research study about psychology

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts

Collection  12 March 2023

Top 100 in Psychology - 2022

This collection highlights our most downloaded* psychology papers published in 2022. Featuring authors from around the world, these papers showcase valuable research from an international community.

You can also view the top papers across various subject areas here .

*Data obtained from SN Insights, which is based on Digital Science's Dimensions.

Cats learn the names of their friend cats in their daily lives

• Saho Takagi
• Atsuko Saito
• Hika Kuroshima

The impact of digital media on children’s intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background

• Bruno Sauce
• Magnus Liebherr
• Torkel Klingberg

Reading on a smartphone affects sigh generation, brain activity, and comprehension

• Motoyasu Honma
• Yuri Masaoka
• Masahiko Izumizaki

Birdsongs alleviate anxiety and paranoia in healthy participants

• J. Sundermann

SARS-CoV-2 spike protein induces cognitive deficit and anxiety-like behavior in mouse via non-cell autonomous hippocampal neuronal death

• Junyoung Oh
• Woo-Hyun Cho
• Sung Joong Lee

Prevalence, age of decision, and interpersonal warmth judgements of childfree adults

• Zachary P. Neal
• Jennifer Watling Neal

Acute and protracted abstinence from methamphetamine bidirectionally changes intrinsic excitability of indirect pathway spiny projection neurons in the dorsomedial striatum

• Sanghoon Choi
• Steven M. Graves

Indeterminacy of cannabis impairment and ∆ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (∆ 9 -THC) levels in blood and breath

• Gregory T. Wurz
• Michael W. DeGregorio

Perceiving societal pressure to be happy is linked to poor well-being, especially in happy nations

• Egon Dejonckheere
• Joshua J. Rhee
• Brock Bastian

Fitness tracking reveals task-specific associations between memory, mental health, and physical activity

• Jeremy R. Manning
• Gina M. Notaro
• Paxton C. Fitzpatrick

Higher emotional awareness is associated with greater domain-general reflective tendencies

• Michelle Persich
• William D. S. Killgore

Investigation of humans individual differences as predictors of their animal interaction styles, focused on the domestic cat

• Lauren R. Finka
• Lucia Ripari
• Marnie L. Brennan

Cichlids and stingrays can add and subtract ‘one’ in the number space from one to five

• V. Schluessel

Group VR experiences can produce ego attenuation and connectedness comparable to psychedelics

• David R. Glowacki
• Rhoslyn Roebuck Williams
• Mike Chatziapostolou

Smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment reveals mental health benefits of birdlife

• Ryan Hammoud
• Stefania Tognin
• Andrea Mechelli

Deep language algorithms predict semantic comprehension from brain activity

• Charlotte Caucheteux
• Alexandre Gramfort
• Jean-Rémi King

Misinformation of COVID-19 vaccines and vaccine hesitancy

• Sun Kyong Lee
• Juhyung Sun
• Shane Connelly

Children with autism spectrum disorder show atypical electroencephalographic response to processing contextual incongruencies

• Amparo V. Márquez-García
• Vasily A. Vakorin
• Sam M. Doesburg

Childhood temperament and adulthood personality differentially predict life outcomes

• Amanda J. Wright
• Joshua J. Jackson

Identification of genes associated with human-canine communication in canine evolution

• Akiko Tonoike
• Ken-ichi Otaki
• Miho Nagasawa

Breath chemical markers of sexual arousal in humans

• G. Pugliese
• J. Williams

Hyperrealistic neural decoding for reconstructing faces from fMRI activations via the GAN latent space

• Thirza Dado
• Yağmur Güçlütürk

Brain aging differs with cognitive ability regardless of education

• Kristine B. Walhovd
• Lars Nyberg
• Anders M. Fjell

Short-sighted decision-making by those not vaccinated against COVID-19

• Julia G. Halilova
• Samuel Fynes-Clinton
• R. Shayna Rosenbaum

Groove rhythm stimulates prefrontal cortex function in groove enjoyers

• Takemune Fukuie
• Kazuya Suwabe
• Hideaki Soya

Human magnetic sense is mediated by a light and magnetic field resonance-dependent mechanism

• Kwon-Seok Chae
• Soo-Chan Kim
• Yongkuk Kim

Innovative composite tool use by Goffin’s cockatoos ( Cacatua goffiniana )

• Antonio J. Osuna-Mascaró
• Roger Mundry
• Alice M. I. Auersperg

Is a downwards head tilt a cross-cultural signal of dominance? Evidence for a universal visual illusion

• Zachary Witkower
• Alexander K. Hill
• Jessica L. Tracy

Systematic review and meta-analysis of cognitive impairment in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS)

• Mehdi Aoun Sebaiti
• Mathieu Hainselin
• François Jérôme Authier

Identification and validation of Alzheimer’s disease-related metabolic brain pattern in biomarker confirmed Alzheimer’s dementia patients

• Matej Perovnik
• Petra Tomše

Impact of fasting on stress systems and depressive symptoms in patients with major depressive disorder: a cross-sectional study

• Britta Stapel
• Daniela Fraccarollo
• Kai G. Kahl

Bio-behavioral synchrony is a potential mechanism for mate selection in humans

• Nathalie klein Selle

The cognitive and psychiatric subacute impairment in severe Covid-19

• Pedro J. Serrano-Castro
• Francisco J. Garzón-Maldonado
• Fernando Rodríguez de Fonseca

CNS imaging characteristics in fibromyalgia patients with and without peripheral nerve involvement

• Hans-Christoph Aster
• Dimitar Evdokimov
• Claudia Sommer

The effects of contracting Covid-19 on cognitive failures at work: implications for task performance and turnover intentions

• James W. Beck

The effects of mindfulness meditation versus CBT for anxiety on emotional distress and attitudes toward seeking mental health treatment: a semi-randomized trial

• Daniela Aisenberg-Shafran
• Liav Shturm

Trait emotional intelligence in American pilots

• Zachary Dugger
• K. V. Petrides
• Bernadette McCrory

Mindfulness meditation increases default mode, salience, and central executive network connectivity

• Benno Bremer
• Kathrin Koch

Effect of MIND diet intervention on cognitive performance and brain structure in healthy obese women: a randomized controlled trial

• Golnaz Arjmand
• Mojtaba Abbas-Zadeh
• Mohammad Hassan Eftekhari

Bodily ownership of an independent supernumerary limb: an exploratory study

• Kohei Umezawa
• Yuta Suzuki
• Yoichi Miyawaki

Anabolic–androgenic steroid use is associated with psychopathy, risk-taking, anger, and physical problems

• Bryan S. Nelson
• Tom Hildebrandt
• Pascal Wallisch

Longitudinal changes in auditory and reward systems following receptive music-based intervention in older adults

• Milena Aiello Quinci
• Alexander Belden
• Psyche Loui

Reaction time and working memory in gamers and non-gamers

• Ronnie Lidor

Simulated visual hallucinations in virtual reality enhance cognitive flexibility

• Clara Rastelli
• Antonino Greco
• Nicola De Pisapia

Rapid but specific perceptual learning partially explains individual differences in the recognition of challenging speech

• Karen Banai
• Hanin Karawani
• Yizhar Lavner

Mindfulness-based online intervention increases well-being and decreases stress after Covid-19 lockdown

• Francesco Bossi
• Francesca Zaninotto
• Emiliano Ricciardi

Automated meta-analysis of the event-related potential (ERP) literature

• Thomas Donoghue
• Bradley Voytek

Model-based learning retrospectively updates model-free values

• Maaike M. H. Van Swieten
• Sanjay G. Manohar

Interaction with the future self in virtual reality reduces self-defeating behavior in a sample of convicted offenders

• Jean-Louis van Gelder
• Liza J. M. Cornet
• Job van der Schalk

The newborn brain is sensitive to the communicative function of language

• Bálint Forgács
• Tibor Tauzin
• Judit Gervain

Cognitive profiles in children and adolescents with Down syndrome

• Sara Onnivello
• Francesca Pulina
• Silvia Lanfranchi

Short term treatment with a cocktail of rapamycin, acarbose and phenylbutyrate delays aging phenotypes in mice

• Warren Ladiges

Effects of exploring a novel environment on memory across the lifespan

• Judith Schomaker
• Valentin Baumann
• Marit F. L. Ruitenberg

The impact of psychopathology on academic performance in school-age children and adolescents

• Mireia Pagerols
• Raquel Prat

Effect of berry-based supplements and foods on cognitive function: a systematic review

• Negar Bonyadi
• Neda Dolatkhah
• Maryam Hashemian

Attention rhythmically samples multi-feature objects in working memory

• Samson Chota
• Stefan Van der Stigchel

Functional brain connectomes reflect acute and chronic cannabis use

• J. G. Ramaekers
• N. L. Mason

Simple questionnaires outperform behavioral tasks to measure socio-emotional skills in students

• Mélusine Boon-Falleur
• Adrien Bouguen
• Coralie Chevallier

Neuronal effects of glabellar botulinum toxin injections using a valenced inhibition task in borderline personality disorder

• Tillmann H. C. Kruger
• Jara Schulze
• M. Axel Wollmer

Naloxone’s dose-dependent displacement of [ 11 C]carfentanil and duration of receptor occupancy in the rat brain

• Kelly A. O’Conor
• Nora D. Volkow

rs-fMRI and machine learning for ASD diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• Caio Pinheiro Santana
• Emerson Assis de Carvalho
• Lucelmo Lacerda de Brito

Machine learning and expression analyses reveal circadian clock features predictive of anxiety

• Rebeccah Overton
• Krista Ingram

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on oral health and psychosocial factors

• Antonio Ciardo
• Marlinde M. Simon

Facial asymmetry in dogs with fear and aggressive behaviors towards humans

• Marcello Siniscalchi
• Serenella d’Ingeo
• Angelo Quaranta

Superposition mechanism as a neural basis for understanding others

• Wataru Noguchi
• Hiroyuki Iizuka
• Shigeru Taguchi

Influence of diurnal phase on behavioral tests of sensorimotor performance, anxiety, learning and memory in mice

• Chi-Hui Tsao
• Jonathan Flint
• Guo-Jen Huang

Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability in Japanese children

• Mako Okanda
• Xianwei Meng
• Yusuke Moriguchi

Meta-analytic evidence that mindfulness training alters resting state default mode network connectivity

• Hadley Rahrig
• David R. Vago
• Kirk Warren Brown

Mentalization and dissociation after adverse childhood experiences

• J. Wagner-Skacel

fMRI-based validation of continuous-wave fNIRS of supplementary motor area activation during motor execution and motor imagery

• Franziska Klein
• Stefan Debener
• Cornelia Kranczioch

Predictors of adherence to public health behaviors for fighting COVID-19 derived from longitudinal data

• Birga M. Schumpe
• Caspar J. Van Lissa
• N. Pontus Leander

High-resolution cortical parcellation based on conserved brain landmarks for localization of multimodal data to the nearest centimeter

• Hari McGrath
• Hitten P. Zaveri
• Dennis D. Spencer

Validation of the forced swim test in Drosophila , and its use to demonstrate psilocybin has long-lasting antidepressant-like effects in flies

• C. D. Nichols

Time pressure changes how people explore and respond to uncertainty

• Charley M. Wu
• Eric Schulz
• Maarten Speekenbrink

Functional connectivity of brain networks with three monochromatic wavelengths: a pilot study using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging

• Marc Argilés
• Bernat Sunyer-Grau
• Cleofé Peña-Gómez

Behavioral coping phenotypes and associated psychosocial outcomes of pregnant and postpartum women during the COVID-19 pandemic

• Denise M. Werchan
• Cassandra L. Hendrix
• Natalie H. Brito

Spontaneous activity patterns in human motor cortex replay evoked activity patterns for hand movements

• Tomer Livne
• Maurizio Corbetta

Sensory processing sensitivity and somatosensory brain activation when feeling touch

• Michael Schaefer
• Anja Kühnel
• Matti Gärtner

The interplay between cognition, depression, anxiety, and sleep in primary Sjogren’s syndrome patients

• Radjiv Goulabchand
• Elodie Castille
• Philippe Guilpain

Dynamics of adolescents’ smartphone use and well-being are positive but ephemeral

• Laura Marciano
• Charles C. Driver
• Anne-Linda Camerini

ADHD symptoms and use of anabolic androgenic steroids among male weightlifters

• Emilie Kildal
• Bjørnar Hassel
• Astrid Bjørnebekk

Facial mask personalization encourages facial mask wearing in times of COVID-19

• Johanna Palcu
• Martin Schreier
• Chris Janiszewski

Exploring brain activity for positive and negative emotions by means of EEG microstates

• Giulia Prete
• Pierpaolo Croce
• Paolo Capotosto

A network approach to relationships between cannabis use characteristics and psychopathology in the general population

• Linda T. Betz
• Nora Penzel
• Joseph Kambeitz

Socioeconomic status impacts cognitive and socioemotional processes in healthy ageing

• Joaquín Migeot
• Mariela Calivar
• Sol Fittipaldi

Parental praise and children’s exploration: a virtual reality experiment

• Eddie Brummelman
• Stathis Grapsas
• Katinka van der Kooij

Africans and Europeans differ in their facial perception of dominance and sex-typicality: a multidimensional Bayesian approach

• Vojtěch Fiala
• Petr Tureček
• Karel Kleisner

Brain information processing capacity modeling

• Tongtong Li
• Karl Friston

Safety evaluation of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide oral administration in healthy adult men and women

• Yuichiro Fukamizu
• Yoshiaki Uchida
• Takanobu Sakurai

Neural oscillations promoting perceptual stability and perceptual memory during bistable perception

• Michael Zhu
• Richard Hardstone

The effects of probiotics on risk and time preferences

• Aline M. Dantas
• Alexander T. Sack
• Teresa Schuhmann

Media-multitasking and cognitive control across the lifespan

• Natasha Matthews
• J. B. Mattingley

Depressive symptoms reduce when dorsolateral prefrontal cortex-precuneus connectivity normalizes after functional connectivity neurofeedback

• Jessica Elizabeth Taylor
• Takashi Yamada
• Tomokazu Motegi

Intranasal insulin modulates cerebrospinal fluid markers of neuroinflammation in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: a randomized trial

• Derek Kellar
• Thomas Register
• Suzanne Craft

COVID-19 conspiracy ideation is associated with the delusion proneness trait and resistance to update of beliefs

• O. Horntvedt
• P. Petrovic

Hand constraint reduces brain activity and affects the speed of verbal responses on semantic tasks

• Kunihito Tobita
• Shogo Makioka

Impaired grouping of ambient facial images in autism

• Bayparvah Kaur Gehdu
• Katie L. H. Gray
• Richard Cook

Social support, psychological flexibility and coping mediate the association between COVID-19 related stress exposure and psychological distress

• Richard Tindle
• Ahmed A. Moustafa

Gender dysphoria in twins: a register-based population study

• Georgios Karamanis
• Maria Karalexi
• Fotios C. Papadopoulos

Learning from communication versus observation in great apes

• Hanna Marno
• Christoph J. Völter

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Research Topics

Cutting-edge research into the workings of the human mind

Our faculty conducts scientific research on topics that span across all areas of psychology. Some themes of research concentration are listed below. Click the topics to see the list of department faculty associated with each theme.

