMS . (2018)QuanSurvey Intercultural Knowledge - CCA Atheoretical
198JIEB . (2018)QualStructured interviews/Content analysis Social intelligence, EQ, CQ Atheoretical
199ODJ . (2018)LR CCA, Performance, Withdrawal cognition Conservation of Resources Theory ( )
200IJHRM QualIn-depth interviews/Focus group Know-why, Know-how, Know-whom Intelligent Career Theory ( )
201SJM . (2018)QualIn-depth interviews/Iterative hermeneutical approach Performance, Career development, Life satisfaction Atheoretical
202HRMR LR HCN's Support – Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
203MD QuanSurvey/SEM Previous IAs - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
204AJBER QuanSurvey HCN's Support - CCA, Expatriate's Success Atheoretical
205MEJM QualSemi-structured in-depth interviews CCA (enhanced by CCT) – Performance Atheoretical
206JPA . (2018)QuanSurvey/SEM Personal value, Environmental factors - Work engagement Atheoretical
207CCSM LR HCNs' Support - CCA, Performance, Knowledge Transfer Intergroup Contact Theory ( )
208JGM SLR International Relocation Mobility Readiness (IRMR) - CCA, Satisfaction, Willingness to complete IA Atheoretical
209MRR QuanCross sectional surveys/MLR CCA, Performance Atheoretical
210IJCCM QualDigital diary method/Rochester Interaction Record method/Inductive content analysis Social Support - CCA Atheoretical
211CCSM . (2019)MixSemi-structured interviews/FG - Survey/RA Self-reflection, Cross-cultural awareness Atheoretical
212JGM QuanSurvey/MANCOVA/ANOVA CCA, Satisfaction, Willingness to complete IA Atheoretical
213ITJ LR Use of motivating language enhances expatriate's cross-cultural efficacy and intrinsic motivation - Expatriate's effectiveness Motivating Language Theory ( ), Self Determination Theory ( ), and Self-Concordance Theory ( )
214SABR . (2019)QualUnstructured Interviews/NVivo 9 [Objective] Number of promotions, Salary increases etc,/[Subjective] Personal judgement like career satisfaction Human Capital Theory ( ) and Boundryless Career Theory ( )
215CDI QuanSurvey/CFA Career adaptability construct - CCA Career Construction Theory ( , )
216RCIS . (2019)QuanSurvey/LISREL model CCA, Work Stress - Job involvement Atheoretical
217TIBR MixPodcast/In-depth interviews - Survey Motivation, POS, CCT - CCA Atheoretical
218IJHRM LR HCNs' and expatriates'’ interactions - CCA, Performance Atheoretical
219HRMR . (2019)MA Social support - CCA (proximal), Commitment (proximal), Performance (long term), Retention (long term) Social Exchange Theory (e.g., ; ., 2017; ; ; ) and Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory ( )
220JGM QualIn-depth interviews/Asynchronous emailed interviews Selection (Big Five personality traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability), training (cultural diversity), Willingness for expatriation - Motivation Social Capital Theory ( ) and Social Learning Theory ( )
221SAJEMS QuanSurvey Preparation, Support and training of the spouse - CCA of the spouse, Satisfaction of the spouse Atheoretical
222HRH . (2020)QualCase Study Selection, Training Atheoretical
223JGM THEMR QuanSurvey EQ, CQ - CCA Atheoretical
224IJEM QuanHMR Education, Training, Experience - Performance, Rewards Human Capital Theory ( )
225TIBR LR Interpersonal relationships between expatriates and HCNs, families of expats relationships in the host country - CCA Family Systems Theory ( )
226JIM . (2020)QuanSurvey/MRA CCA (influenced by Cultural novelty, Supervisor's support, Job decision latitude) - Career satisfaction Job Demands-Resources Theory ( ., 2001)
227JGM SLR Certain skills, Right motivation to work in a hostile environment - CCA Atheoretical
228Book 8 QuanSurvey/ANOVA CCA, Work Attitudes Conservation of Resources Theory ( )
229JITC QuanSurvey CCT (enhances CQ) - CCA Transformative Learning Theory ( – ; – - – ), Connectionism Theory ( )
230Book 8 . (2020)LR [Objective] Number of promotions, Salary Increases etc/[Subjective] Personal Judgement-like career satisfaction Atheoretical
231MRR . (2020)QuanSurvey Confidence - CCA, Performance Achievement Goal Theory ( ., 2017) and Expectancy-Value Theory ( )
232MOR . (2020)QuanSurvey CCA, Performance, Commitment, Retention Social Capital Theory of Career Success ( ; ., 2001) and Intelligence Theory ( ; )
233CP . (2020)QuanSurvey/CFA CCA (affected by CQ) - Performance Atheoretical
234CCSM QualIn depth interviews/FG/NVIVO 10 Humanistic leadership style - Better Communication within the leader and the team Humanistic Leadership Theory (e.g. ., 2009; ., 2014; ; ., 2019)
235Book 8 LR [Objective] Number of promotions, Salary Increases etc/[Subjective] Personal Judgement-like career satisfaction Atheoretical
236IJOA . (2020)QuanSurvey Trust, Social capital, Knowledge sharing behaviour - Financial performance Atheoretical
237EBPJ . (2020)LR Psychological comfort - CCA Atheoretical
238IJEM . (2021)QuanSurvey/PLS-SEM Psychological contract - CCA, Commitment, Intrinsic career success Signaling Theory and Motivation Theory ( )
239IJBSAM . (2021)QuanSurvey/ANOVA/PLS-SEM POS, HCN's Support (Role Information/Social Support) - CCA Conservation of Resources Theory ( )
240IJHRM . (2021)QuanSurvey/Bias-corrected bootstrapping POS, FSOP, Organizational CQ, Gender - CCA, Commitment, Career Satisfaction, Community Embeddedness Strategic Human Resource Management Theory ( )
241JGM THEMR . (2021)QualIn-depth interviews Organisational support (Financial support, Housing relocation assistance, Schooling support for children, Career counselling for partners), Pre-departure trainings - CCA Gender Role Theory ( ) and Job Demands Resources (JD-R) model ( )
242ECKM . (2021)QualCase Study/Semi-structures interviews Selection, Knowledge Management Atheoretical
243JWB . (2021)QuanSurvey/CFA/MLR [Objective] Number of promotions, Salary Increases/[Subjective] Personal Judgement-like career satisfaction Conservation of Resources Theory ( )
244IJHRM . (2021)QuanSurvey/PLS-SEM Responsible leadership - CCA, Performance Responsible Leadership ( ) and Social Identity Theory ( ; )
245JGM THEMR QualSemi-structured interviews/NVivo 8 Social Support from various domains (Community, Family and Work) – CCA- Success Atheoretical
246EJTD QualIn-depth unstructured interviews/NVivo Knowing the novel culture and business's norms in the subsidiary Atheoretical
247JGM THEMR QualInterviews and self-reports/Kodani 1.2 Competencies, Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, Other characteristics - CCA, Completion of IA Human Capital Theory ( , )
248IJPE . (2021)QuanSurvey/DEA/SEM/DT Selection (DT) Cutural Dimensions Theory ( , )
249IJM MixCases/Interviews/Observation - Surveys/Harman's single-factor test/CFA/MRA Psychological Contract of expats and MNCS Psychological Contract Theory ( )
The acronyms are tabulated in below

SerialSourceAuthors (year)MethodDefinition of Expatriate's success (ES)LevelsKey termsSpecific terms referring to successType of expatsTheory/ies employed
1NAEM LR….“Therefore, the two most critical criteria of ”expatriate success” are adjustment and performance.” The author links the acculturation process to the adjustment of the expatriate and highlights the importance of studying the process from the Individual and organisational levelsIndividual and organisationalAdjustment PerformanceExpatriate successOESocial Exchange Theory ( ), Vernon's Life Cycle Theory ( ), Social Learning Theory ( ) and Adaptation-Level Theory ( )
2NAEM QuanThe author suggests the following: the three most common criteria for evaluating expatriate success have been: (1) completion of the foreign assignment, (2) cross-cultural adjustment and (3) performance on the foreign assignmentIndividual and organisationalCompletion of the IA Adjustment PerformanceSuccess in the IAOETheory of Expatriate Performance, including contextual, managerial, technical and expatriate-specific dimensions is proposed based on ( , 1993)
3LODJ LR..“In expatriation, success can be defined as a successful cultural adjustment that leads to personal growth as much as it can be defined as high performance at work.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment PerformanceExpatriate successOEAtheoretical
4HRM LR“Success can be defined in many ways. Here we consider success to the organisation in terms of the expatriate achieving specific objectives. These objectives would often include some financial goals but might also be in the form of market share gain, introducing a new product or service, cycle time improvements, or quality objectives. Accomplishing the stated business objectives will require interaction with people in the host country, so it is unlikely to happen unless the manager assimilates. To avoid unnecessary expense, it is also crucial that the Individual complete the entire term of the assignment, which is more likely if both the employee and his/her family view the experience positively and have expectations for career benefit following the assignment. Although the assimilation, the endurance, the psychological factors and the career expectations can be considered success outcomes in their own right ( ), we regard all of these as contributing factors to whether the expatriate achieves assigned business objectives.”OrganisationalCompletion of the IA Achieving organisational goalsSuccess in the IAOEAtheoretical
5JM Quan“Consistent with this converging view of expatriate success, we define success in terms of expatriate adjustment, commitment to the organisation, job performance and intentions to complete the assignment.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment Commitment to the organisation Performance Intention to complete IAExpatriate successOEAtheoretical
6JTMD LRIn this study, expatriate women's success is defined with two variables, job withdrawal and work performance, which are affected by family issues and HR policiesOrganisationalJob withdrawal intentions PerformanceExpatriate successOESpillover Theory ( )
7CDI . (2005)Mix… “Consequently, at the Individual level, the research reported here considers four success indicators: (1) cross-cultural adjustment, (2) performance evaluation, (3) complete a full term of the assignment and (4) life satisfaction.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment Performance Completion of the IA Life satisfactionSuccess in the IAOEAtheoretical
8SMR LR… “How effective is the expatriate during his/her stay? How long does the expatriate stay with the company after repatriation? What knowledge has the expatriate gained and how is the company institutionalising and using that knowledge?”Individual and organisationalExpatriate's effectiveness during the IA Expatriate's tenure after repatriation Expatriate's Knowledge gain Organisation's use of expatriate's gained knowledgeExpatriate successNot SpecifiedAtheoretical
9Book 6 . (2008)LR“Expatriates who remain in their assignments until the end of the term (attendance), meet the performance standards and adjust to the new culture (satisfaction, well-being) are considered as the most successful ones”Individual and organisationalCompletion of IA Meeting performance standards AdjustmentExpatriate successNot SpecifiedAtheoretical
10GBOE QualThe author proposes a definition and a method of ROI calculation using expatriates. In fact, in this article, “expatriate ROI” is defined as “a calculation in which the financial and non-financial benefits to the firm are compared with the financial and non-financial costs of the international assignment, as appropriate to the assignment's purpose.”OrganisationalExpatriate's ROI: financial and non-financial benefits to the firm vs the financial and non-financial costs incurred by the organisationExpatriate successOEAtheoretical
11HRM LR“Individual success during expatriation and repatriation encompasses what we call career success, job success and development success. We also propose to measure IA success at the organisational level during expatriation and repatriation by performance.”Individual and organisationalCareer success Job success Development success Performance Retention of employeesExpatriate success in the IAOETheory of Fit (e.g. ), Human Capital Theory ( ) and Signal Theory (
12IJHRM QuanObjective career success was defined by extrinsic, visible outcomes such as earnings or promotions, whereas subjective career success was defined by intrinsic outcomes such as career and job satisfactionIndividualObjective outcomes (earnings and promotions) Subjective outcomes (career and job satisfaction)Career successOE/SIEAtheoretical
13IJHRM Quan“…. three outcomes that are critical measures of expatriate success: adjustment, turnover intentions and expatriate performance.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment Turnover intentions PerformanceExpatriate successOEAtheoretical
14IJHRM QuanThis paper focuses on the career success of expatriates and defines it as the shortest time to get promoted to the topIndividualShortest time to get promoted to the topCareer successOEHuman Capital Theory ( ; ., 2005)
15AOM 2011 QuanThe authors explored two success criteria from an Individual perspective: career satisfaction and job satisfaction. Moreover, from the organisational perspective, they evaluated the expatriate's intention to leave the organisation as a measure of IA success (failure)Individual and organisationalCareer satisfaction Job satisfaction Intention to leave the organisationSuccess in the IAOEPerson-Environment Fit Theory (e.g. ) and the Boundaryless Career Perspective (e.g. )
16TIBR . (2011)Quan“It is therefore important to include both cross-cultural adjustment and performance in studies concentrating on the determinants of the success of international assignments.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment PerformanceSuccess in the IANot SpecifiedAtheoretical
17Book 11 . (2012)LR..“ If an expatriate assignment is truly successful, the expatriate should gain knowledge and experience, the HCN should gain knowledge and career capital and the organisation should benefit both because of the successful transfer of information that motivated the assignment in the first place, but also from the career capital gained by all of its employees”Individual, interpersonal and organisationalExpatriate's knowledge and experience gain HCN's knowledge and career capital gain Organisation's successful transfer of informationExpatriate success Expatriate failureNot SpecifiedSocial Identity Theory ( ; ) and Justice Theories (e.g. ; ; ; )
18APBR Quan..”The evaluation of an IA (whether successful or failure) can be approached from two perspectives or two different levels. At the Individual level, the main concern is the expatriate. Expatriate retention, Individual performance or cross-cultural adjustment are some factors related on an Individual level (e.g. , ; ., 2002). On the other hand, organisational perspectives are concerned with the effectiveness of the international human resources strategies practised in the organisation. Recruitment, selection and compensation are some examples of these strategies and return investments.”Individual and organisationalJob Performance Desire to leave the assignment early SatisfactionSuccess in the IAOEAtheoretical
19SAJHRM . (2014)Qual“…. this study will primarily deal with four basic variants: work adjustment, time to proficiency, job performance and job satisfaction.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment Time to proficiency Performance Job satisfactionExpatriate successSIECareer Capital Theory ( ., 1995; )
20JGM . (2015)QualThis article defines an expatriate's success from the Individual perspective. Based on the female (India) expatriates interviewed for their career success, they consider having work-family balance, self-satisfaction and contribution to the family and home country society as the outcome of a successful careerIndividual and interpersonalWork - family balance Self-satisfaction Contribution to the family and home countryCareer successSIEAtheoretical
21IJHRDM . (2015)LRA successful expatriation is one where the individual performs effectively in a foreign country and remains for the planned duration and part of successful expatriation includes retaining the repatriate when they return to the home organisationOrganisationalPerformance Completion of the IA RepatriationSuccess in the IANot SpecifiedAtheoretical
22HRM (2017)LR… “We base our choice of constructs on , who urge the use of the well-established HRM concepts of performance and turnover in evaluating expatriate success or failure.”OrganisationalPerformance Turnover intentionExpatriate success Expatriate failureOESocial Exchange Theory ( ; )
23BJM . (2017)Quan..“Hence, the current study used withdrawal cognition and job satisfaction as expatriation success.”Individual and organisationalJob satisfaction Intention to withdrawSuccess in the IANot SpecifiedRegulatory Focus Theory ( )
24IBR Quan… "By using time to the top, we apply a recommended measure of career success as previously used in upper echelons research ( ; ., 1990)."IndividualThe shortest time to get promoted to the top after being on IAsCareer successOEHuman Capital Theory ( ) and Elite Theory (e.g. ; )
25ODJ . (2018)LR..“Expatriate success is often evaluated in terms of expatriate adjustment, job performance and withdrawal cognitions.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment Performance Withdrawal cognitionsExpatriate successNot SpecifiedConservation of Resources Theory ( )
26HRMR . (2019)MA..“We included four success criteria in order to balance between psychological processes and organisational outcomes: expatriates' adjustment, commitment, performance and retention. We consider adjustment and commitment to be proximal outcomes as they constitute direct psychological responses to received social support. Performance and retention can be regarded as longer-term behavioral responses to social support and can thus be considered more distal criteria of success.”Individual and organisationalAdjustment Commitment to the organisation Performance RetentionExpatriate successOE/SIESocial Exchange Theory (e.g. ; ., 2017; ; ; ) and Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory ( )
27SABR . (2019)Qual..”The grouping of career success has been on two continuums. Firstly, career success is a subjective experience associated with psychological success and emphasises career satisfaction ( ., 2012; ) and job satisfaction ( ). Secondly, career success can also be framed as an objective reality, emphasising more on measurable outcomes such as job security, promotions and salary ( ; ; ).”IndividualObjective measures: Job security, Promotion and Salary Subjective measures: Career and job satisfactionCareer successSIEHuman Capital Theory ( ) and Boundaryless Career Theory ( )
28Book 8 LR..”Career success is defined as the accomplishment of desirable work-related outcomes at any point in a person's career ( ., 2005). Career success consists of two dimensions ( , 2005): Objective career success includes externally comparable or more tangible indicators of a person's career development, such as salary and promotions ( ., 2005); subjective career success refers to a person's internal reflection and evaluation and is often operationalised as career satisfaction ( ., 2005)”IndividualObjective measures: Salary Promotions Subjective measures: Career satisfactionCareer successSIEAtheoretical
29Book 8 . (2020)LR.."Empirical studies of expatriates define career success as the accomplishment of desirable, positive psychological or work-related outcomes as a result of international experiences accumulated over time ( ; ., 2005; ., 2018). In the careers' literature, objective career success is defined as factors directly observable by others and measurable in a standardised way, such as salary or promotions ( ., 2005; ). Subjective career success is defined as the focal actor's evaluation and experience of achieving career outcomes meaningful to them personally ( , 2005; , 2001; ., 2016), typically measured as career satisfaction ( ., 1990; ., 2013) or perceived career success ( ; ) and, more recently, as a multidimensional evaluation of career facets, such as growth and development, personal life and authenticity ( ., 2016).”IndividualObjective measures: Promotions Salaries Subjective measures: Career satisfaction Growth Development Personal Life AuthenticityCareer successSIEAtheoretical
30JWB . (2021)Quan..“ Career satisfaction as a measure of career success.”IndividualSubjective measures: Career satisfactionCareer successOEConservation of Resources Theory ( )
31JGM THEMR Qual..'”Hence, we offer a definition of expatriate effectiveness and success that is more broad than these four criteria and the definitions of . (2010), , drawing upon the contributions of aforementioned authors, namely the ability to work effectively and live contentedly abroad.”Individual and organisationalAbility to work effectively and live contentedlyExpatriate successNot SpecifiedHuman Capital Theory ( , )

