second hand essay

Secondhand clothing sales are booming – and may help solve the sustainability crisis in the fashion industry

Associate Professor of Fashion Merchandising, Oklahoma State University

Disclosure statement

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Oklahoma State University provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

View all partners

A massive force is reshaping the fashion industry: secondhand clothing. According to a new report, the U.S. secondhand clothing market is projected to more than triple in value in the next 10 years – from US$28 billion in 2019 to US$80 billion in 2029 – in a U.S. market currently worth $379 billion . In 2019, secondhand clothing expanded 21 times faster than conventional apparel retail did.

Even more transformative is secondhand clothing’s potential to dramatically alter the prominence of fast fashion – a business model characterized by cheap and disposable clothing that emerged in the early 2000s, epitomized by brands like H&M and Zara. Fast fashion has grown exponentially over the last two decades, significantly altering the fashion landscape by producing more clothing, distributing it faster and encouraging consumers to buy in excess with low prices.

While fast fashion is expected to continue to grow 20% in the next 10 years , secondhand fashion is poised to grow 185% .

As researchers who study clothing consumption and sustainability, we think the secondhand clothing trend has the potential to reshape the fashion industry and mitigate the industry’s detrimental environmental impact on the planet.

The next big thing

The secondhand clothing market is composed of two major categories, thrift stores and resale platforms . But it’s the latter that has largely fueled the recent boom. Secondhand clothing has long been perceived as worn out and tainted, mainly sought by bargain or treasure hunters . However, this perception has changed, and now many consumers consider secondhand clothing to be of identical or even superior quality to unworn clothing. A trend of “fashion flipping” – or buying secondhand clothes and reselling them – has also emerged, particularly among young consumers.

Thanks to growing consumer demand and new digital platforms like Tradesy and Poshmark that facilitate peer-to-peer exchange of everyday clothing, the digital resale market is quickly becoming the next big thing in the fashion industry.

The market for secondhand luxury goods is also substantial. Retailers like The RealReal or the Vestiaire Collective provide a digital marketplace for authenticated luxury consignment, where people buy and sell designer labels such as Louis Vuitton, Chanel and Hermès. The market value of this sector reached $2 billion in 2019 .

The secondhand clothing trend also appears to be driven by affordability, especially now, during the COVID-19 economic crisis . Consumers have not only reduced their consumption of nonessential items like clothing , but are buying more quality garments over cheap, disposable attire.

For clothing resellers, the ongoing economic contraction combined with the increased interest in sustainability has proven to be a winning combination .

More mindful consumers?

The fashion industry has long been associated with social and environmental problems , ranging from poor treatment of garment workers to pollution and waste generated by clothing production.

Less than 1% of materials used to make clothing are currently recycled to make new clothing, a $500 billion annual loss for the fashion industry . The textile industry produces more carbon emissions than the airline and maritime industries combined . And approximately 20% of water pollution across the globe is the result of wastewater from the production and finishing of textiles.

Consumers have become more aware of the ecological impact of apparel production and are more frequently demanding apparel businesses expand their commitment to sustainability . Buying secondhand clothing could provide consumers a way to push back against the fast-fashion system.

Buying secondhand clothing increases the number of owners an item will have, extending its life – something that has been dramatically shortened in the age of fast fashion . (Worldwide, in the past 15 years, the average number of times a garment is worn before it’s trashed has decreased by 36%.)

High-quality clothing traded in the secondhand marketplace also retains its value over time , unlike cheaper fast-fashion products. Thus, buying a high-quality secondhand garment instead of a new one is theoretically an environmental win. But some critics argue the secondhand marketplace actually encourages excess consumption by expanding access to cheap clothing .

[ Deep knowledge, daily. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter .]

Our latest research supports this possibility . We interviewed young American women who regularly use digital platforms like Poshmark. They saw secondhand clothing as a way to access both cheap goods and ones they ordinarily could not afford. They did not see it as an alternative model of consumption or a way to decrease dependence on new clothing production.

Whatever the consumer motive, increasing the reuse of clothing is a big step toward a new normal in the fashion industry, though its potential to address sustainability woes remains to be seen.

• Sustainability
• Carbon emissions
• Water pollution
• Sustainable business
• Garment workers
• Louis Vuitton
• Fast fashion
• Fashion industry
• Young women
• Digital platforms
• Social problems
• Cheap clothing
• Environmental impact
• Affordability
• Secondhand clothing
• Consumer demand
• Clothing production
• Textile industry
• Ecological impact
• Apparel production

Clinical Trial Manager

PhD Scholarship

Senior Lecturer, HRM or People Analytics

Centre Director, Transformative Media Technologies

Postdoctoral Research Fellowship

Advantages and Disadvantages of Buying Second Hand Goods

Looking for advantages and disadvantages of Buying Second Hand Goods?

We have collected some solid points that will help you understand the pros and cons of Buying Second Hand Goods in detail.

But first, let’s understand the topic:

What is Buying Second Hand Goods?

Buying second hand goods means purchasing items that someone else has owned and used before, instead of buying brand new ones. This can include things like clothes, books, furniture, or electronics, often sold at lower prices.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Buying Second Hand Goods

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of Buying Second Hand Goods:

Advantages of Buying Second Hand Goods

Disadvantages of buying second hand goods.

You can view other “advantages and disadvantages of…” posts by clicking here .

If you have a related query, feel free to let us know in the comments below.

Also, kindly share the information with your friends who you think might be interested in reading it.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

10 Reasons to Buy Second Hand Rather Than New

With the introduction of mass, low-cost production, more and more people feel less incentivized to buy used products. Regardless, the market for thrift items holds strong 3 . Many of us have at least one item we purchased at an auction, a second-hand store, or a charity shop. So, why buy second-hand when you can buy new ones?

Buying used goods, especially clothes, doesn't necessarily mean you cannot afford something new. It could be that the items in second-hand shops may be rare vintage, limited in stock, or something of significant value that you may never have the opportunity to buy again if you miss out on it.

But the most important reason is the environmental cost you'll be saving. Whatever your reasons, choosing to shop for second-hand items is a great idea. They offer great value to you while doing the environment a huge favor.

When talking about second-hand items or going thrifting , we might easily think of clothes and garage sales. Yes, shopping at online thrift stores for second-hand clothing and other fashion items is most common.

But we can also buy items like furniture, books, electronics, baby gear, a new car, pre-owned gift cards, tools, kid's toys and home care items, musical instruments, collectible toys, video games, and many others second-hand. Many of these make for perfect secondhand gifts .

Buying these items from swap shops does not only save money when compared with what a new one costs. It also encourages reusing, which is sustainable for the environment. In other words, you are doing yourself and the environment some good when you shop for second-hand items. 

We have discovered that customers' environmental motivation and willingness to act sustainably are quite different. Why, then, should you buy used items when you can afford a new one (or not)? Here are a few reasons that are sustainable and environmentally friendly. 

Why You Should Buy Second Hand

1. Get high-quality products for a lower price.

This remains the driving force behind buying used rather than new. Many prefer buying clothes, handbags, furniture, and kids' items from thrift shops. Their reason is that several branded new items, especially clothes, are made with lesser quality materials and sold at high prices. 

Remember this the next time you want to buy some clothing, a book, furniture, electronics, and more. First, check out the thrift stores close to you, and you might find something you like more than the popular items. 

2. Decrease negative impact on the environment 

Our climate has, over time, experienced drastic changes due to our daily activities that have proven to be harmful and unsustainable. The fashion industry is the second-largest industry globally and the second-largest polluter of the environment . 

The production of cotton clothes consumes a lot of water and energy. When you buy and sell thrift clothes, shoes, bags, and other fashion items, you decrease the demand for new items hence, reducing the pressure on manufacturers to produce these items in large quantities. 

Furthermore, when you shop at local retail stores for secondhand goods, you support local businesses and help reduce emissions from shipping and traveling further afield. Purchasing locally is almost always better for the environment.

People who buy used cars help reduce the need for companies to source materials required to build the car and ship it around the world, thereby reducing pollution to some extent. According to a 2015 study, the demand for more new goods will decrease if there is a constant supply of used products that are still valuable. In other words, second-hand markets have a positive impact on the environment 1 . 

3. Discover some luxury brands

It's possible to find a lucky luxury when shopping second-hand. In fact, some people earn a side income by browsing for high-valued items and reselling them for a profit. You can buy those items you may only see online and are beyond your budget for less money or by using a gift card at a second-hand store. 

There are thousands of luxury products in stores like this, waiting for someone to rediscover them. Many of these stores have an app you can use to shop for these products.

You can find high-end designer outfits on eBay, Facebook, an online thrift shop, a garage sale, charity shops, or retail stores. And you might just find a rare vintage or luxury item you will love.

Instead of buying something new from fast fashion brands, buying secondhand clothes or products from a thrift store extends the life cycle of second-hand clothing or products, which is an incredible way to avoid waste pollution.

4. Avoid unethical and controlling strategies of manufacturers 

Second-hand shopping and ethical shopping work hand-in-hand. As a regular thrift shopper, you will be contributing less to the average output of manufacturers. This happens when we, as a global society, choose to buy fewer new products. Manufacturers make so much to sate a hungry market. Reduce the demand, and we reduce the activities that contribute to pollution and the degradation of our environment. 

Also, manufacturing strategies used by companies that mass-produce goods are not convenient and conducive for their workers. Increasing demand for these massed-produced goods will only support exploitative and unethical practices. Often, they defy human rights.

While there are good companies out there that are ethical and transparent with their methods and strategies, they are only a handful, and their products tend to be quite expensive, with their prices above what an average person can afford. 

So, each time you buy and sell used goods, you invest in building a fairer world by reducing sweatshops and slave labor. If we change our buying habits, then manufacturers will need to change their production strategies as well and produce more ethical fashion.

5. Decreases environmental pollution and saves resources

A considerable percentage of cotton grown for textile relies heavily on pesticides which acidify the soil and contaminate the nearby water supply.

One of many noteworthy fast fashion facts is that the industry produces about 20% of global wastewater and emits about 10% of global carbon emissions, which is more than what is emitted by maritime shipping and international flights when combined . This further proves how our activities cause more damage to the environment.

Rather than add to the problems, we can effect a change by adopting new buying habits to become sustainable and environmental-friendly.

Before buying those new clothes from your favorite retail store, think about the resources that went into their production and how we could have used them for an environmentally friendly cause. Even if purchasing from a sustainable clothing brand or one that champions eco-friendly production, manufacturing still requires energy and materials.

6. Extends the life of an item

Reusing ensures that we use items to their full capacity. Whether you cannot afford a brand new product or are environmentally conscious, build a habit of buying used.

Whether you shop secondhand to use that item, donate, or gift someone, you are making it useful and giving it a new life. Second-hand clothing also makes an excellent choice for upcycling clothes you already have through repair, patching, or restyling them.

If you buy it for personal use, make sure to use it with care. Keep the item in excellent condition so you can later donate, resell, or gift them.

Whichever you decide to do, the reuse and recycle process continues, making it one less item that would end up in a landfill.

Related: Check out our guides on how to clean used shoes , jewelry and wash thrifted clothes to ensure those new finds are sparkling for their first wear (and germ free).

7. Allows you to bargain for a better price

When you go to a garage sale to buy some thrift goods, everyone comes hoping to get a good deal. This includes both the buyer and the seller. Unlike mass-produced new goods that come with a fixed price, buying thrift goods allows you to bargain with the seller and saves you more money.

You can both negotiate on different products and come to an amount that works great for both of you. Although the seller may have fixed a price for each item, you can, in most cases, beat down the price.

8. Encourages community building 

It is almost impossible to buy used items from people regularly without building friendships and community relationships, one of the reasons thrifting has become so popular .

For instance, in the case of a garage sale, you may be inquisitive about the story behind certain items on sale. When you decide to ask the seller, it might stir up a conversation that will expand your perspective about an area and give you more reasons to buy from them.

Also, suppose you thrift shop regularly from a particular charity shop or thrift store around your area. In that case, you will likely become familiar with the salesperson, who may even give you a call each time there are new arrivals. 

Another community movement on the rise is "buy nothing new groups." Check if there is one already in your area, or you can set one up to facilitate second-hand trades, or start a buy-nothing-new challenge .

9. Support a good cause 

Many thrift stores donate some (or even all) of the money you spend on purchasing used clothing and other products to non-profit organizations.

When people donate their household goods and unwanted clothes to charities such as the Salvation Army and Goodwill Industries, the U.S. government offers tax incentives to these individuals. This helps reduce the portion of clothing and textiles that would otherwise go to landfills or incinerators and provides jobs for more people.

To make sure that your money is going to good causes, do some research on the thrift stores in your area. Ask them if they have any charity affiliations and how you, as a customer, can do more. This way, you'll spend money to buy things you need while also helping others with their needs. 

You can feel (and enjoy) the shopping thrill for different reasons, including doing something good for your community. And the data shows that buying from charity-focused thrift stores is indeed helpful 2 .  

10. Prevent waste 

The sixth-largest expenditure for households in Europe is buying clothes. Although this isn't a waste of household income, some of that money can do well for other needs. Also, the effect of having so many clothes on the environment is extremely high. The clothing industry creates a vast amount of waste in the supply chain and at the end of clothing life, where it often gets thrown away in any area. 

End-users prefer throwing a lot of their used clothes in dumpsites and landfills, and the impact of such actions is not sustainable. Regardless of its size, no country in the world has the land space to sustain this waste practice. The ECAP offers several solutions 4 , including the option to sell these clothes as second-hand clothes. 

Where To Buy Second-Hand Items

Consignment stores 

If you want to buy high-end brands or antique pieces for lower prices, then visit a consignment store or look for one near you. These stores help brands who want a place to store their goods while allowing them to keep the items' ownership right until it gets sold. 

Charity shops

Since most items sold here are donated, buying them is almost like making donations for a good cause. Most charity shops have a list of commodities like kids' clothing and other things they accept for donation, so check their website to know the categories of things they need. 

Vintage stores

They usually have a range of products that are quite rare. The rarity of these products makes them sell fast. Since a vintage store always posts newly available items, you should follow them on social media for updates. When you see something you like, make sure you buy it at that moment because many people may be interested in that product.

Online marketplaces

There are lots of online shops/platforms where you can get quality second-hand commodities. Some popular options are eBay, Craigslist, Poshmark, and Facebook's online marketplace. Our list of the best online thrift stores also offers more options.

And if you're looking for product-specific thrift products like second-hand baby equipment or sports gear, a quick Google search can help you find the right second-hand stores. 

There are many benefits when you shop secondhand. Purchasing a product that will serve its purpose for a long time is more sustainable than one you may need to change now and then. Items that last well enough for the owners to resell are often made using high-quality materials.

You can ditch the easy-to-break, mass-produced, low-quality stuff we often see in stores with second-hand items. Let us take suitcases, for instance. Some of us may have seen those of our parents and grandparents. These suitcases were constructed with durable and quality products, lasting long enough for us and even our kids to see. 

Beyond quality and durability, buying second-hand means you're playing your part in reducing waste. When you buy second-hand, you maximize the resources taken from the Earth and deviate from the throwaway culture.

Jen’s a passionate environmentalist and sustainability expert. With a science degree from Babcock University Jen loves applying her research skills to craft editorial that connects with our global changemaker and readership audiences centered around topics including zero waste, sustainability, climate change, and biodiversity.

Elsewhere Jen’s interests include the role that future technology and data have in helping us solve some of the planet’s biggest challenges.

• December 5, 2021

IELTS Writing Task 2 Sample: Buying Second-hand Products

In some countries, people are buying fewer new things and more second-hand things. 

What do you think are the reasons for this? Is it a positive or a negative trend?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience.

In some parts of the world, people prefer purchasing previously owned products over new ones. They opt to buy such items mainly for personal and financial reasons, and I firmly believe that this trend has far-reaching benefits.

There are two main reasons why many people believe that second-hand items are worth buying. First, such items usually come at a fraction of the price of brand-new products. For instance, people buy used vehicles to avoid the steep depreciation that occurs during the first few years of ownership, potentially saving them thousands of dollars. Second, some people believe that older items often come from a bygone era when quality was prized over quantity. This belief mainly stems from the fact that many new products, such as refrigerators, require costly regular maintenance, while the old ones continue to work without such requirements. Therefore, opting for quality used items is believed to help people be in a better financial standing at the end of the year.

The above-mentioned personal gains, in my opinion, are insignificant compared to the environmental and economic benefits of the second-hand economy, which supports my optimistic view of this tendency. From an environmental perspective, buying pre-owned products would decrease the demand for the manufacture of new ones, hence reducing the depletion rate of natural resources such as oil, water, and trees, which are used as raw materials. From an economic standpoint, such purchasing habits help local businesses to grow. For example, if a car manufacturing company received less local demand for new vehicles, it could focus more on export and expand into foreign markets, which will lead to more foreign currency earned. Eventually, all these benefits will improve the nation’s environmental and economic health.

In conclusion, the move toward purchasing pre-owned items is mainly due to the lower purchase costs and better reliability, and I think that its benefits positively impact the natural world and economy.

Personalized feedback and more guides:

Recent Posts

IELTS Writing Task 2 Sample: Taxing Fast Food

IELTS AC Writing Task 1 Sample Line Graph | TV News Broadcasting Time

IELTS Writing Task 2 Sample: Financial aid from developed countries to poor nations

IELTS Writing Task 2 Sample: Animals Living in Zoos

Esl fluency on facebook.

ESL Fluency on Instagram

Share this post with your friends

• Practice Test
• Useful Tips – Tricks
• Full Writing Review
• General Writing Task
• Writing Task 1

Writing Task 2

• Writing Exercises
• Writing Sample – Topics
• Writing Vocabulary
• Speaking Vocabulary
• Intro Question
• Speaking Part 1
• Speaking Part 2
• Speaking Part 2 – Audio
• Speaking Part 3
• IELTS Books
• Recent Exams
• IELTS Vocabulary
• Essay from Examiners
• IELTS Ideas

IELTS App - For Mobile

Ready for the IELTS exam with our IELTS app. Over 2 million downloads

Popular Last 24h

264 collocations for ielts speaking band 8(part 1), list of top 100 synonyms in the ielts test, ielts reading practice 117: the return of the huarango, ielts writing task 2 –  international sports event, ielts speaking part 1: topic music, ielts listening actual test 19 – full answer, [ebook] simon ielts writing task 1/ task 2 band 9.

• IELTS Test/Skills FAQs
• IELTS Scoring in Detail
• Forecast Speaking – 2023
• List IELTS Speaking Part 3
• List IELTS Speaking Part 1
• IELTS Writing 2023 – Actual Test

Our Telegram

Join our community for IELTS preparation and share and download materials.

The information on this site is for informational purposes only. IELTS is a registered trademark of the University of Cambridge ESOL, the British Council, and IDP Education Australia. This site and its owners are not affiliated, approved or endorsed by University of Cambridge ESOL, the British Council, or IDP Education Australia.

Latest Articles

Ielts speaking part 1: travelling by plane (c.19), ielts speaking part 1: international food (c.19), describe a book – part 1, 2, 3, ielts speaking part 3: tips to answer questions, cue card – describe a gift you bought for someone, most popular, describe a film that made you laugh, describe a person whom you met for the first time and made you happy, topic: experience is the best teacher, describe something difficult you would like to succeed in doing, in many countries，today there are many highly qualified graduates without employment..

ieltspracticeonline All Rights Reserved

Home / IELTS, CAE, FCE Writing Samples / IELTS Writing Task 2: Second-hand goods

IELTS Writing Task 2: Second-hand goods

Nowadays many people are buying fewer new things and more second hand goods. What are the possible reason for this trend? Is it positive or negative ?

The trend of purchasing used goods is on the rise in comparison with people buying brand new ones (1) . The main reason for this kind of trend is the reduced cost involved in buying second-hand goods (2) . In my view, this trend has an adverse effect on the whole society, as it promotes consumerism and fourfold the rubbish produced all over the world (3) . One of the reason for consumers to show a great deal of interest in used commodities is the cheaper rate involved in buying second-hand goods (4) . One’s a person purchase any goods and wish to re-sell it, minimum half of the price gets reduced on the goods purchased (5) . This promotes people from the middle class to get needed things at a reduced cost in comparison with original price involved in it (6) . A recent survey from the OLX (a website for selling used goods ) shows an overwhelming response from people in buying used things in comparison with first-hand commodities (7) . The amount of money incurred in purchasing second-hand goods is increasing drastically, which have a negative influence on the community (8) . This is because people are involved in purchasing things which are not necessary (9) . This kind of behaviour promotes people to discard the working replicas of things at home and buy new ones at discounted price (10) . As an adverse effect of this consumerism, the amount of rubbish produced all over the world has extensively increased. Furthermore, this has drawbacks on the environment as the landfills to fill rubbish is on the rise. In conclusion, the whole world has modelled buying second hand goods in comparison with first-hand things (11) . This can be attributed to the low cost involved in purchasing used commodities in contrast with the high price of getting new things. Though this trend looks beneficial to people, it has adverse ramification on the whole environment. 315 words

The commentaries are marked in brackets with number (*). The numbered commentaries are found below. The part in  italics  is taken from the text, the word  underlined  is the suggested correction. Words in (brackets) are the suggested addition to the original phrase or sentence.