Addictive Behaviors

Computational Approaches

Decision Science

Developmental Approaches

Interventions

Learning & Memory

Mathematical Cognition

Meaning & Mental Representation

Motivation & Emotion

Neuroimaging

Plasticity & Change

Psychopathology & Risk

Reasoning & Problem Solving

Self & Identity

Self-Regulation & Control

Social Cognition

Stereotyping & Stereotype Threat

Vision Science

Words & Categories

Breakthroughs and Discoveries in Psychological Science: 2020 Year in Review

• Psychological Science

Many of the major news stories of 2020 were closely tied to understanding human behavior, including efforts to contain the spread of COVID-19, understand political divides and social conflicts, and address enduring racial disparities and inequality.  

A wealth of research published by the Association for Psychological Science (APS) addresses these and other important topics. The following is a selection of some of APS’s most newsworthy research and highly cited publications from 2020. These stories emphasize the importance of peer-reviewed psychological research and its impact on society.  

Top 10 APS News Releases of 2020, Metrics Provided by  Newswise  

Romance, Scent, and Sleep: The Stuff that Dreams Are Made Of : Research published in the journal  Psychological Science  suggests that the scent of a romantic partner can improve your quality of sleep. This is true regardless of whether you are consciously aware that the scent is even present.  

Violent Video Games and Aggression: The Connection Is Dubious, at Best : The coronavirus pandemic put a damper on many traditional summertime activities for kids, giving them more opportunity to socialize with friends virtually through online gaming. But many hours of extra screen time worried some parents, especially in light of a 2015 report linking violent video games with aggressive behavior in children. A reanalysis of previous findings published in the journal  Perspectives on Psychological Science  found no clear link between video game violence and aggression in children. 

Stemming the Spread of Misinformation on Social Media : The dangers of COVID-19 could worsen if misinformation on social media continues to spread unchecked, according to research published in  Psychological Science . Though there is no practical way to fully stem the tide of harmful misinformation on social media, certain tactics could help improve the quality of information that people share online about this deadly disease. 

Psychological Science and COVID-19: Conspiracy Theories : Why are conspiracy theories so popular? Who believes them? Why do people believe them? What are some of the consequences of conspiracy theories, and can such theories be harmful? These questions are explored by Karen Douglas, professor of social psychology at the University of Kent, UK, whose research focuses on beliefs in conspiracy theories.  

Pandemic Effects on Marriage and Relationships : Beyond its economic toll, COVID-19 is also having a negative impact on many relationships. Expert commentary from Paula Pietromonaco, professor emerita at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, explores this facet of the pandemic and how interactions in marital and other close relationships shape each partner’s emotional and physical health. 

Trigger Warnings Fail to Help and May Even Harm : A study published in the journal  Clinical Psychological Science  shines light on the value and potential harm of trigger warnings, the term used to alert readers or viewers to potentially unsettling content. This research suggests that trigger warnings offer little to no help in avoiding painful memories and can even be harmful for the survivors of past emotional trauma.  

Contracting COVID-19: Lifestyle and Social Connections May Play a Role : Research published in  Psychological Science  indicates that unhealthy lifestyle choices, including smoking and lack of exercise, along with emotional stressors like social isolation and interpersonal conflicts are important risk factors for developing upper respiratory infections. It is possible these same factors also increase the risk of contracting COVID-19. 

Does Bedtime Media Use Harm Children’s Sleep? Only If They Struggle to Self-Regulate Behavior : Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, one concern for many parents has been the impact of additional TV or computer screen time on their children and their already disrupted sleep habits. A study published in  Psychological Science  found that media use in the hour preceding bedtime impacts the sleep only of children who struggle to self-regulate their behavior. 

Health and Happiness Depend on Each Other, Psychological Science Says : This research adds to the growing body of evidence that happiness not only feels good, but it is also good for your physical health. Research published in  Psychological Science  shows that both online and in-person psychological interventions—tactics specifically designed to boost subjective well-being—have positive effects on self-reported physical health.  

Claiming Journalism Is ‘Fake News’ May Satisfy a Personal Need for an Orderly World : Research published in  Psychological Science  reveals that the degree to which people level accusations of fake news against news outlets is at least partially associated with a personal need for an orderly and structured environment. 

Top 10 APS Journal Articles Based on  Altmetric Attention Scores  

Aging in an Era of Fake News : Older adults appear to be particularly susceptible to misinformation (e.g., they shared the most fake news during the 2016 U.S. election). In  Current Directions in Psychological Science , researchers suggest that social changes in late adulthood, including difficulty in detecting lies and less emphasis on accuracy when communicating, might be partly responsible for susceptibility to misinformation. Moreover, older adults are less experienced with social media and may struggle to evaluate the veracity of content. Interventions that take into account older adults’ social changes and digital literacy might help to reduce their susceptibility to fake news.     Sex Differences in Mate Preferences Across 45 Countries: A Large-Scale Replication :  Research published in  Psychological Science  seems to support the popular perception that men are more likely to prefer attractive young mates, and women are more likely to prefer older mates with financial prospects. These sex differences were universal across the 45 countries surveyed. In countries where gender equality was higher, both sexes appeared to have mates closer to their own age. Contrary to older studies, this study found that gender equality did not predict other differences in mate preferences, such as financial prospects. Also, different countries’ rates of communicable and infectious diseases did not predict sex differences or preferences. 

What Is the Test-Retest Reliability of Common Task-Functional MRI Measures? New Empirical Evidence and a Meta-Analysis : The reliability of measuring brain activity using task functional MRI (fMRI) for predicting disease risk and outcomes appears to be low. In  Psychological Science , researchers present a meta-analysis of prior research and an analysis of test-retest reliability of brain activity in certain regions across 11 common fMRI tasks. The authors found that reliability across studies was low, and test-retest studies did not reliably show activity in the same areas of interest for the same tasks. These findings suggest that current task-fMRI measures are not suitable for predicting clinical outcomes or studying individual differences.    Racial Inequality in Psychological Research: Trends of the Past and Recommendations for the Future :  Systematic inequality exists within psychological research.  This is the conclusion researchers published in  Perspectives on Psychological Science  after querying more than 26,000 articles published between 1974 and 2018 in top-tier psychology journals. Most publications are edited by White editors, and the few publications that highlight race were written by White authors and had few participants of color. These findings suggest the need to diversify editing, writing, and participation in psychological science. To this end, the researchers provide a set of actionable recommendations for journals and authors.  

Your Brain Is Not an Onion With a Tiny Reptile Inside : A paper in  Current Directions in Psychological Science  describes a model of neural evolution that challenges the widespread misconception that as vertebrate animals evolved, they added “newer” brain structures to the “older” existing ones, enabling them to have more complex psychological functions (e.g., language). Neurobiologists have long discredited this misconception that the reptile brain is still part of the human brain, which just added more layers. The authors provide examples of how this inaccurate view of brain evolution has impeded progress in psychology. 

The Emotional Path to Action: Empathy Promotes Physical Distancing and Wearing of Face Masks During the COVID-19 Pandemic : Empathy for people most vulnerable to COVID-19 appears to motivate wearing face masks and practicing social distancing, according to an article published in  Psychological Science . Participants who showed more empathy for the most vulnerable to the virus were more likely to report social-distancing practices. In two experiments, inducing empathy resulted in higher motivation to wear face masks and to practice social distancing than simply informing participants about the importance of these practices, in particular for those most vulnerable to the virus.  

Fighting COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media: Experimental Evidence for a Scalable Accuracy-Nudge Intervention :  Nudging people to think about the accuracy of news headlines might be a simple way to improve their choices about what to share on social media. When directly asked about the accuracy of COVID-19-related news, participants in a study published in  Psychological Science  were better at discriminating between true and false than when asked simply to decide whether to share it. Similarly, having participants judge the accuracy of non-COVID-19-related headlines increased their discernment about the accuracy of COVID-19-related articles and the quality of their subsequent intentions to share them.  

How Firm Are the Foundations of Mind-Set Theory? The Claims Appear Stronger Than the Evidence : Mind-set theory proposes that the beliefs one has about whether attributes are malleable ( growth mind-set ) or unchangeable ( fixed mind-set ) influence one’s motivation, type of goals, persistence, and resilience. Contrary to what the mind-set theory would predict, researchers publishing in  Psychological Science  tested 438 students and found weak associations (<.20) between mind-set, goal orientation, response to challenge, belief in effort, cognitive ability, and intelligence. The researchers suggest that these results may indicate that some claims about mind-set might be overstated. 

The Future of Women in Psychological Science :  A team of researchers analyzed 10 topics relevant for women’s professional prospects in psychological science: career advancement; financial compensation; service assignment and practices; lifestyle roles and work–family conflict; gender biases; prevalence and perceptions of positions of power; intersectionality; harassment and incivility; agency, self-esteem, and self-promotion; and lack of belonging. In  Perspectives on Psychological Science , the authors discuss empirical evidence for each of these issues and clarify gender gaps and positive change in the hope that a better understanding of these issues will spark conversation and help to mitigate remaining gender differences in the field. 

Can Bad Be Good? The Attraction of a Darker Self : We prefer fictional villains who are similar to us, according to research in  Psychological Science . Researchers explored data from an online platform that allows users to become “fans” of characters and take a quiz to evaluate their similarity with them. Individuals preferred villains who were similar to themselves. A series of laboratory studies also found an association between similarity of negative traits, when the villain was fictional but not when the villain was a real person, and attraction to the villain. 

Stories in Action

Stories may complement established policy tools. Walsh and colleagues define the elements of storytelling and discuss stories’ key features and functions, providing design principles for policymakers interested in building stories. 

SAGE 10-Year Impact Awards Honor Two APS Articles

Two 2011 APS journal articles exploring the rise of Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) and the risk of accepting false-positive findings have received SAGE Publishing’s third annual 10-Year Impact Awards.

Letter from the Editor: A New Chapter for the Observer

After nearly 40 years in print, the APS member magazine is going all-digital.

Privacy Overview

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Res Metr Anal

The Use of Research Methods in Psychological Research: A Systematised Review

Salomé elizabeth scholtz.

1 Community Psychosocial Research (COMPRES), School of Psychosocial Health, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Werner de Klerk

Leon t. de beer.

2 WorkWell Research Institute, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Research methods play an imperative role in research quality as well as educating young researchers, however, the application thereof is unclear which can be detrimental to the field of psychology. Therefore, this systematised review aimed to determine what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in the field. Our review of 999 articles from five journals over a period of 5 years indicated that psychology research is conducted in 10 topics via predominantly quantitative research methods. Of these 10 topics, social psychology was the most popular. The remainder of the conducted methodology is described. It was also found that articles lacked rigour and transparency in the used methodology which has implications for replicability. In conclusion this article, provides an overview of all reported methodologies used in a sample of psychology journals. It highlights the popularity and application of methods and designs throughout the article sample as well as an unexpected lack of rigour with regard to most aspects of methodology. Possible sample bias should be considered when interpreting the results of this study. It is recommended that future research should utilise the results of this study to determine the possible impact on the field of psychology as a science and to further investigation into the use of research methods. Results should prompt the following future research into: a lack or rigour and its implication on replication, the use of certain methods above others, publication bias and choice of sampling method.

Introduction

Psychology is an ever-growing and popular field (Gough and Lyons, 2016 ; Clay, 2017 ). Due to this growth and the need for science-based research to base health decisions on (Perestelo-Pérez, 2013 ), the use of research methods in the broad field of psychology is an essential point of investigation (Stangor, 2011 ; Aanstoos, 2014 ). Research methods are therefore viewed as important tools used by researchers to collect data (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 ) and include the following: quantitative, qualitative, mixed method and multi method (Maree, 2016 ). Additionally, researchers also employ various types of literature reviews to address research questions (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). According to literature, what research method is used and why a certain research method is used is complex as it depends on various factors that may include paradigm (O'Neil and Koekemoer, 2016 ), research question (Grix, 2002 ), or the skill and exposure of the researcher (Nind et al., 2015 ). How these research methods are employed is also difficult to discern as research methods are often depicted as having fixed boundaries that are continuously crossed in research (Johnson et al., 2001 ; Sandelowski, 2011 ). Examples of this crossing include adding quantitative aspects to qualitative studies (Sandelowski et al., 2009 ), or stating that a study used a mixed-method design without the study having any characteristics of this design (Truscott et al., 2010 ).

The inappropriate use of research methods affects how students and researchers improve and utilise their research skills (Scott Jones and Goldring, 2015 ), how theories are developed (Ngulube, 2013 ), and the credibility of research results (Levitt et al., 2017 ). This, in turn, can be detrimental to the field (Nind et al., 2015 ), journal publication (Ketchen et al., 2008 ; Ezeh et al., 2010 ), and attempts to address public social issues through psychological research (Dweck, 2017 ). This is especially important given the now well-known replication crisis the field is facing (Earp and Trafimow, 2015 ; Hengartner, 2018 ).

Due to this lack of clarity on method use and the potential impact of inept use of research methods, the aim of this study was to explore the use of research methods in the field of psychology through a review of journal publications. Chaichanasakul et al. ( 2011 ) identify reviewing articles as the opportunity to examine the development, growth and progress of a research area and overall quality of a journal. Studies such as Lee et al. ( 1999 ) as well as Bluhm et al. ( 2011 ) review of qualitative methods has attempted to synthesis the use of research methods and indicated the growth of qualitative research in American and European journals. Research has also focused on the use of research methods in specific sub-disciplines of psychology, for example, in the field of Industrial and Organisational psychology Coetzee and Van Zyl ( 2014 ) found that South African publications tend to consist of cross-sectional quantitative research methods with underrepresented longitudinal studies. Qualitative studies were found to make up 21% of the articles published from 1995 to 2015 in a similar study by O'Neil and Koekemoer ( 2016 ). Other methods in health psychology, such as Mixed methods research have also been reportedly growing in popularity (O'Cathain, 2009 ).

A broad overview of the use of research methods in the field of psychology as a whole is however, not available in the literature. Therefore, our research focused on answering what research methods are being used, how these methods are being used and for what topics in practice (i.e., journal publications) in order to provide a general perspective of method used in psychology publication. We synthesised the collected data into the following format: research topic [areas of scientific discourse in a field or the current needs of a population (Bittermann and Fischer, 2018 )], method [data-gathering tools (Nieuwenhuis, 2016 )], sampling [elements chosen from a population to partake in research (Ritchie et al., 2009 )], data collection [techniques and research strategy (Maree, 2016 )], and data analysis [discovering information by examining bodies of data (Ktepi, 2016 )]. A systematised review of recent articles (2013 to 2017) collected from five different journals in the field of psychological research was conducted.