List of acronyms

Journals
AME
AJBER
AJBM
APBR
APJHR
AJCEB
BAR
BJM
CDI
CTRJ
CER
CRIBJ
CCSM
CCMIJ
CP
ER
EBPJ
EJIM
EJP
EJTD
EMJ
GBOE
HR
HRDR
HMH
HRM
HRMJ
HRMR
IM
IMDS
IBR
IEJ
IJBSAM
IJCM
IJCHM
IJCCM
IJEM
IJFIP
IJHM
IJHRDM
IJHRM
IJIR
IJLE
IJMR
IJM
IJOA
IJPE
IJRDM
IJSA
IJTD
IJVBM
ITJ
JCPS
JCHRM
JCP
JCCP
JEIT
JGM
JGM THEMR
JIBE
JIBS
JIEB
JIM
JITC
JM
JMD
JMP
JOB
JPA
JSOD
JTI
JTMD
JWB
KSSJ
LODJ
LQ
MOR
MD
MRR
MEJM
NAEM
ODJ
PP
PR
PJMS
PJMES
RCIS
REEP
SJM
SMR
SLMR
SBS
SBP
SAJEMS
SAJHRM
SABR
IJHRM
JCAF
TQR
TIBR
DJ
WMR
WASJ
JSP
Proceedings
Academy of Management 2011 Annual Meeting - West Meets East: Enlightening. Balancing. TranscendingAOM 2011
European Conference on Knowledge Management (pp. 931-XIX). Academic Conferences International LimitedECKM
Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on System of Systems Engineering Australia, 2014SOSE
Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference Association of Researchers in Construction ManagementARCOM 2010
Proceedings of RICS Construction and Property ConferenceCOBRA 2011
The First International Symposium on Business Cooperation and Development in South-East and South Asia under B&R InitiativeISBCD-16
3rd International Seminar and Conference on Learning Organization (ISCLO, 2015)ISCLO 2015
Books
International Human Resources Management Challenges and ChangesBook 1
The Routledge Companion to International Business CoachingBook 2
Challenges of Human Resource Management in JapanBook 3
Work and Family Interface in the International Career ContextBook 4
New Approaches to Employee Management, Vol. 4. Expatriate Management: Theory and ResearchBook 5
The Blackwell Handbook of Personnel SelectionBook 6
Expatriate Management: Transatlantic DialoguesBook 7
Self-Initiated Expatriates in Context: Recognising Space, Time and InstitutionsBook 8
Expert Systems with ApplicationsBook 9
Handbook of Research on Global Hospitality and Tourism ManagementBook 10
The Oxford Handbook of Organizational SocializationBook 11
Managing Performance Abroad: A New Model for Understanding Expatriate Adjustment. Routledge Studies in Human Resource DevelopmentBook 12
Terms
Structural Equation ModellingSEM
Bivariate CorrelationBC
Confirmatory Factor AnalysisCFA
Correlation MatrixCM
Correlational AnalysisCA
Cross-Cultural AdjustmentCAA
Cultural IntelligenceCQ
Data Envelopment AnalysisDEA
Decision TreeDT
Emotional IntelligenceEQ
Factor AnalysisFA
Family Supportive Work PerceptionFSOP
Focus GroupsFG
Harman Single FactorHSF
Hierarchical Multiple RegressionsHMR
Hierarchical Regression AnalysisHRA
International AssignmentIA
Linear Structural Relation ModelLISREL Model
Multidimensional Personality QuestionnaireMPQ
Multiple Linear RegressionMLR
Multiple Regression AnalysisMRA
Multivariate Analyses Of CovarianceMANCOVA
Organisational expatriateOE
Once-Way Analyses Of VarianceANOVA
Ordinary Least SquaresOLS
Parallel AnalysisPA
Partial Least Squares Structural Equation ModellingPLS-SEM
Perceived Organisational SupportPOS
Regression AnalysisRA
Self-initiated expatriateSIE
Structural Equation AnalysisSEA
The Revised Neo Personality InventoryNEO-PI-R
The Hogan Personality InventoryHPI
Women As Managers ScaleWAMS

Source(s): Authors ‘own (2023)

Conflict of interest declaration: The authors declare that no direct or indirect conflict of interest influences our work and its objectivity.

Adams , J.S. ( 1965 ), “ Inequity in social exchange ”, in Berkowitz , L. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology , Academic Press , New York , pp.  267 - 299 .

Akhal , K. and Liu , S. ( 2019 ), “ Cultural intelligence effects on expatriates' adjustment and turnover intentions in Mainland China ”, Management Research Review , Vol.  42 No.  7 , pp.  818 - 836 .

Ali , A. , Van der Zee , K. and Sanders , G. ( 2003 ), “ Determinants of intercultural adjustment among expatriate spouses ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  27 No.  5 , pp.  563 - 580 .

Allport , G. W. ( 1954 ), The Nature of Prejudice , Addison-Wesley, Reading , MA .

Alluhidan , M. , Tashkandi , N. , Alblowi , F. , Omer , T. , Alghaith , T. , Alghodaier , H. , Alazemi , N. , Tulenko , K. , Herbst , C.H , Hamza , M.M and Alghamdi , M.G. ( 2020 ), “ Challenges and policy opportunities in nursing in Saudi Arabia ”, Human Resources for Health , Vol.  18 No.  1 , pp. 1 - 10 , doi: 10.1186/s12960-020-00535-2 .

AlMazrouei , H. and Zacca , R. ( 2015 ), “ Expatriate leadership competencies and performance: a qualitative study ”, International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol.  23 No.  3 , pp.  404 - 424 .

AlMazrouei , H. , Zacca , R. , Bilney , C. and Antoine , G. ( 2016 ), “ Expatriate managers decision-making practices within the UAE: a qualitative study ”, International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol.  24 No.  5 , pp.  856 - 882 .

Anderson , B. ( 2005 ), “ Expatriate selection: good management or good luck? ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  16 No.  4 , pp.  567 - 583 .

Andreasen , A.W. ( 2007 ), “ Married manager abroad ”, Industrial Management (Norcross, Georgia) , Vol.  49 No.  2 , pp.  20 - 25 .

Araci , M. ( 2015 ), “ The barriers to increasing the productivity in expatriate management: examples in the world and Turkey ”, in Sener , S. , Saridogan , E. and Staub , S. (Eds), Presented at the World Conference On Technology, Innovation And Entrepreneurship , pp.  993 - 1002 .

Armitage , K. and Powell , L. ( 1997 ), “ A re-examination of expatriate recruitment for education in developing countries ”, International Journal of Lifelong Education , Vol.  16 No.  6 , pp.  504 - 517 .

Arokiasamy , J.M. and Kim , S. ( 2020 ), “ When does emotional intelligence function better in enhancing expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment? A study of Japanese PCNs in Malaysia ”, Journal of Global Mobility , Vol.  8 No.  1 , pp.  67 - 84 .

Arp , F. ( 2012 ), “ For success in a cross-cultural environment, choose foreign executives wisely ”, Global Business and Organizational Excellence , Vol.  32 No.  1 , pp.  40 - 50 .

Arthur , W. and Bennett , W. ( 1995 ), “ The international assignee - the relative importance of factors perceived to contribute to success ”, Personnel Psychology , Vol.  48 No.  1 , pp.  99 - 114 .

Arthur , M.B. and Rousseau , D.M. ( 1996 ), “ A career lexicon for the 21st century ”, Academy of Management Perspectives , Vol.  10 No.  4 , pp.  28 - 39 .

Arthur , M.B. , Claman , P.H. and DeFillippi , R.J. ( 1995 ), “ Intelligent enterprise, intelligent careers ”, Academy of Management Perspectives , Vol.  9 No.  4 , pp.  7 - 20 .

Arthur , M.B. , Khapova , S.N. and Wilderom , C.P. ( 2005 ), “ Career success in a boundaryless career world ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior , Vol.  26 No.  2 , pp.  177 - 202 .

Ashamalla , M.H. and Crocitto , M. ( 1997 ), “ Easing entry and beyond: preparing expatriates and patriates for foreign assignment success ”, International Journal of Commerce and Management , Vol.  7 No.  2 , pp.  106 - 114 .

Ashford , S.J. and Taylor , M.S. ( 1990 ), “ Adaptation to work transitions: an integrative approach ”, in Ferris , G.R. and Rowland , K.M. (Eds), Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management , JAI Press , Greenwich, CT , Vol.  8 , pp.  1 - 39 .

Atkinson , J.W. ( 1964 ), An Introduction to Motivation , Van Nostrand , Oxford .

Avolio , B.J. , Walumbwa , F.O. and Weber , T.J. ( 2009 ), “ Leadership: current theories, research, and future directions ”, Annual Review of Psychology , Vol.  60 , pp.  421 - 449 .

Avril , A.B. and Magnini , V.P. ( 2007 ), “ A holistic approach to expatriate success ”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , Vol.  19 No.  1 , pp.  53 - 64 .

Aycan , Z. ( 1997 ), “ Acculturation of expatriate managers: a process model of adjustment and performance ”, in Aycan , Z. (Ed.), New Approaches to Employee Management, Vol 4: Expatriate Management: Theory and Research , Elsevier Science, JAI Press , pp.  1 - 40 .

Aycan , Z. ( 1997b ), “ Expatriate adjustment as a multifaceted phenomenon: individual and organizational level predictors ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  8 No.  4 , pp.  434 - 456 .

Bader , B. and Berg , N. ( 2014 ), “ The influence of terrorism on expatriate performance: a conceptual approach ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  25 No.  4 , pp.  539 - 557 .

Bakker , A.B. and Demerouti , E. ( 2007 ), “ The job demands‐resources model: state of the art ”, Journal of Managerial Psychology , Vol.  22 No.  3 , pp.  309 - 328 .

Baluku , M. , Loser , D. , Otto , K. and Schummer , S. ( 2018 ), “ Career mobility in young professionals: how a protean career personality and attitude shapes international mobility and entrepreneurial intentions ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  6 No.  1 , pp.  102 - 122 .

Bandura , A. ( 1977 ), Social Learning Theory , Vol.  1 , Prentice Hall , Englewood cliffs .

Bartolo-Ribeiro , R. and Andrade , L. ( 2015 ), “ Expatriates selection: an essay of model analysis ”, Journal of Spatial and Organizational Dynamics , Vol.  3 No.  1 , pp.  47 - 57 .

Bashir , H. , Ahmad , B. , Bari , M. and Khan , Q. ( 2021 ), “ The impact of organizational practices on formation and development of psychological contract: expatriates' perception-based view ”, International Journal of Emerging Markets , available at: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOEM-10-2020-1187 ( accessed 16 November 2022 ).

Bayraktar , S. ( 2019 ), “ A diary study of expatriate adjustment: collaborative mechanisms of social support ”, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management , Vol.  19 No.  1 , pp.  47 - 70 .

Becker , G.S. ( 1964 ), Human Capital; a Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education , Columbia University Press , New York .

Becker , G.S. ( 1975 ), Human Capital , Columbia University Press , New York, NY .

Becker , G.S. ( 1993 ), “ Nobel lecture: the economic way of looking at behavior ”, Journal of Political Economy , Vol.  101 No.  3 , pp.  385 - 409 .

Becker , G.S. ( 2002 ), “ The age of human capital ”, in Lazear , E.P. (Ed.), Education in the Twenty-First Century , Hoover Institution Press , Palo Alto, CA , pp.  3 - 8 .

Bednarova , L. , Chovancova , J. , Pacana , A. and Ulewicz , R. ( 2018 ), “ The analysis of success factors in terms of adaptation of expatriates to work in international organizations ”, Polish Journal of Management Studies , Vol.  17 No.  1 , pp.  59 - 66 .

Bell , M. and Harrison , D. ( 1996 ), “ Using intra-national diversity for international assignments: a model of bicultural competence and expatriate adjustment ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol.  6 No.  1 , pp.  47 - 74 .

Benson , G.S. and Pattie , M. ( 2009 ), “ The comparative roles of home and host supervisors in the expatriate experience ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  48 No.  1 , pp.  49 - 68 .

Berger , C.R. and Calabrese , R.J. ( 1975 ), “ Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication ”, Human Communication Research , Vol.  1 No.  2 , pp.  99 - 112 .