• The trend of purchasing used goods is on the rise in comparison with people buying brand new ones — there are no actual mistakes here, but the reader has to make a logical leap to understand that ‘new ones’ is used in contrast to ‘used goods’.
• The main reason for this trend is the reduced cost involved in buying second-hand goods  —’kind of’ doesn’t add anything to the text. Avoid littering your text with padding phrases that do not introduce anything new. See concise writing .
• In my view, this trend has an adverse effect on the whole society, as it promotes consumerism and fourfold the rubbish produced all over the world  — you have used ‘trend’ three times in three successive sentences, all in your introductory paragraph. Consider using a synonym (e.g. ‘notion’, ‘tendency’) or rephrasing your ideas to avoid using this word.
• One of the reasons for consumers to show a great deal of interest in used commodities is the lower prices of   second-hand goods  — ‘One of the reasons’ — one of many reasons. I have altered the second part of the text (underlined) — don’t make it complicated just for the sake of puzzling your reader. Stick to simpler constructions unless you are sure they won’t cause any confusion.
• One is that when a person buys and unwraps a brand-new item, its resale value goes down by at least 50% .— I get what you meant here and corrected the sentence accordingly.
• This  encourages people from the middle class to get needed things at a reduced cost in comparison with original price involved in it. — I have suggested a more suitable verb. You should also consider dropping the part after ‘cost’ as it doesn’t add anything new.
• A recent survey by  OLX (a website for selling used goods ) shows an overwhelming number of people buying used things in comparison with first-hand commodities  — a survey is held by someone. You don’t need a definite article here — see this entry on English articles basics .
• The amount of money involved  in purchasing second-hand goods is increasing drastically, which has a negative influence on the community  — ‘incurred’ has a different meaning. ‘To have’ in the second clause refers to the situation of increasing, which is singular.
• This is because people are involved in purchasing things which are not necessary — it is unclear what is not necessary — the things or the people.
• This kind of behaviour promotes people to discard the working replicas of things at home and buy new ones at discounted price — what are ‘the working replicas’? I haven’t corrected this but it has to be rephrased.
• In conclusion, the whole world has modelled buying second hand goods in comparison with first-hand things — I can only guess that ‘to model’ here means ‘to show, to demonstrate’. I didn’t correct it as I’m unsure what the author meant by it. As an addition, I wouldn’t use ‘first-hand’ to imply that the item wasn’t pre-owned. Stick to a more widely accepted ‘new’, ‘brand-new’.

While text has an adequate structuring and acceptable idea-development, multiple vocabulary inaccuracies make it difficult to understand. An extensive use of padding constructions (e.g. “This promotes people from the middle class to get needed things at a reduced cost in comparison with original price involved in it “) will drive the overall mark even lower. Consider using simpler constructions and breaking longer sentences into shorter ones.

26 Key Pros & Cons Of Buying Secondhand Products

Pros and cons of secondhand products & used goods.

Buying secondhand products has become increasingly popular over the past years.

Many people become more aware of our environmental problems and want to make a positive contribution to protect our planet.

Moreover, used goods are usually much cheaper compared to new ones and you can save plenty of money in the long run by relying on second-hand products.

Please enable JavaScript

Audio Lesson

Advantages of buying used goods, you can save significant amounts of money by buying second-hand products.

In fact, while you have to spend large amounts of money on things when you buy them new, you can get the same items almost for free if you buy them used.

Quite often, there is also a free section and if you don’t want to spend any money at all, you will find plenty of free stuff which is often also in quite good condition.

More efficient resource use

In my opinion, this is just a huge unnecessary waste of our natural resources and we should buy much more used items in order to use our natural resources as efficiently as possible.

Can help to mitigate the resource depletion issue

If we continue as we did in the past decades, chances are that many fossil resources will become depleted quite soon in the future.

Our natural resources are not only crucial for the production of many things of our daily lives, they are also crucial when it comes to ensuring the supply of important medical devices and also to assure rapid technological progress.

Buying second-hand can help to reduce air pollution

In the production process of our material goods, significant amounts of harmful gases and particles are emitted into our air, which greatly lower our overall air quality.

In turn, this can lead to serious health problems like lung cancer or asthma in the long run.

By doing so, we have to produce fewer new products and can significantly reduce our overall emission levels.

Can slow down global warming to a certain extent

Used goods are often of quite good quality.

In our current state of the world, many people, especially in our rich Western world, buy excessive amounts of material things on a regular basis.

You can do the previous owner a favor

In fact, those people would often have a much better time to give those things away in order to get more space.

Hence, not only can you do yourself and our environment a huge favor by buying used, you can also do your neighbors a favor by buying from garage sales.

Significant waste reduction

Less need for environmental dumping.

Environmental dumping refers to a state where the rich Western world ships its trash to poor developing countries in order to get rid of it.

Therefore, in order to avoid environmental dumping and to improve the overall living conditions of people in poor parts of our planet, we should refrain from buying new things and use our old things as efficiently as possible.

Insurance premiums may be lower

You will become more aware of our environmental problems, buying used products is good for our environment.

As we have seen before, buying secondhand products can not only save you plenty of money, it can also do many good things for our environment in general.

Hence, if you want to do good for our planet and if you want to ensure a livable future for the next generations, go for used things instead of buying unnecessary new versions of them.

You can be a positive role model for your kids

Buying used can help you get a clean conscience, disadvantages of second-hand products, no warranty on used products.

For example, one problem with buying secondhand products is that you will often get no warranty at all.

Some second-hand products no longer work properly

Used products may be less reliable.

In the case of a car breakdown, you may miss important meetings at work and may get fired in the worst case.

You may also miss the birthday of your child or several other important occasions.

Lifespans of used goods may be rather limited

Getting secondhand products can be time-consuming.

You will often have a huge variety of products you can choose from and it will not take too much time until you find something you really like.

Moreover, once you see those products in person, you will often also be disappointed since those products looked much nicer on picture.

Limited variety of used goods

Some second-hand items are damaged.

Thus, make sure that you try those products and make that they are working in order to avoid any unpleasant surprises later on.

Fewer goods for charity

In fact, if we use our goods more efficiently and for longer periods of time, there will be fewer material things that people donate.

In turn, people who rely on those welfare programs may have a quite hard time since they will no longer have access to goods they urgently need for their daily lives.

Problems with bacteria and germs

Thus, if you buy used things that are rather dirty and scruffy, chances are that you will even be at risk to catch a disease.

Many people still consider new products to be status symbols

Used products may be unhygienic.

In fact, many people don’t want to use couches or beds which had been used before due to potential hygienic problems.

Flaws of used products may be invisible

Hence, if you want to rely on used products, make sure that they work in a proper manner before deciding to buy them.

Top 10 Secondhand Products Pros & Cons – Summary List

Should You Buy Second-Hand Products?

As we can see from the discussion before, there are numerous advantages and disadvantages of buying used goods.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Used_good

https://moneyning.com/shopping-smart/5-common-sense-tips-for-buying-used-goods-online/

My name is Andreas and my mission is to educate people of all ages about our environmental problems and how everyone can make a contribution to mitigate these issues.

After finishing university, I traveled around the world. From this time on, I wanted to make a contribution to ensure a livable future for the next generations in every part of our beautiful planet.

Affiliate Disclosure

Pin it on pinterest.

Second-Hand Products Essays

This study investigates the impact of online reviews and wom on consumer purchase intention of second-hand products on ebay., popular essay topics.

• American Dream
• Artificial Intelligence
• Black Lives Matter
• Bullying Essay
• Career Goals Essay
• Causes of the Civil War
• Child Abusing
• Civil Rights Movement
• Community Service
• Cultural Identity
• Cyber Bullying
• Death Penalty
• Depression Essay
• Domestic Violence
• Freedom of Speech
• Global Warming
• Gun Control
• Human Trafficking
• I Believe Essay
• Immigration
• Importance of Education
• Israel and Palestine Conflict
• Leadership Essay
• Legalizing Marijuanas
• Mental Health
• National Honor Society
• Police Brutality
• Pollution Essay
• Racism Essay
• Romeo and Juliet
• Same Sex Marriages
• Social Media
• The Great Gatsby
• The Yellow Wallpaper
• Time Management
• To Kill a Mockingbird
• Violent Video Games
• What Makes You Unique
• Why I Want to Be a Nurse
• Send us an e-mail

Shopping Second-Hand Vs. Buying New: What’s Better?

Admittedly, I haven’t been one to appreciate the art of shopping second-hand.

The thought of buying something used was always a little off-putting to me.

Since becoming a minimalist , this didn’t change much, as I associated people who shop second hand, with people who have a lot of things.

It’s the constant “looking” for bargains, that separates frugal living and minimalist living .

Beyond that, I just like new things. I like knowing that I’m the first person to use a product fresh out of the packaging. It makes me feel like I’m in control of my purchase.

But the mentality of wanting new things hasn’t served me or the environment well over the years. My desire for new, led me to debt and supporting industries that generate waste and unethical practices.

If you’ve been following this blog, you’ll know that we have plans of eventually moving to Europe. We’ll be taking everything we can from Australia, but inevitably, we’ll need to to buy some basics for our new home.

Will we buy new or used to fit out our apartment? And when it comes to living a minimalist, vegan and sustainable lifestyle, is shopping second hand better than buying new?

These are the types of questions we’ll need to address. And that’s what I’m about to answer in this post.

I’m going to kick off with some genuine concerns about second-hand shopping, before discussing the benefits of buying used, and some tips to get started.

Concerns about shopping second-hand

I’ve already touched on my resistance to buying used things, but I want to unpack that fully. The reasons for not wanting to shop second-hand play a massive role in how we can shift our paradigm.

Not going to find what you want

It’s hard enough trying to find a product new. Then you add the complexity of finding products that are ethical, sustainable and vegan-friendly, and things just got a lot harder.

THEN you remove all new products from your options, and things get harder again. This is perhaps my greatest fear when thinking about shopping second-hand.

So much more time and research need to go into shopping for things, quite often with no result. If you’re already time-poor, this idea is terrifying!

Read more: 15 Minimalist Shopping Tips To Help You Master Your Temptations Today

You may receive a faulty product

When you buy brand new, you’re generally supported by some warranty or consumer law. So if your product is defective, you can return, exchange or get it repaired.

When shopping second-hand, there isn’t the same level of accountability, which means more risk.

Can you trust the seller?

Many transactions involving used items are conducted between two individuals as opposed to an individual and a business.

An established business has its reputation to uphold, so they do everything they can to build trust with their customers.

When you interact with someone on an online marketplace or in person, with little chance of seeing them again, there’s no incentive for the seller to build trust with the buyer.

As someone who used to work in technology, I’ve seen countless examples of someone buying a used iPhone, only to find out that there was a hard lock on the device, and they couldn’t access it. When the buyer tried to reach out to the seller, there was no response. So in the end, they purchased an unusable phone. Not cool!

Compromised condition

Some people want to control the whole experience of buying a product and are happy to pay more for something new.

The moment a product is used, the condition will never be the same. We see this a lot in the car industry. As soon as you drive a new car out of the showroom, the value drops significantly.

This is something you have to come to terms with if you’re going to start shopping second-hand.

Is the product genuine?

If you have plans of on-selling your second-hand good, a big part of retaining value is going to come down to the integrity of the product.

Some products, like genuine sneakers, can appreciate depending on the market trends. So product integrity becomes even more critical in this context.

Buying second-hand makes it harder to validate the integrity of the product you’re buying.

Shorter lifespan

When shopping second hand, you’re buying a used product. It’s only logical to presume that life in the product is less than what it was if you were to purchase the product new.

With a tighter lifespan, you’ll need to buy more frequently, thus increasing your consumption habits.

Benefits of shopping second-hand

Okay, so now that I’ve covered off on the concerns of shopping second-hand, it’s time to get into some legitimate reasons why we should buy second-hand.

Extend the lifecycle of a product

Considering the lifecycle of a product, even before you purchase it is something we’ve advocated for some time .

Thinking about the lifecycle, pushes us to consider the quality, how we plan to use it if it’s repairable, and how we’ll discard it once we’ve used it to its capacity.

One of the options of discarding a product is to on-sell or give it away. Even though you no longer need it, someone else might. This is a far more sustainable alternative to throwing products in the trash, contributing to the incredible waste.

This point in itself should be motivating enough to buy more second-hand goods.

Slow down consumption

Extending the lifecycle of products also means slowing down the rate of excessive consumption, which means less waste, emissions, unfair wages and animal cruelty.

Instead of generating waste, we’re creating a circular economy of re-distributing “would-be” discarded products and giving them a new life.

The knock-on effect is that the demand for new products would decrease, which would force producers to reduce their supply.

Ultimately, shopping second-hand means that we’re more resourceful as a society.

Encourages community building

Earlier I mentioned the risks associated with dealing with people-to-people transactions instead of people-to-business transactions.

However, that’s only looking at the worst-case scenario. For as many bad transactions we have with second-hand deals, there are ten more positive ones. Okay, I just made that number up. But it feels about right 🙂

So what’s so good about these dealings? Well, buying and selling from other people builds a sense of community.

For example, we sold our bed frame to some guy on Facebook. He brought over a truck to pick up the bed. In the 20 minutes he was in our home, he helped us to dismantle the bed, he bought a few more other items, and we were able to talk about the history of the things he just bought from us.

Furthermore, he happened to share a lot of views on the world as we do, so we had a stimulating conversation about macro-level consumerism.

It doesn’t seem like much, but in that 20-minute interaction we:

• Sold more things we wanted to get rid of, instead of creating more waste
• We met a new person who expanded our perspective
• He validated to himself that buying a bed frame second-hand was the right decision
• We proved to ourselves that persisting in selling things second-hand was the right decision
• The bed gets to have a new life thus extending its life

Buying and selling amongst each other while inconvenient at times is an incredibly humanising experience.

You may not always get what you want, and that’s a good thing

Wait, why would it be a good thing not to get what you want?

See, when buying an item brand new, you know exactly what you’re getting. Certainty is the expectation.

But when you buy a used product, quite often, you need to settle for something that you wouldn’t have otherwise bought.

In the family home I grew up in, we’ve had a total of three lounge sets between 1994 and today. The first of which was a second-hand set my parents bought. It had a pinkish, purple colour, and I vividly remember the cigarette burn on the single-recliner chair.

The latter purchases were brand new. Do you want to know which lounge I liked the most? You go it, the second-hand one.

And it’s not because of the memories associated with that specific couch, although there are many great ones! It’s because it was by far the most comfortable couch we ever owned—and I was sad to see it go.

I share this story because I imagine you’ve been pleasantly surprised with a second-hand purchase before. You naturally lower your expectations when you buy used products, and that’s a good thing.

We put so much pressure in finding the perfect product when shopping for new things, and sometimes that means we don’t appreciate the purchase as much—because we expect it to perform. I mean, it better, considering how much we paid for it!

There’s a real sense of pride in thrifting an item that over-delivers.

It’s cheaper to buy second-hand

Ha! You would have thought this would be the first benefit I mentioned.

It’s undeniable, buying used is more affordable than buying new. That’s why many of us shop second-hand.

You can save yourself thousands of dollars buying second-hand. I just watched a video about a 20-year-old girl living in a van for the past two years. She fitted out the van with mainly second-hand products and the vehicle itself cost her $2,500 used.

In the end, she’s avoiding paying someone else’s mortgage, and she built her mobile home relatively cheaply by leveraging used products. This is a pretty extreme example of keeping costs down, but it certainly makes a point.

Shopping second-hand, if used with intention, is a mindset that can save you a ton of money.

So how do you get started with second-hand shopping?

Tips for shopping second-hand

The goal when buying any product, especially second-hand, is to feel confident in your purchase. Below are some tips to keep in mind to feel confident in your decision to buy used items.

Where to buy second-hand products

Access to used goods comes down to where you live and what’s available in your area.

Luckily, technology has enabled us to leverage the internet to broaden our options. Below is a summary of where you can look to do your second-hand shopping.

Charity shops

Also known as an “Op (opportunity) Shop” in Australia, charity shops accept donated products and on-sell them to the public. Type in “charity shop near me” in Google to find a list of shops in your local area.

Make sure to visit their website first to see what types of products they accept. For example, one of the shops in my area doesn’t take electronic goods, mattresses and prams. Knowing this in advance will save you time.

Vintage shops

Also commonly known as thrift stores, vintage shops buy quality used items and then mark them up for a profit—which can either be cheaper or more expensive still than new products, depending on the rarity. Thrift stores typically have a defined range of products and styles to present a consistent brand to their customer base.

You can find them in your area by typing “vintage/thrift shops near me” into Google. As products in vintage shops usually sell quickly, due to their strict curation, you may consider following them on social media as they regularly post new items available. If you see something you like, it’s up to you to move quickly to look at it before it’s sold.

In recent years, there’s been a growing movement around paying-it-forward. It’s a small community of people who choose to give away their items to people who want them. It’s a lovely concept, and the vibe in these groups usually are quite positive.

The best way to give or receive second-hand things is to join a pay-it-forward Facebook group. Type “pay it forward <insert your city>” into the Facebook search to see if there’s a group in your area. Outside of Facebook, there are other swap shops, notably with books. Type in “swap shops near me” in Google to see what’s available.

Now while there isn’t a monetary exchange in these swapping groups, it’s expected that the receiver picks up the product from the giver. This may seem like a small deal, but when it comes to decluttering, it’s very helpful to have people come and take things away from you, even if it’s free. Otherwise, we can sometimes procrastinate or worse, we leave things in our car for weeks on end.

Online marketplace

One of the most popular ways to buy second-hand is through online platforms like Facebook Marketplace and eBay. There are many others, again depending on your country and city. There is one in Australia called Gumtree. 

These are websites where people post their used products, often with an image, description and price. The seller sometimes needs to mail the product to the buyer, depending on where they are. 

I encourage you to look past the big well-known marketplaces when trying to find products. For example, we discovered a fantastic online shop for wedding dresses, where Maša was able to sell her dress very quickly. Once you know what you need to buy, type “second-hand <insert product> online” into Google to see what comes up.

Sometimes I like to type in “best second-hand shops online in <insert country>” to get a list of marketplaces. From there you can sign up to be notified via email of specific products as they become available.

Google the product

Whether you’re thrifting in-store or online, try to Google the product you’re considering.

This won’t always work if the product is vintage, but it’s worth a try.

The key here is quickly finding a product number, brand or model which you can reference in your search. If you find the product, you’ll be able to look at reviews, get an idea of the original price and build confidence in the product.

If this is a more expensive product like a computer or vehicle, you might be able to find more specific information like recalls on particular parts, for example.

Manage your expectations

Before you become the best thrift shopper in the world, you need to reset your expectations. Shopping second-hand can be fun as much as it can be frustrating. Here are four hard truths you need to be prepared for:

• You’ll miss out on products – you’ve found the perfect size shoe in the perfect colour, only to find when you come back for it, someone else bought it. This can be devastating, so be sure to play the numbers game. For instance, you need to be prepared to bid on five pairs of shoes to finally get one pair you’re happy with.
• Have patience and persist – sometimes it will feel like you’ll never find what you want, until bang! After looking for what seemingly feels like months, you find exactly what you’re after. It’s a testing process, and you need to expect it to take longer than buying new.
• You’ll get frustrated with people – you’ll have buyers trying to bargain with you at your front doorstep even though you already agreed on a price. People will flake on you and not respond to your messages. Try to have little or no expectations of people, and only then you may be surprised when they’re polite and respectful 🙂
• You’ll get a faulty product – again, shopping second-hand is a numbers game. You’ll win, and you’ll lose. You just need to bank on the fact that you’ll win more than you’ll lose, and in the end, it will be worth it.

Reasons to buy new instead of shopping second-hand

As beneficial as it is to shop second-hand, it’s not a perfect system. There are times where shopping new is going to be your best option.

Below are three situations where it is best to buy new instead of shopping second-hand.

You can’t find what you need

Sometimes you need to buy something urgently, and you can’t afford the time to research and wait for a used item to become available.

If you need to make a quick decision, sure at least have a look to see if something is available online, but don’t waste too much time. If you can’t find what you’re looking for, buy new instead.

You want to support ethical, sustainable brands

I have a counterintuitive philosophy, which means spending more as a mindful consumer . I don’t mean you should be excessive, but I do feel it’s important to support ethical brands trying to do the right thing.

It’s our dollars that will keep these brands in business and continue to provide alternatives to the toxic and harmful products available to the masses.

However, I understand that this approach can be quite costly, so it’s best to find a balance between shopping second-hand and supporting sustainable brands.

You don’t want to be tempted to consume more than you need

As I explained earlier, the key to being an excellent thrift shopper is being alerted of products as they become available. This quite often means shopping at thrift stores consistently, signing up for email and social notifications, and seeking opportunities.

If you’re not careful, being “connected” to marketplaces may become an unhealthy habit—to the point where you consume more than you need.

We all have people in our lives that are continually doing deals, whether it’s buying something at a bargain, or on-selling their used products. It’s a job in itself, and a recipe for unnecessary clutter.

You get trapped in a mindset of “oh well, I can always sell it”. The principles of minimalism still apply to second-hand shopping. Develop a wishlist of what you need and proceed to find those products. Again, check second-hand first, if not available, go for something new.

But don’t get lost in bargains , opportunities and exchanges, just because you can. If you have good self-control treat your second-hand shopping like an event. Set yourself a deadline on how long you’ll look for an item. If you don’t find anything in that timeframe, end your campaign. Unsubscribe from notifications and move on.