Grant and Booth ( 2009 ) describe systematised reviews as the review of choice for post-graduate studies, which is employed using some elements of a systematic review and seldom more than one or two databases to catalogue studies after a comprehensive literature search. The aspects used in this systematised review that are similar to that of a systematic review were a full search within the chosen database and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ).

Sample sizes and timelines vary in systematised reviews (see Lowe and Moore, 2014 ; Pericall and Taylor, 2014 ; Barr-Walker, 2017 ). With no clear parameters identified in the literature (see Grant and Booth, 2009 ), the sample size of this study was determined by the purpose of the sample (Strydom, 2011 ), and time and cost constraints (Maree and Pietersen, 2016 ). Thus, a non-probability purposive sample (Ritchie et al., 2009 ) of the top five psychology journals from 2013 to 2017 was included in this research study. Per Lee ( 2015 ) American Psychological Association (APA) recommends the use of the most up-to-date sources for data collection with consideration of the context of the research study. As this research study focused on the most recent trends in research methods used in the broad field of psychology, the identified time frame was deemed appropriate.

Psychology journals were only included if they formed part of the top five English journals in the miscellaneous psychology domain of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). The Scimago Journal and Country Rank provides a yearly updated list of publicly accessible journal and country-specific indicators derived from the Scopus® database (Scopus, 2017b ) by means of the Scimago Journal Rank (SJR) indicator developed by Scimago from the algorithm Google PageRank™ (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ). Scopus is the largest global database of abstracts and citations from peer-reviewed journals (Scopus, 2017a ). Reasons for the development of the Scimago Journal and Country Rank list was to allow researchers to assess scientific domains, compare country rankings, and compare and analyse journals (Scimago Journal & Country Rank, 2017 ), which supported the aim of this research study. Additionally, the goals of the journals had to focus on topics in psychology in general with no preference to specific research methods and have full-text access to articles.

The following list of top five journals in 2018 fell within the abovementioned inclusion criteria (1) Australian Journal of Psychology, (2) British Journal of Psychology, (3) Europe's Journal of Psychology, (4) International Journal of Psychology and lastly the (5) Journal of Psychology Applied and Interdisciplinary.

Journals were excluded from this systematised review if no full-text versions of their articles were available, if journals explicitly stated a publication preference for certain research methods, or if the journal only published articles in a specific discipline of psychological research (for example, industrial psychology, clinical psychology etc.).

The researchers followed a procedure (see Figure 1 ) adapted from that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) for systematised reviews. Data collection and categorisation commenced on 4 December 2017 and continued until 30 June 2019. All the data was systematically collected and coded manually (Grant and Booth, 2009 ) with an independent person acting as co-coder. Codes of interest included the research topic, method used, the design used, sampling method, and methodology (the method used for data collection and data analysis). These codes were derived from the wording in each article. Themes were created based on the derived codes and checked by the co-coder. Lastly, these themes were catalogued into a table as per the systematised review design.

Systematised review procedure.

According to Johnston et al. ( 2019 ), “literature screening, selection, and data extraction/analyses” (p. 7) are specifically tailored to the aim of a review. Therefore, the steps followed in a systematic review must be reported in a comprehensive and transparent manner. The chosen systematised design adhered to the rigour expected from systematic reviews with regard to full search and data produced in tabular form (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). The rigorous application of the systematic review is, therefore discussed in relation to these two elements.

Firstly, to ensure a comprehensive search, this research study promoted review transparency by following a clear protocol outlined according to each review stage before collecting data (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This protocol was similar to that of Ferreira et al. ( 2016 ) and approved by three research committees/stakeholders and the researchers (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The eligibility criteria for article inclusion was based on the research question and clearly stated, and the process of inclusion was recorded on an electronic spreadsheet to create an evidence trail (Bandara et al., 2015 ; Johnston et al., 2019 ). Microsoft Excel spreadsheets are a popular tool for review studies and can increase the rigour of the review process (Bandara et al., 2015 ). Screening for appropriate articles for inclusion forms an integral part of a systematic review process (Johnston et al., 2019 ). This step was applied to two aspects of this research study: the choice of eligible journals and articles to be included. Suitable journals were selected by the first author and reviewed by the second and third authors. Initially, all articles from the chosen journals were included. Then, by process of elimination, those irrelevant to the research aim, i.e., interview articles or discussions etc., were excluded.

To ensure rigourous data extraction, data was first extracted by one reviewer, and an independent person verified the results for completeness and accuracy (Johnston et al., 2019 ). The research question served as a guide for efficient, organised data extraction (Johnston et al., 2019 ). Data was categorised according to the codes of interest, along with article identifiers for audit trails such as authors, title and aims of articles. The categorised data was based on the aim of the review (Johnston et al., 2019 ) and synthesised in tabular form under methods used, how these methods were used, and for what topics in the field of psychology.

The initial search produced a total of 1,145 articles from the 5 journals identified. Inclusion and exclusion criteria resulted in a final sample of 999 articles ( Figure 2 ). Articles were co-coded into 84 codes, from which 10 themes were derived ( Table 1 ).

Journal article frequency.

Codes used to form themes (research topics).

These 10 themes represent the topic section of our research question ( Figure 3 ). All these topics except, for the final one, psychological practice , were found to concur with the research areas in psychology as identified by Weiten ( 2010 ). These research areas were chosen to represent the derived codes as they provided broad definitions that allowed for clear, concise categorisation of the vast amount of data. Article codes were categorised under particular themes/topics if they adhered to the research area definitions created by Weiten ( 2010 ). It is important to note that these areas of research do not refer to specific disciplines in psychology, such as industrial psychology; but to broader fields that may encompass sub-interests of these disciplines.

Topic frequency (international sample).

In the case of developmental psychology , researchers conduct research into human development from childhood to old age. Social psychology includes research on behaviour governed by social drivers. Researchers in the field of educational psychology study how people learn and the best way to teach them. Health psychology aims to determine the effect of psychological factors on physiological health. Physiological psychology , on the other hand, looks at the influence of physiological aspects on behaviour. Experimental psychology is not the only theme that uses experimental research and focuses on the traditional core topics of psychology (for example, sensation). Cognitive psychology studies the higher mental processes. Psychometrics is concerned with measuring capacity or behaviour. Personality research aims to assess and describe consistency in human behaviour (Weiten, 2010 ). The final theme of psychological practice refers to the experiences, techniques, and interventions employed by practitioners, researchers, and academia in the field of psychology.

Articles under these themes were further subdivided into methodologies: method, sampling, design, data collection, and data analysis. The categorisation was based on information stated in the articles and not inferred by the researchers. Data were compiled into two sets of results presented in this article. The first set addresses the aim of this study from the perspective of the topics identified. The second set of results represents a broad overview of the results from the perspective of the methodology employed. The second set of results are discussed in this article, while the first set is presented in table format. The discussion thus provides a broad overview of methods use in psychology (across all themes), while the table format provides readers with in-depth insight into methods used in the individual themes identified. We believe that presenting the data from both perspectives allow readers a broad understanding of the results. Due a large amount of information that made up our results, we followed Cichocka and Jost ( 2014 ) in simplifying our results. Please note that the numbers indicated in the table in terms of methodology differ from the total number of articles. Some articles employed more than one method/sampling technique/design/data collection method/data analysis in their studies.

What follows is the results for what methods are used, how these methods are used, and which topics in psychology they are applied to . Percentages are reported to the second decimal in order to highlight small differences in the occurrence of methodology.

Firstly, with regard to the research methods used, our results show that researchers are more likely to use quantitative research methods (90.22%) compared to all other research methods. Qualitative research was the second most common research method but only made up about 4.79% of the general method usage. Reviews occurred almost as much as qualitative studies (3.91%), as the third most popular method. Mixed-methods research studies (0.98%) occurred across most themes, whereas multi-method research was indicated in only one study and amounted to 0.10% of the methods identified. The specific use of each method in the topics identified is shown in Table 2 and Figure 4 .

Research methods in psychology.

Research method frequency in topics.

Secondly, in the case of how these research methods are employed , our study indicated the following.

Sampling −78.34% of the studies in the collected articles did not specify a sampling method. From the remainder of the studies, 13 types of sampling methods were identified. These sampling methods included broad categorisation of a sample as, for example, a probability or non-probability sample. General samples of convenience were the methods most likely to be applied (10.34%), followed by random sampling (3.51%), snowball sampling (2.73%), and purposive (1.37%) and cluster sampling (1.27%). The remainder of the sampling methods occurred to a more limited extent (0–1.0%). See Table 3 and Figure 5 for sampling methods employed in each topic.

Sampling use in the field of psychology.

Sampling method frequency in topics.

Designs were categorised based on the articles' statement thereof. Therefore, it is important to note that, in the case of quantitative studies, non-experimental designs (25.55%) were often indicated due to a lack of experiments and any other indication of design, which, according to Laher ( 2016 ), is a reasonable categorisation. Non-experimental designs should thus be compared with experimental designs only in the description of data, as it could include the use of correlational/cross-sectional designs, which were not overtly stated by the authors. For the remainder of the research methods, “not stated” (7.12%) was assigned to articles without design types indicated.

From the 36 identified designs the most popular designs were cross-sectional (23.17%) and experimental (25.64%), which concurred with the high number of quantitative studies. Longitudinal studies (3.80%), the third most popular design, was used in both quantitative and qualitative studies. Qualitative designs consisted of ethnography (0.38%), interpretative phenomenological designs/phenomenology (0.28%), as well as narrative designs (0.28%). Studies that employed the review method were mostly categorised as “not stated,” with the most often stated review designs being systematic reviews (0.57%). The few mixed method studies employed exploratory, explanatory (0.09%), and concurrent designs (0.19%), with some studies referring to separate designs for the qualitative and quantitative methods. The one study that identified itself as a multi-method study used a longitudinal design. Please see how these designs were employed in each specific topic in Table 4 , Figure 6 .

Design use in the field of psychology.

Design frequency in topics.

Data collection and analysis —data collection included 30 methods, with the data collection method most often employed being questionnaires (57.84%). The experimental task (16.56%) was the second most preferred collection method, which included established or unique tasks designed by the researchers. Cognitive ability tests (6.84%) were also regularly used along with various forms of interviewing (7.66%). Table 5 and Figure 7 represent data collection use in the various topics. Data analysis consisted of 3,857 occurrences of data analysis categorised into ±188 various data analysis techniques shown in Table 6 and Figures 1 – 7 . Descriptive statistics were the most commonly used (23.49%) along with correlational analysis (17.19%). When using a qualitative method, researchers generally employed thematic analysis (0.52%) or different forms of analysis that led to coding and the creation of themes. Review studies presented few data analysis methods, with most studies categorising their results. Mixed method and multi-method studies followed the analysis methods identified for the qualitative and quantitative studies included.

Data collection in the field of psychology.

Data collection frequency in topics.

Data analysis in the field of psychology.

Results of the topics researched in psychology can be seen in the tables, as previously stated in this article. It is noteworthy that, of the 10 topics, social psychology accounted for 43.54% of the studies, with cognitive psychology the second most popular research topic at 16.92%. The remainder of the topics only occurred in 4.0–7.0% of the articles considered. A list of the included 999 articles is available under the section “View Articles” on the following website: https://methodgarden.xtrapolate.io/ . This website was created by Scholtz et al. ( 2019 ) to visually present a research framework based on this Article's results.

This systematised review categorised full-length articles from five international journals across the span of 5 years to provide insight into the use of research methods in the field of psychology. Results indicated what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) in the included sample of articles. The results should be seen as providing insight into method use and by no means a comprehensive representation of the aforementioned aim due to the limited sample. To our knowledge, this is the first research study to address this topic in this manner. Our discussion attempts to promote a productive way forward in terms of the key results for method use in psychology, especially in the field of academia (Holloway, 2008 ).

With regard to the methods used, our data stayed true to literature, finding only common research methods (Grant and Booth, 2009 ; Maree, 2016 ) that varied in the degree to which they were employed. Quantitative research was found to be the most popular method, as indicated by literature (Breen and Darlaston-Jones, 2010 ; Counsell and Harlow, 2017 ) and previous studies in specific areas of psychology (see Coetzee and Van Zyl, 2014 ). Its long history as the first research method (Leech et al., 2007 ) in the field of psychology as well as researchers' current application of mathematical approaches in their studies (Toomela, 2010 ) might contribute to its popularity today. Whatever the case may be, our results show that, despite the growth in qualitative research (Demuth, 2015 ; Smith and McGannon, 2018 ), quantitative research remains the first choice for article publication in these journals. Despite the included journals indicating openness to articles that apply any research methods. This finding may be due to qualitative research still being seen as a new method (Burman and Whelan, 2011 ) or reviewers' standards being higher for qualitative studies (Bluhm et al., 2011 ). Future research is encouraged into the possible biasness in publication of research methods, additionally further investigation with a different sample into the proclaimed growth of qualitative research may also provide different results.

Review studies were found to surpass that of multi-method and mixed method studies. To this effect Grant and Booth ( 2009 ), state that the increased awareness, journal contribution calls as well as its efficiency in procuring research funds all promote the popularity of reviews. The low frequency of mixed method studies contradicts the view in literature that it's the third most utilised research method (Tashakkori and Teddlie's, 2003 ). Its' low occurrence in this sample could be due to opposing views on mixing methods (Gunasekare, 2015 ) or that authors prefer publishing in mixed method journals, when using this method, or its relative novelty (Ivankova et al., 2016 ). Despite its low occurrence, the application of the mixed methods design in articles was methodologically clear in all cases which were not the case for the remainder of research methods.

Additionally, a substantial number of studies used a combination of methodologies that are not mixed or multi-method studies. Perceived fixed boundaries are according to literature often set aside, as confirmed by this result, in order to investigate the aim of a study, which could create a new and helpful way of understanding the world (Gunasekare, 2015 ). According to Toomela ( 2010 ), this is not unheard of and could be considered a form of “structural systemic science,” as in the case of qualitative methodology (observation) applied in quantitative studies (experimental design) for example. Based on this result, further research into this phenomenon as well as its implications for research methods such as multi and mixed methods is recommended.

Discerning how these research methods were applied, presented some difficulty. In the case of sampling, most studies—regardless of method—did mention some form of inclusion and exclusion criteria, but no definite sampling method. This result, along with the fact that samples often consisted of students from the researchers' own academic institutions, can contribute to literature and debates among academics (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ; Laher, 2016 ). Samples of convenience and students as participants especially raise questions about the generalisability and applicability of results (Peterson and Merunka, 2014 ). This is because attention to sampling is important as inappropriate sampling can debilitate the legitimacy of interpretations (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2017 ). Future investigation into the possible implications of this reported popular use of convenience samples for the field of psychology as well as the reason for this use could provide interesting insight, and is encouraged by this study.