Bird , A. , Mendenhall , M. , Stevens , M.J. and Oddou , G. ( 2010 ), “ Defining the content domain of intercultural competence for global leaders ”, Journal of Managerial Psychology , Vol.  25 No.  8 , pp.  810 - 828 .

Black , J.S. ( 1990 ), “ The relationship of personal characteristics with the adjustment of Japanese expatriate managers ”, MIR: Management International Review , Vol.  30 No.  2 , pp.  119 - 134 .

Black , J.S. and Gregersen , H.B. ( 1991 ), “ Antecedents to cross-cultural adjustment for expatriates in Pacific rim assignments ”, Human Relations , Vol.  44 No.  5 , pp.  497 - 515 .

Black , J.S. and Stephens , G.K. ( 1989 ), “ The influence of the spouse on American expatriate adjustment and intent to stay in Pacific Rim overseas assignments ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  15 No.  4 , pp.  529 - 544 .

Black , J.S. , Mendenhall , M. and Oddou , G. ( 1991 ), “ Toward a comprehensive model of international adjustment: an integration of multiple theoretical perspectives ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol.  16 No.  2 , pp.  291 - 317 .

Blader , S.L. and Tyler , T.R. ( 2009 ), “ Testing and extending the group engagement model: linkages between social identity, procedural justice, economic outcomes, and extrarole behavior ”, Journal of Applied Psychology , Vol.  94 No.  2 , pp.  445 - 464 .

Blanco , M.R. and Sastre Castillo , M.A. ( 2020 ), “ CEOs' experience and career success in Latin American firms ”, International Journal of Emerging Markets , Vol.  15 No.  6 , pp.  1083 - 1104 .

Blau , P.M. ( 1964 ), Exchange and Power in Social Life , Wiley , New York .

Bolino , M. ( 2007 ), “ Expatriate assignments and intra-organizational career success: implications for individuals and organizations ”, Journal of International Business Studies , Vol.  38 No.  5 , pp.  819 - 835 .

Bonache , J. and Noethen , D. ( 2014 ), “ The impact of individual performance on organizational success and its implications for the management of expatriates ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  25 No.  14 , pp.  1960 - 1977 .

Bonache , J. and Zárraga-Oberty , C. ( 2008 ), “ Determinants of the success of international assignees as knowledge transferors: a theoretical framework ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  19 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 18 .

Bourdieu , P. ( 1985 ), “ The forms of capital ”, in Richardson , J.G. (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education , Greenwood Press , New York , pp.  241 - 258 .

Bowen , M. ( 1978 ), Family Therapy in Clinical Practice , Jason Aronson , New York, NY .

Bozionelos , N. ( 2009 ), “ Expatriation outside the boundaries of the multinational corporation: a study with expatriate nurses in Saudi Arabia ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  48 No.  1 , pp.  111 - 134 .

Braga , B.M. and De Miranda Kubo , E.K. ( 2010 ), “ Demystifying the relationship between intercultural adjustment and effectiveness in international assignments: reflections on Japanese expatriate managers ”, in Bebenroth , R. and Kanai , T. (Eds), Challenges of Human Resource Management in Japan , Routledge , London , pp.  97 - 123 .

Brereton , P. , Kitchenham , B. , Budgen , D. , Turner , M. and Khalil , M. ( 2007 ), “ Lessons from applying the systematic literature review process within the software engineering domain ”, Journal of System and Software , Vol.  80 No.  4 , pp.  571 - 583 .

Bretz , R.D. Jr and Judge , T.A. ( 1994 ), “ The role of human resource systems in job applicant decision processes ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  20 No.  3 , pp.  531 - 551 .

Briscoe , J.P. , Kaše , R. , Dries , N. , Dysvik , A. , Unite , J.A. , Adeleye , I. and Zikic , J. ( 2021 ), “ Here, there, & everywhere: development and validation of a cross-culturally representative measure of subjective career success ”, Journal of Vocational Behavior , Vol.  130 No.  103612 , pp.  1 - 23 .

Bucker , J. , Poutsma , E. and Monster , H. ( 2016 ), “ How and why does expatriation management influence expatriates' employability? ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  4 No.  4 , pp.  432 - 452 .

Burrus , K. ( 2008 ), “ Coaching women managers in multinational companies. ”, in Moral , M. and Abbott , N.G. (Eds), The Routledge Companion to International Business Coaching , Routledge. Taylor and Francis Group , Oxon , pp. 218 - 229 .

Buss , D.M. ( 1991 ), “ Evolutionary personality psychology ”, Annual Review of Psychology , Vol.  42 No.  1 , pp.  459 - 491 .

Byrne , D. ( 1971 ), The Attraction Paradigm , Academic Press , New York .

Caligiuri , P.M. ( 1997 ), “ Assessing expatriate success: beyond just ‘being there’ ”, in Aycan , Z. (Ed.), New Approaches to Employee Management, Expatriate Management: Theory and Research , JAI Press , Stamford, CT , pp.  117 - 140 .

Caligiuri , P. ( 2000 ), “ The big five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriate's desire to terminate the assignment and supervisor-rated performance ”, Personnel Psychology , Vol.  53 No.  1 , pp.  67 - 88 .

Caligiuri , P. and Bonache , J. ( 2016 ), “ Evolving and enduring challenges in global mobility ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  51 No.  1 , pp.  127 - 141 .

Caligiuri , P. and Cascio , W.F. ( 1998 ), “ Can we send her there? Maximizing the success of Western women on global assignments ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  33 No.  4 , pp.  394 - 396 .

Caligiuri , P. M. , Hyland , M. and Joshi , A. ( 1998 a), “ Families on global assignments: applying work/family theories abroad ”, in Rahim , A. (Ed.), Current topics in management , JAI Press , Greenwich , Vol.  3 , pp. 313 - 328 .

Caligiuri , P. M. , Hyland , M. A. M. , Joshi , A. and Bross , A. S. ( 1998 b), “ Testing a theoretical model for examining the relationship between family adjustment and expatriates’ work adjustment ”, Journal of Applied Psychology , Vol.  83 No.  4 , pp. 598 - 614 .

Caligiuri , P. and Phillips , J. ( 2003 ), “ An application of self-assessment realistic job previews to expatriate assignments ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  14 No.  7 , pp.  1102 - 1116 .

Caligiuri , P. and Tarique , I. ( 2016 ), “ Cultural agility and international assignees' effectiveness in cross-cultural interactions ”, International Journal of Training and Development , Vol.  20 No.  4 , pp.  280 - 289 .

Caligiuri , P.M. and Tung , R.L. ( 1999 ), “ Comparing the success of male and female expatriates from A US-based multinational company ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  10 No.  5 , pp.  763 - 782 .

Caligiuri , P. , Tarique , I. and Jacobs , R. ( 2009 ), “ Selection for international assignments ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol.  19 No.  3 , pp.  251 - 262 .

Caligiuri , P. , Baytalskaya , N. and Lazarova , M. ( 2016 ), “ Cultural humility and low ethnocentrism as facilitators of expatriate performance ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  4 No.  1 , pp.  4 - 17 .

Campbell , J.P. , McCloy , R.A. , Oppler , S.H. and Sager , C.E. ( 1993 ), “ A theory of performance ”, in Schmitt , N. and Borman , W.C. (Eds), Personnel Selection in Organizations , Jossey-Bass , San Francisco , pp.  35 - 70 .

Canhilal , S. , Shemueli , R. and Dolan , S. ( 2015 ), “ Antecedent factors for success in international assignments: the case of expatriates in Peru ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  3 No.  4 , pp.  378 - 396 .

Cao , L. , Hirschi , A. and Deller , J. ( 2012 ), “ Self-initiated expatriates and their career success ”, Journal of Management Development , Vol.  31 No.  2 , pp.  159 - 172 .

Cao , L. , Hirschi , A. and Deller , J. ( 2013 ), “ The positive effects of a protean career attitude for self-initiated expatriates cultural adjustment as a mediator ”, Career Development International , Vol.  18 No.  1 , pp.  56 - 77 .

Cao , L. , Hirschi , A. and Deller , J. ( 2014 ), “ Perceived organizational support and intention to stay in host countries among self-initiated expatriates: the role of career satisfaction and networks ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  25 No.  1 , pp.  2013 - 2032 .

Cappelli , P. and Hamori , M. ( 2005 ), “ The new road to the top ”, Harvard Business Review , Vol.  83 No.  1 , pp.  25 - 32 .

Causin , G.F.G. and Ngwenya , C.G. ( 2016 ), “ The influence of national culture and organizational culture on the success of an expatriate overseas assignment ”, International Business: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications , pp.  1461 - 1489 .

Causin , G. , Ayoun , B. and Moreo , P. ( 2011 ), “ Expatriation in the hotel industry an exploratory study of management skills and cultural training ”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , Vol.  23 Nos 6-7 , pp.  885 - 901 .

Cerdin , J. and Dickmann , M. ( 2011 ), “ Expatriation success in an inter-governmental organization ”, in Taneja , T. (Ed.), Academy of Management Proceedings , Briarcliff Manor , NY , Vol.  2011 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 6 .

Cerdin , J. and Dubouloy , M. ( 2004 ), “ Expatriation as A Maturation opportunity: a psychoanalytical approach based on ‘copy and paste’ ”, Human Relations , Vol.  57 No.  8 , pp.  957 - 981 .

Cerdin , J. and Le Pargneux , M. ( 2009 ), “ Career and international assignment fit: toward an integrative model of success ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  48 No.  1 , pp.  5 - 25 .

Cerdin , J. and Le Pargneux , M. ( 2014 ), “ The impact of expatriates' career characteristics on career and job satisfaction, and intention to leave: an objective and subjective fit approach ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  25 No.  14 , pp.  2033 - 2049 .

Cerimagic , S. and Smith , J. ( 2011 ), “ Screening and selecting project managers for the Middle East ”, in Ruddock , L. and Chynoweth , P. (Eds), COBRA 2011 - Proceedings of RICS Construction and Property Conference , School of the Built Environment University of Salford , pp.  843 - 851 .

Chan , H.L. , Toh , P.S. , Ng , S.I. and Zawawi , D. ( 2021 ), “ I love my career, don't I? The influence of organisation-based support on expatriates' adjustment and occupational withdrawal intention ”, International Journal of Business Science and Applied Management , Vol.  16 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 17 .

Chen , A. ( 2015 ), “ C.Q., at work and the impact of intercultural training: an empirical test among foreign laborers ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  47 No.  July 2015 , pp.  101 - 112 .

Chen , G. , Liu , C. and Tjosvold , D. ( 2005 ), “ Conflict management for effective top management teams and innovation in China ”, Journal of Management Studies , Vol.  42 No.  2 , pp.  277 - 300 .

Cogin , J. and Fish , A. ( 2010 ), “ Modelling and predicting the performance of cross border managers ”, Personnel Review , Vol.  39 No.  4 , pp.  432 - 447 .

Cordano , M. , Scherer , R.F. and Owen , C.L. ( 2002 ), “ Attitudes toward women as managers: sex versus culture ”, Women in Management Review , Vol.  17 No.  2 , pp.  51 - 60 .

Cray , D. , McKay , R. and Mittelman , R. ( 2018 ), “ Cultural intelligence and mindfulness: teaching MBAs in Iran ”, Journal of International Education In Business , Vol.  11 No.  2 , pp.  220 - 240 .

Cranton , P. ( 1994 ), Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide for Educators of Adults , Jossey-Bass , San Francisco .

Cranton , P. ( 1996 ), Professional Development as Transformative Learning: New Perspectives for Teachers of Adults , Jossey-Bass , San Francisco .

Crosby , F.J. ( 1976 ), “ A model of egotistical relative deprivation ”, Psychological Review , Vol.  83 No.  2 , pp.  85 - 113 .

Dalton , M. and Wilson , M. ( 2000 ), “ The relationship of the five-factor model of personality to job performance for A group of middle eastern expatriate managers ”, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , Vol.  31 No.  2 , pp.  250 - 258 .

Dang , Q. and Rammal , H. ( 2020 ), “ Japanese expatriates' management in global assignments: a review and research agenda ”, Thunderbird International Business Review , Vol.  62 No.  6 , pp.  689 - 705 .

Danisman , S.A. ( 2014 ), “ Change of attitude toward culture: pre- and post- expatriation experiences of managers ”, Korean Social Science Journal , Vol.  41 No.  2 , pp.  79 - 95 .

David , E. , Volpone , S. and Nandialath , A. ( 2021 ), “ Fostering longevity attitudes in women expatriates: the role of general and targeted types of organizational support ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  32 No.  18 , pp.  3833 - 3861 .

Davidson , P. and Kinzel , E. ( 1996 ), “ Supporting the expatriate: a survey of Australian management practice ”, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources , Vol.  33 No.  3 , pp.  105 - 116 .

Davies , S. , Kraeh , A. and Froese , F. ( 2015 ), “ Burden or support? The influence of partner nationality on expatriate cross-cultural adjustment ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  3 No.  2 , pp.  169 - 182 .

Davis , G.F. ( 1994 ), “ The corporate elite and the politics of corporate control ”, Current Perspectives in Social Theory , Vol.  1 Supplement , pp.  215 - 238 .

Davis , S.A. , Fretwell , C.E. and Schraeder , M. ( 2018 ), “ Enhancing expatriate success: a psychological capital perspective ”, Organization Development Journal , Vol.  36 No.  2 , pp.  39 - 50 .

Dawis , R.V. and Lofquist , L.H. ( 1976 ), “ Personality style and the process of work adjustment ”, Journal of Counseling Psychology , Vol.  23 No.  1 , pp.  55 - 59 .

Dawis , R.V. and Lofquist , L.H. ( 1984 ), A Psychological Theory of Work Adjustment , University of Minnesota Press , Minneapolis .

De Macedo-Soares , D. and Schubsky , A. ( 2010 ), “ Contribution of expatriates in the management of subsidiaries to the corporate governance of international firms: the case of vale ”, Bar - Brazilian Administration Review , Vol.  7 No.  1 , pp.  98 - 114 .

Deci , E.L. and Ryan , R.M. ( 1985 ), “ The general causality orientations scale: self-determination in personality ”, Journal of Research in Personality , Vol.  19 No.  2 , pp.  109 - 134 .

DeFillippi , R.J. and Arthur , M.B. ( 1994 ), “ The boundaryless career: a competency‐based perspective ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol.  15 No.  4 , pp.  307 - 324 .

Demerouti , E. , Bakker , A.B. , Nachreiner , F. and Schaufeli , W.B. ( 2001 ), “ The job demands-resources model of burnout ”, Journal of Applied Psychology , Vol.  86 No.  3 , pp.  499 - 512 .

Denisi , A. and Sonesh , S. ( 2016 ), “ Success and failure in international assignments A review and A proposed multi-dimensional model ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  4 No.  4 , pp.  386 - 407 .

Deutsch , M. ( 1973 ), The Resolution of Conflict , Yale University Press , New Haven, CT .

Dickmann , M. and Cerdin , J.-L. ( 2018 ), “ Exploring the development and transfer of career capital in an international governmental organization ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  29 No.  15 , pp.  2253 - 2283 .

Digman , J.M. ( 1990 ), “ Personality structure: emergence of the five-factor model ”, Annual Review of Psychology , Vol.  41 No.  1 , pp.  417 - 440 .

DiMaggio , P.J. and Powell , W.W. ( 1991 ), “ Introduction ”, in Powell , W.W. and DiMaggio , P.J. (Eds), The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis , University of Chicago Press , Chicago .