However, if you find it hard to go in and out of second-hand mode, it might be best to shop new instead. That way you can remove the fear of missing out on products and simply execute on what you need to buy, nothing more.

Is it okay for vegans to buy non-vegan products second-hand?

Before wrapping up this post, I wanted to make a quick note on something I’ve struggled with when it comes to shopping second-hand.

As a vegan, I avoid buying any products that come from an animal. This goes far beyond food as many products are made from silk , leather , wool , feathers , amongst other animal materials.

Many vegans, feel that if the harm has already been done, then it’s okay to buy second-hand products made from animals. I agree that this is a much better alternative to purchasing animal products new and signalling to the market to produce more of the same cruel products.

Not only that, but it’s more resourceful to use products that are made regardless of whether they’re vegan or not. It’s hard to fault that logic.

But I have a different point of view on this matter.

Each one of us is a walking billboard. What we own, wear and consume represents who we are. And other people take notice.

As more people start to understand what veganism is , the more they will test you for your integrity. People are curious to see where you get your “leather” shoes from as a vegan.

Not only that, subconsciously we’re showing people it’s okay to consume these products. Most of the time, this won’t matter, as vegan-friendly products are looking more and more like the non-vegan versions.

But for me, personally, it matters. It’s important to me to be able to look in the mirror and know that what I own does not represent exploitation to animals. And I don’t want to leave any doubt or confusion when I represent myself and the animals to others.

Again, many people share a different view on this topic (including my wife). Still, I thought it was important to bring up, as we’ll be presented with opportunities to buy non-vegan products when shopping second-hand. And we need to make a decision we’re comfortable with.

What do you think is better? Shopping second-hand or buying new?

Over to you now! Let me know what you think in the comments below. Also, do you have any tips for balancing the need to find things second-hand, and drawing the line? I’d love to know!

You may also like…

Why Sustainable Products Are More Expensive (And How To Save Money)

5 Proven Ways Brands Are Influencing The Way You Think

Mindful Consumption: A 6-Step Guide To Consuming Better

Spend More Money As a Minimalist Vegan

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Notify me of follow-up comments via e-mail.

12 Comments

The main reason I shop second hand is because I prefer to shop and keep my money local. I live in America where most products come from China. I work hard at purchasing local, non Chinese products, but it’s difficult. Purchasing second hand gives me many more options as the money I spend on the product stays within my country.

Yup, your approach totally makes sense. Purchasing local and second-hand certainly have their benefits.

FaceBookMarketplace has worked well for me, biggest single drawback for someone who relies on public transport is that goods aren’t all clustered in an easily accessible shopping centre,and I can’t compare quality, colour etc.Nevertheless, I work within the parameters of my beliefs and accept it will be slower and harder this way, and I accept that authenticity comes st a cost (Damn it!) It is what it is!

I really appreciate and respect your commitment. You’re proof that you can make this approach work sustainably. Thanks for sharing.

I just came across your blog when searching for ethical, sustainable clothing brands. What I really liked about this article and the responses is that it is written very ‘open’ and honest. Lately, I am more and more interested in what ‘veganism’ is and means. I would love to learn more about it, but at the same time I don’t want to spend a lot of time on the internet (reading more about veganism). I would love to make the transition to veganism in the future. However, in this stage I see more the ‘problems’ (I’m currently living at my grandparents’ place > non-vegan food! etc.) / the ‘convenience’ of not thinking much about it. Sorry to be talking about myself this much: I felt encouraged by the comment section > (when you talked about having an open conversation with non-vegans).

Love your blog. Love from the Netherlands. 🙂

Hi Robin, I’m just catching up on comments. I get it. There’s the fine balance of over-consuming information and living your life—but it sounds like you’re mentally preparing yourself for transitioning which is encouraging! Oh, and you’re in the Netherlands. I hear there are so many vegan options there! Thanks for sharing your experience with us 🙂

I would like to chime in on the second hand leather topic! As you mentioned, if we as vegans consider “leather-like” styled items okay, then that would go against the argument that what we wear influences trends as from afar people who are susceptible to that can’t tell the difference.

I am one of the vegans who considers second hand leather the most ethical option, as prolonging the life of a product is kinder to the environment, but that isn’t the main reason. The main reason is that through wearing second hand leather I find it easier to connect with non vegans and also to have a segway into talking about ethical shopping. Allow me to explain.

Non-vegans discard veganism for a variety or reasons but one of them is what looks to them as “senseless purism”. It isn’t helpful to treat non-vegans in a patronising way, and most people aren’t so simple minded as to not understanding nuances. So when I wear my SH-leather, and people comment on them, I always take the opportunity to mention “Why thank you. I’m actually vegan but I think it is okay to buy second hand animal products for environmental reasons.” And as all is vegans know it is usually unwelcome to talk about veganism but I’ve found this almost always catches people’s interest. Probably because almost everyone thinks buying second hand makes sense, so this has always worked as a bridge for me. It is probably appealing to non-vegans too to have a way to buy leather which is a bit unfortunate but a huge win if I get someone to transition to getting more or even all their leather second hand and refusing to buy new leather on ethical grounds. I have actually found in my personal interactions that staying “pure” usually confuses non-vegans. As said (apart from those who just are defensive which I usually have success with through first finding common ground and taking care to not make them feel attacked) they think it is patronising when it is to not ‘muddy the waters’ for them because it is like simplifying a concept for appearances sake. They also feel confused when purity clashes with other important philosophies like environmentalism. All these things together have convinced me that second hand leather is in fact not just okay but an important tool. It is entirely possible to have a people become against animal cruelty while having them simultaneously understand that using up available animal products in the service of the environment doesn’t betray that.

I apologise for the lengthy post. My point is that we have to work towards promoting veganism in a rational and realistic form, rather than pure and simplistic. Not only because the reality of things call for it but also because sometimes the simply and pure form also is simpler to discard when the complexities are brought up but not addressed. I do believe that anyone who is open to it can handle that complexity and more often than not, in my own personal experiences at least, admitting the complexities and offering the most ethical *compromise* is what has made opponents open up to the idea as they felt it became honest to them.

Hi Jacob, thank you for taking the time to respond. I think you make some really interesting points.

I too am a big believer in making veganism approachable and relatable when interacting with non-vegans. I also never assume people don’t understand the nuances of leather.

I agree that SH-leather is a useful tool to provide an option for people interested in a vegan lifestyle. However, in my experience, I’ve had similar success promoting “vegan leather” alternatives. Because you’re right, people still ask because leather/vegan leather look the same. This is an opportunity to show people that there are alternatives. I also explain how many options are not sustainable, again, being realistic about what’s available. But I also explain the impact of animal skins—which is a cruel and unsustainable practice in its own right. I wouldn’t say these conversations come across as condescending, but more enjoyable for both parties to consider all aspects.

In the end, I understand why vegans would be comfortable wearing second-hand animal fabrics (like my vegan wife), especially when you consider the waste. But I do believe both situations can result in positive discussions as a result of how we represent and brand ourselves as vegans.

Thanks for chiming in and contributing to this article–I love discussions like these with multiple perspectives 🙂

Every object we need has already been purchased by someone who no longer needs it. The challenge is to find it.

I appreciate your deconstruction of the “to buy or not to buy second-hand,” thanks for sharing it! Over the last 15 years, I have done hundreds of peer-to-peer transactions on Craiglist (online classifieds) and other resale platforms, plus our local Buy Nothing Project group. Some objects I have resold for a decent price, many I have listed for a symbolic price just to zero-in on people who really wanted the item, and quite a few I have passed on for free. I have never ever had a transaction go badly, and I can count on one hand the ones that triggered any form of annoyance. Some transactions are quick and impersonal, but for the most part they are a great opportunity for community building and simply for meeting fellow humans who share the experience of living in our city.

I don’t know if you have a Buy Nothing Project group in your area but if you do I warmly recommend joining it. They are a fabulous resource!

Hi Brigitte, you’re welcome! There’s a lot to like about the experience you’ve had in these dealings over 15 years! You have a positive track record, and that has made me feel more secure about exploring second-hand shopping. I’m curious though, through being connected to these groups/platforms, have you ever found yourself acquiring more things than you need? And yes, there are some incredibly active Buy Nothing Groups in our city 🙂

Women generally will find a greater selection of clothing second hand than men. After my favorite thrift store for over twenty years closed in early September, I find myself wearing clothing longer than previously knowing that inexpensive replacements are less likely to be found. Shipping costs for second hand clothing may negate the savings, and when the item doesn’t fit, such as when you line dry clothing and others machine dry causing shrinkage, it wastes money. Public transportation in a rural area is not adequate, so I’ve purchased second hand vehicles. Most furniture and decor are second hand. It’s helpful to not engage in shopping new or used as a hobby or to socialize, but to buy items and services intentionally.

Those are some great points, Rhea. I particularly like your last point. Second-hand shopping is power as long as we’re intentional about it. Thanks for sharing, as always 🙂

• Latest News

• Entertainment
• Real Estate
• T20 World Cup 2024
• World Cup Schedule 2024
• World Cup Most Wickets
• World Cup Points Table
• Budget 2024
• The Interview
• Web Stories
• Virat Kohli
• Mumbai News
• Bengaluru News
• Daily Digest
• Election Schedule 2024

Essay: The enduring popularity of second hand books

From cultivating eco-friendly reading habits to feeling like they are part of a community of readers across time, buyers cite different reasons for their interest in pre-owned books.

Aircraft magazines fascinated Aadil Desai (56) as a college student. But as libraries and regular bookstores in Mumbai didn’t keep them, he turned to raddiwalas .

“I often got brand new copies for one-fifth the price as publishers dumped unsold stock with them,” recalls Desai for whom reading those magazines paved the way to his career as an aircraft service engineer.

Great bargains helped him as a student and continue to help the bibliophile that he has become. Desai’s collection, which includes biographies, antiquarian books and volumes on art, astronomy and history, runs into thousands. He now pays a vendor rent to store it.

Similarly passionate, Mansi Dhanraj Shetty (36), buys 15 books a month. “After moving to Mumbai and discovering second hand books, I realised you don’t need to spend Rs1000 on two books when you could buy 10 for that amount. About half of my book purchases are second hand,” she says.

Pre-owned books aren’t always cheap. “Out-of-print copies or books unavailable at bookstores are expensive. Second hand stores have great books you don’t get in regular bookshops,” says Desai. The thrill of discovery is what makes Shetty return to second hand stores too. She usually buys books that she can read and then pass on. “But I’ve also bought some of the biggest keepers from second hand stores -- obscure books on English and world literature, literary fiction, even a graphic novel of Paris-based bookstore Shakespeare and Co’s history. You won’t get these at any bookstore in the city!” she says.

These stores are also part of Shetty’s attempt to cultivate a reading habit that’s eco-friendly, a need roused after seeing loads of old books dumped in landfills at Topsia in her hometown of Kolkata. “I’d been building my home library for years. Then, six years ago, it struck me, “Why can’t I pass on books to someone who wants them or get copies from someone who wants to offload?” She recalls thinking that such a practice would be “much better than dumping” and purchased a domain name to create an online platform for it. On moving to Mumbai she discovered SWAP Book, a book club that does exactly that – except that its members only exchange books on a returnable basis. A huge community of second hand book readers, they also introduced Shetty to good vendors.

The second hand books trade in India is still largely unorganised but online players, including Amazon and some start-ups, have entered the space. One such player is BookChor, started in 2015 by four college students to ease the challenge of procuring second hand text books. Their pilot website aimed to cater to students at their college. Within the first month, though, the site had 5,000 hits and requests from students of other colleges as well. “There was a demand for novels too. Looking at the potential, we began studying how to run a successful business and haven’t looked back since,” says BookChor co-founder Alok Raj Sharma. By 2019, BookChor was selling close to 5-10 lakh books/year.

But the pandemic has changed things. “Earlier, people were reluctant about e-books, but acceptance rose after print copies became tough to access during lockdown. Now buyers of business books, people in positions of power, who previously purchased at airports, and even fiction readers, are shifting to Kindle. Therefore, the second hand book market has been hit. Digital piracy and pirated copies sold as second hand books are also hurting sales,” says Vikas Gupta, former President of the Association of Publishers in India.

Gupta is right. During the initial lockdown, businesses of street vendors like Hitler Nadar came to a standstill. Even when things eased, sourcing books, usually procured from raddiwalas and readers, was challenging because several buildings restricted entry to vendors. Events were cancelled and had an impact on the business at BookChor. While their inventory (10 lakh books) should have come in handy, restrictions around their warehouse in Haryana meant that it was inaccessible for a long period. Imports from the US and UK, which have a huge market of pre-owned books – BookChor’s other source – also stopped.

BookChor survived by offering bargain prices for bulk purchases online as they used to offline. Shetty, also the founder of Twice Told, helped vendors like Nadar harness the power of WhatsApp to reach readers.

“I had no knowledge of WhatsApp. Mansi and Nitin of SWAP Books taught me,” says Nadar whose group now has over 250 customers. “I post 150 books on it every Sunday and people bid for the one they want. From having just local clients, I’m now sending books all over India -- to Assam, Haryana, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. 60 percent of my sales are now from WhatsApp. Technology has been really beneficial,” he says.

While e-books have had an impact on the sales of print books, including second hand ones, Alok Raj Sharma believes doomsday forecasts are exaggerated. Books are being imported again, BookChor’s first offline event got a fair response and sales are already nearing pre-Covid numbers.

In fact, in Nadar’s experience, the pandemic improved things. “I have been in this business for 26 years. For the last decade, readership has been falling. Earlier, people would demand a good variety of books – on philosophy, literature, and certain types of fiction. Then, after Amazon and Google, things got tough. But reading increased during the pandemic and now people are asking for old books and books on spirituality, among others.”

Sharma believes past predictions have never matched actual numbers. “2014-15 projections suggested that digital markets would take over physical books in two or three years, but they haven’t. There’s no dedicated website for e-books, moreover, consumption is linked to internet penetration and India still has fractured internet,” he says. “Affordability is also a factor. A Kindle costs about ₹ 8000, so when we talk about the sales of e-books rising, we’re thinking of a very privileged section. Given that we’re a middle-income country with a growing readership, I believe the sale of physical books will continue to increase and at a greater pace than e-books. It will be another 20 years before they take over in India.”

The jury is still out on how soon digital books will take over but the demand for second hand books is a positive indicator for print books in general, especially given that this market seems to attract readers who buy more books, more regularly. And they’re discerning too. During phone-based purchases, Nadar always informs clients about the condition of a book while BookChor’s website has photos and a chart indicating condition parameters.

But perhaps what keeps regular buyers of second hand books hooked is the idea that they, the reader, are part of stories twice told. Flowers, currency notes, post cards, train tickets, question papers are some of the collectibles that Aadil Desai has amassed over four decades of buying second hand books. “Sometimes, if I find something interesting inside a book at a second hand bookstore, I buy the book for it rather than for the book itself,” he says.

Many vendors are enthralled too. “Old books are exciting. The print, the paper, the smell of the pages, black and white photos... There’s a beauty to it all. It’s always intriguing to find what the previous reader has left inside – letters, a 6 paise bus ticket, a 1947 Republic Day bookmark! Recently, I found a book on the Japanese war signed by Lara Bush,” says Nadar, who keeps an eye out for these details and capitalises on this fascination that is shared by his regular buyers.

“Many of my books are pre-owned,” says Amir Hasan (40). “They tell you two tales – one that’s in the book, and another that’s about the previous owner (s).”

It’s these multiple stories - the written and the imagined - that continue to bring readers like Hasan and Desai to second hand book stores.

Pooja Bhula is an independent journalist based in Mumbai. She is the co-author of Intelligent Fanatics of India. She is @poojabhula on Twitter

Catch every big hit, every wicket with Crick-it, a one stop destination for Live Scores, Match Stats, Quizzes, Polls & much more Explore now!

Join Hindustan Times

Create free account and unlock exciting features like.

• Terms of use
• Privacy policy
• Weather Today
• HT Newsletters
• Subscription
• Print Ad Rates
• Code of Ethics

• Live Cricket Score
• India Squad
• T20 World Cup Schedule
• Cricket Teams
• Cricket Players
• ICC Rankings
• Cricket Schedule
• Points Table
• T20 World Cup Australia Squad
• Pakistan Squad
• T20 World Cup England Squad
• India T20 World Cup Squad Live
• T20 World Cup Most Wickets
• T20 World Cup New Zealand Squad
• Other Cities
• Income Tax Calculator
• Petrol Prices
• Diesel Prices
• Silver Rate
• Relationships
• Art and Culture
• Taylor Swift: A Primer
• Telugu Cinema
• Tamil Cinema
• Board Exams
• Exam Results
• Competitive Exams
• BBA Colleges
• Engineering Colleges
• Medical Colleges
• BCA Colleges
• Medical Exams
• Engineering Exams
• Horoscope 2024
• Festive Calendar 2024
• Compatibility Calculator
• The Economist Articles
• Lok Sabha States
• Lok Sabha Parties
• Lok Sabha Candidates
• Explainer Video
• On The Record
• Vikram Chandra Daily Wrap
• EPL 2023-24
• ISL 2023-24
• Asian Games 2023
• Public Health
• Economic Policy
• International Affairs
• Climate Change
• Gender Equality
• future tech
• Daily Sudoku
• Daily Crossword
• Daily Word Jumble
• HT Friday Finance
• Explore Hindustan Times
• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Use
• Subscription - Terms of Use

Waste less, live better.

New to buying used? 5 Benefits of buying secondhand

When it comes to shopping for things like clothes, toys, furniture and more, oftentimes and unfortunately, the go-to tends to be buying them new. The convenience of running out to a big-box store and picking up these items can be tempting. But at what cost? Not only does buying new typically cost you more money, but the environment is also paying a high price to produce those new items. If you’re new to buying used and are unsure if it’s right for you, we break down the benefits of buying secondhand here.

1. Saving money

One of the most obvious and well-known benefits of buying secondhand is the cost savings. You can often find secondhand goods up to 50% cheaper than you could if you were buying new. When you consider that Americans spend over a trillion dollars annually on nonessential goods, those savings can add up.

Whether you’re shopping for clothes, furniture, musical instruments, or most anything, you’ll be able to find quality items at lower prices than if you bought them brand new. You can also find name brand clothing, shoes, purses, and more for a fraction of the cost. Who doesn’t want to get designer items at a discount? As an added bonus, by spending less, your dollar goes further.

2. Helping the environment and preserving natural resources

When you think about the resources that go into creating new products, it isn’t just the labor and materials. Energy and natural resources go into creating the packaging that typically accompanies the new product. Each product that is manufactured is responsible for some level of depletion of natural resources. Whether that’s excavating oil, mining metals, clearcutting forests, farming cotton, or pumping water. For instance, did you know it takes 1,800 gallons of water on average to make a pair of jeans?

Not only does buying used reduce the number of natural resources being used, it also reduces the amount of energy used and pollution that’s being emitted. Things like pesticides, burning fuel in the trucks that haul the items, toxic chemicals and carbon emissions. For example, when it comes to textiles and clothing, about 50% of energy input to the textile industry is lost onsite . And manufacturing new furniture generates 100 times more greenhouse gases as refinishing does.

Buying secondhand goods means that the energy and natural resources that went into creating those goods have already been used. So, you’re not creating a demand for new items that require additional energy or deplete even more natural resources.

Last but certainly not least, when you buy used you’re giving those items a second life and saving them from being thrown out. Too often people think of waste reduction and recycling in terms of bottles, cans, and plastics when the reality is our wardrobes and other household items are big contributors to what ends up in the trash.

3. No packaging

Have you ever bought something new, only to get it home and try to open it but there’s so much plastic to try and cut through? Or perhaps you ordered something new online and between the cardboard and packing peanuts it’s hard to find the actual item you purchased? New products typically have some sort of packaging associated with them and not all of that material is recyclable.

A benefit of buying secondhand goods is that you don’t have any of that waste or mess.  The items you buy used won’t come with all of the unnecessary packaging that typically just gets thrown away or takes a crowbar to open. You can start enjoying your new-to-you items, packaging-free.

4. Supporting local businesses

Whether you’re buying from a thrift store, consignment shop, vintage store, your neighbor who posted secondhand goods on social media, or a pop-up market down the street, the dollars you spend stay in the neighborhood and aren’t off to the nearest big-box store’s headquarters.

In fact, thrift stores are often a fundraising extension of a non-profit. So not only can you feel good about saving money and the environment, depending on where you shop, you’ll also be supporting local causes.

But buying used isn’t just about supporting your budget, non-profits and the planet, you’re also supporting local businesses and helping your local economy. The mom-and-pop shops likely want, need and appreciate your business more. Not to mention, they’re likely using the dollars you spend and investing them back into their store or supporting other businesses in the area.

5. Finding unique items

Now that you know the big benefits of buying secondhand, it’s time for the really fun part! Half of the fun of thrift shopping, browsing consignment shops, or venturing into a vintage store is the thrill of the hunt. Whether you’re searching for a new outfit to wear for date night, a fun piece of furniture for your house, your next must-read book or games for your kids, you’ll find unique, sometimes hard-to-find items.