Additionally, and this is indicated in Table 6 , articles seldom report the research designs used, which highlights the pressing aspect of the lack of rigour in the included sample. Rigour with regards to the applied empirical method is imperative in promoting psychology as a science (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). Omitting parts of the research process in publication when it could have been used to inform others' research skills should be questioned, and the influence on the process of replicating results should be considered. Publications are often rejected due to a lack of rigour in the applied method and designs (Fonseca, 2013 ; Laher, 2016 ), calling for increased clarity and knowledge of method application. Replication is a critical part of any field of scientific research and requires the “complete articulation” of the study methods used (Drotar, 2010 , p. 804). The lack of thorough description could be explained by the requirements of certain journals to only report on certain aspects of a research process, especially with regard to the applied design (Laher, 20). However, naming aspects such as sampling and designs, is a requirement according to the APA's Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant) (Appelbaum et al., 2018 ). With very little information on how a study was conducted, authors lose a valuable opportunity to enhance research validity, enrich the knowledge of others, and contribute to the growth of psychology and methodology as a whole. In the case of this research study, it also restricted our results to only reported samples and designs, which indicated a preference for certain designs, such as cross-sectional designs for quantitative studies.

Data collection and analysis were for the most part clearly stated. A key result was the versatile use of questionnaires. Researchers would apply a questionnaire in various ways, for example in questionnaire interviews, online surveys, and written questionnaires across most research methods. This may highlight a trend for future research.

With regard to the topics these methods were employed for, our research study found a new field named “psychological practice.” This result may show the growing consciousness of researchers as part of the research process (Denzin and Lincoln, 2003 ), psychological practice, and knowledge generation. The most popular of these topics was social psychology, which is generously covered in journals and by learning societies, as testaments of the institutional support and richness social psychology has in the field of psychology (Chryssochoou, 2015 ). The APA's perspective on 2018 trends in psychology also identifies an increased amount of psychology focus on how social determinants are influencing people's health (Deangelis, 2017 ).

This study was not without limitations and the following should be taken into account. Firstly, this study used a sample of five specific journals to address the aim of the research study, despite general journal aims (as stated on journal websites), this inclusion signified a bias towards the research methods published in these specific journals only and limited generalisability. A broader sample of journals over a different period of time, or a single journal over a longer period of time might provide different results. A second limitation is the use of Excel spreadsheets and an electronic system to log articles, which was a manual process and therefore left room for error (Bandara et al., 2015 ). To address this potential issue, co-coding was performed to reduce error. Lastly, this article categorised data based on the information presented in the article sample; there was no interpretation of what methodology could have been applied or whether the methods stated adhered to the criteria for the methods used. Thus, a large number of articles that did not clearly indicate a research method or design could influence the results of this review. However, this in itself was also a noteworthy result. Future research could review research methods of a broader sample of journals with an interpretive review tool that increases rigour. Additionally, the authors also encourage the future use of systematised review designs as a way to promote a concise procedure in applying this design.

Our research study presented the use of research methods for published articles in the field of psychology as well as recommendations for future research based on these results. Insight into the complex questions identified in literature, regarding what methods are used how these methods are being used and for what topics (why) was gained. This sample preferred quantitative methods, used convenience sampling and presented a lack of rigorous accounts for the remaining methodologies. All methodologies that were clearly indicated in the sample were tabulated to allow researchers insight into the general use of methods and not only the most frequently used methods. The lack of rigorous account of research methods in articles was represented in-depth for each step in the research process and can be of vital importance to address the current replication crisis within the field of psychology. Recommendations for future research aimed to motivate research into the practical implications of the results for psychology, for example, publication bias and the use of convenience samples.

Ethics Statement

This study was cleared by the North-West University Health Research Ethics Committee: NWU-00115-17-S1.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

• Aanstoos C. M. (2014). Psychology . Available online at: http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.nwulib.nwu.ac.za/eds/detail/detail?sid=18de6c5c-2b03-4eac-94890145eb01bc70%40sessionmgr4006&vid$=$1&hid$=$4113&bdata$=$JnNpdGU9ZWRzL~WxpdmU%3d#AN$=$93871882&db$=$ers
• American Psychological Association (2020). Science of Psychology . Available online at: https://www.apa.org/action/science/
• Appelbaum M., Cooper H., Kline R. B., Mayo-Wilson E., Nezu A. M., Rao S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: the APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . Am. Psychol. 73 :3. 10.1037/amp0000191 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bandara W., Furtmueller E., Gorbacheva E., Miskon S., Beekhuyzen J. (2015). Achieving rigor in literature reviews: insights from qualitative data analysis and tool-support . Commun. Ass. Inform. Syst. 37 , 154–204. 10.17705/1CAIS.03708 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Barr-Walker J. (2017). Evidence-based information needs of public health workers: a systematized review . J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 105 , 69–79. 10.5195/JMLA.2017.109 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bittermann A., Fischer A. (2018). How to identify hot topics in psychology using topic modeling . Z. Psychol. 226 , 3–13. 10.1027/2151-2604/a000318 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bluhm D. J., Harman W., Lee T. W., Mitchell T. R. (2011). Qualitative research in management: a decade of progress . J. Manage. Stud. 48 , 1866–1891. 10.1111/j.1467-6486.2010.00972.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Breen L. J., Darlaston-Jones D. (2010). Moving beyond the enduring dominance of positivism in psychological research: implications for psychology in Australia . Aust. Psychol. 45 , 67–76. 10.1080/00050060903127481 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Burman E., Whelan P. (2011). Problems in / of Qualitative Research . Maidenhead: Open University Press/McGraw Hill. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chaichanasakul A., He Y., Chen H., Allen G. E. K., Khairallah T. S., Ramos K. (2011). Journal of Career Development: a 36-year content analysis (1972–2007) . J. Career. Dev. 38 , 440–455. 10.1177/0894845310380223 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chryssochoou X. (2015). Social Psychology . Inter. Encycl. Soc. Behav. Sci. 22 , 532–537. 10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.24095-6 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cichocka A., Jost J. T. (2014). Stripped of illusions? Exploring system justification processes in capitalist and post-Communist societies . Inter. J. Psychol. 49 , 6–29. 10.1002/ijop.12011 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clay R. A. (2017). Psychology is More Popular Than Ever. Monitor on Psychology: Trends Report . Available online at: https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/11/trends-popular
• Coetzee M., Van Zyl L. E. (2014). A review of a decade's scholarly publications (2004–2013) in the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology . SA. J. Psychol . 40 , 1–16. 10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1227 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Counsell A., Harlow L. (2017). Reporting practices and use of quantitative methods in Canadian journal articles in psychology . Can. Psychol. 58 , 140–147. 10.1037/cap0000074 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Deangelis T. (2017). Targeting Social Factors That Undermine Health. Monitor on Psychology: Trends Report . Available online at: https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/11/trend-social-factors
• Demuth C. (2015). New directions in qualitative research in psychology . Integr. Psychol. Behav. Sci. 49 , 125–133. 10.1007/s12124-015-9303-9 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Denzin N. K., Lincoln Y. (2003). The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theories and Issues , 2nd Edn. London: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Drotar D. (2010). A call for replications of research in pediatric psychology and guidance for authors . J. Pediatr. Psychol. 35 , 801–805. 10.1093/jpepsy/jsq049 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dweck C. S. (2017). Is psychology headed in the right direction? Yes, no, and maybe . Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 12 , 656–659. 10.1177/1745691616687747 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Earp B. D., Trafimow D. (2015). Replication, falsification, and the crisis of confidence in social psychology . Front. Psychol. 6 :621. 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00621 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ezeh A. C., Izugbara C. O., Kabiru C. W., Fonn S., Kahn K., Manderson L., et al.. (2010). Building capacity for public and population health research in Africa: the consortium for advanced research training in Africa (CARTA) model . Glob. Health Action 3 :5693. 10.3402/gha.v3i0.5693 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferreira A. L. L., Bessa M. M. M., Drezett J., De Abreu L. C. (2016). Quality of life of the woman carrier of endometriosis: systematized review . Reprod. Clim. 31 , 48–54. 10.1016/j.recli.2015.12.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fonseca M. (2013). Most Common Reasons for Journal Rejections . Available online at: http://www.editage.com/insights/most-common-reasons-for-journal-rejections
• Gough B., Lyons A. (2016). The future of qualitative research in psychology: accentuating the positive . Integr. Psychol. Behav. Sci. 50 , 234–243. 10.1007/s12124-015-9320-8 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grant M. J., Booth A. (2009). A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies . Health Info. Libr. J. 26 , 91–108. 10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Grix J. (2002). Introducing students to the generic terminology of social research . Politics 22 , 175–186. 10.1111/1467-9256.00173 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gunasekare U. L. T. P. (2015). Mixed research method as the third research paradigm: a literature review . Int. J. Sci. Res. 4 , 361–368. Available online at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2735996 [ Google Scholar ]
• Hengartner M. P. (2018). Raising awareness for the replication crisis in clinical psychology by focusing on inconsistencies in psychotherapy Research: how much can we rely on published findings from efficacy trials? Front. Psychol. 9 :256. 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00256 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Holloway W. (2008). Doing intellectual disagreement differently . Psychoanal. Cult. Soc. 13 , 385–396. 10.1057/pcs.2008.29 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ivankova N. V., Creswell J. W., Plano Clark V. L. (2016). Foundations and Approaches to mixed methods research , in First Steps in Research , 2nd Edn. K. Maree (Pretoria: Van Schaick Publishers; ), 306–335. [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnson M., Long T., White A. (2001). Arguments for British pluralism in qualitative health research . J. Adv. Nurs. 33 , 243–249. 10.1046/j.1365-2648.2001.01659.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Johnston A., Kelly S. E., Hsieh S. C., Skidmore B., Wells G. A. (2019). Systematic reviews of clinical practice guidelines: a methodological guide . J. Clin. Epidemiol. 108 , 64–72. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2018.11.030 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ketchen D. J., Jr., Boyd B. K., Bergh D. D. (2008). Research methodology in strategic management: past accomplishments and future challenges . Organ. Res. Methods 11 , 643–658. 10.1177/1094428108319843 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ktepi B. (2016). Data Analytics (DA) . Available online at: https://eds-b-ebscohost-com.nwulib.nwu.ac.za/eds/detail/detail?vid=2&sid=24c978f0-6685-4ed8-ad85-fa5bb04669b9%40sessionmgr101&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#AN=113931286&db=ers
• Laher S. (2016). Ostinato rigore: establishing methodological rigour in quantitative research . S. Afr. J. Psychol. 46 , 316–327. 10.1177/0081246316649121 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee C. (2015). The Myth of the Off-Limits Source . Available online at: http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/research/
• Lee T. W., Mitchell T. R., Sablynski C. J. (1999). Qualitative research in organizational and vocational psychology, 1979–1999 . J. Vocat. Behav. 55 , 161–187. 10.1006/jvbe.1999.1707 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leech N. L., Anthony J., Onwuegbuzie A. J. (2007). A typology of mixed methods research designs . Sci. Bus. Media B. V Qual. Quant 43 , 265–275. 10.1007/s11135-007-9105-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Levitt H. M., Motulsky S. L., Wertz F. J., Morrow S. L., Ponterotto J. G. (2017). Recommendations for designing and reviewing qualitative research in psychology: promoting methodological integrity . Qual. Psychol. 4 , 2–22. 10.1037/qup0000082 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lowe S. M., Moore S. (2014). Social networks and female reproductive choices in the developing world: a systematized review . Rep. Health 11 :85. 10.1186/1742-4755-11-85 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maree K. (2016). Planning a research proposal , in First Steps in Research , 2nd Edn, ed Maree K. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 49–70. [ Google Scholar ]
• Maree K., Pietersen J. (2016). Sampling , in First Steps in Research, 2nd Edn , ed Maree K. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 191–202. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ngulube P. (2013). Blending qualitative and quantitative research methods in library and information science in sub-Saharan Africa . ESARBICA J. 32 , 10–23. Available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/10500/22397 . [ Google Scholar ]
• Nieuwenhuis J. (2016). Qualitative research designs and data-gathering techniques , in First Steps in Research , 2nd Edn, ed Maree K. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 71–102. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nind M., Kilburn D., Wiles R. (2015). Using video and dialogue to generate pedagogic knowledge: teachers, learners and researchers reflecting together on the pedagogy of social research methods . Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 18 , 561–576. 10.1080/13645579.2015.1062628 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Cathain A. (2009). Editorial: mixed methods research in the health sciences—a quiet revolution . J. Mix. Methods 3 , 1–6. 10.1177/1558689808326272 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• O'Neil S., Koekemoer E. (2016). Two decades of qualitative research in psychology, industrial and organisational psychology and human resource management within South Africa: a critical review . SA J. Indust. Psychol. 42 , 1–16. 10.4102/sajip.v42i1.1350 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Onwuegbuzie A. J., Collins K. M. (2017). The role of sampling in mixed methods research enhancing inference quality . Köln Z Soziol. 2 , 133–156. 10.1007/s11577-017-0455-0 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Perestelo-Pérez L. (2013). Standards on how to develop and report systematic reviews in psychology and health . Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol. 13 , 49–57. 10.1016/S1697-2600(13)70007-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pericall L. M. T., Taylor E. (2014). Family function and its relationship to injury severity and psychiatric outcome in children with acquired brain injury: a systematized review . Dev. Med. Child Neurol. 56 , 19–30. 10.1111/dmcn.12237 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Peterson R. A., Merunka D. R. (2014). Convenience samples of college students and research reproducibility . J. Bus. Res. 67 , 1035–1041. 10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.08.010 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ritchie J., Lewis J., Elam G. (2009). Designing and selecting samples , in Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers , 2nd Edn, ed Ritchie J., Lewis J. (London: Sage; ), 1–23. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sandelowski M. (2011). When a cigar is not just a cigar: alternative perspectives on data and data analysis . Res. Nurs. Health 34 , 342–352. 10.1002/nur.20437 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sandelowski M., Voils C. I., Knafl G. (2009). On quantitizing . J. Mix. Methods Res. 3 , 208–222. 10.1177/1558689809334210 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Scholtz S. E., De Klerk W., De Beer L. T. (2019). A data generated research framework for conducting research methods in psychological research .
• Scimago Journal & Country Rank (2017). Available online at: http://www.scimagojr.com/journalrank.php?category=3201&year=2015
• Scopus (2017a). About Scopus . Available online at: https://www.scopus.com/home.uri (accessed February 01, 2017).
• Scopus (2017b). Document Search . Available online at: https://www.scopus.com/home.uri (accessed February 01, 2017).
• Scott Jones J., Goldring J. E. (2015). ‘I' m not a quants person'; key strategies in building competence and confidence in staff who teach quantitative research methods . Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 18 , 479–494. 10.1080/13645579.2015.1062623 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Smith B., McGannon K. R. (2018). Developing rigor in quantitative research: problems and opportunities within sport and exercise psychology . Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 11 , 101–121. 10.1080/1750984X.2017.1317357 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Stangor C. (2011). Introduction to Psychology . Available online at: http://www.saylor.org/books/
• Strydom H. (2011). Sampling in the quantitative paradigm , in Research at Grass Roots; For the Social Sciences and Human Service Professions , 4th Edn, eds de Vos A. S., Strydom H., Fouché C. B., Delport C. S. L. (Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers; ), 221–234. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tashakkori A., Teddlie C. (2003). Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioural Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications. [ Google Scholar ]
• Toomela A. (2010). Quantitative methods in psychology: inevitable and useless . Front. Psychol. 1 :29. 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00029 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Truscott D. M., Swars S., Smith S., Thornton-Reid F., Zhao Y., Dooley C., et al.. (2010). A cross-disciplinary examination of the prevalence of mixed methods in educational research: 1995–2005 . Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 13 , 317–328. 10.1080/13645570903097950 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Weiten W. (2010). Psychology Themes and Variations . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. [ Google Scholar ]

Subscribe or renew today

Every print subscription comes with full digital access

Science News

Timbre can affect what harmony is music to our ears

The acoustic qualities of instruments may have influenced variations in musical scales and preferred harmonies.