Dimitrova , M. , Chia , S.I. , Shaffer , M.A. and Tay-Lee , C. ( 2020 ), “ Forgotten travelers: adjustment and career implications of international business travel for expatriates ”, Journal of International Business , Vol.  26 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 15 .

Dinh , J.E. , Lord , R.G. , Gardner , W.L. , Meuser , J.D. , Liden , R.C. and Hu , J. ( 2014 ), “ Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: current theoretical trends and changing perspectives ”, The Leadership Quarterly , Vol.  25 No.  1 , pp.  36 - 62 .

Dolce , V. , Molino , M. , Wodociag , S. and Ghislieri , C. ( 2021 ), “ Gender paths in international careers: an approach centred on demands and resources ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  9 No.  1 , pp.  65 - 89 .

Downes , M. , Varner , I.I. and Hemmasi , M. ( 2010 ), “ Individual profiles as predictors of expatriate effectiveness ”, Competitiveness Review , Vol.  20 No.  3 , pp.  235 - 247 .

Dries , N. ( 2011 ), “ The meaning of career success ”, Career Development International , Vol.  16 No.  4 , pp.  364 - 384 .

Dunn , W.N. ( 1983 ), “ Social network theory ”, Knowledge , Vol.  4 No.  3 , pp.  453 - 461 .

Dupuis , M.J. , Haines , V.Y. III and Saba , T. ( 2008 ), “ Gender, family ties, and international mobility: cultural distance matters ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  19 No.  2 , pp.  274 - 295 .

Eagly , A.H. ( 1987 ), Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social Role Interpretation , Erlbaum , Hillsdale, NJ .

Earley , P. C. and Ang , S. ( 2003 ), Cultural Intelligence: Individual Interactions Across Cultures , Stanford University Press , Stanford, CA .

Edmond , S. ( 2002 ), “ Exploring the success of expatriates of U.S. Multinational firms in Mexico ”, International Trade Journal , Vol.  16 No.  3 , pp.  233 - 255 .

Egilsson , B. and Dolles , H. ( 2017 ), “ ‘From heroes to zeroes’ - self-initiated expatriation of talented young footballers ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  5 No.  2 , pp.  174 - 193 .

Egner , T. ( 2013 ), “ Tax and salary issues in self-initiated expatriation ”, in Andresen , M. , Al Ariss , A. and Walther , M. (Eds), Self-initiated Expatriation: Individual, Organisational, and National Perspectives , Routledge , New York .

Eisenhardt , K.M. ( 1988 ), “ Agency-and institutional-theory explanations: the case of retail sales compensation ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol.  31 No.  3 , pp.  488 - 511 .

Ewen , R.B. ( 1998 ), Personality: A Topical Approach , Erlbaum , Mahweh, NJ .

Faeth , P. and Kittler , M. ( 2020 ), “ Expatriate management in hostile environments from a multi-stakeholder perspective - a systematic review ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  8 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 24 .

Feldman , D. and Thomas , D. ( 1992 ), “ Career management issues facing expatriates ”, Journal of International Business Studies , Vol.  23 No.  2 , pp.  271 - 293 .

Feng , F. and Pearson , T.E. ( 1999 ), “ Hotel expatriate managers in China: selection criteria, important skills and knowledge, repatriation concerns, and causes of failure ”, International Journal of Hospitality Management , Vol.  18 No.  3 , pp.  309 - 321 .

Fishbein , M. and Ajzen , I. ( 1972 ), “ Attitudes and opinions ”, Annual Review of Psychology , Vol.  23 No.  1 , pp. 487 - 544 .

Florkowski , G.W. and Fogel , D.S. ( 1999 ), “ Expatriate adjustment and commitment: the role of host-unit treatment ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  10 No.  5 , pp.  783 - 807 .

Flytzani , S. and Nijkamp , P. ( 2008 ), “ Locus of control and cross-cultural adjustment of expatriate managers ”, International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy , Vol.  4 Nos 1-2 , pp.  146 - 159 .

Forster , N. ( 2017 ), “ Expatriates and the impact of cross-cultural training ”, in De Cieri , H. and Hutchkings , K. (Eds), International Human Resource Management: from Cross-Cultural Management to Managing A Diverse Workforce , Routledge , New York , pp.  83 - 98 .

France , T. , Booysen , L. and Baron , C. ( 2019 ), “ Cross-cultural professional experiences, of female expatriates finding success through agility, resilience, and essential relationships ”, Cross Cultural and Strategic Management , Vol.  26 No.  4 , pp.  522 - 545 .

Freud , S. ( 1890 ), “ Psychical (or mental) treatment ”, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , Standard Edition , Hogarth , London , Vol.  1 , pp. 283 - 302 .

Froese , F.J. and Peltokorpi , V. ( 2020 ), “ Success of self-initiated expatriates: different occupations, different realities? ”, in Andresen , M. , Brewster , C. and Suutari , V. (Eds), Self-Initiated Expatriates in Context: Recognizing Space, Time, and Institutions , Routledge , New York , pp.  173 - 192 .

Furnham , A. ( 2017 ), “ Personality differences in managers who have, and have not, worked abroad ”, European Management Journal , Vol.  35 No.  1 , pp.  39 - 45 .

Furusawa , M. and Brewster , C. ( 2016 ), “ IHRM and expatriation in Japanese MNCs: HRM practices and their impact on adjustment and job performance ”, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources , Vol.  54 No.  4 , pp.  396 - 420 .

Gabel , R.S. , Dolan , S.L. and Cerdin , J.L. ( 2005 ), “ Emotional intelligence as predictor of cultural adjustment for success in global assignments ”, Career Development International , Vol.  10 No.  5 , pp.  375 - 395 .

Gallego-Toledo , J. ( 2015 ), “ Cultural profiling and a Chinese experience ”, Journal of Chinese Human Resources Management , Vol.  6 No.  2 , pp.  120 - 132 .

Gibson , C. , Hardy , J. , Baur , J. , Frink , D. and Buckley , M. ( 2015 ), “ Expectation-based interventions for expatriates ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  49 , pp.  332 - 342 .

Gitonga , N. and Zhang , Y. ( 2016 ), “ Assessing the influence of project manager's cultural intelligence (CQ) on project team dynamics. A case of China-Kenya projects ”, Proceedings of the 2016 International Symposium on Business Cooperation and Development Kunming China , Vol.  13 , Atlantis Press , pp.  370 - 379 .

Goby , V.P. , Osman-Gani , A. , Ahmed , Z.U. , Annavarjula , M. and Ibrahim , D.N. ( 2002 ), “ Determinants of expatriate success: an empirical study of Singaporean expatriates in the peoples Republic of China ”, Journal of Transnational Management Development , Vol.  7 No.  4 , pp.  73 - 88 .

Gouldner , A. ( 1960 ), “ Negative reciprocity ”, American Sociological Review , Vol.  25 No.  16 , pp.  1 - 178 .

Gradim , A. , Vale , V. and Vale , J. ( 2021 ), “ Expatriates' knowledge management in A Portuguese pharma organisation ”, in Garciaperez , A. and Simkin , L. (Eds), The 22nd European Conference on Knowledge Management (ECKM 2021) , Kidmore End , pp.  931 - 940 .

Grant-Vallone , E. and Ensher , E. ( 2001 ), “ An examination of work and personal life conflict, organizational support, and employee health among international expatriates ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  25 No.  3 , pp.  261 - 278 .

Greenhaus , J.H. and Beutell , N.J. ( 1985 ), “ Sources of conflict between work and family roles ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol.  10 No.  1 , pp.  76 - 88 .

Greenhaus , J.H. and Powell , G.N. ( 2003 ), “ When work and family collide: deciding between competing role demands ”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , Vol.  90 No.  2 , pp.  291 - 303 .

Greenhaus , J.H. and Powell , G.N. ( 2006 ), “ When work and family are allies: a theory of work-family enrichment ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol.  31 No.  1 , pp.  72 - 92 .

Greenhaus , J.H. , Parasuraman , S. and Wormley , W.M. ( 1990 ), “ Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol.  33 No.  1 , pp.  64 - 86 .

Greer , T.W. and Stiles , A.C. ( 2016 ), “ Using hrd to support repatriates: a framework for creating an organization development strategy for repatriation ”, Human Resource Development Review , Vol.  15 No.  1 , pp.  101 - 122 .

Gregersen , H. ( 1992 ), “ Commitments to a parent company and a local work unit during repatriation ”, Personnel Psychology , Vol.  45 No.  1 , pp.  29 - 54 .

Gudykunst , W.B. ( 1993 ), “ Toward a theory of interpersonal and intergroup communication: an anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) perspective ”, in Wiseman , R. and Koester , J. (Eds), Intercultural Communication Competence , Sage , Newbury Park, CA , pp.  33 - 71 .

Gudykunst , W.B. (Ed.) ( 2005 ), Theorizing about Intercultural Communication , Sage , Thousand Oaks, CA .

Gudykunst , W.B. and Nishida , T. ( 2001 ), “ Anxiety, uncertainty, and perceived effectiveness of communication across relationships and cultures ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  25 No.  1 , pp.  55 - 71 .

Gudykunst , W.B. and Ting-Toomey , S. ( 1988 ), “ Culture and affective communication ”, American Behavioral Scientist , Vol.  31 No.  3 , pp.  384 - 400 .

Gunz , H.P. and Heslin , P.A. ( 2005 ), “ Reconceptualizing career success ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol.  26 , pp.  105 - 111 .

Gupta , R. , Banerjee , P. and Gaur , J. ( 2012 ), “ A key challenge in global hrm: adding new insights to existing expatriate spouse adjustment models ”, Qualitative Report , Vol.  17 No.  44 , pp.  1 - 30 .

Guthrie , J.P. , Ash , R.A. and Stevens , C.D. ( 2003 ), “ Are women ‘better’ than men? Personality differences and expatriate selection ”, Journal of Managerial Psychology , Vol.  18 No.  3 , pp.  229 - 243 .

Guttormsen , D. and Francesco , A. ( 2019 ), “ Status and success do lower status expatriates in multinational corporations experience different types of success? ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  7 No.  4 , pp.  364 - 380 .

Guttormsen , D. , Francesco , A. and Chapman , M. ( 2018 ), “ Revisiting the expatriate failure concept: a qualitative study of scandinavian expatriates in Hong Kong ”, Scandinavian Journal of Management , Vol.  34 No.  2 , pp.  117 - 128 .

Hamori , M. and Koyuncu , B. ( 2011 ), “ Career advancement in large organizations in Europe and the United States: do international assignments add value? ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  22 No.  4 , pp.  843 - 862 .

Hanke , D. ( 2019 ), “ How to talk to an expatriate ”, International Trade Journal , Vol.  33 No.  1 , pp.  111 - 122 .

Harcar , T. and Harcar , T. ( 2004 ), “ Expatriate women's success in international assignments: exploring the relationship between family issues and human resource policies ”, Journal of Transnational Management Development , Vol.  8 No.  4 , pp.  19 - 35 .

Harjo , E. ( 2016 ), “ Antecedents of expatriate performance in short-term assignment an empirical study on the relationship between individual factors and expatriate performance in short-term assignments ”, The 3rd International Seminar And Conference on Learning Organization (ISCLO-15) , Vol.  45 , Atlantis Press , pp.  112 - 117 .

Harrison , D.A. ( 2001 ), “ Meaning and measurement of work role withdrawal: current controversies and future fallout under changing technology ”, in Koslowsky , M. and Krausz , M. (Eds), Voluntary Employee Withdrawal and Inattendance: A Current Perspective , Plenum , New York .

Harrison , E. and Michailova , S. ( 2012 ), “ Working in the Middle East: western female expatriates' experiences in the United Arab Emirates ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  23 No.  4 , pp.  625 - 644 .

Harrison , D. and Shaffer , M. ( 2005 ), “ Mapping the criterion space for expatriate success: task- and relationship-based performance, effort and adaptation ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  16 No.  8 , pp.  1454 - 1474 .

Harry , T. , Chinyamurindi , W. and Dodd , N. ( 2019 ), “ Using narratives to understand the experience of career success amongst self-initiated expatriates in South Africa ”, Southern African Business Review , Vol.  23 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 27 .

Harvey , M. ( 1998 ), “ Dual-career couples during international relocation: the trailing spouse ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  9 No.  2 , pp.  309 - 331 .

Harvey , M. and Kiessling , T. ( 2004 ), “ The negative effects of being a ‘late’ newcomer during an expatriation assignment ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  28 No.  6 , pp.  551 - 576 .

Harvey , M. and Moeller , M. ( 2009 ), “ Expatriate managers: a historical review ”, International Journal of Management Reviews , Vol.  11 No.  3 , pp.  275 - 296 .

Harvey , M. and Novicevic , M. ( 2002 ), “ The hypercompetitive global marketplace: the importance of intuition and creativity in expatriate managers ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  37 No.  2 , pp.  127 - 138 .

Harvey , M. , Speier , C. and Novecevic , M. ( 2001 ), “ A theory-based framework for strategic global human resource staffing policies and practices ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  12 No.  6 , pp.  898 - 915 .

Harzing , A. and Christensen , C. ( 2004 ), “ Expatriate failure: time to abandon the concept? ”, Career Development International , Vol.  9 No.  7 , pp.  616 - 626 .

Haski-Leventhal , D. , Paull , M. , Young , S. , MacCallum , J. , Holmes , K. , Omari , M. , Scott , R. and Alony , I. ( 2020 ), “ The multidimensional benefits of university student volunteering: psychological contract, expectations, and outcomes ”, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly , Vol.  49 No.  1 , pp.  113 - 133 .

Haslberger , A. , Brewster , C. and Hippler , T. ( 2014 ), Managing Performance Abroad: A New Model for Understanding Expatriate Adjustment , Routledge , New York .

Helson , H. ( 1964 ), Adaptation Level Theory: an Experimental and Systematic Approach to Behavior , Harper & Row , New York, NY .

Hemmasi , M. , Downes , M. and Varner , I. ( 2010 ), “ An empirically-derived multidimensional measure of expatriate success: reconciling the discord ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  21 No.  7 , pp.  982 - 998 .

Herleman , H. , Britt , T. and Hashima , P. ( 2008 ), “ Ibasho and the adjustment, satisfaction, and well-being of expatriate spouses ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  32 No.  3 , pp.  282 - 299 .

Heslin , P.A. ( 2003 ), “ Self- and other-referent criteria of success ”, Journal of Career Assessment , Vol.  11 No.  3 , pp.  262 - 286 .

Higgins , E. ( 1997 ), “ Beyond pleasure and pain ”, American Psychologist , Vol.  52 No.  12 , pp.  1280 - 1300 .

Hiltrop , J.M. and Janssens , M. ( 1990 ), “ Expatriation: challenges and recommendations ”, European Management Journal , Vol.  8 No.  1 , pp.  19 - 26 .

Hobfoll , S.E. ( 1989 ), “ Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress ”, American Psychologist , Vol.  44 No.  3 , pp.  513 - 524 .

Hofstede , G. ( 1980 ), “ Culture and organizations ”, International Studies of Management and Organization , Vol.  10 No.  4 , pp.  15 - 41 .

Hofstede , G. ( 2001 ), “ Culture's recent consequences: using dimension scores in theory and research ”, International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management , Vol.  1 No.  1 , pp.  11 - 17 .

Hogan , G. and Goodson , J. ( 1990 ), “ The key to expatriate success ”, Training and Development Journal , Vol.  44 No.  1 , pp.  50 - 52 .