When you buy new, you’re typically choosing from mass-produced items that you and your neighbors might all have. Why be like everyone else? Beyond the obvious benefits of buying used, you get the added bonus of owning items that you won’t find just anywhere. Imagine scoring a great armchair that’s perfect for reading all of your used books in, but maybe the fabric isn’t your favorite or could use a little facelift. By reupholstering secondhand furniture finds, or making DIY projects out of the used goods you buy, you’re creating pieces that are one-of-a-kind.

Related Reading : The 10 Best Things to Buy Used

Now that you know the benefits of buying secondhand goods, we hope you’ll consider it the next time you’re out shopping. And don’t forget, it goes beyond just your local thrift shop. There are a lot of different ways to buy used, including consignment, pop-up markets, online sale sites, flea markets, vintage stores, and more. You’ll want to find one that matches your preferred shopping style and habits.

You can use our Choose to Reuse Shopping Tool for suggestions

Remember, if you’re new to buying used, it doesn’t have to be all or nothing. Start small and work your way up. We know there are some items you’ll continue to buy new, and that’s okay. Every item you buy used is a step in the right direction and before you know it, you’ll be living a zero-waste lifestyle … or just a regular lifestyle that prioritizes reuse, either one is great!

Get our guide

"Game-changing sustainability trends and innovations for 2024"

Wayzata Community Church Rummage Sale (Jul 17-18)

• About George Orwell
• Partners and Sponsors
• Accessibility
• Upcoming events
• The Orwell Festival
• The Orwell Memorial Lectures
• Books by Orwell
• Essays and other works
• Encountering Orwell
• Orwell Live
• About the prizes
• Reporting Homelessness
• Previous winners
• Orwell Fellows
• Finalists 2024
• Introduction
• Enter the Prize
• Terms and Conditions
• Volunteering
• About Feedback
• Responding to Feedback
• Start your journey
• Inspiration
• Find Your Form
• Start Writing
• Reading Recommendations
• Previous themes
• Our offer for teachers
• Lesson Plans
• Events and Workshops
• Orwell in the Classroom
• GCSE Practice Papers
• The Orwell Youth Fellows
• Paisley Workshops

The Orwell Foundation

• The Orwell Prizes
• The Orwell Youth Prize

Second Thoughts on James Burnham

This material remains under copyright in some jurisdictions, including the US, and is reproduced here with the kind permission of  the Orwell Estate . The Orwell Foundation is an independent charity – please consider making a donation or becoming a Friend of the Foundation to help us maintain these resources for readers everywhere. 

James Burnham’s book, The Managerial Revolution , made a considerable stir both in the United States and in this country at the time when it was published, and its main thesis has been so much discussed that a detailed exposition of it is hardly necessary. As shortly as I can summarize it, the thesis is this:-

Capitalism is disappearing, but Socialism is not replacing it. What is now arising is a new kind of planned, centralized society which will be neither capitalist nor, in any accepted sense of the word, democratic. The rulers of this new society will be the people who effectively control the means of production: that is, business executives, technicians, bureaucrats and soldiers, lumped together by Burnham under the name of ‘managers’. These people will eliminate the old capitalist class, crush the working class, and so organize society that all power and economic privilege remain in their own hands. Private property rights will be abolished, but common ownership will not be established. The new ‘managerial’ societies will not consist of a patchwork of small, independent states, but of great super-states grouped round the main industrial centres in Europe, Asia, and America. These super-states will fight among themselves for possession of the remaining uncaptured portions of the earth, but will probably be unable to conquer one another completely. Internally, each society will be hierarchical, with an aristocracy of talent at the top and a mass of semi-slaves at the bottom.

In his next published book, The Machiavellians , Burnham elaborates and also modifies his original statement. The greater part of the book is an exposition of the theories of Machiavelli and of his modern disciples, Mosca, Michels, and Pareto: with doubtful justification, Burnham adds to these the syndicalist writer, Georges Sorel. What Burnham is mainly concerned to show is that a democratic society has never existed and so far as we can see, never will exist. Society is of its nature oligarchical, and the power of the oligarchy always rests upon force and fraud. Burnham does not deny that ‘good’ motives may operate in private life, but he maintains that politics consists of the struggle for power, and nothing else. All historical changes finally boil down to the replacement of one ruling class by another. All talk about democracy, liberty, equality, fraternity, all revolutionary movements, all visions of Utopia, or ‘the classless society’, or ‘the Kingdom of Heaven on earth’, are humbug (not necessarily conscious humbug) covering the ambitions of some new class which is elbowing its way into power. The English Puritans, the Jacobins, the Bolsheviks, were in each case simply power seekers using the hopes of the masses in order to win a privileged position for themselves. Power can sometimes be won or maintained without violence, but never without fraud, because it is necessary to make use of the masses, and the masses would not co-operate if they knew that they were simply serving the purposes of a minority. In each great revolutionary struggle the masses are led on by vague dreams of human brotherhood, and then, when the new ruling class is well established in power, they are thrust back into servitude. This is practically the whole of political history, as Burnham sees it.

Where the second book departs from the earlier one is in asserting that the whole process could be somewhat moralized if the facts were faced more honestly. The Machiavellians is sub-titled Defenders of Freedom . Machiavelli and his followers taught that in politics decency simply does not exist, and, by doing so, Burnham claims, made it possible to conduct political affairs more intelligently and less oppressively. A ruling class which recognized that its real aim was to stay in power would also recognize that it would be more likely to succeed if it served the common good, and might avoid stiffening into a hereditary aristocracy. Burnham lays much stress on Pareto’s theory of the ‘circulation of the élites’. If it is to stay in power a ruling class must constantly admit suitable recruits from below, so that the ablest men may always be at the top and a new class of power-hungry malcontents cannot come into being. This is likeliest to happen, Burnham considers, in a society which retains democratic habits – that is, where opposition is permitted and certain bodies such as the press and the trade unions can keep their autonomy. Here Burnham undoubtedly contradicts his earlier opinion. In The Managerial Revolution , which was written in 1940, it is taken as a matter of course that ‘managerial’ Germany is in all ways more efficient than a capitalist democracy such as France or Britain. In the second book, written in 1942, Burnham admits that the Germans might have avoided some of their more serious strategic errors if they had permitted freedom of speech. However, the main thesis is not abandoned. Capitalism is doomed, and Socialism is a dream. If we grasp what is at issue we may guide the course of the managerial revolution to some extent, but that revolution is happening, whether we like it or not. In both books, but especially the earlier one, there is a note of unmistakable relish over the cruelty and wickedness of the processes that are being discussed. Although he reiterates that he is merely setting forth the facts and not stating his own preferences, it is clear that Burnham is fascinated by the spectacle of power, and that his sympathies were with Germany so long as Germany appeared to be winning the war. A more recent essay, ‘Lenin’s Heir’, published in the Partisan Review about the beginning of 1945, suggests that this sympathy has since been transferred to the U.S.S.R. ‘Lenin’s Heir’, which provoked violent controversy in the American left-wing press, has not yet been reprinted in England, and I must return to it later.

It will be seen that Burnham’s theory is not, strictly speaking, a new one. Many earlier writers have foreseen the emergence of a new kind of society, neither capitalist nor Socialist, and probably based upon slavery: though most of them have differed from Burnham in not assuming this development to be inevitable. A good example is Hilaire Belloc’s book, The Servile State , published in 1911. The Servile State is written in a tiresome style, and the remedy it suggests (a return to small-scale peasant ownership) is for many reasons impossible: still, it does foretell with remarkable insight the kind of things that have been happening from about 1930 onwards. Chesterton, in a less methodical way, predicted the disappearance of democracy and private property, and the rise of a slave society which might be called either capitalist or Communist. Jack London, in The Iron Heel (1909), foretold some of the essential features of Fascism, and such books as Wells’ The Sleeper Awakes (1900), Zamyatin’s We (1923), and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (1930), all described imaginary worlds in which the special problems of capitalism had been solved without bringing liberty, equality, or true happiness any nearer. More recently, writers like Peter Drucker and F. A. Voigt have argued that Fascism and Communism are substantially the same thing. And indeed, it has always been obvious that a planned and centralized society is liable to develop into an oligarchy or a dictatorship. Orthodox Conservatives were unable to see this, because it comforted them to assume that Socialism ‘wouldn’t work’, and that the disappearance of capitalism would mean chaos and anarchy. Orthodox Socialists could not see it, because they wished to think that they themselves would soon be in power, and therefore assumed that when capitalism disappears, Socialism takes its place. As a result they were unable to foresee the rise of Fascism, or to make correct predictions about it after it had appeared. Later, the need to justify the Russian dictatorship and to explain away the obvious resemblances between Communism and Nazism clouded the issue still more. But the notion that industrialism must end in monopoly, and that monopoly must imply tyranny, is not a startling one.

Where Burnham differs from most other thinkers is in trying to plot the course of the ‘managerial revolution’ accurately on a world scale, and in assuming that the drift towards totalitarianism is irresistible and must not be fought against, though it may be guided. According to Burnham, writing in 1940, ‘managerialism’ has reached its fullest development in the U.S.S.R., but is almost equally well developed in Germany, and has made its appearance in the United States. He describes the New Deal as ‘primitive managerialism’. But the trend is the same everywhere, or almost everywhere. Always laissez-faire capitalism gives way to planning and state interference, the mere owner loses power as against the technician and the bureaucrat, but Socialism – that is to say, what used to be called Socialism – shows no sign of emerging:

Some apologists try to excuse Marxism by saying that it has ‘never had a chance’. This is far from the truth. Marxism and the Marxist parties have had dozens of chances. In Russia, a Marxist party took power. Within a short time it abandoned Socialism; if not in words, at any rate in the effect of its actions. In most European nations there were during the last months of the first world war and the years immediately thereafter, social crises which left a wide-open door for the Marxist parties: without exception they proved unable to take and hold power. In a large number of countries – Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Austria, England, Australia, New Zealand, Spain, France – the reformist Marxist parties have administered the governments, and have uniformly failed to introduce Socialism or make any genuine step towards Socialism. . . . These parties have, in practice, at every historical test – and there have been many – either failed Socialism or abandoned it. This is the fact which neither the bitterest foe nor the most ardent friend of Socialism can erase. This fact does not, as some think, prove anything about the moral quality of the Socialist ideal. But it does constitute unblinkable evidence that, whatever its moral quality, Socialism is no going to come.

Burnham does not, of course, deny that the new ‘managerial’ régimes, like the régimes of Russia and Nazi Germany, may be called Socialist. He means merely that they will not be Socialist in any sense of the word which would have been accepted by Marx, or Lenin, or Keir Hardie, or William Morris, or indeed, by any representative Socialist prior to about 1930. Socialism, until recently, was supposed to connote political democracy, social equality and internationalism. There is not the smallest sign that any of these things is in a way to being established anywhere, and the one great country in which something described as a proletarian revolution once happened, i.e. the U.S.S.R., has moved steadily away from the old concept of a free and equal society aiming at universal human brotherhood. In an almost unbroken progress since the early days of the Revolution, liberty has been chipped away and representative institutions smothered, while inequalities have increased and nationalism and militarism have grown stronger. But at the same time, Burnham insists, there has been no tendency to return to capitalism. What is happening is simply the growth of ‘managerialism’, which, according to Burnham, is in progress everywhere, though the manner in which it comes about may vary from country to country.

Now, as an interpretation of what is happening, Burnham’s theory is extremely plausible, to put it at the lowest. The events of, at any rate, the last fifteen years in the U.S.S.R. can be far more easily explained by this theory than by any other. Evidently the U.S.S.R. is not Socialist, and can only be called Socialist if one gives the word a meaning different from what it would have in any other context. On the other hand, prophecies that the Russian régime would revert to capitalism have always been falsified, and now seem further than ever from being fulfilled. In claiming that the process had gone almost equally far in Nazi Germany, Burnham probably exaggerates, but it seems certain that the drift was away from old-style capitalism and towards a planned economy with an adoptive oligarchy in control. In Russia the capitalists were destroyed first and the workers were crushed later. In Germany the workers were crushed first, but the elimination of the capitalists had at any rate begun, and calculations based on the assumption that Nazism was ‘simply capitalism’ were always contradicted by events. Where Burnham seems to go most astray is in believing ‘managerialism’ to be on the up-grade in the United States, the one great country where free capitalism is still vigorous. But if one considers the world movement as a whole, his conclusions are difficult to resist; and even in the United States the all-prevailing faith in laissez-faire may not survive the next great economic crisis. It has been urged against Burnham that he assigns far too much importance to the ‘managers’, in the narrow sense of the word – that is, factory bosses, planners and technicians – and seems to assume that even in Soviet Russia it is these people, and not the Communist Party chiefs, who are the real holders of power. However, this is a secondary error, and it is particularly corrected in The Machiavellians . The real question is not whether the people who wipe their boots on you during the next fifty years are to be called managers, bureaucrats, or politicians; the question is whether capitalism, now obviously doomed, is to give way to oligarchy or to true democracy.

But curiously enough, when one examines the predictions which Burnham has based on his general theory, one finds that in so far as they are verifiable, they have been falsified. Numbers of people have pointed this out already. However, it is worth following up Burnham’s predictions in detail because they form a sort of pattern which is related to contemporary events, and which reveals, I believe, a very important weakness in present-day political thought.

To begin with, writing in 1940, Burnham takes a German victory more or less for granted. Britain is described as ‘dissolving’, and as displaying ‘all the characteristics which have distinguished decadent cultures in past historical transitions’, while the conquest and integration of Europe which Germany achieved in 1940 is described as ‘irreversible’. ‘England,’ writes Burnham, ‘no matter with what non-European allies, cannot conceivably hope to conquer the European continent.’ Even if Germany should somehow manage to lose the war, she could not be dismembered or reduced to the status of the Weimar Republic, but is bound to remain as the nucleus of a unified Europe. The future map of the world, with its three great super-states is, in any case, already settled in its main outlines: and ‘the nuclei of these three super-states are, whatever may be their future names, the previously existing nations, Japan, Germany, and the United States’.

Burnham also commits himself to the opinion that Germany will not attack the U.S.S.R until after Britain has been defeated. In a condensation of his book published in the Partisan Review of May-June 1941, and presumably written later than the book itself, he says:

As in the case of Russia, so with Germany, the third part of the managerial problem – the contest for dominance with other sections of managerial society – remains for the future. First had to come the death-blow that assured the toppling of the capitalist world order, which meant above all the destruction of the foundations of the British Empire (the keystone of the capitalist world order) both directly and through the smashing of the European political structure, which was a necessary prop of the Empire. This is the basic explanation of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, which is not intelligible on other grounds. The future conflict between Germany and Russia will be a managerial conflict proper; prior to the great world-managerial battles, the end of the capitalist order must be assured. The belief that Nazism is ‘decadent capitalism’ . . . makes it impossible to explain reasonably the Nazi-Soviet Pact. From this belief followed the always expected war between Germany and Russia, not the actual war to the death between Germany and the British Empire. The war between Germany and Russia is one of the managerial wars of the future, not of the anti-capitalist wars of yesterday and today.

However, the attack on Russia will come later, and Russia is certain, or almost certain, to be defeated. ‘There is every reason to believe . . . that Russia will split apart, with the western half gravitating towards the European base and the eastern towards the Asiatic.’ This quotation comes from The Managerial Revolution . In the above-quoted article, written probably about six months later, it is put more forcibly: ‘the Russian weaknesses indicate that Russia will not be able to endure, that it will crack apart, and fall towards east and west.’ And in a supplementary note which was added to the English (Pelican) edition, and which appears to have been written at the end of 1941, Burnham speaks as though the ‘cracking apart’ process were already happening. The war, he says, ‘is part of the means whereby the western half of Russia is being integrated into the European super-state’.

Sorting these various statements out, we have the following prophecies:

• Germany is bound to win the war.
• Germany and Japan are bound to survive as great states, and to remain the nuclei of power in their respective area.
• Germany will not attack the U.S.S.R. until after the defeat of Britain.
• The U.S.S.R. is bound to be defeated.

However, Burnham has made other predictions besides these. In a short article in the Partisan Review , in the summer of 1944, he gives his opinion that the U.S.S.R. will gang up with Japan in order to prevent the total defeat of the latter, while the American Communists will be set to work to sabotage the eastern end of the war. And finally, in an article in the same magazine in the winter of 1944–45, he claims that Russia, destined so short a while ago to ‘crack apart’, is within sight of conquering the whole of Eurasia. This article, which was the cause of violent controversies among the American intelligentsia, has not been reprinted in England. I must give some account of it here, because its manner of approach and its emotional tone are of a peculiar kind, and by studying them one can get nearer to the real roots of Burnham’s theory.

The article is entitled ‘Lenin’s Heir’, and it sets out to show that Stalin is the true and legitimate guardian of the Russian Revolution, which he has not in any sense ‘betrayed’ but has merely carried forward on lines that were implicit in it from the start. In itself, this is an easier opinion to swallow than the usual Trotskyist claim that Stalin is a mere crook who has perverted the Revolution to his own ends, and that things would somehow have been different if Lenin had lived or Trotsky had remained in power. Actually there is no strong reason for thinking that the main lines of development would have been very different. Well before 1923 the seeds of a totalitarian society were quite plainly there. Lenin, indeed, is one of those politicians who win an undeserved reputation by dying prematurely.[1] Had he lived, it is probable that he would either have been thrown out, like Trotsky, or would have kept himself in power by methods as barbarous, or nearly as barbarous, as those of Stalin. The title of Burnham’s essay, therefore, sets forth a reasonable thesis, and one would expect him to support it by an appeal to the facts.

However, the essay barely touches upon its ostensible subject-matter. It is obvious that anyone genuinely concerned to show that there has been continuity of policy as between Lenin and Stalin would start by outlining Lenin’s policy and then explain in what way Stalin’s has resembled it. Burnham does not do this. Except for one or two cursory sentences he says nothing about Lenin’s policy, and Lenin’s name only occurs five times in an essay of twelve pages: in the first seven pages, apart from the title, it does not occur at all. The real aim of the essay is to present Stalin as a towering, superhuman figure, indeed a species of demigod, and Bolshevism as an irresistible force which is flowing over the earth and cannot be halted until it reaches the outermost borders of Eurasia. In so far as he makes any attempt to prove his case, Burnham does so by repeating over and over again that Stalin is ‘a great man’ – which is probably true, but is almost completely irrelevant. Moreover, though he does advance some solid arguments for believing in Stalin’s genius, it is clear that in his mind the idea of ‘greatness’ is inextricably mixed up with the idea of cruelty and dishonesty. There are curious passages in which it seems to be suggested that Stalin is to be admired because of the limitless suffering that he has caused:

Stalin proves himself a ‘great man’, in the grand style. The accounts of the banquets, staged in Moscow for the visiting dignitaries, set the symbolic tone. With their enormous menus of sturgeon, and roasts, and fowl, and sweets; their streams of liquor, the scores of toasts with which they end; the silent, unmoving secret police behind each guest; all against the winter background of the starving multitudes of besieged Leningrad; the dying millions at the front: the jammed concentration camps; the city crowds kept by their minute rations just at the edge of life; there is little trace of dull mediocrity or the hand of Babbitt. We recognize, rather, the tradition of the most spectacular of the Tsars, of the Great Kings of the Medes and Persians, of the Khanate of the Golden Horde, of the banquet we assign to the gods of the Heroic Ages in tribute to the insight that insolence, and indifference, and brutality on such a scale remove beings from the human level. . . . Stalin’s political techniques shows a freedom from conventional restrictions that is incompatible with mediocrity: the mediocre man is custom-bound. Often it is the scale of their operations that sets them apart. It is usual, for example, for men active in practical life to engineer an occasional frame-up. But to carry out a frame-up against tens of thousands of persons, important percentages of whole strata of society, including most of one’s own comrades, is so far out of the ordinary that the long-run mass conclusion is either that the frame-up must be true – at least ‘have some truth in it’ – or that power so immense must be submitted to – is a ‘historical necessity’, as intellectuals put it. . . . There is nothing unexpected in letting a few individuals starve for reasons of state; but to starve, by deliberate decision, several millions, is a type of action attributed ordinarily only to gods.

In these and other similar passages there may be a tinge of irony, but it is difficult not to feel that there is also a sort of fascinated admiration. Towards the end of the essay Burnham compares Stalin with those semi-mythical heroes, like Moses or Asoka, who embody in themselves a whole epoch, and can justly be credited with feats that they did not actually perform. In writing of Soviet foreign policy and its supposed objectives, he touches an even more mystical note:

Starting from the magnetic core of the Eurasian heartland, the Soviet power, like the reality of the One of Neo-Platonism overflowing in the descending series of the emanative progression, flows outward, west into Europe, south into the Near East, east into China, already lapping the shores of the Atlantic, the Yellow and China Seas, the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf. As the undifferentiated One, in its progression, descends through the stages of Mind, Soul, and Matter, and then through its fatal Return back to itself; so does the Soviet power, emanating from the integrally totalitarian centre, proceed outwards by Absorption (the Baltics, Bessarabia, Bukovina, East Poland), Domination (Finland, the Balkans, Mongolia, North China and, tomorrow, Germany), Orienting Influence (Italy, France, Turkey, Iran, Central and south China . . .), until it is dissipated in MH ON, the outer material sphere, beyond the Eurasian boundaries, of momentary Appeasement and Infiltration (England, the United States).