Not all cultures value happiness over other aspects of well-being

What parrots can teach us about human intelligence, more stories in psychology.

Most people say self-control is the same as willpower. Researchers disagree

Psychologists say self-control is about planning ahead to avoid relying on willpower in the moment. Laypeople see things differently.

Here’s how to give a good gift, according to science

Gifting researcher Julian Givi outlines common mistakes gift givers make and how science can help us avoid those costly errors.

Why scientists are expanding the definition of loneliness

Feeling detached from animals, places and routines can cause loneliness, researchers are learning, which may expand the list of interventions.

An apology to Indigenous communities sparks a mental health rethink

The leading U.S. psychological association pledged to embrace Indigenous approaches to healing, which requires rethinking how to address mental health.

Time in nature or exercise is touted for happiness. But evidence is lacking

A review of hundreds of studies finds limited strong scientific evidence to support many common recommendations for leading a happier life.

‘Fires in the Dark’ illuminates how great healers ease mental suffering

Kay Redfield Jamison’s new book examines approaches used throughout history to restore troubled minds and broken spirits.

Boys experience depression differently than girls. Here’s why that matters

Boys’ depression often manifests as anger or irritability, but teen mental health surveys tend to ask about hopelessness.

Race car drivers tend to blink at the same places in each lap

Blinking is thought to occur randomly, but a new study tracking blinks in racing drivers shows it can be predictable — and strategic.

Deliberate ignorance is useful in certain circumstances, researchers say

The former East German secret police, the Stasi, spied on people for years. But when given access to the Stasi files, most people didn’t want to read them, researchers found.

Subscribers, enter your e-mail address for full access to the Science News archives and digital editions.

Not a subscriber? Become one now .

Families Find Ways to Protect Their LGBTQ Kids

Hostility toward LGBTQ kids, enshrined in hundreds of new bills, has put families with such children under unprecedented threat, raising risks of suicide and physical attacks

Marla Broadfoot

People with ‘Havana Syndrome’ Show No Brain Damage or Medical Illness

The largest and most comprehensive studies of ‘Havana Syndrome’ point to stress or group psychology as likely explanations for most “anomalous health incidents”

Daniel Vergano

A ‘Havana Syndrome’ Investigation in Congress Rests on Politics, Not Science

Lawmakers should look in the mirror if they want answers to who hyped dubious reports of Havana syndrome. Instead they are investigating the spy agencies telling them the truth about the mystery

Robert Bartholomew

How to Make Hybrid Work a Success, according to Science

Researchers are studying how to maximize creativity and connection in remote and hybrid work settings

David Adam, Nature magazine

Anger Can Help You Meet Your Goals

This emotion can push people to overcome obstacles, though results are best when people keep their long-term aims in mind

Heather Lench

Peach Fuzz Is Pantone’s Color of the Year—And It’s Everywhere in Nature

This warm, fuzzy color can be found all over the natural world, from land to sea to space

Allison Parshall, Liz Tormes

People Have Very Different Understandings of Even the Simplest Words

Distinctive meanings for a word like “risk” can have a big impact on public messaging, especially when it comes to issues like climate change

Simon Makin

Here’s the Happiness Research that Stands Up to Scrutiny

From meditation to smiling, researchers take a second look at studies claiming to reveal what makes us happy

Amber Dance, Knowable Magazine

The Secret to Accomplishing Big Goals Lies in Breaking Them into Flexible, Bite-Size Chunks

Subgoals can make all the difference when ambitious targets seem too daunting

Aneesh Rai, Marissa Sharif, Edward Chang, Katy Milkman, Angela Duckworth

The Internet’s ‘Dog Mom’ Talks the Science of the Human-Dog Bond

Jen Golbeck, “dog mom” to a group of golden retrievers called the Golden Ratio on social media, talks about the science of the bond between humans and their dogs and all the ways that the canines benefit people

Andrea Thompson

Children Anticipate What Others Want, But Great Apes Don’t

New cross-species research suggests a theory of mind is one thing that sets humans apart from apes

Joanna Thompson

Preventing Child Abuse Should Not Be Controversial. My Own Hate Mail Reveals That It Is

A deep dive into one scholar’s correspondence shows society prefers blame and punishment over protecting children from sexual violence

Allyn Walker

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

There are several different research methods in psychology , each of which can help researchers learn more about the way people think, feel, and behave. If you're a psychology student or just want to know the types of research in psychology, here are the main ones as well as how they work.

Three Main Types of Research in Psychology

stevecoleimages/Getty Images

Psychology research can usually be classified as one of three major types.

1. Causal or Experimental Research

When most people think of scientific experimentation, research on cause and effect is most often brought to mind. Experiments on causal relationships investigate the effect of one or more variables on one or more outcome variables. This type of research also determines if one variable causes another variable to occur or change.

An example of this type of research in psychology would be changing the length of a specific mental health treatment and measuring the effect on study participants.

2. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to depict what already exists in a group or population. Three types of psychology research utilizing this method are:

• Case studies
• Observational studies

An example of this psychology research method would be an opinion poll to determine which presidential candidate people plan to vote for in the next election. Descriptive studies don't try to measure the effect of a variable; they seek only to describe it.

3. Relational or Correlational Research

A study that investigates the connection between two or more variables is considered relational research. The variables compared are generally already present in the group or population.

For example, a study that looks at the proportion of males and females that would purchase either a classical CD or a jazz CD would be studying the relationship between gender and music preference.

Theory vs. Hypothesis in Psychology Research

People often confuse the terms theory and hypothesis or are not quite sure of the distinctions between the two concepts. If you're a psychology student, it's essential to understand what each term means, how they differ, and how they're used in psychology research.

A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. A theory arises from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted.

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your experiment or research.

While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in everyday use, the difference between a theory and a hypothesis is important when studying experimental design.

Some other important distinctions to note include:

• A theory predicts events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

The Effect of Time on Research Methods in Psychology

There are two types of time dimensions that can be used in designing a research study:

• Cross-sectional research takes place at a single point in time. All tests, measures, or variables are administered to participants on one occasion. This type of research seeks to gather data on present conditions instead of looking at the effects of a variable over a period of time.
• Longitudinal research is a study that takes place over a period of time. Data is first collected at the beginning of the study, and may then be gathered repeatedly throughout the length of the study. Some longitudinal studies may occur over a short period of time, such as a few days, while others may take place over a period of months, years, or even decades.

The effects of aging are often investigated using longitudinal research.

Causal Relationships Between Psychology Research Variables

What do we mean when we talk about a “relationship” between variables? In psychological research, we're referring to a connection between two or more factors that we can measure or systematically vary.

One of the most important distinctions to make when discussing the relationship between variables is the meaning of causation.

A causal relationship is when one variable causes a change in another variable. These types of relationships are investigated by experimental research to determine if changes in one variable actually result in changes in another variable.

Correlational Relationships Between Psychology Research Variables

A correlation is the measurement of the relationship between two variables. These variables already occur in the group or population and are not controlled by the experimenter.

• A positive correlation is a direct relationship where, as the amount of one variable increases, the amount of a second variable also increases.
• In a negative correlation , as the amount of one variable goes up, the levels of another variable go down.

In both types of correlation, there is no evidence or proof that changes in one variable cause changes in the other variable. A correlation simply indicates that there is a relationship between the two variables.

The most important concept is that correlation does not equal causation. Many popular media sources make the mistake of assuming that simply because two variables are related, a causal relationship exists.

Psychologists use descriptive, correlational, and experimental research designs to understand behavior . In:  Introduction to Psychology . Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing; 2010.

Caruana EJ, Roman M, Herandez-Sanchez J, Solli P. Longitudinal studies . Journal of Thoracic Disease. 2015;7(11):E537-E540. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.10.63

University of Berkeley. Science at multiple levels . Understanding Science 101 . Published 2012.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Research Methods In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Research methods in psychology are systematic procedures used to observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes. They include experiments, surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations, ensuring data collection is objective and reliable to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that can be verified or disproved by some investigation.

There are four types of hypotheses :

• Null Hypotheses (H0 ) – these predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are written ‘There will be no difference…’
• Alternative Hypotheses (Ha or H1) – these predict that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions. This is also known as the experimental hypothesis.
• One-tailed (directional) hypotheses – these state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g. higher, lower, more, less. In a correlation study, the predicted direction of the correlation can be either positive or negative.
• Two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses – these state that a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship. Typically these are always written ‘There will be a difference ….’

All research has an alternative hypothesis (either a one-tailed or two-tailed) and a corresponding null hypothesis.

Once the research is conducted and results are found, psychologists must accept one hypothesis and reject the other. 

So, if a difference is found, the Psychologist would accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null.  The opposite applies if no difference is found.

Sampling techniques

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.

A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalizations about.

Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.

Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.

• Volunteer sample : where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
• Opportunity sampling : also known as convenience sampling , uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
• Random sampling : when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
• Systematic sampling : when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
• Stratified sampling : when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion to their occurrences.
• Snowball sampling : when researchers find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
• Quota sampling : when researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.

Experiments always have an independent and dependent variable .

• The independent variable is the one the experimenter manipulates (the thing that changes between the conditions the participants are placed into). It is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
• The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the results of the experiment.

Operationalization of variables means making them measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

For instance, we can’t really measure ‘happiness’, but we can measure how many times a person smiles within a two-hour period. 

By operationalizing variables, we make it easy for someone else to replicate our research. Remember, this is important because we can check if our findings are reliable.

Extraneous variables are all variables which are not independent variable but could affect the results of the experiment.

It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a situational feature of the environment such as lighting or noise.

Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that occurs if the participants work out the aims of the research study, they may begin to behave in a certain way.

For example, in Milgram’s research , critics argued that participants worked out that the shocks were not real and they administered them as they thought this was what was required of them. 

Extraneous variables must be controlled so that they do not affect (confound) the results.

Randomly allocating participants to their conditions or using a matched pairs experimental design can help to reduce participant variables. 

Situational variables are controlled by using standardized procedures, ensuring every participant in a given condition is treated in the same way

Experimental Design

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable, such as a control or experimental group.

• Independent design ( between-groups design ): each participant is selected for only one group. With the independent design, the most common way of deciding which participants go into which group is by means of randomization. 
• Matched participants design : each participant is selected for only one group, but the participants in the two groups are matched for some relevant factor or factors (e.g. ability; sex; age).
• Repeated measures design ( within groups) : each participant appears in both groups, so that there are exactly the same participants in each group.
• The main problem with the repeated measures design is that there may well be order effects. Their experiences during the experiment may change the participants in various ways.
• They may perform better when they appear in the second group because they have gained useful information about the experiment or about the task. On the other hand, they may perform less well on the second occasion because of tiredness or boredom.
• Counterbalancing is the best way of preventing order effects from disrupting the findings of an experiment, and involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the participants.

If we wish to compare two groups with respect to a given independent variable, it is essential to make sure that the two groups do not differ in any other important way. 

Experimental Methods

All experimental methods involve an iv (independent variable) and dv (dependent variable)..

• Field experiments are conducted in the everyday (natural) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting. It may be possible to control extraneous variables, though such control is more difficult than in a lab experiment.
• Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway. Participants are not randomly allocated, and the natural event may only occur rarely.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends.

Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological tests, observations and experiments. Case studies are generally longitudinal: in other words, they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time. 

Case studies are widely used in psychology and among the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud . He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity. However, it is difficult to generalize from individual cases as each one has unique characteristics.

Correlational Studies

Correlation means association; it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. One of the variables can be regarded as the predictor variable with the other one as the outcome variable.

Correlational studies typically involve obtaining two different measures from a group of participants, and then assessing the degree of association between the measures. 

The predictor variable can be seen as occurring before the outcome variable in some sense. It is called the predictor variable, because it forms the basis for predicting the value of the outcome variable.

Relationships between variables can be displayed on a graph or as a numerical score called a correlation coefficient.

• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other, then this is known as a positive correlation .
• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other, then this is known as a negative correlation .
• A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

After looking at the scattergraph, if we want to be sure that a significant relationship does exist between the two variables, a statistical test of correlation can be conducted, such as Spearman’s rho.

The test will give us a score, called a correlation coefficient . This is a value between 0 and 1, and the closer to 1 the score is, the stronger the relationship between the variables. This value can be both positive e.g. 0.63, or negative -0.63.

A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is a relationship between variables.

Correlation does not always prove causation, as a third variable may be involved. 

Interview Methods

Interviews are commonly divided into two types: structured and unstructured.

A fixed, predetermined set of questions is put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. 

Responses are recorded on a questionnaire, and the researcher presets the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers.

The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.

There are no set questions, and the participant can raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. Questions are posed about participants’ answers to the subject

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to analyze attitudes and values.

Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective point of view. 

Questionnaire Method

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, or post.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent or causing offense.

• Open questions are designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer using the subject’s own knowledge and feelings. They provide insights into feelings, opinions, and understanding. Example: “How do you feel about that situation?”
• Closed questions can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or specific information, limiting the depth of response. They are useful for gathering specific facts or confirming details. Example: “Do you feel anxious in crowds?”

Its other practical advantages are that it is cheaper than face-to-face interviews and can be used to contact many respondents scattered over a wide area relatively quickly.

Observations

There are different types of observation methods :

• Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular observation method.
• Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
• Controlled : behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
• Natural : Here, spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.
• Participant : Here, the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.  
• Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. The observation of participants’ behavior is from a distance

Pilot Study

A pilot  study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility of the key s teps in a future, full-scale project.

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task – all performances are low.

The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.

Research Design

In cross-sectional research , a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time

Sometimes, we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

In cohort studies , the participants must share a common factor or characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study in which researchers monitor and observe a chosen population over an extended period.

Triangulation means using more than one research method to improve the study’s validity.

Reliability

Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then it is described as being reliable.

• Test-retest reliability :  assessing the same person on two different occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers.
• Inter-observer reliability : the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers.

Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis is a systematic review that involves identifying an aim and then searching for research studies that have addressed similar aims/hypotheses.

This is done by looking through various databases, and then decisions are made about what studies are to be included/excluded.

Strengths: Increases the conclusions’ validity as they’re based on a wider range.

Weaknesses: Research designs in studies can vary, so they are not truly comparable.