Holland , J.L. ( 1997 ), Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments , Psychological Assessment Resources Inc , Odessa, FL .

Holopainen , J. and Bjorkman , I. ( 2005 ), “ The personal characteristics of the successful expatriate - a critical review of the literature and an empirical investigation ”, Personnel Review , Vol.  34 No.  1 , pp.  37 - 50 .

Holtbrügge , D. and Ambrosius , J. ( 2015 ), “ Mentoring, skill development, and career success of foreign expatriates ”, Human Resource Development International , Vol.  18 No.  3 , pp.  278 - 294 .

Homans , G.C. ( 1950 ), The Human Group , Harcourt, Brace & World , New York .

Homans , G.C. ( 1958 ), “ Social behavior as exchange ”, American Journal of Sociology , Vol.  63 No.  6 , pp.  597 - 606 .

House , R.J. and Aditya , R.N. ( 1997 ), “ The social scientific study of leadership: quo vadis? ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  23 No.  3 , pp.  409 - 473 .

Howe-Walsh , L. , Turnbull , S. and Boulanouar , A. ( 2015 ), “ International human resource management: implications for multinational corporations operating in the arab Middle East ”, International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management , Vol.  15 Nos 2-4 , pp.  258 - 274 .

Huang , T. , Chi , S. and Lawler , J. ( 2005 ), “ The relationship between expatriates' personality traits and their adjustment to international assignments ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  16 No.  9 , pp.  1656 - 1670 .

Huff , K.C. ( 2013 ), “ Language, cultural intelligence and expatriate success ”, Management Research Review , Vol.  36 No.  6 , pp.  596 - 612 .

Hulin , C. ( 1991 ), “ Adaptation, persistence, and commitment in organizations ”, in Dunnette , M. and Hough , L.M. (Eds), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology , 2nd ed. , Consulting Psychologists Press , Palo Alto, CA , Vol.  2 , pp.  445 - 505 .

Hussain , T. and Deery , S. ( 2018 ), “ Why do self-initiated expatriates quit their jobs: the role of job embeddedness and shocks in explaining turnover intentions ”, International Business Review , Vol.  27 No.  1 , pp.  281 - 288 .

Hutchings , K. ( 2021 ), “ Why we need to know more about diversity among the globally mobile: a systematic literature review of non-traditional expatriate research and future research agenda for minority expatriates ”, Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  10 No.  1 , pp.  127 - 161 .

Ishii , K. ( 2012 ), “ Dual organizational identification among Japanese expatriates: the role of communication in cultivating subsidiary identification and outcomes ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  23 No.  6 , pp.  1113 - 1128 .

Itani , S. , Jarlstrom , M. and Piekkari , R. ( 2015 ), “ The meaning of language skills for career mobility in the new career landscape ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  50 No.  2 , pp.  368 - 378 .

James , L.R. and Sells , S.B. ( 1981 ), “ Psychological climate: theoretical perspectives and empirical research ”, in Magnusson , D. (Ed.), Toward a Psychologv of Situations: an Interactional Perspective , Lawrence Erlbaum , Hillsdale, NJ .

Jannesari , M. and Sullivan , S. ( 2019 ), “ Career adaptability and the success of self-initiated expatriates in China ”, Career Development International , Vol.  24 No.  4 , pp.  331 - 349 .

Jensen , M.C. and Meckling , W.H. ( 1976 ), “ Theory of the firm: managerial Behavior, agency costs and ownership structure ”, Journal of Financial Economics , Vol.  3 No.  4 , pp.  305 - 360 .

Johanson , J. and Vahlne , J.E. ( 1992 ), “ Management of foreign market entry ”, Scandinavian International Business Review , Vol.  1 No.  3 , pp.  9 - 27 .

Johnson , D.W. and Johnson , R. ( 1989 ), Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research , Interaction Book Company , Edina, MN .

Jones , R.P. , Lyu , J. , Runyan , R. , Fairhurst , A. , Kim , Y.-K. and Jolly , L. ( 2014 ), “ Cross cultural consensus: development of the universal leadership model ”, International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management , Vol.  42 No.  4 , pp.  240 - 266 .

Jordan , J. and Cartwright , S. ( 1998 ), “ Selecting expatriate managers: key traits and competencies ”, Leadership and Organization Development Journal , Vol.  19 No.  2 , pp.  89 - 96 .

Judge , T.A. , Cable , D.M. , Boudreau , J.W. and Bretz , R.D. Jr ( 1995 ), “ An empirical investigation of the predictors of executive career success ”, Personnel Psychology , Vol.  48 No.  3 , pp.  485 - 519 .

Kahn , R.L. , Wolfe , D.M. , Quinn , R.P. , Snoek , J.D. and Rosenthal , R.A. ( 1964 ), Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity , John Wiley , New York .

Kanfer , R. , Frese , M. and Johnson , R.E. ( 2017 ), “ Motivation related to work: a century of progress ”, Journal of Applied Psychology , Vol.  102 No.  3 , pp.  338 - 355 .

Kang , H. and Shen , J. ( 2018 ), “ Antecedents and consequences of host-country nationals' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates: what we do and do not know ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol.  28 No.  2 , pp.  164 - 175 .

Karasek , R.A. ( 1979 ), “ Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental train: implications for job redesign ”, Administrative Science Quarterly , Vol.  24 , pp.  285 - 308 .

Katz , D. and Kahn , R.L. ( 1978 ), The Social Psychology of Organizations , Vol.  2 , Wiley , New York .

Kawai , N. and Mohr , A. ( 2015 ), “ The contingent effects of role ambiguity and role novelty on expatriates' work-related outcomes ”, British Journal of Management , Vol.  26 No.  2 , pp.  163 - 181 .

Kempen , R. , Pangert , B. , Hattrup , K. , Mueller , K. and Joens , I. ( 2015 ), “ Beyond conflict: the role of life-domain enrichment for expatriates ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  26 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 22 .

Kidwell , R.E. Jr and Bennett , N. ( 1993 ), “ Employee propensity to withhold effort: a conceptual model to intersect three avenues of research ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol.  18 No.  3 , pp.  429 - 456 .

Kierner , A. ( 2015 ), “ Dual-income and dual-career couples in international context ”, in Work and Family Interface in the International Career Context , pp.  95 - 116 .

Kim , K. ( 2020 ), “ Making the connection: cross-cultural management course and cultural intelligence ”, The Journal of International Trade and Commerce , Vol.  16 No.  3 , pp.  1 - 13 .

Kim , J. and Froese , F. ( 2012 ), “ Expatriation willingness in Asia: the importance of host-country characteristics and employees' role commitments ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  23 No.  16 , pp.  3414 - 3433 .

Kim , H. and Tung , R. ( 2013 ), “ Opportunities and challenges for expatriates in emerging markets: an exploratory study of Korean expatriates in India ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  24 No.  5 , pp.  1029 - 1050 .

Kishori , B. and Kumar , N.S. ( 2014 ), “ An intensive literature review on international assignments, expatriate failures and success, connected issues and the means for its refinement-with special reference to expatriates in the field of energy ”, Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences , Vols 2014-December , pp.  123 - 125 .

Kitchenham , B. and Charters , S. ( 2007 ), Guidelines for Performing Systematic Literature Reviews in Software Engineering , Keele University and Durham University Joint Report , pp. 1 - 57 .

Kolb , D.A. ( 1984 ), Experience as the Source of Learning and Development , Prentice Hall , New Jersey .

Konanahalli , A. , Oyedele , L.O. , Von Meding , J.K. and Spillane , J.P. ( 2011 ), “ Organisational, host country and work factors influencing a British expatriate's adjustment on international architectural engineering and construction projects ”, Association of Researchers in Construction Management, ARCOM 2011, Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference Bristol, UK , Association of Researchers in Construction Management , pp.  351 - 360 .

Kraimer , M.L. and Wayne , S.J. ( 2004 ), “ An examination of perceived organizational support as a multidimensional construct in the context of an expatriate assignment ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  30 No.  2 , pp.  209 - 237 .

Kreng , V. and Huang , M. ( 2009 ), “ A discussion on international assignments performance and the constructing mechanism of career success development ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  20 No.  7 , pp.  1487 - 1502 .

Krishnaveni , R. and Arthi , R. ( 2015 ), “ Identifying factors supporting effective performance of expatriates in host country: a perceptional analysis ”, Purushartha , Vol.  8 No.  1 , pp.  44 - 62 .

Kristof , A.L. ( 1996 ), “ Person‐organization fit: an integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications ”, Personnel Psychology , Vol.  49 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 49 .

Kumarika Perera , H. , Yin Teng Chew , E. and Nielsen , I. ( 2017 ), “ A psychological contract perspective of expatriate failure ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  56 No.  3 , pp.  479 - 499 .

Kupka , B. and Cathro , V. ( 2007 ), “ Desperate housewives - social and professional isolation of German expatriated spouses ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  18 No.  6 , pp.  951 - 968 .

Kurtessis , J.N. , Eisenberger , R. , Ford , M.T. , Buffardi , L.C. , Stewart , K.A. and Adis , C.S. ( 2017 ), “ Perceived organizational support: a meta-analytic evaluation of organizational support theory ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  43 No.  6 , pp.  1854 - 1884 .

Lai , H. ( 2011 ), “ The successful factor of expatriates in transnational enterprises ”, African Journal of Business Management , Vol.  5 No.  5 , pp.  1832 - 1842 .

Lauring , J. and Selmer , J. ( 2014 ), “ Global mobility orientation and the success of self-initiated expatriates in Greater China ”, Asia Pacific Business Review , Vol.  20 No.  4 , pp.  523 - 540 .

Lazarova , M. , Westman , M. and Shaffer , M.A. ( 2010 ), “ Elucidating the positive side of the work-family interface on international assignments: a model of expatriate work and family performance ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol.  35 No.  1 , pp.  93 - 117 .

Lazarova , M. , McNulty , Y. and Semeniuk , M. ( 2015 ), “ Expatriate family narratives on international mobility: key characteristics of the successful moveable family ”, in Mäkelä , L. and Suutari , V. (Eds), Work and Family Interface in the International Career Context , Springer , Cham , pp.  29 - 51 .

Lazarova , M. , Dimitrova , M. , Dickmann , M. , Brewster , C. and Cerdin , J. ( 2021 ), “ Career satisfaction of expatriates in humanitarian inter-governmental organizations ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  56 No.  4 , 101205 .

Lee , C.H. ( 2005 ), “ A study of underemployment among self-initiated expatriates ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  40 No.  2 , pp.  172 - 187 .

Lee , L. ( 2010 ), “ Multiple intelligences and the success of expatriation: the roles of contingency variables ”, African Journal of Business Management , Vol.  4 No.  17 , pp.  3793 - 3804 .

Lee , P. ( 2018 ), “ How to develop dynamic capabilities in multiunits: the roles of international experience and career capital ”, Management Decision , Vol.  56 No.  2 , pp.  344 - 357 .

Lee , L. and Croker , R. ( 2006 ), “ A contingency model to promote the effectiveness of expatriate training ”, Industrial Management and Data Systems , Vol.  106 No.  8 , pp.  1187 - 1205 .

Lee , L. and Donohue , R. ( 2012 ), “ The construction and initial validation of a measure of expatriate job performance ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  23 No.  6 , pp.  1197 - 1215 .

Lee , L.-Y. and Kartika , N. ( 2014 ), “ The influence of individual, family, and social capital factors on expatriate adjustment and performance: the moderating effect of psychology contract and organizational support ”, Expert Systems with Applications , Vol.  41 No.  11 , pp.  5483 - 5494 .

Lee , L.-Y. and Sukoco , B.M. ( 2008 ), “ The mediating effects of expatriate adjustment and operational capability on the success of expatriation ”, Social Behavior and Personality , Vol.  36 No.  9 , pp.  1191 - 1204 .

Lee , F. and Wu , W. ( 2011 ), “ The relationships between person-organization fit, psychological climate adjustment, personality traits, and innovative climate: evidence from Taiwanese high-tech expatriate managers in Asian countries ”, African Journal of Business Management , Vol.  5 No.  15 , pp.  6415 - 6428 .

Lee , L. , Veasna , S. and Wu , W. ( 2013 ), “ The effects of social support and transformational leadership on expatriate adjustment and performance the moderating roles of socialization experience and cultural intelligence ”, Career Development International , Vol.  18 No.  4 , pp.  377 - 415 .

Leonardelli , G.J. and Toh , S.M. ( 2011 ), “ Perceiving expatriate coworkers as foreigners encourages aid: social categorization and procedural justice together improve intergroup cooperation and dual identity ”, Psychological Science , Vol.  22 No.  1 , pp. 110 - 117 .

Li , N. and Jackson , M. ( 2015 ), “ Global relocation: an examination of the corporate influence on expatriate adjustment ”, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources , Vol.  53 No.  4 , pp.  471 - 489 .

Liden , R.C. and Maslyn , J.M. ( 1998 ), “ Multidimensionality of leader-member exchange: an empirical assessment through scale development ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  24 No.  1 , pp.  43 - 72 .

Lin , N. ( 1999 ), “ Social networks and status attainment ”, Annual Review of Sociology , Vol.  25 No.  1 , pp.  467 - 487 .

Lin , P. , Robbins , N. and Lin , P. ( 2019 ), “ Research of media industry's expatriates' cross-culture adjustment on the job involvement and work stress: the impact of relatedness ”, Revista De Cercetare Si Interventie Sociala , Vol.  64 , pp.  120 - 129 .

Linder , C. ( 2015 ), “ Expatriates' willingness to adjust their symbolic leadership abroad. an analysis of how culture affects expatriates' use of symbolic interaction ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  3 No.  3 , pp.  244 - 272 .

Linehan , M. and Scullion , H. ( 2001 ), “ European female expatriate careers: critical success factors ”, Journal of European Industrial Training , Vol.  25 No.  8 , pp.  392 - 418 .

Littrell , L.N. , Salas , E. , Hess , K.P. , Paley , M. and Riedel , S. ( 2006 ), “ Expatriate preparation: a critical analysis of 25 years of cross-cultural training research ”, Human Resource Development Review , Vol.  5 No.  3 , pp.  355 - 388 .

Mäkelä , L. , Saarenpää , K. and McNulty , Y. ( 2017 ), “ International business travellers, short-term assignees and international commuters ”, in McNulty , Y. and Selmer , J. (Eds), Research Handbook of Expatriates , Edward Elgar Publishing , Cheltenham , pp.  276 - 295 , 2017 .

MacDonald , K. ( 1998 ), “ Evolution, culture, and the five-factor model ”, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , Vol.  29 No.  1 , pp.  119 - 149 .

Madlock , P.E. and Sexton , S. ( 2015 ), “ An application of motivating language theory in Mexican organizations ”, International Journal of Business Communication , Vol.  52 No.  3 , pp.  255 - 272 .

Magnini , V.P. and Honeycutt , E.D. Jr ( 2003 ), “ Learning orientation and the hotel expatriate manager experience ”, International Journal of Hospitality Management , Vol.  22 No.  3 , pp.  267 - 280 .

Makela , L. , Suutari , V. , Brewster , C. , Dickmann , M. and Tornikoski , C. ( 2016 ), “ The impact of career capital on expatriates' perceived marketability ”, Thunderbird International Business Review , Vol.  58 No.  1 , pp.  29 - 40 .

Manson , J. and Carr , S. ( 2011 ), “ Improving job fit for mission workers by including expatriate and local job experts in job specification ”, Journal of Managerial Psychology , Vol.  26 No.  6 , pp.  465 - 484 .