I do not think it is fanciful to suggest that the unnecessary capital letters with which this passage is loaded are intended to have a hypnotic effect on the reader. Burnham is trying to build up a picture of terrifying, irresistible power, and to turn a normal political manoeuvre like infiltration into Infiltration adds to the general portentousness. The essay should be read in full. Although it is not the kind of tribute that the average russophile would consider acceptable, and although Burnham himself would probably claim that he is being strictly objective, he is in effect performing an act of homage, and even of self-abasement. Meanwhile, this essay gives us another prophecy to add to the list; i.e. that the U.S.S.R. will conquer the whole of Eurasia, and probably a great deal more. And one must remember that Burnham’s basic theory contains, in itself, a prediction which still has to be tested – that is, that whatever else happens, the ‘managerial’ form of society is bound to prevail.

Burnham’s earlier prophecy, of a German victory in the war and the integration of Europe round the German nucleus, was falsified, not only in its main outlines, but in some important details. Burnham insists all the way through that ‘managerialism’ is not only more efficient than capitalist democracy or Marxian Socialism, but also more acceptable to the masses. The slogans of democracy and national self-determination, he says, no longer have any mass appeal: ‘managerialism’, on the other hand, can rouse enthusiasm, produce intelligible war aims, establish fifth columns everywhere, and inspire its soldiers with a fanatical morale. The ‘fanaticism’ of the Germans, as against the ‘apathy’ or ‘indifference’ of the British, French, etc., is much emphasized, and Nazism is represented as a revolutionary force sweeping across Europe and spreading its philosophy ‘by contagion’. The Nazi fifth columns ‘cannot be wiped out’, and the democratic nations are quite incapable of projecting any settlement which the German or other European masses would prefer to the New Order. In any case, the democracies can only defeat Germany if they go ‘still further along the managerial road than Germany has yet gone’.

The germ of truth in all this is that the smaller European states, demoralized by the chaos and stagnation of the pre-war years, collapsed rather more quickly than they need have done, and might conceivably have accepted the New Order if the Germans had kept same of their promises. But the actual experience of German rule aroused almost at once such a fury of hatred and vindictiveness as the world has seldom seen. After about the beginning of 1941 there was hardly any need of a positive war aim, since getting rid of the Germans was a sufficient objective. The question of morale, and its relation to national solidarity, is a nebulous one, and the evidence can be so manipulated as to prove almost anything. But if one goes by the proportion of prisoners to other casualties, and the amount of quislingism, the totalitarian states come out of the comparison worse than the democracies. Hundreds of thousands of Russians appear to have gone over to the Germans during the course of the war, while comparable numbers of Germans and Italians had gone over to the Allies before the war started: the corresponding number of American or British renegades would have amounted to a few scores. As an example of the inability of ‘capitalist ideologies’ to enlist support, Burnham cites ‘the complete failure of voluntary military recruiting in England (as well as the entire British Empire) and in the United States’. One would gather from this that the armies of the totalitarian states were manned by volunteers. Actually, no totalitarian state has ever so much as considered voluntary recruitment for any purpose, nor, throughout history, has a large army ever been raised by voluntary means.[2] It is not worth listing the many similar arguments that Burnham puts forward. The point is that he assumes that the Germans must win the propaganda war as well as the military one, and that, at any rate in Europe, this estimate was not borne out by events.

It will be seen that Burnham’s predictions have not merely, when they were verifiable, turned out to be wrong, but that they have sometimes contradicted one another in a sensational way. It is this last fact that is significant. Political predictions are usually wrong, because they are usually based on wish-thinking, but they can have symptomatic value, especially when they change abruptly. Often the revealing factor is the date at which they are made. Dating Burnham’s various writings as accurately as can be done from internal evidence, and then noting what events they coincided with, we find the following relationships:-

In the supplementary note added to the English edition of the book, Burnham appears to assume that the U.S.S.R. is already beaten and the splitting-up process is about to begin. This was published in the spring of 1942 and presumably written at the end of 1941; i.e. when the Germans were in the suburbs of Moscow.

The prediction that Russia would gang up with Japan against the U.S.A. was written early in 1944, soon after the conclusion of a new Russo-Japanese treaty.

The prophecy of Russian world conquest was written in the winter of 1944, when the Russians were advancing rapidly in eastern Europe while the Western Allies were still held up in Italy and northern France.

It will be seen that at each point Burnham is predicting a continuation of the thing that is happening. Now the tendency to do this is not simply a bad habit, like inaccuracy or exaggeration, which one can correct by taking thought. It is a major mental disease, and its roots lie partly in cowardice and partly in the worship or power, which is not fully separable from cowardice.

Suppose in 1940 you had taken a Gallup poll, in England, on the question ‘Will Germany win the war?’ You would have found, curiously enough, that the group answering ‘Yes’ contained a far higher percentage of intelligent people – people with IQ of over 120, shall we say – than the group answering ‘No’. The same would have held good in the middle of 1942. In this case the figures would not have been so striking, but if you had made the question ‘Will the Germans capture Alexandria?’ or ‘Will the Japanese be able to hold on to the territories they have captured?’, then once again there would have been a very marked tendency for intelligence to concentrate in the ‘Yes’ group. In every case the less-gifted person would have been likelier to give a right answer.

If one went simply by these instances, one might assume that high intelligence and bad military judgement always go together. However, it is not so simple as that. The English intelligentsia, on the whole, were more defeatist than the mass of the people – and some of them went on being defeatist at a time when the war was quite plainly won – partly because they were better able to visualize the dreary years of warfare that lay ahead. Their morale was worse because their imaginations were stronger. The quickest way of ending a war is to lose it, and if one finds the prospect of a long war intolerable, it is natural to disbelieve in the possibility of victory. But there was more to it than that. There was also the disaffection of large numbers of intellectuals, which made it difficult for them not to side with any country hostile to Britain. And deepest of all, there was admiration – though only in a very few cases conscious admiration – for the power, energy and cruelty of the Nazi régime. It would be a useful though tedious labour to go through the left-wing press and enumerate all the hostile references to Nazism during the years 1935–45. One would find, I have little doubt, that they reached their high-water mark in 1937–38 and 1944–45, and dropped off noticeably in the years 1939–42 – that is, during the period when Germany seemed to be winning. One would find, also, the same people advocating a compromise peace in 1940 and approving the dismemberment of Germany in 1945. And if one studied the reactions of the English intelligentsia towards the U.S.S.R., there, too, one would find genuinely progressive impulses mixed up with admiration for power and cruelty. It would be grossly unfair to suggest that power worship is the only motive for russophile feeling, but it is one motive, and among intellectuals it is probably the strongest one.

Power worship blurs political judgement because it leads, almost unavoidably, to the belief that present trends will continue. Whoever is winning at the moment will always seem to be invincible. If the Japanese have conquered south Asia, then they will keep south Asia for ever, if the Germans have captured Tobruk, they will infallibly capture Cairo; if the Russians are in Berlin, it will not be long before they are in London: and so on. This habit of mind leads also to the belief that things will happen more quickly, completely, and catastrophically than they ever do in practice. The rise and fall of empires, the disappearance of cultures and religions, are expected to happen with earthquake suddenness, and processes which have barely started are talked about as though they were already at an end. Burnham’s writings are full of apocalyptic visions. Nations, governments, classes and social systems are constantly described as expanding, contracting, decaying, dissolving, toppling, crashing, crumbling, crystallizing, and, in general, behaving in an unstable and melodramatic way. The slowness of historical change, the fact that any epoch always contains a great deal of the last epoch, is never sufficiently allowed for. Such a manner of thinking is bound to lead to mistaken prophecies, because, even when it gauges the direction of events rightly, it will miscalculate their tempo. Within the space of five years Burnham foretold the domination of Russia by Germany and of Germany by Russia. In each case he was obeying the same instinct: the instinct to bow down before the conqueror of the moment, to accept the existing trend as irreversible. With this in mind one can criticize his theory in a broader way.

The mistakes I have pointed out do not disprove Burnham’s theory, but they do cast light on his probable reasons for holding it. In this connexion one cannot leave out of account the fact that Burnham is an American. Every political theory has a certain regional tinge about it, and every nation, every culture, has its own characteristic prejudices and patches of ignorance. There are certain problems that must almost inevitably be seen in a different perspective according to the geographical situation from which one is looking at them. Now, the attitude that Burnham adopts, of classifying Communism and Fascism as much the same thing, and at the same time accepting both of them – or, at any rate, not assuming that either must be violently struggled against – is essentially an American attitude, and would be almost impossible for an Englishman or any other western European. English writers who consider Communism and Fascism to be the same thing invariably hold that both are monstrous evils which must be fought to the death: on the other hand, any Englishman who believes Communism and Fascism to be opposites will feel that he ought to side with one or the other.[3] The reason for this difference of outlook is simple enough and, as usual, is bound up with wish-thinking. If totalitarianism triumphs and the dreams of the geopoliticians come true, Britain will disappear as a world power and the whole of western Europe will be swallowed by some single great state. This is not a prospect that it is easy for an Englishman to contemplate with detachment. Either he does not want Britain to disappear – in which case he will tend to construct theories proving the thing that he wants – or, like a minority of intellectuals, he will decide that his country is finished and transfer his allegiance to some foreign power. An American does not have to make the same choice. Whatever happens, the United States will survive as a great power, and from the American point of view it does not make much difference whether Europe is dominated by Russia or by Germany. Most Americans who think of the matter at all would prefer to see the world divided between two or three monster states which had reached their natural boundaries and could bargain with one another on economic issues without being troubled by ideological differences. Such a world-picture fits in with the American tendency to admire size for its own sake and to feel that success constitutes justification, and it fits in with the all-prevailing anti-British sentiment. In practice. Britain and the United States have twice been forced into alliance against Germany, and will probably, before long, be forced into alliance against Russia: but, subjectively, a majority of Americans would prefer either Russia or Germany to Britain, and, as between Russia and Germany, would prefer whichever seemed stronger at the moment.[4] It is, therefore, not surprising that Burnham’s world-view should often be noticeably close to that of the American imperialists on the one side, or to that of the isolationists on the other. It is a ‘tough’ or ‘realistic’ world-view which fits in with the American form of wish-thinking. The almost open admiration for Nazi methods which Burnham shows in the earlier of his two books, and which would seem shocking to almost any English reader, depends ultimately on the fact that the Atlantic is wider than the Channel.

As I have said earlier, Burnham has probably been more right than wrong about the present and the immediate past. For quite fifty years past the general drift has almost certainly been towards oligarchy. The ever-increasing concentration of industrial and financial power; the diminishing importance of the individual capitalist or shareholder, and the growth of the new ‘managerial’ class of scientists, technicians, and bureaucrats; the weakness of the proletariat against the centralized state; the increasing helplessness of small countries against big ones; the decay of representative institutions and the appearance of one-party régimes based on police terrorism, faked plebiscites, etc.: all these things seem to point in the same direction. Burnham sees the trend and assumes that it is irresistible, rather as a rabbit fascinated by a boa constrictor might assume that a boa constrictor is the strongest thing in the world. When one looks a little deeper, one sees that all his ideas rest upon two axioms which are taken for granted in the earlier book and made partly explicit in the second one. They are:

• Politics is essentially the same in all ages.
• Political behaviour is different from other kinds of behaviour.

To take the second point first. In The Machiavellians , Burnham insists that politics is simply the struggle for power. Every great social movement, every war, every revolution, every political programme, however edifying and Utopian, really has behind it the ambitions of some sectional group which is out to grab power for itself. Power can never be restrained by any ethical or religious code, but only by other power. The nearest possible approach to altruistic behaviour is the perception by a ruling group that it will probably stay in power longer if it behaves decently. But curiously enough, these generalizations only apply to political behaviour, not to any other kind of behaviour. In everyday life, as Burnham sees and admits, one cannot explain every human action by applying the principle of cui bono ? Obviously, human beings have impulses which are not selfish. Man, therefore, is an animal that can act morally when be acts as an individual, but becomes unmoral when he acts collectively. But even this generalization only holds good for the higher groups. The masses, it seems, have vague aspirations towards liberty and human brotherhood, which are easily played upon by power-hungry individuals or minorities. So that history consists of a series of swindles, in which the masses are first lured into revolt by the promise of Utopia, and then, when they have done their job, enslaved over again by new masters.

Political activity, therefore, is a special kind of behaviour, characterized by its complete unscrupulousness, and occurring only among small groups of the population, especially among dissatisfied groups whose talents do not get free play under the existing form of society. The great mass of the people – and this is where (2) ties up with (1) – will always be unpolitical. In effect, therefore, humanity is divided into two classes: the self-seeking, hypocritical minority, and the brainless mob whose destiny is always to be led or driven, as one gets a pig back to the sty by kicking it on the bottom or rattling a stick inside a swill-bucket, according to the needs of the moment, And this beautiful pattern is to continue for ever. Individuals may pass from one category to another, whole classes may destroy other classes and rise to the dominant position, but the division of humanity into rulers and ruled is unalterable. In their capabilities, as in their desires and needs, men are not equal. There is an ‘iron law of oligarchy’, which would operate even if democracy were not impossible for mechanical reasons.

It is curious that in all his talk about the struggle for power, Burnham never stops to ask why people want power. He seems to assume that power hunger, although only dominant in comparatively few people, is a natural instinct that does not have to be explained, like the desire for food. He also assumes that the division of society into classes serves the same purpose in all ages. This is practically to ignore the history of hundreds of years. When Burnham’s master, Machiavelli, was writing, class divisions were not only unavoidable, but desirable. So long as methods of production were primitive, the great mass of the people were necessarily tied down to dreary, exhausting manual labour: and a few people had to be set free from such labour, otherwise civilization could not maintain itself, let alone make any progress. But since the arrival of the machine the whole pattern has altered. The justification for class distinctions, if there is a justification, is no longer the same, because there is no mechanical reason why the average human being should continue to be a drudge. True, drudgery persists; class distinctions are probably re-establishing themselves in a new form, and individual liberty is on the down-grade: but as these developments are now technically avoidable, they must have some psychological cause which Burnham makes no attempt to discover. The question that he ought to ask, and never does ask, is: Why does the lust for naked power become a major human motive exactly now, when the dominion of man over man is ceasing to be necessary? As for the claim that ‘human nature’, or ‘inexorable laws’ of this and that, make Socialism impossible, is simply a projection of the past into the future. In effect, Burnham argues that because a society of free and equal human beings has never existed, it never can exist. By the same argument one could have demonstrated the impossibility of aeroplanes in 1900, or of motor cars in 1850.

The notion that the machine has altered human relationships, and that in consequence Machiavelli is out of date, is a very obvious one. If Burnham fails to deal with it, it can, I think, only be because his own power instinct leads him to brush aside any suggestion that the Machiavellian world of force, fraud, and tyranny may somehow come to an end. It is important to bear in mind what I said above: that Burnham’s theory is only a variant – an American variant, and interesting because of its comprehensiveness – of the power worship now so prevalent among intellectuals. A more normal variant, at any rate in England, is Communism. If one examines the people who, having some idea of what the Russian régime is like, are strongly russophile, one finds that, on the whole, they belong to the ‘managerial’ class of which Burnham writes. That is, they are not managers in the narrow sense, but scientists, technicians, teachers, journalists, broadcasters, bureaucrats, professional politicians: in general, middling people who feel themselves cramped by a system that is still partly aristocratic, and are hungry for more power and more prestige. These people look towards the U.S.S.R. and see in it, or think they see, a system which eliminates the upper class, keeps the working class in its place, and hands unlimited power to people very similar to themselves. It was only after the Soviet régime became unmistakably totalitarian that English intellectuals, in large numbers, began to show an interest in it. Burnham, although the English russophile intelligentsia would repudiate him, is really voicing their secret wish: the wish to destroy the old, equalitarian version of Socialism and usher in a hierarchical society where the intellectual can at last get his hands on the whip. Burnham at least has the honesty to say that Socialism isn’t coming; the others merely say that Socialism is coming, and then give the word ‘Socialism’ a new meaning which makes nonsense of the old one. But his theory, for all its appearance of objectivity, is the rationalization of a wish. There is no strong reason for thinking that it tells us anything about the future, except perhaps the immediate future. It merely tells us what kind of world the ‘managerial’ class themselves, or at least the more conscious and ambitious members of the class, would like to live in.

Fortunately the ‘managers’ are not so invincible as Burnham believes. It is curious how persistently, in The Managerial Revolution , he ignores the advantages, military as well as social, enjoyed by a democratic country. At every point the evidence is squeezed in order to show the strength, vitality, and durability of Hitler’s crazy régime. Germany is expanding rapidly, and ‘rapid territorial expansion has always been a sign, not of decadence . . . but of renewal’. Germany makes war successfully, and ‘the ability to make war well is never a sign of decadence but of its opposite’. Germany also ‘inspires in millions of persons a fanatical loyalty. This, too, never accompanies decadence’. Even the cruelty and dishonesty of the Nazi régime are cited in its favour, since ‘the young, new, rising social order is, as against the old, more likely to resort on a large scale to lies, terror, persecution’. Yet, within only five years this young, new, rising social order had smashed itself to pieces and become, in Burnham’s usage of the word, decadent. And this had happened quite largely because of the ‘managerial’ (i.e. undemocratic) structure which Burnham admires. The immediate cause of the German defeat was the unheard-of folly of attacking the U.S.S.R. while Britain was still undefeated and America was manifestly getting ready to fight. Mistakes of this magnitude can only be made, or at any rate they are most likely to be made, in countries where public opinion has no power. So long as the common man can get a hearing, such elementary rules as not fighting all your enemies simultaneously are less likely to be violated.

But, in any case, one should have been able to see from the start that such a movement as Nazism could not produce any good or stable result. Actually, so long as they were winning, Burnham seems to have seen nothing wrong with the methods of the Nazis. Such methods, he says, only appear wicked because they are new:

There is no historical law that polite manners and ‘justice’ shall conquer. In history there is always the question of whose manners and whose justice. A rising social class and a new order of society have got to break through the old moral codes just as they must break through the old economic and political institutions. Naturally, from the point of view of the old, they are monsters. If they win, they take care in due time of manners and morals.

This implies that literally anything can become right or wrong if the dominant class of the moment so wills it. It ignores the fact that certain rules of conduct have to be observed if human society is to hold together at all. Burnham, therefore, was unable to see that the crimes and follies of the Nazi régime must lead by one route or other to disaster. So also with his new-found admiration for Stalin. It is too early to say in just what way the Russian régime will destroy itself. If I had to make a prophecy, I should say that a continuation of the Russian policies of the last fifteen years – and internal and external policy, of course, are merely two facets of the same thing – can only lead to a war conducted with atomic bombs, which will make Hitler’s invasion look like a tea-party. But at any rate, the Russian régime will either democratize itself, or it will perish. The huge, invincible, everlasting slave empire of which Burnham appears to dream will not be established, or, if established, will not endure, because slavery is no longer a stable basis for human society.

One cannot always make positive prophecies, but there are times when one ought to be able to make negative ones. No one could have been expected to foresee the exact results of the Treaty of Versailles, but millions of thinking people could and did foresee that those results would be bad. Plenty of people, though not so many in this case, can foresee that the results of the settlement now being forced on Europe will also be bad. And to refrain from admiring Hitler or Stalin – that, too, should not require an enormous intellectual effort. But it is partly a moral effort. That a man of Burnham’s gifts should have been able for a while to think of Nazism as something rather admirable, something that could and probably would build up a workable and durable social order shows, what damage is done to the sense of reality by the cultivation of what is now called ‘realism’.

Orwell’s notes

Published by Polemic , May 1946, and as James Burnham and the Managerial Revolution when published as a pamphlet, 1946

• Orwell Lecture 2010: Ferdinand Mount – Orwell and the Oligarchs

We use cookies. By browsing our site you agree to our use of cookies. Accept

Literary Theory and Criticism

Home › Literary Terms and Techniques › Russian Formalism

Russian Formalism

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on October 19, 2020 • ( 1 )

Russian Formalism, a movement of literary criticism and interpretation, emerged in Russia during the second decade of the twentieth century and remained active until about 1930. Members of what can be loosely referred to as the Formalist school emphasized first and foremost the autonomous nature of literature and consequently the proper study of literature as neither a reflection of the life of its author nor as byproduct of the historical or cultural milieu in which it was created. In this respect, proponents of a formalist approach to literature attempted not only to isolate and define the “formal” properties of poetic language (in both poetry and prose) but also to study the way in which certain aesthetically motivated devices (e.g., defamiliarization [ ostranenie ]) determined the literariness or artfulness of an object.

From its inception, the Russian Formalist movement consisted of two distinct scholarly groups, both outside the academy: the Moscow Linguistic Circle, which was founded by the linguist Roman Jakobson in 1915 and included Grigorii Vinokur and Petr Bogatyrev, and the Petersburg OPOJAZ ( O bščestvo izučenija PO ètičeskogo JAZ yka , “Society for the Study of Poetic Language”), which came into existence a year later and was known for scholars such as Viktor Shklovsky, Iurii Tynianov, Boris Eikhenbaum, Boris Tomashevskii, and Victor Vinogradov. (It should be noted that the term “formalist” was initially applied pejoratively to the Moscow Linguistic Circle and OPOJAZ.) Although the leading figures in the Russian Formalist movement tended to disagree with one another on what constituted formalism, they were united in their attempt to move beyond the psychologism and biographism that pervaded nineteenth-century Russian literary scholarship. Although the Symbolists had partially succeeded in redressing the imbalance of content over form, they “could not rid themselves of the notorious theory of the ‘harmony of form and content’ even though it clearly contradicted their bent for formal experimentation and discredited it by making it seem mere ‘aestheticism'” (Eikhenbaum, “Theory” 112).