Peer Review

A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of the journal may be determined by the journal’s audience or prestige.

The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists working in a similar field) to peer review the article without payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs used, originality of the findings, the validity of the original research findings and its content, structure and language.

Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is accepted. The article may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the possibility of submission.

The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers comments/ recommendations.

Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from entering the public domain, it provides a way of checking the validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used to assess the research rating of university departments.

Peer reviews may be an ideal, whereas in practice there are lots of problems. For example, it slows publication down and may prevent unusual, new work being published. Some reviewers might use it as an opportunity to prevent competing researchers from publishing work.

Some people doubt whether peer review can really prevent the publication of fraudulent research.

The advent of the internet means that a lot of research and academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before, though systems are evolving on the internet where everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the quality of research.

Types of Data

• Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
• Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect qualitative data.
• Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
• Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.

Validity means how well a piece of research actually measures what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent.

Validity is whether the observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually out there in the world.

• Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an established test.
• Face validity : does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
• Ecological validit y is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings / real life.
• Temporal validity is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times.

Features of Science

• Paradigm – A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
• Paradigm shift – The result of the scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
• Objectivity – When all sources of personal bias are minimised so not to distort or influence the research process.
• Empirical method – Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
• Replicability – The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.
• Falsifiability – The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.

Statistical Testing

A significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible for any observed difference, correlation, or association in the variables tested.

If our test is significant, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis.

If our test is not significant, we can accept our null hypothesis and reject our alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statement of no effect.

In Psychology, we use p < 0.05 (as it strikes a balance between making a type I and II error) but p < 0.01 is used in tests that could cause harm like introducing a new drug.

A type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted (happens when a lenient significance level is used, an error of optimism).

A type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected (happens when a stringent significance level is used, an error of pessimism).

Ethical Issues

• Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgment about whether to take part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behavior.
• To deal with it, we can gain presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.
• Deception should only be used when it is approved by an ethics committee, as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but debriefing can’t turn the clock back.
• All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the right to withdraw if they ever feel distressed or uncomfortable.
• It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can offer the right to withdraw data after participation.
• Participants should all have protection from harm . The researcher should avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm may not be apparent at the time of the study.
• Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to work out who the researchers were.

• The 25 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History

While each year thousands and thousands of studies are completed in the many specialty areas of psychology, there are a handful that, over the years, have had a lasting impact in the psychological community as a whole. Some of these were dutifully conducted, keeping within the confines of ethical and practical guidelines. Others pushed the boundaries of human behavior during their psychological experiments and created controversies that still linger to this day. And still others were not designed to be true psychological experiments, but ended up as beacons to the psychological community in proving or disproving theories.

This is a list of the 25 most influential psychological experiments still being taught to psychology students of today.

1. A Class Divided

Study conducted by: jane elliott.

Study Conducted in 1968 in an Iowa classroom

Experiment Details: Jane Elliott’s famous experiment was inspired by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the inspirational life that he led. The third grade teacher developed an exercise, or better yet, a psychological experiment, to help her Caucasian students understand the effects of racism and prejudice.

Elliott divided her class into two separate groups: blue-eyed students and brown-eyed students. On the first day, she labeled the blue-eyed group as the superior group and from that point forward they had extra privileges, leaving the brown-eyed children to represent the minority group. She discouraged the groups from interacting and singled out individual students to stress the negative characteristics of the children in the minority group. What this exercise showed was that the children’s behavior changed almost instantaneously. The group of blue-eyed students performed better academically and even began bullying their brown-eyed classmates. The brown-eyed group experienced lower self-confidence and worse academic performance. The next day, she reversed the roles of the two groups and the blue-eyed students became the minority group.

At the end of the experiment, the children were so relieved that they were reported to have embraced one another and agreed that people should not be judged based on outward appearances. This exercise has since been repeated many times with similar outcomes.

For more information click here

2. Asch Conformity Study

Study conducted by: dr. solomon asch.

Study Conducted in 1951 at Swarthmore College

Experiment Details: Dr. Solomon Asch conducted a groundbreaking study that was designed to evaluate a person’s likelihood to conform to a standard when there is pressure to do so.

A group of participants were shown pictures with lines of various lengths and were then asked a simple question: Which line is longest? The tricky part of this study was that in each group only one person was a true participant. The others were actors with a script. Most of the actors were instructed to give the wrong answer. Strangely, the one true participant almost always agreed with the majority, even though they knew they were giving the wrong answer.

The results of this study are important when we study social interactions among individuals in groups. This study is a famous example of the temptation many of us experience to conform to a standard during group situations and it showed that people often care more about being the same as others than they do about being right. It is still recognized as one of the most influential psychological experiments for understanding human behavior.

3. Bobo Doll Experiment

Study conducted by: dr. alburt bandura.

Study Conducted between 1961-1963 at Stanford University

In his groundbreaking study he separated participants into three groups:

• one was exposed to a video of an adult showing aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll
• another was exposed to video of a passive adult playing with the Bobo doll
• the third formed a control group

Children watched their assigned video and then were sent to a room with the same doll they had seen in the video (with the exception of those in the control group). What the researcher found was that children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the doll themselves. The other groups showed little imitative aggressive behavior. For those children exposed to the aggressive model, the number of derivative physical aggressions shown by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls.

The study also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys averaged 104. This is compared to 48.4 aggressive instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female models.

While the results for the girls show similar findings, the results were less drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7. This is compared to 36.3 aggressive instances exhibited by girls who were exposed to aggressive male models. The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura’s secondary prediction that children will be more strongly influenced by same-sex models. The Bobo Doll Experiment showed a groundbreaking way to study human behavior and it’s influences.

4. Car Crash Experiment

Study conducted by: elizabeth loftus and john palmer.

Study Conducted in 1974 at The University of California in Irvine

The participants watched slides of a car accident and were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses to the scene. The participants were put into two groups and each group was questioned using different wording such as “how fast was the car driving at the time of impact?” versus “how fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?” The experimenters found that the use of different verbs affected the participants’ memories of the accident, showing that memory can be easily distorted.

This research suggests that memory can be easily manipulated by questioning technique. This means that information gathered after the event can merge with original memory causing incorrect recall or reconstructive memory. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is now referred to as confabulation. This concept has very important implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses.

5. Cognitive Dissonance Experiment

Study conducted by: leon festinger and james carlsmith.

Study Conducted in 1957 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: The concept of cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting:

This conflict produces an inherent feeling of discomfort leading to a change in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to minimize or eliminate the discomfort and restore balance.

Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger, after an observational study of a cult that believed that the earth was going to be destroyed by a flood. Out of this study was born an intriguing experiment conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith where participants were asked to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). Participant’s initial attitudes toward this task were highly negative.

They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a participant waiting in the lobby that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the next participant that the boring experiment would be fun. When the participants were later asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie.

Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that cognitive dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance.

6. Fantz’s Looking Chamber

Study conducted by: robert l. fantz.

Study Conducted in 1961 at the University of Illinois

Experiment Details: The study conducted by Robert L. Fantz is among the simplest, yet most important in the field of infant development and vision. In 1961, when this experiment was conducted, there very few ways to study what was going on in the mind of an infant. Fantz realized that the best way was to simply watch the actions and reactions of infants. He understood the fundamental factor that if there is something of interest near humans, they generally look at it.

To test this concept, Fantz set up a display board with two pictures attached. On one was a bulls-eye. On the other was the sketch of a human face. This board was hung in a chamber where a baby could lie safely underneath and see both images. Then, from behind the board, invisible to the baby, he peeked through a hole to watch what the baby looked at. This study showed that a two-month old baby looked twice as much at the human face as it did at the bulls-eye. This suggests that human babies have some powers of pattern and form selection. Before this experiment it was thought that babies looked out onto a chaotic world of which they could make little sense.

7. Hawthorne Effect

Study conducted by: henry a. landsberger.

Study Conducted in 1955 at Hawthorne Works in Chicago, Illinois

Landsberger performed the study by analyzing data from experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932, by Elton Mayo, at the Hawthorne Works near Chicago. The company had commissioned studies to evaluate whether the level of light in a building changed the productivity of the workers. What Mayo found was that the level of light made no difference in productivity. The workers increased their output whenever the amount of light was switched from a low level to a high level, or vice versa.

The researchers noticed a tendency that the workers’ level of efficiency increased when any variable was manipulated. The study showed that the output changed simply because the workers were aware that they were under observation. The conclusion was that the workers felt important because they were pleased to be singled out. They increased productivity as a result. Being singled out was the factor dictating increased productivity, not the changing lighting levels, or any of the other factors that they experimented upon.

The Hawthorne Effect has become one of the hardest inbuilt biases to eliminate or factor into the design of any experiment in psychology and beyond.

8. Kitty Genovese Case

Study conducted by: new york police force.

Study Conducted in 1964 in New York City

Experiment Details: The murder case of Kitty Genovese was never intended to be a psychological experiment, however it ended up having serious implications for the field.

According to a New York Times article, almost 40 neighbors witnessed Kitty Genovese being savagely attacked and murdered in Queens, New York in 1964. Not one neighbor called the police for help. Some reports state that the attacker briefly left the scene and later returned to “finish off” his victim. It was later uncovered that many of these facts were exaggerated. (There were more likely only a dozen witnesses and records show that some calls to police were made).

What this case later become famous for is the “Bystander Effect,” which states that the more bystanders that are present in a social situation, the less likely it is that anyone will step in and help. This effect has led to changes in medicine, psychology and many other areas. One famous example is the way CPR is taught to new learners. All students in CPR courses learn that they must assign one bystander the job of alerting authorities which minimizes the chances of no one calling for assistance.

9. Learned Helplessness Experiment

Study conducted by: martin seligman.

Study Conducted in 1967 at the University of Pennsylvania

Seligman’s experiment involved the ringing of a bell and then the administration of a light shock to a dog. After a number of pairings, the dog reacted to the shock even before it happened. As soon as the dog heard the bell, he reacted as though he’d already been shocked.

During the course of this study something unexpected happened. Each dog was placed in a large crate that was divided down the middle with a low fence. The dog could see and jump over the fence easily. The floor on one side of the fence was electrified, but not on the other side of the fence. Seligman placed each dog on the electrified side and administered a light shock. He expected the dog to jump to the non-shocking side of the fence. In an unexpected turn, the dogs simply laid down.

The hypothesis was that as the dogs learned from the first part of the experiment that there was nothing they could do to avoid the shocks, they gave up in the second part of the experiment. To prove this hypothesis the experimenters brought in a new set of animals and found that dogs with no history in the experiment would jump over the fence.

This condition was described as learned helplessness. A human or animal does not attempt to get out of a negative situation because the past has taught them that they are helpless.

10. Little Albert Experiment

Study conducted by: john b. watson and rosalie rayner.

Study Conducted in 1920 at Johns Hopkins University

The experiment began by placing a white rat in front of the infant, who initially had no fear of the animal. Watson then produced a loud sound by striking a steel bar with a hammer every time little Albert was presented with the rat. After several pairings (the noise and the presentation of the white rat), the boy began to cry and exhibit signs of fear every time the rat appeared in the room. Watson also created similar conditioned reflexes with other common animals and objects (rabbits, Santa beard, etc.) until Albert feared them all.

This study proved that classical conditioning works on humans. One of its most important implications is that adult fears are often connected to early childhood experiences.

11. Magical Number Seven

Study conducted by: george a. miller.

Study Conducted in 1956 at Princeton University

Experiment Details:   Frequently referred to as “ Miller’s Law,” the Magical Number Seven experiment purports that the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2. This means that the human memory capacity typically includes strings of words or concepts ranging from 5-9. This information on the limits to the capacity for processing information became one of the most highly cited papers in psychology.

The Magical Number Seven Experiment was published in 1956 by cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Princeton University’s Department of Psychology in Psychological Review .  In the article, Miller discussed a concurrence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and the limits of short-term memory.

In a one-dimensional absolute-judgment task, a person is presented with a number of stimuli that vary on one dimension (such as 10 different tones varying only in pitch). The person responds to each stimulus with a corresponding response (learned before).

Performance is almost perfect up to five or six different stimuli but declines as the number of different stimuli is increased. This means that a human’s maximum performance on one-dimensional absolute judgment can be described as an information store with the maximum capacity of approximately 2 to 3 bits of information There is the ability to distinguish between four and eight alternatives.

12. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Study conducted by: ivan pavlov.

Study Conducted in the 1890s at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, Russia

Pavlov began with the simple idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. He observed that dogs do not learn to salivate when they see food. This reflex is “hard wired” into the dog. This is an unconditioned response (a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Pavlov outlined that there are unconditioned responses in the animal by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and then measuring its salivary secretions. In the experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. What he found was that the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation. The dog had learned to associate the bell and the food. This learning created a new behavior. The dog salivated when he heard the bell. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

This theory came to be known as classical conditioning.

13. Robbers Cave Experiment

Study conducted by: muzafer and carolyn sherif.

Study Conducted in 1954 at the University of Oklahoma

Experiment Details: This experiment, which studied group conflict, is considered by most to be outside the lines of what is considered ethically sound.

In 1954 researchers at the University of Oklahoma assigned 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys from similar backgrounds into two groups. The two groups were taken to separate areas of a summer camp facility where they were able to bond as social units. The groups were housed in separate cabins and neither group knew of the other’s existence for an entire week. The boys bonded with their cabin mates during that time. Once the two groups were allowed to have contact, they showed definite signs of prejudice and hostility toward each other even though they had only been given a very short time to develop their social group. To increase the conflict between the groups, the experimenters had them compete against each other in a series of activities. This created even more hostility and eventually the groups refused to eat in the same room. The final phase of the experiment involved turning the rival groups into friends. The fun activities the experimenters had planned like shooting firecrackers and watching movies did not initially work, so they created teamwork exercises where the two groups were forced to collaborate. At the end of the experiment, the boys decided to ride the same bus home, demonstrating that conflict can be resolved and prejudice overcome through cooperation.

Many critics have compared this study to Golding’s Lord of the Flies novel as a classic example of prejudice and conflict resolution.

14. Ross’ False Consensus Effect Study

Study conducted by: lee ross.

Study Conducted in 1977 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: In 1977, a social psychology professor at Stanford University named Lee Ross conducted an experiment that, in lay terms, focuses on how people can incorrectly conclude that others think the same way they do, or form a “false consensus” about the beliefs and preferences of others. Ross conducted the study in order to outline how the “false consensus effect” functions in humans.

Featured Programs

In the first part of the study, participants were asked to read about situations in which a conflict occurred and then were told two alternative ways of responding to the situation. They were asked to do three things:

• Guess which option other people would choose
• Say which option they themselves would choose
• Describe the attributes of the person who would likely choose each of the two options

What the study showed was that most of the subjects believed that other people would do the same as them, regardless of which of the two responses they actually chose themselves. This phenomenon is referred to as the false consensus effect, where an individual thinks that other people think the same way they do when they may not. The second observation coming from this important study is that when participants were asked to describe the attributes of the people who will likely make the choice opposite of their own, they made bold and sometimes negative predictions about the personalities of those who did not share their choice.