Marques , T. , Miska , C. , Crespo , C. and Branco , M. ( 2021 ), “ Responsible leadership during international assignments: a novel approach toward expatriation success ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  34 No.  2 , pp. 1 - 33 , doi: 10.1080/09585192.2021.1964571 .

Martin , J. ( 1981 ), “ Relative deprivation: a theory of distributive injustice for an era of shrinking resources ”, in Staw , B.M. and Cummings , L.L. (Eds), Research in Organizational Behavior , JAI Press , Greenwich, CT , Vol.  3 , pp.  53 - 107 .

Martin , D.C. and Bartol , K.M. ( 2003 ), “ Factors influencing expatriate performance appraisal system success: an organizational perspective ”, Journal of International Management , Vol.  9 No.  2 , pp.  115 - 132 .

Maslow , A.H. ( 1943 ), “ Preface to motivation theory ”, Psychosomatic Medicine , Vol.  5 No.  1 , pp.  85 - 92 .

McCabe , H. ( 1993 ), “ Reducing expatriate failure ”, International Journal of Value-Based Management , Vol.  6 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 13 .

McDonald , K.S. and Hite , L.M. ( 2008 ), “ The next generation of career success: implications for HRD ”, Advances in Developing Human Resources , Vol.  10 No.  1 , pp.  86 - 103 .

McNulty , Y. ( 2008 ), “ How a major multinational is working to overcome the barriers to improved expatriate ROI ”, Global Business and Organizational Excellence , Vol.  27 No.  3 , pp.  38 - 47 .

McNulty , Y. and Cieri , H.D. ( 2013 ), “ Measuring expatriate return on investment with an evaluation framework ”, Global Business and Organizational Excellence , Vol.  32 No.  6 , pp.  18 - 26 .

Mcnulty , Y. and De Cieri , H. ( 2016 ), “ Linking global mobility and global talent management: the role of ROI ”, Employee Relations , Vol.  38 No.  1 , pp.  8 - 30 .

Mello , R. , Dickmann , M. , Brewster , C. and Suutari , V. ( 2020 ), “ The long-term effects of self-initiated expatriation on the future careers of assignees ”, in Andresen , M. , Brewster , C. and Suutari , V. (Eds), Self-Initiated Expatriates in Context: Recognizing Space, Time, and Institutions , Routledge , New York , pp.  91 - 109 .

Mezias , J. and Scandura , T. ( 2005 ), “ A needs-driven approach to expatriate adjustment and career development: a multiple mentoring perspective ”, Journal of International Business Studies , Vol.  36 No.  5 , pp.  519 - 538 .

Mezirow , J. ( 1991 ), “ Transformation theory and cultural context: a reply to Clark and Wilson ”, Adult Education Quarterly , Vol.  41 No.  3 , pp.  188 - 192 .

Mezirow , J. ( 1992 ), “ Transformation theory: critique and confusion ”, Adult Education Quarterly , Vol.  42 No.  4 , pp.  250 - 252 .

Mezirow , J. ( 1996 ), “ Contemporary paradigms of learning ”, Adult Education Quarterly , Vol.  46 No.  3 , pp.  158 - 172 .

Mezirow , J. ( 1997 ), “ Transformative learning: theory to practice ”, in Cranton , P. (Ed.), Transformative Learning in Action: Insights from Practice – New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education , Jossey-Bass , San Francisco , No.  74 , pp.  5 - 12 .

Miao , L. , Adler , H. and Xu , X. ( 2011 ), “ A stakeholder approach to expatriate management: perceptions of hotel expatriate managers in China ”, International Journal of Hospitality Management , Vol.  30 No.  3 , pp.  530 - 541 .

Mills , C.W. ( 1956 ), The Power Elite , Oxford University Press , New York .

Minuchin , S. ( 1974 ), Families and Family Therapy , Harvard University Press , Cambridge, MA .

Mirvis , H.P. and Hall , D.T. ( 1994 ), “ Psychological success and the boundaryless career ”, in Arthur , M.B. and Rousseau , D.M. (Eds), The Boundaryless Career , Oxford University Press , New York, NY , pp.  237 - 255 .

Moher , D. , Liberati , A. , Tetzlaff , J. and Altman , D.G. ( 2009 ), “ Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement ”, Annals of Internal Medicine , Vol.  151 No.  4 , pp.  264 - 269 .

Mol , S. , Born , M. , Willemsen , M. and Van Der Molen , H. ( 2005 ), “ Predicting expatriate job performance for selection purposes - a quantitative review ”, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , Vol.  36 No.  5 , pp.  590 - 620 .

Moore , S.I. and Elmualim , A. ( 2010 ), “ Culture and its impact on British construction professionals practicing in the United Arab Emirates ”, Doctoral dissertation , Association of Researchers in Construction Management, Arcom 2010 - Proceedings of The 26th Annual Conference , Association of Researchers for Construction Man , pp.  341 - 350 .

Morley , M. and Parkinson , E. ( 2015 ), “ A practice with potential: expatriate cross-cultural training among Irish MNCs ”, in Machado , C. (Ed.), International Human Resources Management: Challenges and Changes , Springer , pp.  75 - 90 .

Mount , M.K. and Barrick , M.R. ( 1995 ), “ The big five personality dimensions: implications for research and practice in human resources management ”, Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management , Vol.  13 No.  3 , pp.  153 - 200 .

Nadler , D.A. and Lawler III , E.E. ( 1977 ), “ Motivation: a diagnostic approach ”, in Hackman , J.R. , Lawler , E.E. , III and Porter , L.W. (Eds), Perspectives on Behavior in Organizations , McGraw-Hill , New York , pp. 26 - 38 .

Napier , N. and Taylor , S. ( 2002 ), “ Experiences of women professionals abroad: comparisons across Japan, China and Turkey ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  13 No.  5 , pp.  837 - 851 .

Naylor , J.C. , Pritchard , R.D. and Ilgen , D.R. ( 1980 ), A Theory of Behavior in Organizations , Academic Press , New York .

Needleman , I.G. ( 2002 ), “ A guide to systematic reviews ”, Journal of Clinical Periodontology , Vol.  29 No.  Suppl 3 , pp.  6 - 9 .

Neupert , K.E. , Baughn , C.C. and Dao , T.T.L. ( 2005 ), “ International management skills for success in Asia: a needs-based determination of skills for foreign managers and local managers ”, Journal of European Industrial Training , Vol.  29 No.  2 , pp.  165 - 180 .

Ng , T.W. , Eby , L.T. , Sorensen , K.L. and Feldman , D.C. ( 2005 ), “ Predictors of objective and subjective career success: a meta‐analysis ”, Personnel Psychology , Vol.  58 No.  2 , pp.  367 - 408 .

Nicholson , N. ( 1984 ), “ A theory of work role transitions ”, Administrative Science Quarterly , Vol.  29 No.  2 , pp. 172 - 191 , doi: 10.2307/2393172 .

Nilakant , V. and Rao , H. ( 1994 ), “ Agency theory and uncertainty in organizations: an evaluation ”, Organization Studies , Vol.  15 No.  5 , pp.  649 - 672 .

Nugin , R. and Onken , E.C. ( 2010 ), “ Defining success in a changing society: self-evaluation and social reflections of a coming elite in the Baltic states ”, Journal of Baltic Studies , Vol.  41 No.  4 , pp.  449 - 471 .

Okpara , J. ( 2016 ), “ Cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates: exploring factors influencing adjustment of expatriates in Nigeria ”, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management , Vol.  16 No.  3 , pp.  259 - 280 .

Olsen , J. and Martins , L. ( 2009 ), “ The effects of expatriate demographic characteristics on adjustment: a social identity approach ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  48 No.  2 , pp.  311 - 328 .

Olson , D.H. ( 1993 ), “ Circumplex Model of marital and family systems: assessing family functioning ”, in Walsh , F. (Ed.), Normal Family Processes , 2nd ed. , Guilford Press , New York , pp.  104 - 137 .

Ones , D. and Viswesvaran , C. ( 1997 ), “ Personality determinants in the prediction of aspects of expatriate job success ”, in Aycan , Z. (Ed.), New Approaches to Employee Management, Expatriate Management: Theory and Research , JAI Press , Stamford, CT , pp.  63 - 92 .

Oxford University ( 2022 ), “ Success ”, in Oxford English Dictionary , Oxford University Press , New York .

Page , M.J. , McKenzie , J.E. , Bossuyt , P.M. , Boutron , I. , Hoffmann , T.C. , Mulrow , C.D. , Shamseer , L. , Tetzlaff , J.M. , Akl , E.A. , Brennan , S.E. and Chou , R. ( 2021 ), “ The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews ”, International Journal of Surgery , Vol.  88 No.  April 2021 , 105906 .

Paik , Y. and Vance , C.M. ( 2002 ), “ Evidence of back-home selection bias against us female expatriates ”, Women in Management Review , Vol.  17 No.  2 , pp.  68 - 79 .

Paik , Y. , Parboteeah , K.P. and Shim , W. ( 2007 ), “ The relationship between perceived compensation, organizational commitment and job satisfaction: the case of Mexican workers in the Korean maquiladoras ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  18 No.  10 , pp.  1768 - 1781 .

Pate , J. and Scullion , H. ( 2009 ), “ The changing nature of the traditional expatriate psychological contract ”, Employee Relations , Vol.  32 No.  1 , pp.  56 - 73 .

Pattie , M. and Parks , L. ( 2011 ), “ Adjustment, turnover, and performance: the deployment of minority expatriates ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  22 No.  10 , pp.  2262 - 2280 .

Pattie , M. , Benson , G. , Casper , W. and McMahan , G. ( 2013 ), “ Goal congruence: fitting international assignment into employee careers ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  24 No.  13 , pp.  2554 - 2570 .

Petticrew , M. and Roberts , H. ( 2006 ), Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide , Blackwell Pub , Malden, MA .

Pichler , S. , Varma , A. and Budhwar , P. ( 2012 ), “ Antecedents and consequences of the social categorization of expatriates in India ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  23 No.  5 , pp.  915 - 927 .

Pinto , L. and Araujo , R. ( 2016 ), “ Social networks of Portuguese self-initiated expatriates ”, Journal of Management Development , Vol.  35 No.  1 , pp.  89 - 103 .

Pinto , L.H. , Cabral-Cardoso , C. and Werther , W.B. Jr ( 2020 ), “ Expectancies and motivational goals of self-initiated expatriates as predictors of subjective assignment achievements and success ”, Management Research Review , Vol.  43 No.  4 , pp.  427 - 445 .

Pleck , J.H. ( 1977 ), “ The work-family role system ”, Social Problems , Vol.  24 No.  4 , pp.  417 - 427 .

Pless , N.M. and Maak , T. ( 2012 ), “ Responsible leadership: pathways to the future ”, Journal of Business Ethics , Vol.  98 No.  1 , pp.  3 - 13 .

Porter , L.W. and Lawler , E.E. ( 1968 ), What Job Attitudes Tell about Motivation , Harvard Business Review Reprint Service , Boston, MA , pp.  118 - 126 .

Porter , G. and Tansky , J.W. ( 1999 ), “ Expatriate success may depend on a ‘learning orientation’: considerations for selection and training ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  38 No.  1 , pp.  47 - 60 .

Priyashantha , K.G. , De Alwis , A.C. and Welmilla , I. ( 2021a ), “ The facets of gender stereotypes change: a systematic literature review ”, 12th International Conference on Business and Information (2021) , Faculty of Commerce and Management Studies, University of Kelaniya , pp.  862 - 882 .

Priyashantha , K.G. , De Alwis , A.C. and Welmilla , I. ( 2021b ), “ Gender stereotypes change outcomes: a systematic literature review ”, Journal of Humanities and Applied Social Sciences , Vol. ahead-ofprint No. ahead-of-print , doi: 10.1108/JHASS-07-2021-0131 .

Punnett , B.J. ( 1997 ), “ Towards effective management of expatriate spouses ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  32 No.  3 , pp.  243 - 257 .

PWC ( 2021 ), “ Global Crisis Survey 2021: building resilience for the future. In global centre for crisis and resilience building resilience to position your business for success ”, available at: https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/crisis/pwc-global-crisis-survey-2021.pdf ( accessed 18 October 2022 ).

Raabe , B. and Beehr , T.A. ( 2003 ), “ Formal mentoring versus supervisor and coworker relationships: differences in perceptions and impact ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior , Vol.  24 No.  3 , pp.  271 - 293 .

Ramaswami , A. , Carter , N. and Dreher , G. ( 2016 ), “ Expatriation and career success: a human capital perspective ”, Human Relations , Vol.  69 No.  10 , pp.  1959 - 1987 .

Ray , P. and Maheshwari , S. ( 2021 ), “ Combining lifelines to thrive: a stage-based need fulfilment network of international assignees ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  9 No.  1 , pp.  4 - 30 .

Reiche , B.S. and Harzing , A.W. ( 2011 ), “ International assignments ”, in Pinnington , A.H. and Harzing , A.K. (Eds), International Human Resource Management , Sage Publications , Thousand Oaks, CA , pp.  185 - 226 .

Ren , H. , Yunlu , D. , Shaffer , M. and Fodchuk , K. ( 2015 ), “ Expatriate success and thriving: the influence of job deprivation and emotional stability ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  50 No.  1 , pp.  69 - 78 .

Ren , S. , Chadee , D. and Presbitero , A. ( 2020 ), “ Influence of informal relationships on expatriate career performance in China: the moderating role of cultural intelligence ”, Management and Organization Review , Vol.  16 No.  3 , pp.  569 - 593 .

Richardson , W. , Von Kirchenheim , C. and Richardson , C. ( 2006 ), “ Teachers and their international relocation: the effect of self-esteem and pay satisfaction on adjustment and outcome variables ”, International Education Journal , Vol.  7 No.  7 , pp.  883 - 894 .

Rocke , D. ( 2017 ), “ Expatriation: challenges and success factors of an international career ”, in Dislere , V. (Ed.), The Rural Environment, Education, Personality, (REEP), Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference (Latvia) , Latvia University of Agriculture , pp.  451 - 456 .

Rosenbusch , K. and Cseh , M. ( 2012 ), “ The cross-cultural adjustment process of expatriate families in a multinational organization: a family system theory perspective ”, Human Resource Development International , Vol.  15 No.  1 , pp.  61 - 77 .

Ross , K. ( 2011 ), Characteristics of Successful Expatriates: Unleashing Success by Identifying and Coaching on Specific Characteristics , School of Education and Social Policy, Universidade de Northwestern , Evanston, IL .

Rousseau , D.M. ( 1989 ), “ Psychological and implied contracts in organizations ”, Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal , Vol.  2 No.  1 , pp.  121 - 139 .

Rousseau , D.M. ( 1995 ), Psychological Contracts in Organizations: Understanding Written and Unwritten Agreements , Sage , Thousand Oaks, CA .

Rousseau , D.M. , Manning , J. and Denyer , D. ( 2008 ), “ Evidence in management and organizational science: assembling the field's full weight of scientific knowledge through syntheses ”, The Academy of Management Annals , Vol.  2 No.  1 , pp.  475 - 515 .

Ryan , R.M. and Deci , E.L. ( 2000 ), “ Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions ”, Contemporary Educational Psychology , Vol.  25 No.  1 , pp.  54 - 67 .

Salgado , J. and Bastida , M. ( 2017 ), “ Predicting expatriate effectiveness: the role of personality, cross-cultural adjustment, and organizational support ”, International Journal of Selection and Assessment , Vol.  25 No.  3 , pp.  267 - 275 .