Viktor Shklovsky/The Daily Star

In many ways, however, the Formalists remained indebted to two leading nineteenth-century literary and linguistic theoreticians, Aleksandr Veselovskii (1838- 1906) and Aleksander Potebnia (1835-81). Veselovskii’s work in comparative studies of literature and folklore as well as in the theory of literary evolution attracted the attention of the Formalists (particularly Shklovsky, Eikhenbaum, and Vladimir Propp), who found much of interest in his positivist notions of literary history and the evolution of poetic forms. More specifically, as Peter Steiner argues, “mechanistic Formalism was in some respects a mirror image of Veselovskii’s poetics” insofar as both stressed the “genetic” aspect in their theories of literary evolution.

Like the Formalists, Potebnia made a careful distinction between practical and poetic language. But his wellknown maxim that “art is thinking in images” (an idea, it should be noted, that was promoted earlier by midnineteenth- century literary critics Vissarion Belinskii and Nikolai Chemyshevskii) made him an object of derision in Formalist writings. Shklovsky categorically objected to Potebnia’s notion of the image, arguing that since the same image could be found in various writers’ works, the image itself was less important than the techniques used by poets to arrange images. Shklovsky further noted that images were common in both prosaic (common, everyday language) and poetic language; hence, the image could not be considered uniquely essential to verbal art. Potebnia’s theories led to “far-fetched interpretations” and, what is more important, knowledge about the object itself rather than the poetic de vice(s) that enabled one to perceive the object (Shklovsky, “Art” 6). Above all, it was “literariness,” rather than either image or referent, that the Formalists pursued in their studies of poetry and prose. With slight variations, literariness in Formalism denoted a particular essential function present in the relationship or system of poetic works called literature.

The personal and intellectual cooperation of the Moscow Linguistic Circle and OPOJAZ yielded several volumes of essays (Sborniki po teorii poeticheskogo iazyka [Studies in the theory of poetic language], 6 vols., 1916- 23). Given that many of the Formalists had been students of the Polish linguist Jan Baudoin de Courtenay and were well apprised of the latest developments made in linguistics by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure , it is not surprising that most of the essays in these volumes reflect a predominant interest in linguistics (see Jakubinskii, “O zvukakh stikhotvomago iazyka” [On the sounds of poetic language], 1916; and Brik, “Zvukovye povtory” [Sound repetitions], 1917). But while members of the Moscow Linguistic Circle considered the study of poetics to fall under the broader category of linguistics, OPOJAZ Formalists (such as Eikhenbaum or Viktor Zhirmunskii in “Zadachi pofetiki” [The tasks of poetics], Nachala, 1921) insisted that the two be kept distinct. Shklovsky, for instance, remained predominantly concerned with literary theory (the laws of expenditure and economy in poetic language, general laws of plots and general laws of perception) rather than with linguistics, while Eikhenbaum and Tynianov are best known for their work as literary historians. Other Formalists, such as Tomashevskii (who was also interested in prose) and Jakobson, approached meter and rhythm in verse with a statistical approach and attempted to isolate the metrical laws in operation.

More specifically, the Formalists understood poetic language as operating both synchronically and, as Tzvetan Todorov notes, in an autonomous or “autotelic” fashion. The Formalists consistently stressed the internal mechanics of the poetic work over the semantics of extraliterary systems , that is, politics, ideology, economics, psychology, and so on. Thus, Roman Jakobson’s 1921 analysis of futurist poet Velemir Khlebnikov, and especially his notion of the samovitoe slovo (“self-made word”) and zaum (“transrational language”), serves essentially to illustrate the proposition that poetry is an utterance directed toward “expression” ( Noveishaia russkaia potziia [Recent Russian poetry]). Indeed, the futurist exploration of the exotic realm of zaum parallels the Formalist preoccupation with sound in poetic language at the phonemic level. In a similar way, essays such as Eikhenbaum’s “How Gogol’s ‘Overcoat’ Is Made” (1919, trans., 1978), which examined narrative devices and acoustic wordplay in the text without drawing any extraliterary, sociocultural conclusions, emphasized the autonomous, selfreferential nature of verbal art. One of the most important of the devices Eikhenbaum described in that essay was skaz. Skaz , which in Russian is the root of the verb skazat’, “to tell,” may be compared to “free indirect discourse” (in German, erlebte Rede ), which is marked by the grammar of third-person narration and the style, tone, and syntax of direct speech on the part of the character.

Certain Formalists were not quite so eager to dismiss issues of content, however: Zhirmunskii maintained an interest in the thematic level of the poetic work; Tynianov considered an understanding of byt , the content of everyday, common language and experience as opposed to consciously poetic language, essential to any analysis of a poetic work. Rather than resolving the issue of form versus content, the Formalists tended instead to downplay it or to reframe it in new terms. For example, Eikhenbaum asserted the need to “destroy these traditional correlatives [form and content] and so to enrich the idea of form with new significance” (Eikhenbaum, “Theory” 115). “Technique,” continued Eikhenbaum in the same essay, is “much more significant in the long-range evolution of formalism than is the notion of ‘form'” (115). In his defense of the primacy of form, Shklovsky explained that “a new form appears not in order to express a new content, but in order to replace an old form, which has already lost its artistic value” (“Connection” 53).

Rejecting the subjectivism of nineteenth-century literary scholarship, the Formalists insisted that the study of literature be approached by means of a scientific and objective methodology. Their emphasis upon the scientific study of poetic language may be viewed in four ways. First, it may be traced to the more general nineteenth- century West European turn toward classification, genealogy, and evolution in the human sciences. In his best-known work, Morphology of the Folktale (1928, trans., 1958), Propp, a somewhat more peripheral yet not unimportant figure in the Formalist movement, employed the rhetoric and methodology of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Georges Cuvier in his attempt to isolate certain regularly recurring features of the folktale. Second, the Russian Formalists viewed their work as a direct challenge to what they perceived as the subjectivism and mysticism inherent in the Symbolist movement (i.e., the literature and criticism of Aleksander Blok, Bely, and Viacheslav Ivanov, among others). Tomashevskii went so far as to denounce the futurists as well as the Symbolists, claiming that it was futurism, especially, that “intensified to a hyperbolic clarity those features which had previously appeared only in hidden, mystically masked forms of Symbolism” (“Literature” 54). Third, Formalism sought to create a professional discipline independent of nineteenth-century configurations of university scholarship. And fourth, the Formalist shift toward science may also be considered as a response to the broader (and more radical) social, economic, and political transformations that the influx of industry and new technology helped to precipitate throughout early twentieth-century Russia. Not surprisingly, the poetic fetishization of the machine found in futurist poetics and avant-garde aesthetics quickly made its way into Formalist thought. Shklovsky’s analyses of poetic works are distinguished by his reliance upon the metaphor of the machine (Steiner 44-67) and the rhetoric of technology to account for such poetic devices and formal laws as automatization and defamiliarization. Ironically, objectives of scientificity in Formalist literary study were held up as an ideal, but only insofar as the Formalists believed scientificity would shield their theory from external influences, since everything outside the poetic system could only corrupt and obfuscate data extrapolated from the text. By 1930 it was clear that this was not to be the case.

For Shklovsky, “literariness” is a function of the process of defamiliarization, which involves “estranging,” “slowing down,” or “prolonging” perception and thereby impeding the reader’s habitual, automatic relation to objects, situations, and poetic form itself (see “Art” 12). According to Shklovsky, the difficulty involved in the process is an aesthetic end in itself, because it provides a heightened sensation of life. Indeed, the process of “laying bare” the poetic device, such as the narrative selfreflexiveness of Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy and its emphasis on the distinction between story and plot (see Theory of Prose ), remained for Shklovsky one of the primary signs of artistic self-consciousness.

The notion that new literary production always involves a series of deliberate, self-conscious deviations from the poetic norms of the preceding genre and/or literary movement remained fundamental to Shklovsky’s and other Formalists’ theories of literary evolution. Tynianov’s and Jakobson’s notion of the “dominant” approximates Shklovsky’s emphasis on defamiliarization, albeit as a feature of the diachronic system, inasmuch as it demands that other devices in the poetic text be “transformed” or pushed to the background to allow for the “foregrounding” of the dominant device. The function of the dominant in the service of literary evolution included the replacement of canonical forms and genres by new forms, which in turn would become canonized and, likewise, replaced by still newer forms.

Toward the end of the Formalist period, the emphasis on the synchronic nature of poetic devices was gradually mediated by a growing realization that literature and language should be considered within their diachronic contexts as well. Some critics— Krystyna Pomorska, Fredric Jameson , Jurij Striedter— regard this later shift in Formalist theory (as described particularly in the works of Tynianov) toward establishing a set of systemic relations between the internal and external organization of the poetic work as protostructuralist. However, newly emerging literary groups such as the Bakhtin Linguistic Circle ( M.M. Bakhtin , Pavel Medvedev, Valentin Voloshinov) and Prague School of Structuralism (Jan Mukarovsky) found the Formalists’ attempts to incorporate a diachronic view of the literary work insufficient. Critics (e.g., Medvedev) attacked the Formalists for refusing to address social and ideological concerns in poetic language. The same criticism, of course, was leveled at the Formalists by the Soviet state (especially by Anatolii Lunacharskii and Lev Trotskii), and with much more serious consequences. Various individuals and groups advocating or at least incorporating a Marxist perspective on literature, including members of the “sociological school” as well as the Bakhtin school in the 1920s, attacked the Formalists for neglecting the social and ideological discourses impinging upon the structure and function of the poetic work. In The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship (1928), Medvedev dismisses the Formalists primarily for failing to provide an adequate sociological and philosophical justification for their theories. While many critics (e.g., Victor Erlich) approach Bakhtin’s work as distinct from that of the Formalist school, others (e.g., Gary Saul Morson and Striedter) view Bakhtin’s work as historically connected to the broader aims and implications of the Russian Formalist movement. Despite Tynianov and Jakobson’s attempt to connect the aims of Formalism to the broader issues of culture (as an entire complex of systems), Russian Formalism remained committed to the idea that “literariness” alone, rather than the referent and its various contingencies, historical and otherwise, was the proper focus of literary scholarship.

Perhaps the ongoing, seemingly irresoluble debate over what constitutes Formalism (both then and now) arises in part from what Jurij Striedter describes as the “dialogic” nature of Formalism itself. The Formalists, especially Tynianov, based their theories of literary evolution (and their own role therein) largely upon Hegel ‘s dialectical method. In his summary of the contributions of the Formalist movement, Eikhenbaum ironically concluded that “when we have a theory that explains everything, a ready-made theory explaining all past and future events and therefore needing neither evolution nor anything like it—then we must recognize that the formal method has come to an end” (“Theory” 139). Eikhenbaum’s vision of a type of Formalist dialectics suggests the dynamic character of the movement as a whole, though external political pressure was surely also a factor by the time Eikhenbaum wrote his essay in 1926.

Shklovsky’s 1930 denunciation of Formalism signaled not just that political pressures had worsened but that the de facto end of the Formalist movement had arrived. Even before Shklovsky was forced to abandon Formalism to political exigencies, the Moscow Linguistic Circle and OPOJAZ had already dissolved in the early 1920s, the former in 1920 with the departure of its founder, Roman Jakobson, for Czechoslovakia, the latter in 1923. With the banning of all artistic organizations (including the various associations of proletarian writers) and the introduction of “socialist realism” as the new, official socialist literature of the Soviet Union in 1932, the Russian Formalist movement came to an official close.

The Formalist approach continued to make itself felt, however, in European and, later, American literary scholarship (though, it should be noted, the formalism of new criticism possessed no direct relation to Russian Formalism). The immediate heirs to the Formalist legacy were the Prague Linguistic Circle (founded in 1926 by Jakobson and a group of Czech linguists) and the Bakhtin Linguistic Circle. The contributions of the Prague Linguistic Circle (especially of Mukarovsky) eventually made their way into the literary discourses of French structuralism. The work of French structural anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss echoes and acknowledges the work of Propp and, to a lesser extent, Tynianov’s interest in cultural and literary systems. The Bakhtin Linguistic Circle’s work (which first attracted the attention of Western scholars in the 1970s) extends several Formalist concerns, not the least of which deal with narrative theory and discourse in the novel. The development of structural-semiotic research and the emergence of the Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School in the 1960s (see the writings of such scholars as Viacheslav Ivanov, Iurii Lotman, Vladimir Toporov, Boris Gasparov, and Boris Uspenskii, to name just a few) may also be viewed as an extension of the aims and interests of both formalism and structuralism. Specifically, semiotic research continues to renew in various ways the Formalist emphasis upon language and the devices therein that function to generate meaning as sign systems.

In the United States, the Formalist approach found a sympathetic cousin in New Criticism, which emphasized, though in organic forms actually reminiscent of Russian Symbolism, the literary text as a discrete entity whose meaning and interpretation need not be contaminated by authorial intention, historical conditions, or ideological demands. Poststructuralism (and  Deconstruction ) in the 1970s and 1980s, though a partial critique of the organic notions of form in much American New Criticism, nevertheless extended certain Formalist assumptions. Figures as diverse as Roland Barthes , Paul de Man , Juia Kristeva , and Fredric Jameson are all heavily indebted to the aims and strategies of Russian Formalism.

Further Reading Stephen Bann and John E. Bowlt, eds., Russian Formalism: A Collection of Articles and Texts in Translation (i973); Osip Brik, “Zvukovye povtory” [Sound repetitions], Sbomiki po teorii poeticheskago iazyka 2 (1917); Boris Eikhenbaum, “Kak sdelana ‘Shinel” Gogolia” (1919, “How Gogol’s ‘Overcoat’ Is Made,” Gogol from the Twentieth Century: Eleven Essays, ed. and trans. Robert A. Maguire, 1974), “Teoriia ‘formalnogometoda'” (1927, “TheTheory of the ‘Formal Method,”‘ Lemon and Reis [appeared first in Ukrainian in 1926]); Roman Jakobson, “The Dominant” (Matejka and Pomorska), Noveishaia russkaia potziia [Recent Russian poetry] (1921, Selected Writings, vol. 5,1979); Lev Jakubinskii, “O zvukakh stikhotvornago iazyka” [On the sounds of poetic language], Sbomiki po teorii poeticheskago iazyka 1 (1916); Lee T. Lemon and Marion J. Reis, eds. and trans., Russian Formalist Criticism: Four Essays (1965); Ladislav Matejka and Krystyna Pomorska, eds., Readings in Russian Poetics: Formalist and Structuralist Views (1978); P. N. Medvedev, Formal’nyi metod v literaturovedenii (Kriticheskoe wedenie v sotsiologicheskuiu poetiku) (1928, The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship: A Critical Introduction to Sociological Poetics, trans. Albert J. Wehrle, 1978 [sometimes attributed also to M. M. Bakhtin]); Christopher Pike, ed. and trans., The Futurists, the Formalists, and the Marxist Critique (1979); Vladimir Propp, Morfologiia skazki (1928, Morphology of the Folktale, trans. Laurence Scott, 1958, 2d ed., ed. Louis A. Wagner, 1968); Victor Shklovsky, “Iskusstvo kak priem” (1917,”Art as Technique,” Lemon and Reis), “On the Connection between Devices of Siuzhet Construction and General Stylistic Devices” (1919, Bann and Bowlt), 0 teorii prozy (1927, Theory of Prose, trans. Benjamin Sher, 1990), “Tristram Shendi: Sterna i teoriia romana” [Sterne’s Tristram Shandy and the theory of the novel] (1921, “Sterne’s Tristram Shandy: Stylistic Commentary,” Lemon and Reis); B. V. Tomashevskii, “Literatura i biografiia” (1923, “Literature and Biography,” Matejka and Pomorska), Teoriia Literatury [Theory of literature] (1928); Iurii Tynianov, “O literaturnoi evoliucii” (1929, “On Literary Evolution,” Matejka and Pomorska), The Problem of Verse Language (1924, ed. and trans. Michael Sosa and Brent Harvey, 1981); Iurii Tynianov and Roman Jakobson, “Problemy izucheniia literatury i iazyka” (1928, “Problems in the Study of Literature and Language,” Matejka and Pomorska). Victor Erlich, Russian Formalism: History-Doctrine (1955, 3d ed., 1981); Aage A. Hansen-Löve, Der russische Formalismus (1978); Robert Louis Jackson and Stephen Rudy, eds., Russian Formalism: A Retrospective Glance (1985); Fredric Jameson, The Prison-House of Language: A Critical Account of Structuralism and Russian Formalism (1972); Daniel P. Lucid, ed., Soviet Semiotics: An Anthology (1977); L. Μ. O’Toole and Ann Shukman, eds., Formalism: History, Comparison, Genre (1978), Formalist Theory (1977); Krystyna Pomorska, Russian Formalist Theory and Its Poetic Ambience (1968); Peter Steiner, Russian Formalism: A Metapoetics (1984); Jurij Striedter, Literary Structure, Evolution, and Value (1989); Ewa Μ. Thompson, Russian Formalism and Anglo-American New Criticism (1971); Tzvetan Todorov, Critique de la critique (1984, Literature and Its Theorists: A Personal View of Twentieth-Century Criticism, trans. Catherine Porter, 1987); Leon Trotsky, Literature and Revolution (trans. Rose Strunsky, 1975). Source: Groden, Michael, and Martin Kreiswirth. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.

Share this:

Categories: Literary Terms and Techniques , Russian Formalism

Tags: Defamiliarization , Grigorii Vinokur , Linguistics , Literary Criticism , Literary Theory , Moscow Linguistic Circle , OPOJAZ , ostranenie , Petr Bogatyrev , Roman Jakobson , Society for the Study of Poetic LanguageSociety for the Study of Poetic Language

• Series on Art Movements and their influence on Cinema – Part II – Formalism – Talking Films Online

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

You must be logged in to post a comment.

Karl Marx Works 1844

Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 [1]

Written: Between April and August 1844; First Published: 1932; Source: Marx. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844; Publisher: Progress Publishers, Moscow 1959; Translated: by Martin Milligan; Transcribed: for marxists.org by Andy Blunden in 2000; Proofed: and corrected by Matthew Carmody 2009; See alternate translation .

See also PDF version in one file .

First Manuscript

Wages of Labour Profit of Capital

1. Capital 2. The Profit of Capital 3. The Rule of Capital Over Labour and the Motives of the Capitalist 4. The Accumulation of Capitals and the Competition Among the Capitalists

Rent of Land Estranged Labour

Second Manuscript

Antithesis of Capital and Labour. Landed Property and Capital

Third Manuscript

Private Property and Labour Private Property and Communism Human Needs & Division of Labour Under the Rule of Private Property The Power Of Money Critique of the Hegelian Dialectic and Philosophy as a Whole

Hegel’s Construction of The Phenomenology , November 1844 Plan for a Work on The Modern State , November 1844

||XXXIX| I have already announced in the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher the critique of jurisprudence and political science in the form of a critique of the Hegelian philosophy of law . While preparing it for publication, the intermingling of criticism directed only against speculation with criticism of the various subjects themselves proved utterly unsuitable, hampering the development of the argument and rendering comprehension difficult. Moreover, the wealth and diversity of the subjects to be treated could have been compressed into one work only in a purely aphoristic style; whilst an aphoristic presentation of this kind, for its part, would have given the impression of arbitrary systematism. I shall therefore publish the critique of law, ethics, politics, etc., in a series of distinct, independent pamphlets, and afterwards try in a special work to present them again as a connected whole showing the interrelationship of the separate parts, and lastly attempt a critique of the speculative elaboration of that material. For this reason it will be found that the interconnection between political economy and the state, law, ethics, civil life, etc., is touched upon in the present work only to the extent to which political economy itself expressly touches upon these subjects.

It is hardly necessary to assure the reader conversant with political economy that my results have been attained by means of a wholly empirical analysis based on a conscientious critical study of political economy.

(Whereas the uninformed reviewer who tries to hide his complete ignorance and intellectual poverty by hurling the “ utopian phrase ” at the positive critic’s head, or again such phrases as “quite pure, quite resolute, quite critical criticism,” the “not merely legal but social – utterly social – society,” the “compact, massy mass,” the “outspoken spokesmen of the massy mass,” [2] this reviewer has yet to furnish the first proof that besides his theological family affairs he has anything to contribute to a discussion of worldly matters.)

It goes without saying that besides the French and English socialists I have also used German socialist works. The only original German works of substance in this science, however – other than Weitling’s writings – are the essays by Hess published in Einundzwanzig Bogen [3] and Umrisse zu einer Kritik der Nationalökonomie by Engels in the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, where also the basic elements of this work have been indicated by me in a very general way.

(Besides being indebted to these authors who have given critical attention to political economy, positive criticism as a whole – and therefore also German positive criticism of political economy – owes its true foundation to the discoveries of Feuerbach , against whose Philosophie der Zukunft and Thesen zur Reform der Philosophie in the Anekdota, despite the tacit use that is made of them, the petty envy of some and the veritable wrath of others seem to have instigated a regular conspiracy of silence.