15. The Schacter and Singer Experiment on Emotion

Study conducted by: stanley schachter and jerome e. singer.

Study Conducted in 1962 at Columbia University

Experiment Details: In 1962 Schachter and Singer conducted a ground breaking experiment to prove their theory of emotion.

In the study, a group of 184 male participants were injected with epinephrine, a hormone that induces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling, and rapid breathing. The research participants were told that they were being injected with a new medication to test their eyesight. The first group of participants was informed the possible side effects that the injection might cause while the second group of participants were not. The participants were then placed in a room with someone they thought was another participant, but was actually a confederate in the experiment. The confederate acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed.

What Schachter and Singer were trying to understand was the ways in which cognition or thoughts influence human emotion. Their study illustrates the importance of how people interpret their physiological states, which form an important component of your emotions. Though their cognitive theory of emotional arousal dominated the field for two decades, it has been criticized for two main reasons: the size of the effect seen in the experiment was not that significant and other researchers had difficulties repeating the experiment.

16. Selective Attention / Invisible Gorilla Experiment

Study conducted by: daniel simons and christopher chabris.

Study Conducted in 1999 at Harvard University

Experiment Details: In 1999 Simons and Chabris conducted their famous awareness test at Harvard University.

Participants in the study were asked to watch a video and count how many passes occurred between basketball players on the white team. The video moves at a moderate pace and keeping track of the passes is a relatively easy task. What most people fail to notice amidst their counting is that in the middle of the test, a man in a gorilla suit walked onto the court and stood in the center before walking off-screen.

The study found that the majority of the subjects did not notice the gorilla at all, proving that humans often overestimate their ability to effectively multi-task. What the study set out to prove is that when people are asked to attend to one task, they focus so strongly on that element that they may miss other important details.

17. Stanford Prison Study

Study conducted by philip zimbardo.

Study Conducted in 1971 at Stanford University

The Stanford Prison Experiment was designed to study behavior of “normal” individuals when assigned a role of prisoner or guard. College students were recruited to participate. They were assigned roles of “guard” or “inmate.”  Zimbardo played the role of the warden. The basement of the psychology building was the set of the prison. Great care was taken to make it look and feel as realistic as possible.

The prison guards were told to run a prison for two weeks. They were told not to physically harm any of the inmates during the study. After a few days, the prison guards became very abusive verbally towards the inmates. Many of the prisoners became submissive to those in authority roles. The Stanford Prison Experiment inevitably had to be cancelled because some of the participants displayed troubling signs of breaking down mentally.

Although the experiment was conducted very unethically, many psychologists believe that the findings showed how much human behavior is situational. People will conform to certain roles if the conditions are right. The Stanford Prison Experiment remains one of the most famous psychology experiments of all time.

18. Stanley Milgram Experiment

Study conducted by stanley milgram.

Study Conducted in 1961 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: This 1961 study was conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. It was designed to measure people’s willingness to obey authority figures when instructed to perform acts that conflicted with their morals. The study was based on the premise that humans will inherently take direction from authority figures from very early in life.

Participants were told they were participating in a study on memory. They were asked to watch another person (an actor) do a memory test. They were instructed to press a button that gave an electric shock each time the person got a wrong answer. (The actor did not actually receive the shocks, but pretended they did).

Participants were told to play the role of “teacher” and administer electric shocks to “the learner,” every time they answered a question incorrectly. The experimenters asked the participants to keep increasing the shocks. Most of them obeyed even though the individual completing the memory test appeared to be in great pain. Despite these protests, many participants continued the experiment when the authority figure urged them to. They increased the voltage after each wrong answer until some eventually administered what would be lethal electric shocks.

This experiment showed that humans are conditioned to obey authority and will usually do so even if it goes against their natural morals or common sense.

19. Surrogate Mother Experiment

Study conducted by: harry harlow.

Study Conducted from 1957-1963 at the University of Wisconsin

Experiment Details: In a series of controversial experiments during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Harry Harlow studied the importance of a mother’s love for healthy childhood development.

In order to do this he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be raised by two “surrogate mothers.” One of the surrogates was made of wire with an attached bottle for food. The other was made of soft terrycloth but lacked food. The researcher found that the baby monkeys spent much more time with the cloth mother than the wire mother, thereby proving that affection plays a greater role than sustenance when it comes to childhood development. They also found that the monkeys that spent more time cuddling the soft mother grew up to healthier.

This experiment showed that love, as demonstrated by physical body contact, is a more important aspect of the parent-child bond than the provision of basic needs. These findings also had implications in the attachment between fathers and their infants when the mother is the source of nourishment.

20. The Good Samaritan Experiment

Study conducted by: john darley and daniel batson.

Study Conducted in 1973 at The Princeton Theological Seminary (Researchers were from Princeton University)

Experiment Details: In 1973, an experiment was created by John Darley and Daniel Batson, to investigate the potential causes that underlie altruistic behavior. The researchers set out three hypotheses they wanted to test:

• People thinking about religion and higher principles would be no more inclined to show helping behavior than laymen.
• People in a rush would be much less likely to show helping behavior.
• People who are religious for personal gain would be less likely to help than people who are religious because they want to gain some spiritual and personal insights into the meaning of life.

Student participants were given some religious teaching and instruction. They were then were told to travel from one building to the next. Between the two buildings was a man lying injured and appearing to be in dire need of assistance. The first variable being tested was the degree of urgency impressed upon the subjects, with some being told not to rush and others being informed that speed was of the essence.

The results of the experiment were intriguing, with the haste of the subject proving to be the overriding factor. When the subject was in no hurry, nearly two-thirds of people stopped to lend assistance. When the subject was in a rush, this dropped to one in ten.

People who were on the way to deliver a speech about helping others were nearly twice as likely to help as those delivering other sermons,. This showed that the thoughts of the individual were a factor in determining helping behavior. Religious beliefs did not appear to make much difference on the results. Being religious for personal gain, or as part of a spiritual quest, did not appear to make much of an impact on the amount of helping behavior shown.

21. The Halo Effect Experiment

Study conducted by: richard e. nisbett and timothy decamp wilson.

Study Conducted in 1977 at the University of Michigan

Experiment Details: The Halo Effect states that people generally assume that people who are physically attractive are more likely to:

• be intelligent
• be friendly
• display good judgment

To prove their theory, Nisbett and DeCamp Wilson created a study to prove that people have little awareness of the nature of the Halo Effect. They’re not aware that it influences:

• their personal judgments
• the production of a more complex social behavior

In the experiment, college students were the research participants. They were asked to evaluate a psychology instructor as they view him in a videotaped interview. The students were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Each group was shown one of two different interviews with the same instructor. The instructor is a native French-speaking Belgian who spoke English with a noticeable accent. In the first video, the instructor presented himself as someone:

• respectful of his students’ intelligence and motives
• flexible in his approach to teaching
• enthusiastic about his subject matter

In the second interview, he presented himself as much more unlikable. He was cold and distrustful toward the students and was quite rigid in his teaching style.

After watching the videos, the subjects were asked to rate the lecturer on:

• physical appearance

His mannerisms and accent were kept the same in both versions of videos. The subjects were asked to rate the professor on an 8-point scale ranging from “like extremely” to “dislike extremely.” Subjects were also told that the researchers were interested in knowing “how much their liking for the teacher influenced the ratings they just made.” Other subjects were asked to identify how much the characteristics they just rated influenced their liking of the teacher.

After responding to the questionnaire, the respondents were puzzled about their reactions to the videotapes and to the questionnaire items. The students had no idea why they gave one lecturer higher ratings. Most said that how much they liked the lecturer had not affected their evaluation of his individual characteristics at all.

The interesting thing about this study is that people can understand the phenomenon, but they are unaware when it is occurring. Without realizing it, humans make judgments. Even when it is pointed out, they may still deny that it is a product of the halo effect phenomenon.

22. The Marshmallow Test

Study conducted by: walter mischel.

Study Conducted in 1972 at Stanford University

In his 1972 Marshmallow Experiment, children ages four to six were taken into a room where a marshmallow was placed in front of them on a table. Before leaving each of the children alone in the room, the experimenter informed them that they would receive a second marshmallow if the first one was still on the table after they returned in 15 minutes. The examiner recorded how long each child resisted eating the marshmallow and noted whether it correlated with the child’s success in adulthood. A small number of the 600 children ate the marshmallow immediately and one-third delayed gratification long enough to receive the second marshmallow.

In follow-up studies, Mischel found that those who deferred gratification were significantly more competent and received higher SAT scores than their peers. This characteristic likely remains with a person for life. While this study seems simplistic, the findings outline some of the foundational differences in individual traits that can predict success.

23. The Monster Study

Study conducted by: wendell johnson.

Study Conducted in 1939 at the University of Iowa

Experiment Details: The Monster Study received this negative title due to the unethical methods that were used to determine the effects of positive and negative speech therapy on children.

Wendell Johnson of the University of Iowa selected 22 orphaned children, some with stutters and some without. The children were in two groups. The group of children with stutters was placed in positive speech therapy, where they were praised for their fluency. The non-stutterers were placed in negative speech therapy, where they were disparaged for every mistake in grammar that they made.

As a result of the experiment, some of the children who received negative speech therapy suffered psychological effects and retained speech problems for the rest of their lives. They were examples of the significance of positive reinforcement in education.

The initial goal of the study was to investigate positive and negative speech therapy. However, the implication spanned much further into methods of teaching for young children.

24. Violinist at the Metro Experiment

Study conducted by: staff at the washington post.

Study Conducted in 2007 at a Washington D.C. Metro Train Station

During the study, pedestrians rushed by without realizing that the musician playing at the entrance to the metro stop was Grammy-winning musician, Joshua Bell. Two days before playing in the subway, he sold out at a theater in Boston where the seats average $100. He played one of the most intricate pieces ever written with a violin worth 3.5 million dollars. In the 45 minutes the musician played his violin, only 6 people stopped and stayed for a while. Around 20 gave him money, but continued to walk their normal pace. He collected $32.

The study and the subsequent article organized by the Washington Post was part of a social experiment looking at:

• the priorities of people

Gene Weingarten wrote about the social experiment: “In a banal setting at an inconvenient time, would beauty transcend?” Later he won a Pulitzer Prize for his story. Some of the questions the article addresses are:

• Do we perceive beauty?
• Do we stop to appreciate it?
• Do we recognize the talent in an unexpected context?

As it turns out, many of us are not nearly as perceptive to our environment as we might like to think.

25. Visual Cliff Experiment

Study conducted by: eleanor gibson and richard walk.

Study Conducted in 1959 at Cornell University

Experiment Details: In 1959, psychologists Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk set out to study depth perception in infants. They wanted to know if depth perception is a learned behavior or if it is something that we are born with. To study this, Gibson and Walk conducted the visual cliff experiment.

They studied 36 infants between the ages of six and 14 months, all of whom could crawl. The infants were placed one at a time on a visual cliff. A visual cliff was created using a large glass table that was raised about a foot off the floor. Half of the glass table had a checker pattern underneath in order to create the appearance of a ‘shallow side.’

In order to create a ‘deep side,’ a checker pattern was created on the floor; this side is the visual cliff. The placement of the checker pattern on the floor creates the illusion of a sudden drop-off. Researchers placed a foot-wide centerboard between the shallow side and the deep side. Gibson and Walk found the following:

• Nine of the infants did not move off the centerboard.
• All of the 27 infants who did move crossed into the shallow side when their mothers called them from the shallow side.
• Three of the infants crawled off the visual cliff toward their mother when called from the deep side.
• When called from the deep side, the remaining 24 children either crawled to the shallow side or cried because they could not cross the visual cliff and make it to their mother.

What this study helped demonstrate is that depth perception is likely an inborn train in humans.

Among these experiments and psychological tests, we see boundaries pushed and theories taking on a life of their own. It is through the endless stream of psychological experimentation that we can see simple hypotheses become guiding theories for those in this field. The greater field of psychology became a formal field of experimental study in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated solely to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. Since 1879, psychology has grown into a massive collection of:

• methods of practice

It’s also a specialty area in the field of healthcare. None of this would have been possible without these and many other important psychological experiments that have stood the test of time.

• 20 Most Unethical Experiments in Psychology
• What Careers are in Experimental Psychology?
• 10 Things to Know About the Psychology of Psychotherapy

About Education: Psychology

Explorable.com

Mental Floss.com

About the Author

After earning a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology from Rutgers University and then a Master of Science in Clinical and Forensic Psychology from Drexel University, Kristen began a career as a therapist at two prisons in Philadelphia. At the same time she volunteered as a rape crisis counselor, also in Philadelphia. After a few years in the field she accepted a teaching position at a local college where she currently teaches online psychology courses. Kristen began writing in college and still enjoys her work as a writer, editor, professor and mother.

• 5 Best Online Ph.D. Marriage and Family Counseling Programs
• Top 5 Online Doctorate in Educational Psychology
• 5 Best Online Ph.D. in Industrial and Organizational Psychology Programs
• Top 10 Online Master’s in Forensic Psychology
• 10 Most Affordable Counseling Psychology Online Programs
• 10 Most Affordable Online Industrial Organizational Psychology Programs
• 10 Most Affordable Online Developmental Psychology Online Programs
• 15 Most Affordable Online Sport Psychology Programs
• 10 Most Affordable School Psychology Online Degree Programs
• Top 50 Online Psychology Master’s Degree Programs
• Top 25 Online Master’s in Educational Psychology
• Top 25 Online Master’s in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
• Top 10 Most Affordable Online Master’s in Clinical Psychology Degree Programs
• Top 6 Most Affordable Online PhD/PsyD Programs in Clinical Psychology
• 50 Great Small Colleges for a Bachelor’s in Psychology
• 50 Most Innovative University Psychology Departments
• The 30 Most Influential Cognitive Psychologists Alive Today
• Top 30 Affordable Online Psychology Degree Programs
• 30 Most Influential Neuroscientists
• Top 40 Websites for Psychology Students and Professionals
• Top 30 Psychology Blogs
• 25 Celebrities With Animal Phobias
• Your Phobias Illustrated (Infographic)
• 15 Inspiring TED Talks on Overcoming Challenges
• 10 Fascinating Facts About the Psychology of Color
• 15 Scariest Mental Disorders of All Time
• 15 Things to Know About Mental Disorders in Animals
• 13 Most Deranged Serial Killers of All Time

Site Information

• About Online Psychology Degree Guide

• Open access
• Published: 19 March 2024

Attentional disengagement, craving, and mentalizing: a preliminary experimental study among older-aged male gamblers

• Maria Ciccarelli   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7285-1707 1 ,
• Barbara Pizzini 2 ,
• Mark D. Griffiths 3 ,
• Marina Cosenza 1 ,
• Giovanna Nigro 1 &
• Francesca D’Olimpio 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  164 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

119 Accesses

Metrics details

Introduction

Empirical studies have demonstrated the role that attentional bias, the mutual excitatory relationship between attentional bias and craving, and mentalizing play in problem gambling. Although problem gambling rates among older-aged adults have steadily increased in recent years, research studies among this cohort are scarce. The present study is the first to empirically investigate attentional bias, as well as the joint role of attentional bias, craving, and mentalizing among older-aged gamblers.