Salomaa , R. ( 2015 ), “ Expatriate coaching: factors impacting coaching success ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  3 No.  3 , pp.  216 - 243 .

Savickas , M.L. ( 1997 ), “ Career adaptability: an integrative construct for life‐span, life‐space theory ”, The Career Development Quarterly , Vol.  45 No.  3 , pp.  247 - 259 .

Savickas , M.L. ( 2005 ), “ The theory and practice of career construction ”, Career Development and Counseling: Putting Theory and Research to Work , Vol.  1 , pp.  42 - 70 .

Saxenian , A. ( 2005 ), “ From brain drain to brain circulation: transational communities and regional upgrading in India and China ”, Studies in Comparative International Development , Vol.  40 No.  2 , pp.  35 - 61 .

Schein , E.H. ( 1971 ), “ The individual, the organization and the career: a conceptual scheme ”, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science , Vol.  7 , pp.  401 - 426 .

Schmid , S. and Wurster , D. ( 2017 ), “ International work experience: is it really accelerating the way to the management board of MNCs? ”, International Business Review , Vol.  26 No.  5 , pp.  991 - 1008 .

Schütter , H. and Boerner , S. ( 2013 ), “ Illuminating the work-family interface on international assignments: an exploratory approach ”, Journal of Global Mobility , Vol.  1 No.  1 , pp.  46 - 71 .

Scott , W.R. ( 1987 ), “ The adolescence of institutional theory ”, Administrative Science Quarterly , Vol.  32 , pp.  493 - 511 .

Scott , W.R. ( 2001 ), Institutions and Organizations , 2nd ed. , CA Sage , Thousand Oaks .

Seak , N. and Enderwick , P. ( 2008 ), “ The management of New Zealand expatriates in China ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  19 No.  7 , pp.  1298 - 1313 .

Seers , A. ( 1989 ), “ Team-member exchange quality: a new construct for role-making research ”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , Vol.  43 No.  1 , pp.  118 - 135 .

Seibert , S.E. , Kraimer , M.L. and Liden , R.C. ( 2001 ), “ A social capital theory of career success ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol.  44 No.  2 , pp.  219 - 237 .

Seibert , S.E. , Kraimer , M.L. , Holtom , B.C. and Pierotti , A.J. ( 2013 ), “ Even the best laid plans sometimes go askew: career self-management processes, career shocks, and the decision to pursue graduate education ”, Journal of Applied Psychology , Vol.  98 No.  1 , pp.  169 - 182 .

Selvanathan , M. , Muhammad , A.M.B. , Angir , A.T. , Das , P.A.M. and Jun , T.P. ( 2016 ), “ The success factors can affects the expatriate in multinational company (MNC) at Jakarta ”, Journal of International Business and Economics , Vol.  16 No.  2 , pp.  39 - 46 .

Setti , I. , Sommovigo , V. and Argentero , P. ( 2020 ), “ Enhancing expatriates' assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and performance ”, Current Psychology , Vol.  41 No.  7 , pp.  4291 - 4311 .

Shaffer , M.A. and Harrison , D.A. ( 1998 ), “ Expatriates' psychological withdrawal from international assignments: work, nonwork, and family influences ”, Personnel Psychology , Vol.  51 No.  1 , pp.  87 - 118 .

Shaffer , M.A. , Kraimer , M.L. , Chen , Y.P. and Bolino , M.C. ( 2012 ), “ Choices, challenges, and career consequences of global work experiences: a review and future agenda ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  38 No.  4 , pp.  1282 - 1327 .

Shay , J. and Baack , S. ( 2004 ), “ Expatriate assignment, adjustment and effectiveness: an empirical examination of the big picture ”, Journal of International Business Studies , Vol.  35 No.  3 , pp.  216 - 232 .

Sheldon , K.M. and Elliot , A.J. ( 1999 ), “ Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: the self-concordance model ”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , Vol.  76 No.  3 , pp.  482 - 497 .

Shen , J. and Jiang , F. ( 2015 ), “ Factors influencing Chinese female expatriates' performance in international assignments ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  26 No.  3 , pp.  299 - 315 .

Shen , Y. and Kram , K. ( 2011 ), “ Expatriates' developmental networks: network diversity, base, and support functions ”, Career Development International , Vol.  16 Nos 6-7 , pp.  528 - 552 .

Sheridan , J.E. , Slocum , J.W. Jr , Buda , R. and Thompson , R.C. ( 1990 ), “ Effects of corporate sponsorship and departmental power on career tournaments ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol.  33 No.  3 , pp.  578 - 602 .

Shockley , K.M. , Ureksoy , H. , Rodopman , O.B. , Poteat , L.F. and Dullaghan , T.R. ( 2016 ), “ Development of a new scale to measure subjective career success: a mixed‐methods study ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol.  37 No.  1 , pp.  128 - 153 .

Shortland , S. ( 2018 ), “ Female expatriates' motivations and challenges: the case of oil and gas ”, Gender in Management: An International Journal , Vol.  33 No.  1 , pp.  50 - 65 .

Silbiger , A. , Berger , R. , Barnes , B. and Renwick , D. ( 2017 ), “ Improving expatriation success: the roles of regulatory focus and burnout ”, British Journal of Management , Vol.  28 No.  2 , pp.  231 - 247 .

Sinangil , H. and Ones , D. ( 1997 ), “ Empirical investigations of the host country perspective in expatriate management ”, in Aycan , Z. (Ed.), New Approaches to Employee Management, Vol 4, 1997, Expatriate Management: Theory and Research , JAI Press , Stamford, CT , pp.  173 - 205 .

Smith , H.J. and Tyler , T.R. ( 1996 ), “ Justice and power: when will justice concerns encourage the advantaged to support policies which redistribute economic resources and the disadvantaged to willingly obey the law? ”, European Journal of Social Psychology , Vol.  26 No.  2 , pp.  171 - 200 .

Sokro , E. and Moeti-Lysson , J. ( 2018 ), “ The role of host country nationals' support in expatriate adjustment and assignment success: a case of Ghana ”, African Journal of Business and Economic Research , Vol.  13 No.  3 , pp.  95 - 113 .

Sokro , E. , Pillay , S. and Bednall , T. ( 2021 ), “ The effects of perceived organizational support on expatriate adjustment, assignment completion and job satisfaction ”, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management , Vol.  21 No.  3 , pp.  452 - 473 .

Soltani , E. and Wilkinson , A. ( 2011 ), “ The razor's edge: managing MNC affiliates in Iran ”, Journal of World Business , Vol.  46 No.  4 , pp.  462 - 475 .

Spence , A.M. ( 1973 ), Market Signaling: Information Transfer in Hiring and Related Processes , Harvard University Press , Cambridge, MA .

Spurk , D. , Hirschi , A. and Dries , N. ( 2019 ), “ Antecedents and outcomes of objective versus subjective career success: competing perspectives and future directions ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  45 No.  1 , pp.  35 - 69 .

Sternberg , R.J. ( 1999 ), “ The theory of successful intelligence ”, Review of General Psychology , Vol.  3 No.  4 , pp. 292 - 316 .

Sternberg , R.J. and Detterman , D.K. (Eds) ( 1986 ), What is Intelligence?: Contemporary Viewpoints on its Nature and Definition , Praeger .

Stierle , C. , Van Dick , R. and Wagner , U. ( 2002 ), “ Success or failure? Personality, family, and intercultural orientation as determinants of expatriate managers' success ”, Zeitschrift Fur Sozialpsychologie , Vol.  33 No.  4 , pp.  209 - 218 .

Supangco , V. and Mayrhofer , W. ( 2014 ), “ Determinants of work role transition outcomes of Filipinos in Singapore ”, Journal of Global Mobility , Vol.  2 No.  3 , pp.  317 - 342 .

Suutari , V. , Brewster , C. , Mäkelä , L. , Dickmann , M. and Tornikoski , C. ( 2018 ), “ The effect of international work experience on the career success of expatriates: a comparison of assigned and self‐initiated expatriates ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  57 No.  1 , pp.  37 - 54 .

Swagler , M. and Jome , L. ( 2005 ), “ The effects of personality and acculturation on the adjustment of North American Sojourners in Taiwan ”, Journal of Counseling Psychology , Vol.  52 No.  4 , pp.  527 - 536 .

Tahir , R. ( 2021 ), “ Cross-cultural training: a study of European expatriates in New Zealand ”, European Journal of Training and Development , Vol.  46 No.  9 , pp.  894 - 919 .

Tahir , R. and Ertek , G. ( 2018 ), “ Cross-cultural training: a crucial approach to improve the success of expatriate assignment in the United Arab Emirates ”, Middle East Journal of Management , Vol.  5 No.  1 , pp.  50 - 74 .

Tajfel , H. ( 1978 ), Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations , Academic Press , London .

Tajfel , H. ( 1981 ), Human Groups and Social Categories , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge .

Tajfel , H. and Turner , J.C. ( 1979 ), “ An integrative theory of intergroup conflict ”, in Austin , W.G. and Worchel , S. (Eds), Organizational Identity: A Reader , Brooks Cole , Monterey, CA , pp.  33 - 37 .

Tajfel , H. , Billig , M.G. , Bundy , R.P. and Flament , C. ( 1971 ), “ Social categorization and intergroup behaviour ”, European Journal of Social Psychology , Vol.  1 No.  2 , pp.  149 - 178 .

Takeuchi , R. , Yun , S. and Tesluk , P.E. ( 2002 ), “ An examination of crossover and spillover effects of spousal and expatriate cross-cultural adjustment on expatriate outcomes ”, Journal of Applied Psychology , Vol.  87 No.  4 , pp.  655 - 666 .

Tan , J.A.C. , Härtel , C.E.J. , Panipucci , D. and Strybosch , V.E. ( 2005 ), “ The effect of emotions in cross-cultural expatriate experiences ”, Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal , Vol.  12 No.  2 , pp.  4 - 15 .

Templer , K. ( 2010 ), “ Personal attributes of expatriate managers, subordinate ethnocentrism, and expatriate success: a host-country perspective ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  21 No.  10 , pp.  1754 - 1768 .

Tenzer , H. and Schuster , T. ( 2016 ), “ Language barriers in different forms of international assignments ”, in Bader , B. , Schuster , T. and Bader , A.K. (Eds), Expatriate Management: Transatlantic Dialogues , Palgrave Macmillan , Basingstoke , pp.  63 - 100 .

Thite , M. , Srinivasan , V. , Harvey , M. and Valk , R. ( 2009 ), “ Expatriates of host-country origin: ‘coming home to test the waters’ ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  20 No.  2 , pp.  269 - 285 .

Thomas , K. ( 1996 ), “ Psychological privilege and ethnocentrism as barriers to cross-cultural adjustment and effective intercultural interaction ”, Leadership Quarterly , Vol.  7 No.  2 , pp.  215 - 228 .

Thomas , J. and Harden , A. ( 2008 ), “ Methods for the thematic synthesis of qualitative research in systematic reviews ”, BMC Medical Research Methodology , Vol.  8 No.  1 , pp. 1 - 10 .

Thorndike , E.L. ( 1910 ), “ The contribution of psychology to education ”, Journal of Educational Psychology , Vol.  1 No.  1 , pp.  5 - 8 .

Toh , S. and Denisi , A. ( 2005 ), “ A local perspective to expatriate success ”, Academy of Management Executive , Vol.  19 No.  1 , pp.  132 - 146 .

Toh , S. and Denisi , A. ( 2007 ), “ Host country nationals as socializing agents: a social identity approach ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol.  28 No.  3 , pp.  281 - 301 .

Toh , S.M. , Denisi , A.S. and Leonardelli , G.J. ( 2012 ), “ The perspective of host country nationals in socializing expatriates: the importance of foreign-local relations ”, in Wanberg , C. (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Socialization , Oxford University Press , New York, NY , pp.  230 - 249 , doi: 10.1093/Oxfordhb/9780199763672.013.0012 .

Tolbert , P.S. and Zucker , L.G. ( 1996 ), “ The institutionalization of institutional theory ”, in Clegg , S.R. , Hard , C. and Nord , W.R. (Eds), Handbook of Organization Studies , SAGE , Thousand Oaks, CA , pp.  175 - 190 .

Traavik , L. and Richardsen , A. ( 2010 ), “ Career success for international professional women in the land of the equal? Evidence from Norway ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  21 No.  15 , pp.  2798 - 2812 .

Tranfield , D. , Denyer , D. and Smart , P. ( 2003 ), “ Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review ”, British Journal of Management , Vol.  14 No.  3 , pp.  207 - 222 .

Tsegaye , W. , Su , Q. and Ouyang , Z. ( 2018 ), “ Expatriates' success in Ethiopia: empirical evidence on the overlooked impact of cultural value alignment ”, Journal of Psychology in Africa , Vol.  28 No.  6 , pp.  444 - 448 .

Tsui , A.S. and O'reilly , C.A. III ( 1989 ), “ Beyond simple demographic effects: the importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol.  32 No.  2 , pp.  402 - 423 .

Tung , R.L. ( 1981 ), “ Selection and training of personnel for overseas assignments ”, Columbia Journal of World Business , Vol.  16 No.  1 , pp.  68 - 78 .

Tungli , Z. and Peiperl , M. ( 2009 ), “ Expatriate practices in German, Japanese, UK, and US multinational companies: a comparative survey of changes ”, Human Resource Management , Vol.  48 No.  1 , pp.  153 - 171 .

Turban , D. and Dougherty , T. ( 1994 ), “ Role of protégé personality in receipt of mentoring and career success ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol.  37 No.  3 , pp.  688 - 702 .

Tyler , T.R. and Lind , E.A. ( 1992 ), “ A relational model of authority in groups ”, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology , Academic Press , Vol.  25 , pp.  115 - 191 .

Valk , R. ( 2021 ), “ Working effectively and living contentedly in a foreign country: what human capital do expatriates require and develop? ”, Journal of Global Mobility , Vol.  9 No.  2 , pp.  241 - 263 .

Valk , R. , van Engen , M.L. and van der Velde , M. ( 2014 ), “ International careers and career success of Indian women in science and technology: the importance of career capital and organizational capital ”, South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management , Vol.  1 No.  2 , pp.  175 - 205 .

Van Bakel , M. ( 2019 ), “ It takes two to tango: a review of the empirical research on expatriate-local interactions ”, International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  30 No.  21 , pp.  2993 - 3025 .

van Bakel , M. and Salzbrenner , S. ( 2019 ), “ Going abroad to play: motivations, challenges, and support of sports expatriates ”, Thunderbird International Business Review , Vol.  61 No.  3 , pp.  505 - 517 .

Van Bakel , M. , Gerritsen , M. and van Oudenhoven , J.P. ( 2011 ), “ Impact of a local host on the success of an international assignment ”, Thunderbird International Business Review , Vol.  53 No.  3 , pp.  391 - 402 .

Van den Bergh , R. and Du Plessis , Y. ( 2012 ), “ Highly skilled migrant women: a career development framework ”, Journal of Management Development , Vol.  31 No.  2 , pp.  142 - 158 .

Van der Laken , P. , Van Engen , M. , Van Veldhoven and , M. and Paauwe , J. ( 2016 ), “ Expatriate support and success: a systematic review of organization-based sources of social support ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  4 No.  4 , pp.  408 - 431 .