It is only with Feuerbach that positive, humanistic and naturalistic criticism begins. The less noise they make, the more certain, profound, extensive, and enduring is the effect of Feuerbach’s writings, the only writings since Hegel’s Phänomenologie and Logik to contain a real theoretical revolution.

In contrast to the critical theologians of our day, I have deemed the concluding chapter of this work – a critical discussion of Hegelian dialectic and philosophy as a whole to be absolutely necessary, a task not yet performed. This lack of thoroughness is not accidental, since even the critical theologian remains a theologian. Hence, either he has to start from certain presuppositions of philosophy accepted as authoritative; or, if in the process of criticism and as a result of other people’s discoveries doubts about these philosophical presuppositions have arisen in him, he abandons them in a cowardly and unwarrantable fashion, abstracts from them, thus showing his servile dependence on these presuppositions and his resentment at this servility merely in a negative, unconscious and sophistical manner.

(He does this either by constantly repeating assurances concerning the purity of his own criticism, or by trying to make it seem as though all that was left for criticism to deal with now was some other limited form of criticism outside itself – say eighteenth-century criticism – and also the limitations of the masses, in order to divert the observer’s attention as well as his own from the necessary task of settling accounts between criticism and its point of origin – Hegelian dialectic and German philosophy as a whole – that is, from this necessary raising of modern criticism above its own limitation and crudity. Eventually, however, whenever discoveries (such as Feuerbach’s ) are made regarding the nature of his own philosophic presuppositions, the critical theologian partly makes it appear as if he were the one who had accomplished this, producing that appearance by taking the results of these discoveries and, without being able to develop them, hurling them in the form of catch-phrases at writers still caught in the confines of philosophy. He partly even manages to acquire a sense of his own superiority to such discoveries by asserting in a mysterious way and in a veiled, malicious and skeptical fashion elements of the Hegelian dialectic which he still finds lacking in the criticism of that dialectic (which have not yet been critically served up to him for his use) against such criticism – not having tried to bring such elements into their proper relation or having been capable of doing so, asserting, say, the category of mediating proof against the category of positive, self-originating truth, (...) in a way peculiar to Hegelian dialectic. For to the theological critic it seems quite natural that everything has to be done by philosophy, so that he can chatter away about purity, resoluteness, and quite critical criticism; and he fancies himself the true conqueror of philosophy whenever he happens to feel some element [4] in Hegel to be lacking in Feuerbach – for however much he practises the spiritual idolatry of “ self-consciousness ” and “mind” the theological critic does not get beyond feeling to consciousness.)

On close inspection theological criticism – genuinely progressive though it was at the inception of the movement – is seen in the final analysis to be nothing but the culmination and consequence of the old philosophical, and especially the Hegelian, transcendentalism, twisted into a theological caricature. This interesting example of historical justice, which now assigns to theology, ever philosophy’s spot of infection, the further role of portraying in itself the negative dissolution of philosophy, i.e., the process of its decay – this historical nemesis I shall demonstrate on another occasion. [5]

(How far, on the other hand, Feuerbach’s discoveries about the nature of philosophy still, for their proof at least, called for a critical discussion of philosophical dialectic will be seen from my exposition itself.) ||LX|

Wages of Labour – First Section 1844 Index | Study Guide | Marx-Engels Internet Archive

I Was Wrongfully Arrested Because of Facial Recognition Technology. It Shouldn’t Happen to Anyone Else

O n January 9, 2020, Detroit Police Department (DPD) officers arrested me on my front lawn in Farmington Hills, Michigan, in front of my wife and two young daughters, for a crime I had nothing to do with. They refused to tell me why, and I had to spend the night sleeping on a cold concrete bench in an overcrowded, filthy jail cell before finally finding out that I was being falsely accused of stealing designer watches from a Detroit boutique.

While interrogating me, a pair of detectives let it slip that I had been arrested based on an incorrect facial recognition identification, a technology that has been proven to be both racist and faulty—especially when used in real-world conditions, like with blurry security footage.

This week we finally reached a settlement in my wrongful arrest lawsuit against the City of Detroit that ensures what happened to me won’t happen again.

Facial recognition technology has access to massive databases with millions of photos — including, at the time I was arrested, a database of 49 million photographs comprising every Michigan driver’s license photo going back years. Anyone who has a driver’s license can be included in these databases. The technology scans them all for similar-looking faces and spits out some possible suspects. Police would tell you they only use this information as a “lead” and then conduct meaningful investigations but my own personal experience, and that of other wrongfully arrested people around the country, refutes that assertion.

Case in point, the system somehow returned my expired driver’s license photo as an “investigative lead” that might match the thief. Rather than investigate the accuracy of this purported match, police accepted the “lead,” putting my photo in a lineup along with five other photos of Black men—each of whom looked less like the thief since a computer algorithm hadn’t decided those photos looked similar enough to the thief to be a possible match. The witness (who hadn’t even seen the crime happen, but merely reviewed the security footage) chose my photo out of this rigged lineup. And that is all the evidence DPD relied upon to arrest me.

Read More: Artificial Intelligence Has a Problem With Gender and Racial Bias. Here’s How to Solve It

When I was finally released after 30 hours, I learned that my oldest daughter had lost her first tooth while I was in jail—a precious childhood memory now warped by trauma for our whole family.  She also turned around a photograph of our family because she couldn’t bear to see my face after watching the police haul me away. The girls even started playing cops-and-robbers games and telling me I was the robber. There have been many moments over the last four years where I’ve had to try to explain to two little girls that a computer wrongfully sent their father to jail.

The bogus charges were ultimately dropped, but not before I had to go to court to defend myself against something I didn’t do. Once they were dropped, I demanded that police officials apologize and urged them to stop using this dangerous technology. They ignored me.

Since my story became public in 2020, we’ve learned of two other Black people in Detroit, Porcha Woodruff and Michael Oliver , who were also wrongfully arrested for crimes they didn’t commit based on police reliance on faulty facial recognition technology searches.  Similar stories continue to pop up around the nation.

In a more just world, the cops would be banned from using this technology altogether. While this settlement couldn’t go that far, the DPD’s use of this dangerous and racist technology will now be much more tightly controlled. They will not be able to conduct a photo lineup based solely on a lead derived from facial recognition. Instead, they can only conduct a lineup after using facial recognition if they first uncover independent evidence linking the person identified by facial recognition to a crime. In other words, DPD can no longer substitute facial recognition for basic investigative police work.

Their obligations don’t end there. Whenever DPD uses facial recognition in an investigation, they must inform courts and prosecutors about any flaws and weaknesses of the facial recognition search they conducted, such as poor photo quality like in my case where grainy security footage was used. DPD will also, for the first time, have to train its officers about the limitations and inaccuracies of facial recognition technology, including how it falsely identifies Black people at much higher rates than white people.

What the Detroit Police Department made me endure changed my life forever. When I was being hauled off to jail, I felt like I was in a bad movie I couldn’t leave. For the past several years since my wrongful arrest, my family and I have traveled around Michigan and the country urging policymakers to protect their constituents from the horror I went through by stopping law enforcement from misusing this technology. I’ve repeatedly explained that I don’t want anyone to live with the fear and trauma that facial recognition technology inflicted on my family. With the settlement of my case, we take a big step toward that goal.

More Must-Reads from TIME

• Welcome to the Noah Lyles Olympics
• Melinda French Gates Is Going It Alone
• What to Do if You Can’t Afford Your Medications
• How to Buy Groceries Without Breaking the Bank
• Sienna Miller Is the Reason to Watch  Horizon
• Why So Many Bitcoin Mining Companies Are Pivoting to AI
• The 15 Best Movies to Watch on a Plane
• Want Weekly Recs on What to Watch, Read, and More? Sign Up for Worth Your Time

Contact us at [email protected]

Why is Christian Science in our name?

Our name is about honesty. The Monitor is owned by The Christian Science Church, and we’ve always been transparent about that.

The Church publishes the Monitor because it sees good journalism as vital to progress in the world. Since 1908, we’ve aimed “to injure no man, but to bless all mankind,” as our founder, Mary Baker Eddy, put it.

Here, you’ll find award-winning journalism not driven by commercial influences – a news organization that takes seriously its mission to uplift the world by seeking solutions and finding reasons for credible hope.

Your subscription makes our work possible.

We want to bridge divides to reach everyone.

Deepen your worldview with Monitor Highlights.

Already a subscriber? Log in to hide ads .

Select free newsletters:

A thoughtfully curated selection of our most popular news stories and podcasts.

Every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday

Hear about special editorial projects, new product information, and upcoming events.

An update on major political events, candidates, and parties twice a week.

Twice a Week

Stay informed about the latest scientific discoveries & breakthroughs.

Every Tuesday

A weekly digest of Monitor views and insightful commentary on major events.

Every Thursday

Latest book reviews, author interviews, and reading trends.

Every Friday

A weekly update on music, movies, cultural trends, and education solutions.

The three most recent Christian Science articles with a spiritual perspective.

Every Monday

A year after affirmative action ban, how students are pitching themselves to colleges

• Deep Read ( 13 Min. )
• By Olivia Sanchez, Nirvi Shah, and Meredith Kolodner The Hechinger Report

June 28, 2024

In the year since the U.S. Supreme Court banned the consideration of race in college admissions, students have had to give more thought to how they present themselves in their application essays – to what they will disclose.

Data from the Common Application shows that in this admissions cycle, about 12% of students from underrepresented racial and ethnic groups used at least one of 38 identity-related phrases in their essays, a decrease of roughly 1% from the previous year. The data shows that about 20% of American Indian and Alaskan Native applicants used one of these phrases; meanwhile 15% of Asian students, 14% of Black students, 11% of Latinx students, and fewer than 3% of white students did so.

Why We Wrote This

A year ago, the U.S. Supreme Court barred affirmative action in college admissions. Students have since used their application essays as a place to explore identity.

To better understand how students were deciding what to include, The Hechinger Report asked newly accepted students from across the United States to share their application essays and to describe how they thought their writing choices ultimately influenced their admissions outcomes. Among them was Jaleel Gomes Cardoso from Boston, who wrote about being Black. 

“If you’re not going to see what my race is in my application, then I’m definitely putting it in my writing,” he says, “because you have to know that this is the person who I am.”   

In the year since the Supreme Court banned  the consideration of race in college admissions last June, students have had to give more thought to how they present themselves in their application essays .

Previously, they could write about their racial or ethnic identity if they wanted to, but colleges would usually know it either way and could use it as a factor in admissions. Now, it’s entirely up to students to disclose their identity or not.

Data from the Common Application shows that in this admissions cycle about 12% of students from underrepresented racial and ethnic groups used at least one of 38 identity-related phrases in their essays, a decrease of roughly 1% from the previous year. The data shows that about 20% of American Indian and Alaskan Native applicants used one of these phrases; meanwhile 15% of Asian students, 14% of Black students, 11% of Latinx students, and fewer than 3% of white students did so.

To better understand how students were making this decision and introducing themselves to colleges, The Hechinger Report asked newly accepted students from across the country to share their college application essays. The Hechinger staff read more than 50 essays and talked to many students about their writing process, who gave them advice, and how they think their choices ultimately influenced their admissions outcomes.

Here are thoughts from a sampling of those students, with excerpts from their essays. 

Jaleel Gomes Cardoso of Boston: A risky decision

As Jaleel Gomes Cardoso sat looking at the essay prompt for Yale University, he wasn’t sure how honest he should be. “Reflect on your membership in a community to which you feel connected,” it read. “Why is this community meaningful to you?” He wanted to write about being part of the Black community – it was the obvious choice – but the Supreme Court’s decision to ban the consideration of a student’s race in admissions gave him pause.

“Ever since the decision about affirmative action, it kind of worried me about talking about race,” says Mr. Cardoso, who grew up in Boston. “That entire topic felt like a risky decision.” 

In the past, he had always felt that taking a risk produced some of his best writing, but he thought that an entire essay about being Black might be going too far. 

“The risk was just so heavy on the topic of race when the Court’s decision was to not take race into account,” he says. “It was as if I was disregarding that decision. It felt very controversial, just to make it so out in the open.” 

In the end, he did write an essay that put his racial identity front and center. He wasn’t accepted to Yale, but he has no regrets about his choice.

“If you’re not going to see what my race is in my application, then I’m definitely putting it in my writing,” says Mr. Cardoso, who will attend Dartmouth College this fall, “because you have to know that this is the person who I am.”                       

 – Meredith Kolodner

Essay excerpt:

I was thrust into a narrative of indifference and insignificance from the moment I entered this world. I was labeled as black, which placed me in the margins of society. It seemed that my destiny had been predetermined; to be part of a minority group constantly oppressed under the weight of a social construct called race. Blackness became my life, an identity I initially battled against. I knew others viewed it as a flaw that tainted their perception of me. As I matured, I realized that being different was not easy, but it was what I loved most about myself.  

Klaryssa Cobian of Los Angeles: A seminomadic mattress life

Klaryssa Cobian is Latina – a first-generation Mexican American – and so was nearly everyone else in the Southeast Los Angeles community where she grew up. Because that world was so homogenous, she really didn’t notice her race until she was a teenager.

Then she earned a scholarship to a prestigious private high school in Pasadena. For the first time, she was meaningfully interacting with people of other races and ethnicities, but she felt the greatest gulf between her and her peers came from her socioeconomic status, not the color of her skin. 

Although Ms. Cobian has generally tried to keep her home life private, she felt that colleges needed to understand the way her family’s severe economic disadvantages had affected her. She wrote about how she’d long been “desperate to feel at home.”

She was 16 years old before she had a mattress of her own. Her essay cataloged all the places she lay her head before that. She wrote about her first bed, a queen-sized mattress shared with her parents and younger sister. She wrote about sleeping in the backseat of her mother’s red Mustang, before they lost the car. She wrote about moving into her grandparents’ home and sharing a mattress on the floor with her sister, in the same room as two uncles. She wrote about the great independence she felt when she “moved out” into the living room and onto the couch.  

“Which mattress I sleep on has defined my life, my independence, my dependence,” Ms. Cobian wrote. 

She’d initially considered writing about the ways she felt she’d had to sacrifice her Latino culture and identity to pursue her education, but said she hesitated after the Supreme Court ruled on the use of affirmative action in admissions. Ultimately, she decided that her experience of poverty was more pertinent. 

“If I’m in a room of people, it’s like, I can talk to other Latinos, and I can talk to other brown people, but that does not mean I’m going to connect with them. Because, I learned, brown people can be rich,” Ms. Cobian says.  She’s headed to the University of California, Berkeley, in the fall.

– Olivia Sanchez

Essay excerpt: 

With the only income, my mom automatically assumed custody of me and my younger sister, Alyssa. With no mattress and no home, the backseat of my mom’s red mustang became my new mattress. Bob Marley blasted from her red convertible as we sang out “could you be loved” every day on our ride back from elementary school. Eventually, we lost the mustang too and would take the bus home from Downtown Los Angeles, still singing “could you be loved” to each other.  

Oluwademilade Egunjobi of Providence, Rhode Island: The perfect introduction

Oluwademilade Egunjobi worked on her college essay from June until November. Not every single day, and not on only one version, but for five months she was writing and editing and asking anyone who would listen for advice.

She considered submitting essays about the value of sex education, or the philosophical theory of solipsism (in which the only thing that is guaranteed to exist is your own mind). 

But most of the advice she got was to write about her identity. So, to introduce herself to colleges, Oluwademilade Egunjobi wrote about her name.

Ms. Egunjobi is the daughter of Nigerian immigrants who, she wrote, chose her first name because it means she’s been crowned by God. In naming her, she said, her parents prioritized pride in their heritage over ease of pronunciation for people outside their culture. 

And although Ms. Egunjobi loves that she will always be connected to her culture, this choice has put her in a lifelong loop of exasperating introductions and questions from non-Nigerians about her name. 

The loop often ends when the person asks if they can call her by her nickname, Demi. “I smile through my irritation and say I prefer it anyways, and then the situation repeats time and time again,” Egunjobi wrote. 

She was nervous when she learned about the Supreme Court’s affirmative action decision, wondering what it might mean for where she would get into college. Her teachers and college advisors from a program called Matriculate told her she didn’t have to write a sob story, but that she should write about her identity, how it affects the way she moves through the world and the resilience it’s taught her. 

She heeded their advice, and it worked out. In the fall, she will enter the University of Pennsylvania to study philosophy, politics, and economics. 

I don’t think I’ve ever had to fight so hard to love something as hard as I’ve fought to love my name. I’m grateful for it because it’ll never allow me to reject my culture and my identity, but I get frustrated by this daily performance. I’ve learned that this performance is an inescapable fate, but the best way to deal with fate is to show up with joy. I am Nigerian, but specifically from the ethnic group, Yoruba. In Yoruba culture, most names are manifestations. Oluwademilade means God has crowned me, and my middle name is Favor, so my parents have manifested that I’ll be favored above others and have good success in life. No matter where I go, people familiar with the language will recognize my name and understand its meaning. I love that I’ll always carry a piece of my culture with me.  

Francisco Garcia of Fort Worth, Texas: Accepted to college and by his community

In the opening paragraph of his college application essay, Francisco Garcia quotes his mother, speaking to him in Spanish, expressing disappointment that her son was failing to live up to her Catholic ideals. It was her reaction to Mr. Garcia revealing his bisexuality. 

Mr. Garcia said those nine Spanish words were “the most intentional thing I did to share my background” with colleges. The rest of his essay delves into how his Catholic upbringing, at least for a time, squelched his ability to be honest with friends about his sexual identity, and how his relationship with the church changed. He said he had striven, however, to avoid coming across as pessimistic or sad, aiming instead to share “what I’ve been through [and] how I’ve become a better person because of it.” 

He worked on his essay throughout July, August, and September, with guidance from college officials he met during campus visits and from an adviser he was paired with by Matriculate, which works with students who are high achievers from low-income families. Be very personal, they told Mr. Garcia, but within limits. 

“I am fortunate to have support from all my friends, who encourage me to explore complexities within myself,” he wrote. “My friends give me what my mother denied me: acceptance.”

He was accepted by Dartmouth, one of the eight schools to which he applied, after graduating from Saginaw High School near Fort Worth, Texas, this spring.

– Nirvi Shah

Essay excerpt:  

By the time I got to high school, I had made new friends who I felt safe around. While I felt I was more authentic with them, I was still unsure whether they would judge me for who I liked. It became increasingly difficult for me to keep hiding this part of myself, so I vented to both my mom and my closest friend, Yoana ... When I confessed that I was bisexual to Yoana, they were shocked, and I almost lost hope. However, after the initial shock, they texted back, “I’m really chill with this. Nothing has changed Francisco:)”. The smiley face, even if it took 2 characters, was enough to bring me to tears. 

Hafsa Sheikh of Pearland, Texas: Family focus above all 

Hafsa Sheikh felt her applications would be incomplete without the important context of her home life: She became a primary financial contributor to her household when she was just 15, because her father, once the family’s sole breadwinner, could not work due to his major depressive disorder. Her work in a pizza parlor on the weekends and as a tutor after school helped pay the bills. 

She found it challenging to open up this way, but felt she needed to tell colleges that, although working two jobs throughout high school made her feel like crying from exhaustion every night, she would do anything for her family. 

“It’s definitely not easy sharing some of the things that you’ve been through with, like really a stranger,” she says, “because you don’t know who’s reading it.”

And especially after the Supreme Court ruled against affirmative action, Ms. Sheikh felt she needed to write about her cultural identity. It’s a core part of who she is, but it’s also a major part of why her father’s mental illness affected her life so profoundly. 

Ms. Sheikh, the daughter of Pakistani immigrants, said her family became isolated because of the negative stigma surrounding mental health in their South Asian culture. She said they became the point of gossip in the community and even among extended family members, and they were excluded from many social gatherings. This was happening as she was watching the typical high school experiences pass her by, she wrote. Because of the long hours she had to work, she had to forgo the opportunity to try out for the girls’ basketball team and debate club, and often couldn’t justify cutting back her hours to spend time with her friends.  

She wrote that reflecting on one of her favorite passages in the Holy Quran gave her hope:

“One of my favorite ayahs, ‘verily, with every hardship comes ease,’ serves as a timeless reminder that adversity is not the end; rather, there is always light on the other side,” Ms. Sheikh wrote.

Her perseverance paid off, with admission to Princeton University.

-- Olivia Sanchez

Besides the financial responsibility on my mother and I, we had to deal with the stigma surrounding mental health in South Asian culture and the importance of upholding traditional gender roles. My family became a point of great gossip within the local Pakistani community and even extended family. Slowly, the invitations to social gatherings diminished, and I bailed on plans with friends because I couldn’t afford to miss even a single hour of earnings.

David Arturo Munoz-Matta of McAllen, Texas: Weighing the risks of being honest

It was Nov. 30 and David Arturo Munoz-Matta had eight college essays due the next day. He had spent the prior weeks slammed with homework while also grieving the loss of his uncle who had just died. He knew the essays were going to require all the mental energy he could muster – not to mention whatever hours were left in the day. But he got home from school to discover he had no electricity. 

“I was like, ‘What am I gonna do?’” says Mr. Munoz-Matta, who graduated from Lamar Academy in McAllen, Texas. “I was panicking for a while, and my mom was like, ‘You know what? I’m just gonna drop you off at Starbucks and then just call me when you finish with all your essays.’ And so I was there at Starbucks from 4 until 12 in the morning.” 