Van der Laken , P. , Van Engen , M. , Van Veldhoven and , M. and Paauwe , J. ( 2019 ), “ Fostering expatriate success: a meta-analysis of the differential benefits of social support ”, Human Resource Management Review , Vol.  29 No.  4 , 100679 .

Van Eck , N. and Waltman , L. ( 2010 ), “ Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping ”, Scientometrics , Vol.  84 No.  2 , pp.  523 - 538 .

Van Oudenhoven , J. , Van Der Zee , K. and Van Kooten , M. ( 2001 ), “ Successful adaptation strategies according expatriates ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  25 No.  5 , pp.  467 - 482 .

Van Oudenhoven-Van Der Zee , K.I. and Van Oudenhoven , J.P. ( 2000 ), “ The multicultural personality questionnaire: a multidimensional instrument of multicultural effectiveness ”, European Journal of Personality , Vol.  14 No.  4 , pp.  291 - 309 .

Van Vianen , A.E.M. , De Pater , I.E. and Caligiuri , P.M. ( 2008 ), “ Expatriate selection: a process approach ”, in Evers , A. , Anderson , N. and Voskuijl , O. (Eds), The Blackwell Handbook of Personnel Selection , Blackwell Publishing , Oxford , pp.  458 - 475 .

Vance , C.M. and Ensher , E.A. ( 2002 ), “ The voice of the host country workforce: a key source for improving the effectiveness of expatriate training and performance ”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations , Vol.  26 No.  4 , pp.  447 - 461 .

Varma , A. and Stroh , L.K. ( 2001 ), “ Different perspectives on selection for international assignments: the impact of LMX and gender ”, Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal , Vol.  8 , pp.  85 - 97 .

Varma , A. , Grodzicki , J. , Pichler , S. , Kupferer , S. and Ramaswami , A. ( 2012 ), “ Expatriate categorization and evaluation: an empirical investigation in Poland and India ”, European Journal of International Management , Vol.  6 No.  1 , pp.  63 - 82 .

Varner , I.I. and Palmer , T.M. ( 2005 ), “ Role of cultural self-knowledge in successful expatriation ”, Singapore Management Review , Vol.  27 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 26 .

Veach , T. ( 2012 ), “ The comparative roles of third country nationals (TCNs) and host country nationals (HCNs) in expatriate adjustment: a theoretical approach ”, The Journal of Business Education , Vol.  26 No.  1 , pp.  173 - 192 .

Vernon , R. ( 1966 ), “ International investment and international trade in the product cycle ”, Quarterly Journal of Economics , Vol.  80 , pp.  190 - 207 .

Vora , D. and Kainzbauer , A. ( 2020 ), “ Humanistic leadership in Thailand: a mix of indigenous and global aspects using a cross-cultural perspective ”, Cross Cultural and Strategic Management , Vol.  27 No.  4 , pp.  665 - 687 .

Vondracek , F.W. and Schulenberg , J.E. ( 1986 ), “ Career development in adolescence: some conceptual and intervention issues ”, Vocational Guidance Quarterly , Vol.  34 No.  4 , pp.  247 - 254 .

Vroom , V.H. ( 1964 ), Work and Motivation , Wiley & Sons , New York, NY .

Wan , H. ( 2019 ), “ Global human resources: a key to mission accomplishment ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  7 No.  1 , pp.  5 - 26 .

Wang , C. and Varma , A. ( 2018 ), “ A process model of how interpersonal interaction leads to effectiveness of the expatriate-host country national relationship: an intergroup contact perspective ”, Cross Cultural and Strategic Management , Vol.  25 No.  4 , pp.  670 - 689 .

Ward , C. , Leong , C. and Low , M. ( 2004 ), “ Personality and sojourner adjustment - an exploration of the big five and the cultural fit proposition ”, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , Vol.  35 No.  2 , pp.  137 - 151 .

Waxin , M.-F. and Brewster , C. ( 2020 ), “ The impact of host country characteristics on self-initiated expatriates' career success ”, in Andresen , M. , Brewster , C. and Suutari , V. (Eds), Self-Initiated Expatriates in Context: Recognizing Space, Time, and Institutions , Routledge , New York , pp.  38 - 54 .

Wayne , S.J. , Shore , L.M. and Liden , R.C. ( 1997 ), “ Perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange: a social exchange perspective ”, Academy of Management Journal , Vol.  40 No.  1 , pp.  82 - 111 .

Wayne , S.J. , Liden , R.C. , Kraimer , M.L. and Graf , I.K. ( 1999 ), “ The role of human capital, motivation and supervisor sponsorship in predicting career success ”, Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol.  20 No.  5 , pp.  577 - 595 .

Webb , A. and Wright , P.C. ( 1996 ), “ The expatriate experience: implications for career success ”, Career Development International , Vol.  1 No.  5 , pp.  38 - 44 .

Webber , E.-L. and Vögel , A.J. ( 2019 ), “ The preparation, training and support requirements of expatriate trailing spouses ”, South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences , Vol.  22 No.  1 , pp.  1 - 10 .

Weisheit , J. ( 2018 ), “ Should I stay or should I go? A systematic literature review about the conceptualization and measurement of international relocation mobility readiness ”, Journal of Global Mobility-The Home of Expatriate Management Research , Vol.  6 No.  2 , pp.  129 - 157 .

Westman , M. ( 2001 ), “ Stress and strain crossover ”, Human Relations , Vol.  54 No.  6 , pp.  717 - 751 .

Westman , M. , Vinokur , A.D. , Hamilton , V.L. and Roziner , I. ( 2004 ), “ Crossover of marital dissatisfaction during military downsizing among Russian army officers and their spouses ”, Journal of Applied Psychology , Vol.  89 No.  5 , pp.  769 - 779 .

Wilber , K. ( 1995 ), “ An informal overview of transpersonal studies ”, The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology , Vol.  27 No.  2 , pp.  107 - 129 .

Wilber , K. ( 2000 ), “ Waves, streams, states and self. Further considerations for an integral theory of consciousness ”, Journal of Consciousness Studies , Vol.  7 Nos 11-12 , pp.  145 - 176 .

Wilber , K. ( 2016 ), Integral Meditation: Mindfulness as a Way to Grow up, Wake up, and Show up in Your Life , Shambhala Publications , Boulder CO .

Windiarti , I. , Ferris , T. and Berryman , M. ( 2014 ), “ Factors influencing cross-cultural adaptation process in systems engineering practice performed by Indonesian expatriate engineers ”, in Cook , S. , Ireland , V. , Gorod , A. , Ferris , T. and Do , Q. (Eds), Proceedings of The 2014 9th International Conference on System of Systems Engineering (SOSE 2014) , pp.  37 - 42 .

Winkler , I. ( 2010 ), Contemporary Leadership Theories: Enhancing the Understanding of the Complexity, Subjectivity and Dynamic of Leadership , Springer Science & Business Media , New York NY .

Woodard , G. , Kincade , D. and Owens , S. ( 1997 ), “ Selection, training, and company-support systems of expatriate employees in the textile and apparel industry ”, Journal of The Textile Institute , Vol.  88 No.  2 , pp.  137 - 145 .

Woodard , G. , Kincade , D.H. and Owens , S. ( 2002 ), “ Training of expatriates in the textile and apparel industries ”, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal , Vol.  20 No.  4 , pp.  227 - 237 .

Wright , P.M. and McMahan , G.C. ( 1992 ), “ Theoretical perspectives for strategic human resource management ”, Journal of Management , Vol.  18 No.  2 , pp.  295 - 320 .

Wu , W.Y. , Lee , L.Y. and Pham , T.T. ( 2020 ), “ Examining the influence of expatriates' social capital and knowledge-sharing behavior on financial performance ”, International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol.  28 No.  3 , pp.  557 - 577 .

Xiao , Y. and Watson , M. ( 2019 ), “ Guidance on conducting a systematic literature review ”, Journal of Planning Education and Research , Vol.  39 No.  1 , pp.  93 - 112 .

Yan , A. , Zhu , G. and Hall , D.T. ( 2002 ), “ International assignments for career building: a model of agency relationships and psychological contracts ”, Academy of Management Review , Vol.  27 No.  3 , pp.  373 - 391 .

Yeaton , K. and Hall , N. ( 2008 ), “ Expatriates: reducing failure rates ”, Journal of Corporate Accounting and Finance , Vol.  19 No.  3 , pp.  75 - 78 .

Zainol , H. , Tambi , A.M.A. and Abdul-Aziz , A.-R. ( 2013 ), “ The preparedness of Malaysian multinational construction companies (MNCCs) in providing pre-departure and non-technical trainings for their expatriates ”, World Applied Sciences Journal , Vol.  25 No.  3 , pp.  391 - 398 .

Zainol , H. , Wahid , A.M.A. , Ahmad , A.C. , Tharim , A.H.A. and Ismail , N. ( 2014 ), “ The influence of work adjustment of malaysian expatriate executives in Malaysian construction companies overseas ”, E3S Web of Conferences , Vol.  3 , pp.  1020 - 1039 .

Zainol , H. , Tambi , A. , Ali , N. and Azami , H. ( 2020 ), “ Expatriates' psychological distress components of Malaysian construction company in host country ”, Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal , Vol.  5 No.  14 , pp.  53 - 58 .

Zhang , Y. , Zhu , J. , Xu , N. , Duan , S.X. and Huang , X. ( 2021 ), “ Optimal selection of expatriates for cross-border assignment to enhance manufacturing efficiency ”, International Journal of Production Economics , Vol.  232 , 107926 .

Zhou , Y. ( 2021 ), “ An empirical study on expatriation success of MNCs: evidence from Japan ”, International Journal of Manpower , Vol.  42 No.  3 , pp.  394 - 408 .

Zhu , J. , Song , L. , Zhu , L. and Johnson , R. ( 2019 ), “ Visualizing the landscape and evolution of leadership research ”, The Leadership Quarterly , Vol.  30 No.  2 , pp.  215 - 232 .

Zikic , J. ( 2014 ), “ Skilled migrants' career capital as a source of competitive advantage: implications for strategic HRM ”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management , Vol.  26 No.  10 , pp.  1360 - 1381 .

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend gratitude to the editor in chief, associate editor as well as to one of the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments, feedback and support. The authors greatly appreciate all their guidance.

Corresponding author

About the authors.

Nour R. El Amine is a PhD candidate in Management at the University of Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona (Spain). Her research mainly focuses on expatriates (organisational, self-initiated, military and peacekeeping), how they identify themselves and how that subsequently clarifies how they define success. Nour has presented her work at various conferences such as the British Academy of Management (BAM), European Academy of Management (EURAM), ACEDE - Spanish Academy of Management and others.

Rosalía Cascón-Pereira (PhD) is Associate Professor in HRM and OB at University Rovira i Virgili, in Tarragona (Spain). As a professional hybrid (economist and health psychologist), her research focuses on social identity in its multiple manifestations: professional, cultural, chronically ill, religious, ethical consumer and expatriates' identities. Other research interests are in workplace meetings, emotions, meanings and healthcare management research. Her articles have been published in journals such as Organisation Studies, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, British Journal of Management, Journal of Consumer Culture, Journal of Pain, Business Research Quarterly, Social Science and Medicine, Thinking Skills and Creativity, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, etc. She develops her professional career also as an HR consultant.

Related articles

All feedback is valuable.

Please share your general feedback

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

Contact Customer Support

Expatriate Management: A Review and Directions for Research in Expatriate Selection, Training, and Repatriation

16 Citations

Defining the r&d expatriate assignment strategies of globalized high technology enterprises by hybrid mcdm models.

The long-term effects of international work experience on the career success of expatriates

Using fuzzy cognitive maps to explore the dynamic impact on management team resilience in international construction projects, the origin and nationality of general manager successors in local-market-seeking mne subsidiaries, how do cultural difference, cultural exposure, and cq affect interpretations of trust from contract choices evidence from dyadic cross-country experiments, multiple aspects of readjustment experienced by international repatriates in multinational enterprises: a perspective of ‘changes occurring over time’ and ‘changes due to cultural differences’, impact of health and recreation on work-life balance: a case study of expatriates., educational interventions for international medical graduates: a review and agenda, expatriate adjustment: considerations for selection and training, west meets east identifying the gap in current cross-cultural training research, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

IMAGES

  1. (PDF) Expatriate Management -India

    expatriate management research papers

  2. (PDF) Expatriate Management

    expatriate management research papers

  3. The framework of planning the expatriate management

    expatriate management research papers

  4. (PDF) Expatriate management in emerging economy multinational

    expatriate management research papers

  5. Expatriate Management: A Review and Directions for Research in Expatri

    expatriate management research papers

  6. Figure 1 from One way or another? An international comparison of

    expatriate management research papers

VIDEO

  1. Expatriate Management and Recruitment

  2. How much does management matter? Evidence from India

  3. EFPM at ISB

  4. Expatriate Compensation Worksheet

  5. REVIEW JURNAL KELOMPOK 5 (MANAJEMEN SDM INTERNASIONAL)

  6. LOVE+RELO: LIVE from Dallas at the FEM Conference

COMMENTS

  1. Experimental research in expatriation and its challenges: A ...

    investigate the phenomena in expatriate management using different methodologies not only for better replicability and convergence but also to compensate for the limitations of each method.

  2. Managing expatriates to achieve mutual benefits: An ...

    Embracing a mutual-benefit perspective of expatriation management, this study argues that multinational enterprises (MNEs) seeking to build a sustainable expatriation management system should address the goals of both expatriates and organisations simultaneously.

  3. Sustainable Expatriate Management: Rethinking International ...

    How to embrace the UN SDGs in expatriate management and join the sustainable global mobility movement by redesigning the expat life cycle with ecological, social, and economic systems in mind. By Marina A. Schmitz, Enno Ommen & 1 more.

  4. Expatriates' families: A systematic literature review and ...

    We undertake a systematic review of 151 articles on expatriates' families published between 2006 and 2020 in peer-reviewed academic journals in Business and Management, Medicine, Psychology, and Decision Sciences.

  5. What is expatriate management? | Emerald Insight

    Expatriate management is a concept that may include two different activities: management of expatriates and management by expatriates. The former includes all the traditional activities undertaken by organizations to manage their assigned expatriates (AEs), from recruitment to repatriation.

  6. What does expatriate success mean? Developing a comprehensive ...

    A total of 249 empirical studies (quantitative 111, qualitative 50, mixed-methods 17), literature reviews (67) and meta-analyses (4) on expatriate success were reviewed from Web of Science and Scopus databases published from 1990 until December 2021.

  7. Expatriate Management: A New Perspective, an Exploratory Case ...

    Expatriation is challenging due to a high level of failure, resulting in high costs, high turnover rates, and underperformance. This qualitative exploratory case study included the investigation of senior leaders' perceptions of overcoming expatriate failure.

  8. Expatriate management : theory and research - Semantic Scholar

    Expatriate management : theory and research. Acculturation of expatriate managers - a process model of adjustment and performance, Zeynep Aycan rethinking the strategic management of expatriates from a nonlinear dynamics perspective, Mark E. Mendenhall and James H. Macomber personality determinants in the prediction of aspects of expatriate job ...

  9. Expatriate Management: A Review and Directions for Research ...

    This research aims to resolve the expatriate assignment problem by proposing a hybrid MCDM framework consisting of four dimensions, including background, capability, support and personality as well as sixteen criteria, including work experiences, education level, language skill, etc and demonstrates the feasibility of this framework.

  10. Performance Management for Expatriates | Request PDF

    This paper presents the results of an empirical study exploring the expatriate performance management systems of 16 Australian multinational firms operating in China.