The personal statement he agonized over most was the one he submitted to Georgetown University.  

“I don’t want to be mean or anything, but I feel like a lot of these institutions are very elitist, and that my story might not resonate with the admissions officers,” Mr. Munoz-Matta says. “It was a very big risk, especially when I said I was born in Mexico, when I said I grew up in an abusive environment. I believed at the time that would not be good for universities, that they might feel like, ‘I don’t want this kid, he won’t be a good fit with the student body.’”

He didn’t have an adult to help him with his essay, but another student encouraged him to be honest. It worked. He got into his dream school, Georgetown University, with a full ride. Many of his peers were not as fortunate. 

“I know because of the affirmative action decision, a lot of my friends did not even apply to these universities, like the Ivies, because they felt like they were not going to get in,” he says. “That was a very big sentiment in my school.”                       

– Meredith Kolodner  

While many others in my grade level had lawyers and doctors for parents and came from exemplary middle schools at the top of their classes, I was the opposite. I came into Lamar without middle school recognition, recalling my 8th-grade science teacher’s claim that I would never make it. At Lamar, freshman year was a significant challenge as I constantly struggled, feeling like I had reached my wit’s end. By the middle of Freshman year, I was the only kid left from my middle school, since everyone else had dropped out. Rather than following suit, I kept going. I felt like I had something to prove to myself because I knew I could make it.

Kendall Martin of Austin, Texas: From frustration to love

Kendall Martin wanted to be clear with college admissions officers about one thing: She is a young Black woman, and her race is central to who she is. Ms. Martin was ranked 15th in her graduating class from KIPP Austin Collegiate. She was a key figure on her high school basketball team. She wanted colleges to know she had overcome adversity. But most importantly, Ms. Martin says, she wanted to be sure, when her application was reviewed, “Y’all know who you are accepting.”

It wouldn’t be as simple as checking a box, though, which led Ms. Martin, of Kyle, Texas, to the topic she chose for her college admissions essay, the year after the Supreme Court said race could not be a factor in college admissions. Instead, she looked at the hair framing her face, hair still scarred from being straightened time and again. 

Ms. Martin wrote about the struggles she faced growing up with hair that she says required extensive time to tame so she could simply run her fingers through it. Now headed to Rice University in Houston – her first choice from a half-dozen options – she included a photo of her braids as part of her application. Her essay described her journey from hating her hair to embracing it, from heat damage to learning to braid, from frustration to love, a feeling she now hopes to inspire in her sister.  

“That’s what I wanted to get across: my growing up, my experiences, everything that made me who I am,” she says.

–  Nirvi Shah

I’m still recovering from the heat damage I caused by straightening my hair every day, because I was so determined to prove that I had length. When I was younger, a lot of my self worth was based on how long my hair was, so when kids made fun of my “short hair,” I despised my curls more and more. I begged my mom to let me get a relaxer, but she continued to deny my wish. This would make me so angry, because who was she to tell me what I could and couldn’t do with my hair? But looking back, I’m so glad she never let me. I see now that a relaxer wasn’t the key to making me prettier, and my love for my curls has reached an all-time high. 

This story about  college admission essays  was produced by  The Hechinger Report , a nonprofit, independent news organization focused on inequality and innovation in education. Sign up for Hechinger’s  higher education newsletter . Listen to Hechinger’s  higher education podcast .

Help fund Monitor journalism for $11/ month

Already a subscriber? Login

Monitor journalism changes lives because we open that too-small box that most people think they live in. We believe news can and should expand a sense of identity and possibility beyond narrow conventional expectations.

Our work isn't possible without your support.

Unlimited digital access $11/month.

Digital subscription includes:

• Unlimited access to CSMonitor.com.
• CSMonitor.com archive.
• The Monitor Daily email.
• No advertising.
• Cancel anytime.

Related stories

Why the college essay may never be the same, ‘trauma-dumping’ or true to oneself college applicants take on race in essays., the monitor's view college admissions become more probing, share this article.

Link copied.

Give us your feedback

We want to hear, did we miss an angle we should have covered? Should we come back to this topic? Or just give us a rating for this story. We want to hear from you.

Dear Reader,

About a year ago, I happened upon this statement about the Monitor in the Harvard Business Review – under the charming heading of “do things that don’t interest you”:

“Many things that end up” being meaningful, writes social scientist Joseph Grenny, “have come from conference workshops, articles, or online videos that began as a chore and ended with an insight. My work in Kenya, for example, was heavily influenced by a Christian Science Monitor article I had forced myself to read 10 years earlier. Sometimes, we call things ‘boring’ simply because they lie outside the box we are currently in.”

If you were to come up with a punchline to a joke about the Monitor, that would probably be it. We’re seen as being global, fair, insightful, and perhaps a bit too earnest. We’re the bran muffin of journalism.

But you know what? We change lives. And I’m going to argue that we change lives precisely because we force open that too-small box that most human beings think they live in.

The Monitor is a peculiar little publication that’s hard for the world to figure out. We’re run by a church, but we’re not only for church members and we’re not about converting people. We’re known as being fair even as the world becomes as polarized as at any time since the newspaper’s founding in 1908.

We have a mission beyond circulation, we want to bridge divides. We’re about kicking down the door of thought everywhere and saying, “You are bigger and more capable than you realize. And we can prove it.”

If you’re looking for bran muffin journalism, you can subscribe to the Monitor for $15. You’ll get the Monitor Weekly magazine, the Monitor Daily email, and unlimited access to CSMonitor.com.

Subscribe to insightful journalism

Subscription expired

Your subscription to The Christian Science Monitor has expired. You can renew your subscription or continue to use the site without a subscription.

Return to the free version of the site

If you have questions about your account, please contact customer service or call us at 1-617-450-2300 .

This message will appear once per week unless you renew or log out.

Session expired

Your session to The Christian Science Monitor has expired. We logged you out.

No subscription

You don’t have a Christian Science Monitor subscription yet.

Understanding Integers in Mathematics

This essay is about the concept of integers in mathematics. It explains that integers are whole numbers, including positive numbers, negative numbers, and zero, without any fractional or decimal parts. The essay covers the historical development of integers, their essential properties, and their importance in arithmetic operations, number theory, and various real-life applications. It also highlights the unique role of zero and the rules governing arithmetic operations with integers. The essay underscores the significance of integers in fields like algebra, calculus, and computer science, illustrating their foundational role in both theoretical and practical mathematics.

How it works

Okay, imagine math without integers—it’s like trying to build a house without bricks! Integers are those whole numbers that can be positive, negative, or zero. They’re the backbone of math, used in everything from simple adding and subtracting to super complex theories.

Way back in ancient times, folks in Babylon and Egypt were already using integers to count stuff and do basic math. But the idea of negative numbers took a bit longer to catch on. It wasn’t until around the 7th century in India that people started using negative numbers in a more organized way.

A smarty pants named Brahmagupta figured out rules for dealing with negative numbers, which was a big deal.

Integers are super important in number theory, which is all about how numbers work together. There’s this famous thing called the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, which says every number bigger than 1 can be broken down into prime numbers in a unique way. It’s like finding the secret code to unlock any number—it shows just how cool integers are in the math world.

You use integers all the time without even thinking about it. Like, when you talk about temperatures above or below zero, or when you deal with money—credits and debits are just positive and negative integers playing a money game. Even in games, when you go up or down levels based on how you play, that’s integers in action.

Now, when you add or subtract integers, you gotta pay attention to those plus and minus signs. Adding a positive number to a negative one means figuring out which number is bigger and using its sign for the answer. Multiplying and dividing integers also have their own special rules, especially when it comes to mixing positive and negative numbers together.

Zero is a special integer—it’s the only one that’s not positive or negative. It’s like the chill dude in the integer family. In addition, zero doesn’t change any number when you add it, and it makes any number zero when you multiply it. It’s kinda like the superhero of integers, keeping things balanced.

Integers aren’t just for simple math—they’re used in algebra, calculus, and even computer science. In algebra, they help solve equations and figure out patterns. And in computer stuff, integers are used to count things, organize data, and make programs run smoothly.

Understanding integers is key for anyone who loves math or works with numbers. They might seem simple, but they’re the foundation for so much cool math stuff. From ancient times to now, integers have been there, helping people understand the world through numbers.

Cite this page

Understanding Integers in Mathematics. (2024, Jun 28). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/understanding-integers-in-mathematics/

"Understanding Integers in Mathematics." PapersOwl.com , 28 Jun 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/understanding-integers-in-mathematics/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Understanding Integers in Mathematics . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/understanding-integers-in-mathematics/ [Accessed: 1 Jul. 2024]

"Understanding Integers in Mathematics." PapersOwl.com, Jun 28, 2024. Accessed July 1, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/understanding-integers-in-mathematics/

"Understanding Integers in Mathematics," PapersOwl.com , 28-Jun-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/understanding-integers-in-mathematics/. [Accessed: 1-Jul-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Understanding Integers in Mathematics . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/understanding-integers-in-mathematics/ [Accessed: 1-Jul-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

• Work & Careers
• Life & Arts

Russia scours China for second-hand machine tools

Try unlimited access only $1 for 4 weeks.

Then $75 per month. Complete digital access to quality FT journalism on any device. Cancel anytime during your trial.

• Global news & analysis
• Expert opinion
• Special features
• FirstFT newsletter
• Videos & Podcasts
• Android & iOS app
• FT Edit app
• 10 gift articles per month

Explore more offers.

Standard digital.

• FT Digital Edition

Premium Digital

Print + premium digital, ft professional, weekend print + standard digital, weekend print + premium digital.

Essential digital access to quality FT journalism on any device. Pay a year upfront and save 20%.

• Global news & analysis
• Exclusive FT analysis
• FT App on Android & iOS
• FirstFT: the day's biggest stories
• 20+ curated newsletters
• Follow topics & set alerts with myFT
• FT Videos & Podcasts
• 20 monthly gift articles to share
• Lex: FT's flagship investment column
• 15+ Premium newsletters by leading experts
• FT Digital Edition: our digitised print edition
• Weekday Print Edition
• Videos & Podcasts
• Premium newsletters
• 10 additional gift articles per month
• FT Weekend Print delivery
• Everything in Standard Digital
• Everything in Premium Digital

Complete digital access to quality FT journalism with expert analysis from industry leaders. Pay a year upfront and save 20%.

• 10 monthly gift articles to share
• Everything in Print
• Make and share highlights
• FT Workspace
• Markets data widget
• Subscription Manager
• Workflow integrations
• Occasional readers go free
• Volume discount

Terms & Conditions apply

Explore our full range of subscriptions.

Why the ft.

See why over a million readers pay to read the Financial Times.

International Edition

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Guest Essay

Today’s Teenagers Have Invented a Language That Captures the World Perfectly

By Stephen Marche

Mr. Marche is the author, most recently, of “The Next Civil War.”

My son just completed high school and when he leaves for college in the fall my life will change in ways I’m still struggling to contemplate. Among the things I’ll miss most are his lessons in teenage slang. My son has always been generous with me, and I’ve found the slang of his generation to be so much better and more useful than any that I’ve ever used. His slang has also offered me an accidental and useful portrait of how he and his generation see the world.

The primary value of slang has been to create linguistic shibboleths, a way to differentiate yourself quickly from other people. Sometimes the distinction was generational, sometimes it was racial, and sometimes it was ideological, but the slang itself was ultimately a form of social etiquette. From one generation to the next, the terms changed, but the meanings typically didn’t. New words were routinely adopted to express familiar concepts: one generation’s “cool” becomes another’s “dope” and so on.

Members of my son’s generation have a vastly superior approach to slang. They’ve devised a language that responds to the new and distinct reality they face.

Anyone with children, especially ones on the cusp of adulthood, has to reckon with the shameful fact that the world we’re leaving them is so much worse than the one we brought them into. My son’s slang reflects that: It’s a distinct language created for a society that’s characterized, online and off, by collapsing institutions, erosions in trust and a loss of faith in a shared sense of meaning.

“Mid” is an obvious example. I don’t think it even qualifies as teenage slang anymore — it’s too useful and, by now, too widespread. In my son’s usage, things that are mid are things that are essentially average or slightly below. You can’t really complain about them, but they produce no joy. They’re often the result of the refinement of market research to the exact level that tepid consumer acceptance is achieved. Everything in Starbucks falls into the category of “mid.” So does everything in an airport. It’s a brilliant, precise word for a world full of mild disappointments, where the corner bakery that used to do some things well and other things poorly has been reliably replaced by yet another Le Pain Quotidien.

“Glazed” has a similarly impressive precision. When my son describes something as glazed, it’s meant to signify not lying, exactly, or even exaggerating, but the act of positively spinning a judgment. “Glazed” indicates a gilding of information; sports commentary, for example, is 90 percent glaze. When Stephen A. Smith, the quintessential glazer, likens Anthony Edwards to Michael Jordan , a proper response might be “The Ant glazing is crazy.” But glaze is also the perfect description of the way social media works: The world you encounter online is perpetually glazed, with everything taking on an artificially positive, unreal and not entirely trustworthy gloss.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

Election latest: Starmer calls for 'summer of change'; Davey bungee jumps off a crane - as campaign enters final straight

Sir Keir Starmer and Rishi Sunak are beginning a frantic final few days of campaigning as polling day rapidly approaches. Meanwhile, Ed Davey bungee jumped off a crane in his latest campaign stunt.

Monday 1 July 2024 11:00, UK

• General Election 2024
• Leaders ramp up attacks as final days of campaigning begin
• Minister criticises 'celebrating' of Banksy migrant boat inflatable
• Labour: It's not over until the final whistle blows
• Ed Conway: The science and security of the exit poll
• Polls open in three days on Thursday
• Live reporting by Faith Ridler

Election essentials

• Manifesto pledges: Conservatives | Greens | Labour | Lib Dems | Plaid | Reform | SNP
• Trackers:  Who's leading polls? | Is PM keeping promises?
• Campaign Heritage:  Memorable moments from elections gone by
• Follow Sky's politics podcasts:  Electoral Dysfunction | Politics At Jack And Sam's
• Read more:  Who is standing down? | Key seats to watch | What counts as voter ID? | Check if your constituency is changing | Guide to election lingo
• How to watch election on Sky News

Labour leader Sir Keir Starmer has said being a father has helped him become a better politician, describing his children as his "pride and joy".

He told Virgin Radio: "We've had a strategy in place and we'll try to keep to it, which is to carve out really protected time for the kids, so on a Friday - I've been doing this for years - I will not do a work-related thing after six o'clock, pretty well come what may.

"There are a few exceptions, but that's what we do."

He said his son and daughter are his "pride and joy" and "I don't want to lose that time".

Sir Keir added: "I don't believe in the theory that you are a better decision maker if you don't allow yourself the space to be a dad and to have time for your kids.

"Actually, it helps me, it takes me away from the pressure, it relaxes me, and I think, actually, not only is it what I want to do as a dad, it is better."

In politics "some people think, if you fill your diary 24/7 and don't do anything else, that makes you a much better decision maker".

"I don't agree with that, I think you've got to make space, so we do it. "

Sir Ed Davey, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, has urged Britons to "take the plunge" and vote for his party at Thursday's general election.

He was asked for the reason behind his stunt today, which saw Sir Ed bungee jump from a crane in Eastbourne.

The Lib Dem leader said: "I'm asking people to do something many people have never done before, which is vote Liberal Democrat this coming Thursday.

"We're finding a lot of life-long Conservatives considering us, they don't want to vote Conservatives. We're saying do something you have never done.

"I have just done it - I've never done that [bungee jumped] before.

"So, take the plunge - vote for health and care, which is our main priority unlike anybody else's."

You can watch the moment again below:

Taking questions from the media, Sir Keir Starmer is asked by our political editor Beth Rigby whether he worries about his own popularity if he enters Number 10.

Is he concerned that his mandate could be wide - but shallow?

The Labour leader says he "stands by" his record.

He adds: "I stand on my record - four and a half years ago when I took over as leader of the Labour Party I got similar questions.

"Which is - your party has lost really badly, it may never win an election again... are you capable as leader of the Labour Party of pulling it around and seriously putting it before the electorate as a credible force for change.

"And I said yes."

He says Labour is a changed party, claiming his "track record as a leader is clear".

Beth comes back, asking if a pillow handed out to journalists by the Labour Party today is what he sleeps on at night.

The pillows are printed with a mocked-up photo of the prime minister in bed and the words "Don't wake up to five more years of the Tories".

Sir Keir laughs: "No."

He goes on to say it is "a very, very good pillow for us to have across the country."

Labour leader Sir Keir Starmer is in Hertfordshire today, where he is addressing those gathered at a campaign event.

He says: "We have one job - which is to make this a summer of change."

The Labour leader says the Labour campaign, this "fight for change", is for the people of the UK - but "change only happens if you vote for it".

"This is the final mile, these are the last hard yards - but the last steps are always the hardest," Sir Keir adds. 

"We have to remember that people need convincing, there are undecided voters out there.

"We need to convince people that change is possible."

Sir Keir was joined by Alistair Strathern, the Labour candidate for Hitchin.

The Labour leader says: "The choice is stark, the prize is huge in terms of taking our country forward - but it will only happen if you vote for it."

The other candidates for Hitchin are:

• Bim Afolami, Conservative Party 
• Charles Bunker, Reform UK 
• Chris Lucas, Liberal Democrats 
• Sid Cordle, Christian People's Alliance 
• Will Lavin, Green Party

Sir Ed Davey has continued his out-of-the-box campaigning by bungee-jumping from a crane this morning. 

The Liberal Democrat leader has helped raise the party's profile by taking part in a series of stunts - including falling off his paddle board and riding on a roller coaster.

Interestingly, Henry Morris, who runs the Secret Tory parody X account, posted weeks ago predicting this very stunt...

You can see how the polls are looking ahead of the election here...

Adrian Ramsay, the co-leader of the Green Party, says his MPs would "push" a potential Labour government "to be bolder" on climate.

He says the party is expecting a "record" result at the election on 4 July.

Mr Ramsay adds: "We are on track to having a Labour government with a big majority. 

"Well, rather than adding to that majority further or electing another Conservative MP to add to their numbers, it would make a far bigger difference if people elect green MPs who can bring diversity of views into this next parliament."

The party co-leader insists that this would push the next government "to be bolder".

He says the Greens would "move Keir Starmer beyond the U-turns he's been making on climate and on funding for public services".

"And that's why we're on track to having a record green result of this election."

The Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) says there's a conspiracy of silence at this election - that all of the major political parties aren't being honest enough about their fiscal plans.

And it has a point. Most obviously (and this is the main thing the IFS is complaining about) none of the major manifestos - from  Labour , the  Liberal Democrats  and the  Conservative  parties - have been clear about how they will fill an impending black hole in the government's spending plans.

No need to go into all the gritty details, but the overarching point is that all government spending plans include some broad assumptions about how much spending (and for that matter, taxes and economic growth) will grow in the coming years. Economists call this the "baseline".

But there's a problem with this baseline - it assumes quite a slow increase in overall government spending in the next four years, an average of about 1 per cent a year after accounting for inflation. 

Sky News' deputy political editor Sam Coates and Politico's Jack Blanchard with their guide to the election day ahead. 

This is day 40 of the campaign. Jack and Sam look at where the parties are now as the election approaches, with Labour’s attack ads and the Conservatives pushing back against Reform UK. Plus, the reaction to the first round of the French elections which has seen the far-right make significant headway.

Email Jack and Sam: [email protected]

👉 Tap here to follow Politics at Jack and Sam's wherever you get your podcasts 👈

Jonathan Ashworth, the shadow paymaster general, has insisted that the election isn't over until "the final whistle blows" as politicians gear up for polling day.

Labour has consistently been 20 points ahead of the Conservatives throughout the six-week campaign, with all pollsters pointing to a victory on Thursday.

But despite this, the party has continued to emphasise that it will fight for every vote.

Mr Ashworth said: "There's an election on Thursday, and if people want to bring an end to the chaos, to the scandals from the party in Number 10 to the insider gambling scandals, if people have had enough of being stuck on an NHS waiting list, if people who've had enough of having their family finances hammered and pay more on their mortgage, they've got to come out and vote Labour.

"Don't wake up, don't switch on Sky News on Friday morning and hear that Rishi Sunak has been re-elected. 

"If you don't want that, we don't want that feeling in the pit of your stomach."

He does on to explain that there are still "a lot of undecided voters".

"But let me give you some meat," Mr Ashworth adds.

"We're going to deliver 40,000 extra appointments in the National Health Service. 

"We are going to help young people get on the housing ladder by significant reforms to planning."

By Tom Cheshire , online campaign correspondent 

If you want a good idea of what matters to each party - its deepest desires, its darkest fears - look at where it's spending money.

What it shows is a story of Labour spending big and spending everywhere, as it pursues a plausible supermajority, while the Conservatives retreat to fight for some of their heartland constituencies, and spend much less. 

It shows the current state of play for all parties across the country. The map shows which is the biggest spender in each constituency - which parts of the country they're fighting to win, or not to lose.

The map was created by Who Targets Me (WTM), which tracks digital political advertising and has partnered with Sky News as part of our online campaign team.

"Our map of advertising activity shows where the parties have targeted their Facebook and Instagram ads in the last week," Sam Jeffers, executive director of WTM, says.

Be the first to get Breaking News

Install the Sky News app for free