Thirty-six male older-aged gamblers were administered the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the Gambling Craving Scale (GACS), and the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (RFQ-8) to assess gambling severity, craving levels, and mentalizing, respectively. Participants also performed a modified Posner Task to investigate attentional biases.

Hierarchical linear regression analysis showed that among older-aged male gamblers, GACS Anticipation and RFQ-8 Uncertainty about mental states, as well as disengagement bias at 100 ms, significantly predicted gambling severity.

The present study provides the first empirical support for the role of attentional bias, craving, and mentalizing among older-aged gambling. More specifically, a difficult in disengaging attention away from gambling, the anticipation of pleasure deriving from gambling, and hypomentalizing predicted gambling severity among older-aged gamblers. The findings make an important contribution, by identifying the factors responsible for problem gambling among this specific age cohort and suggesting that timely interventions for mentalizing and attentional bias may be necessary to prevent problem gambling in old age.

Peer Review reports

Problem gambling rates among older-aged adults have steadily increased in recent years [ 1 ]. However, to date, there is a dearth of experimental research on this topic (for a review, see [ 2 ]). According to a recent review, the paucity of studies on gambling behaviors in old age is ascribable to different sources of bias that have produced an apparent low prevalence of problem gambling among older-aged adults (compared to younger cohorts), resulting in an underrepresentation of older adults in gambling research [ 3 ]. These biases include social desirability related to the stigmatization of gambling behaviors among older-aged adults, the deficits in recalling gambling experiences and/or potential symptoms of gambling disorder, and selection bias including the increased use of online surveys that are likely to exclude older people from studies.

Several theoretical models posit that attentional bias plays a central role in gambling disorder [ 4 , 5 ]. Attentional bias comprises enhanced attentional processing of addiction-related (compared to matched neutral) stimuli [ 6 ], which can result in (i) facilitated detection of addiction stimuli, (ii) a difficult disengagement from the addiction stimuli, and/or (iii) an avoidance of addiction stimuli. In the addictions field (and more specifically, the gambling addiction field), the important role of the mutual excitatory relationship between attentional bias and craving has been posited, which relates to the strong subjective desire to gamble [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. The repeated association of gambling stimuli with reward can make gambling stimuli salient through the classical conditioning process. Consequently, this encourages all gambling activity-seeking behaviors and can contribute to the risk of gambling addiction. The mechanism through which salient stimuli captures the individual’s attention, increases craving, and causes them to gamble should be considered in light of the fact that attention is a limited resource and that the salience of gambling stimuli, combined with craving, causes the individual’s interests to be completely absorbed by gambling.

Previous empirical research has focused upon the identification of the attentional mechanisms responsible for gambling across different degrees of gambling involvement severity [ 5 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Although there are a few exceptions, the findings have consistently indicated that individuals with gambling problems preferentially attend to gambling cues over competing stimuli not related to gambling [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. The first studies on the topic, using the Stroop task, observed that individuals with gambling problems respond more slowly to gambling-related words or images, as compared to controls [ 21 , 22 , 23 ], especially when the gambling stimuli were related to their favorite type of gambling activity [ 15 , 22 ]. Given that Stroop tasks capture a general bias for gambling stimuli, without differentiating between orienting and maintenance of attention [ 24 ], subsequent studies used other tasks such as visual dot probe tasks.

Using these tasks, Vizcaino et al. [ 25 ] found that individuals with gambling problems reacted quickly to dots following gambling than non-gambling images at exposure times that are indicative of maintenance of attention. Another attempt to overcome the limitations of the Stroop was made by Brevers et al. [ 26 ] with the flicker paradigm, where participants were required to identify the difference (gambling or non-gambling cues) between a couple of pictures. The authors observed that individuals with gambling problems were faster in orienting to (but slower to disengage from) gambling stimuli, as compared to the control group. Using a rapid serial visual presentation paradigm to investigate the spatial attentional for gambling stimuli among high-risk and low-risk gamblers, Hudson et al. [ 14 ] found that high-risk gamblers showed a preference for gambling stimuli at the level of maintenance of attention, relative to distractors such as emotional and neutral stimuli. Other studies that have recorded participants’ eye movements through a direct measure of attentional bias, such as the eye tracking technology, have observed that individuals with gambling problems fixate on gambling images earlier than other images [ 15 , 27 ], and preferentially attend to them for a significant longer period of time compared to controls [ 15 , 16 , 28 ].

A series of study conducted by Ciccarelli and colleagues [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ] used a modified version of the Posner task. This allowed them to measure, through different exposure time of gambling and non-gambling stimuli, both initial orienting and maintenance of attention. They observed an (i) attentional facilitation in the initial engagement of attention among adults with gambling problems, (ii) attentional facilitation in the maintenance of attention among adolescents with gambling problems, and (iii) avoidance bias in the maintenance of attention among gamblers in treatment. They hypothesized that attentional bias could reflect the degree of gambling severity and involvement. More specifically, while the automatic orientation of attention towards gambling stimuli might be a consequence of repeated exposure to such stimuli, and one of the factors responsible for continuing gambling, the intentional distraction from gambling stimuli could be a strategic attempt to remain abstinent [ 30 ].

The heterogeneity of the attentional paradigms employed does not always allow for a direct comparability of the results obtained. However, studies in the extant literature consistently demonstrate that the spatial attention of individuals with gambling problems is preferentially directed towards gambling cues in the initial orienting [ 26 , 29 , 30 ] and/or in the maintenance of attention [ 15 , 25 , 26 , 28 , 33 ]. Despite this consistency in findings, it should be noted that the aforementioned studies only recruited young adults ([ 15 , 16 ]; see [ 5 ] for a review) or adolescents [ 31 ], substantially neglecting the role of attentional bias in older-aged gamblers.

Moreover, among the studies that have examined the relationship between attentional bias and craving, some observed that high levels of craving are associated with high attentional bias scores, suggesting that the desire to gamble could enhance the detection of gambling stimuli [ 29 , 30 , 33 ], whereas others did not find support for this association [ 26 , 31 , 33 ]. However, no previous studies have explored this association among older-aged gamblers.

Importantly, and to the best of the present authors’ knowledge, there are no prior studies that have examined mentalizing and gambling among older-aged gamblers. The construct of mentalization has gained increasing research attention. According to Bateman and Fonagy [ 34 ], mentalization can be defined as the mental process whereby individuals attribute meaning to their own and others' behavior by questioning (not necessarily explicitly and consciously) the mental states that motivates behaviors, such as feelings, beliefs, needs, etc. Examining the relationship between mentalizing and gambling among those who are older-aged could be of particular importance in relation to studies reporting a positive association between impaired mentalizing abilities and gambling among adults and adolescents [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ], as well as studies that, evaluating the changes in mentalizing skills across adult lifespan, have reported an age-related decline of mentalizing abilities from the fifth decade of life onwards [ 41 , 42 ]. From this perspective, compromised mentalizing might constitute an additional risk factor for gambling among older-aged adults.

Given these literature gaps, the present study is the first to empirically investigate attentional bias among older-aged gamblers, in order to identify which attentional component and what type of bias contributes to problem gambling among older-aged gamblers. Because attentional biases are deeply connected to the experience of craving, and craving has not been previously investigated among older-aged gamblers, the present study also evaluated the unexplored relationship between attentional bias and craving among older-aged gamblers. Moreover, there is also no evidence concerning the role of mentalizing, as well as the joint role of attentional bias, craving, and mentalizing among older-aged gamblers. Therefore, the present study aimed to fill these gaps by investigating the interplay between these factors.

Based on previous attentional bias research, facilitated attention for gambling stimuli, craving, and hypomentalizing were expected to predict gambling severity among older-aged gamblers.

Participants and procedure

Thirty-six male gamblers, Footnote 1   aged between 60 and 80 years ( M age  = 67.08 years; SD  = 5.79), recruited from several Italian gambling venues, took part in the study. Prior to participation, individuals were assured about the possibility to withdraw from the study whenever they wanted. In a quiet room of the gambling venues, participants individually and anonymously performed the modified version of the Posner Task to assess attentional bias [ 44 ], and completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; [ 45 , 46 ]), the Gambling Craving Scale (GACS; [ 29 , 47 ]), and the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (RFQ-8; [ 48 , 49 ]) to assess the degree of problem gambling severity, gambling-related craving, and mentalization, respectively. After having signed the informed consent, half of the participants completed the computerized task at the beginning of the session, and the other half at the end. In this way, the (potential) influence of the experimental task on the paper-and-pencil measures, and vice versa, was balanced. The psychometric scales were administered in counterbalanced order. After data collection, participants were debriefed about the real aims of the study and all their questions were answered. Participation in the study was voluntary and participants did not receive any reward. The ethics committee of the research team's university department approved the present study. The completion of the instruments and participation in the computerized task took approximately 25/30 min. For each measure, participants received detailed written instructions.

The SOGS Footnote 2 is a self-report scale that assesses gambling severity and comprises two sections. The first section includes non-scored items providing information about the frequency of participation in gambling and the largest amount of money gambled on any one day, as well as the preferred gambling activities (e.g., cards, horses, bingo, etc.), venues (e.g., bar, tobacco shop, etc.), company (e.g., friends, partners, etc.), and mode (e.g., online, offline). The second section includes 20 scored dichotomous ( yes/no ) questions, based on the DSM criteria for pathological gambling [ 50 ] and assesses the severity of gambling involvement through questions investigating chasing behavior frequency, the guilt related to gambling involvement, loss of control over gambling, etc. The maximum score is 20, with higher scores reflecting more severe gambling. More specifically, scores from 0 to 2 indicate no gambling problems, scores of 3 and 4 indicate problem gambling, and a score of 5 or above denotes (probable) pathological gambling. In the present study, the total score was used.

The Gambling Craving Scale (GACS) is a self-report scale comprising nine items that assesses, on a seven-point Likert scale (from strongly disagree to strongly agree ), three different dimensions of gambling-related craving: Desire, Anticipation, and Relief. Desire refers to the immediate desire to gamble, Anticipation refers to the expectation of the positive experiences that would result from gambling, and Relief refers to the expectation of the immediate relief from negative emotional states that would result from gambling participation. Higher scores reflect stronger feelings of craving.

The eight-item Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (RFQ-8) is a self-report measure that assesses two different dimensions of mentalization: Certainty about mental states and Uncertainty about mental states on a seven-point Likert scale (from strongly disagree to strongly agree ). Low scores on Certainty scale reflect inaccurate mentalizing (i.e., hypermentalizing) while high scores indicate genuine mentalizing. Low scores on Uncertainty scale reflect genuine mentalizing, while high scores indicate a lack of knowledge about mental states (i.e., hypomentalizing).

The modified version of the Posner Task is a computerized task detecting attentional bias, administered on a PC using the experimental software SuperLab 4.0 and the operating system Windows 8. Color pictures ( N  = 40), chosen from non-copyrighted images on the internet, were used as stimuli (i.e., 20 gambling-related pictures and 20 neutral pictures). The gambling and neutral pictures were matched for both color and shape (for example, a slot machine was matched with petrol pump, gambling chips with buttons, and a roulette wheel with a wall clock). Each picture measured 350 × 350 pixels and was displayed on a grey background of a personal computer with a 15.6″ monitor. The task consisted of 160 trials, 80% of which (i.e., 128 trials, 64 gambling and 64 neutral) were valid, while the remaining 20% (32 trials,16 gambling and 16 neutral) were invalid. In the valid trials, the target (dot) appeared in the same location of the image that preceded it, while in the invalid trials the target was presented on the opposite side [ 44 ].

Each trial started with a fixation point (“ + ”) (ITI;1 cm in height) presented for 1000 ms, followed by a picture, in the left or right side of the screen for a fixed period of 100 or 500 ms, after which it was immediately substituted by a dot (target). The dot was blue and appeared in the same position of the picture (valid trial) or on the opposite side (invalid trial) for 1500 ms. Each image was displayed four times, as a valid and invalid trial, for 100 ms and 500 ms. The manipulation of the duration of the stimulus allows the assessment of two attentional components: the initial orienting of attention (from 50 to 200 ms), and maintenance of attention (from 500 ms and upwards) [ 6 , 51 , 52 ]. Participants, seated 60 cm from the monitor and level with the center of the screen, were requested to press a button on a keyboard (marked with white stickers) based on the location of the appearance of the probe: “a” for left and “ù” for right. Participants were tested individually and instructed to respond to the probe as quickly and accurately as possible. Both accuracy and response times (RTs) were recorded.

Data preparation

Based on reaction times (RTs) for correct responses, facilitation bias, disengagement bias, and avoidance bias were calculated. Facilitation bias was calculated by subtracting RTs for gambling-related stimuli from neutral stimuli in valid trials. Positive scores indicate a facilitated detection of gambling rather than neutral images. Disengagement bias was calculated by subtracting RTs for neutral stimuli from gambling-related stimuli in invalid trials. Positive scores indicate a prolonged attention on gambling rather than neutral images. Negative scores of both facilitation and disengagement bias indicate an avoidance (i.e., a tendency to divert attention from gambling stimuli). Values close to zero indicate a lack of attentional biases (i.e., no differences between the attentional processing of gambling and neutral pictures).

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed with the IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 20.0. The alpha significance level was set at 0.05. All variables were initially screened for missing data, distribution abnormalities, and outliers [ 53 ]. To examine the relationships between the study variables, bivariate correlations were performed. To identify the predictors of problem gambling among older-aged gamblers, a hierarchical linear regression analysis was performed with the SOGS total score as the dependent measure, using age (Step 1), GACS subscales scores (Step 2), RFQ-8 subscales scores (Step 3) and attentional bias (facilitation and disengagement at both 100 ms and 500 ms; Step 4) as predictors. To control for the presence of multicollinearity, the variance inflation factors (VIF) was calculated for each predictor and, if present, the predictor was excluded from subsequent analysis. In the present study, the VIF was below the recommended cut-off of 2.5 [ 54 ], indicating no issues with multicollinearity.

Almost nine-tenths of the participants (88.39%) were regular gamblers (i.e., gambled at least once a week). More specifically, one-third of the sample regularly gambled both online and offline (38.39%), 36.11% regularly gambled mainly offline, and 13.89% regularly gambled mainly online. The majority of the sample reported a gambling onset before 30 years (81.3%; Mean = 25.03; SD = 11.20). The most popular gambling venues were tobacco shops (44.4%), home (41.7%), bars (38.9%), and betting centers (36.1%). Participants preferred gambling alone (52.8%) or with friends (47.2%). The most reported motivations for gambling (participants could report more than one motivation) were: entertainment (50.0%), money (22.2%), hobby and socializing (19.4%), excitement (12.2%) and distraction (13.9%). Using the SOGS, the results indicated that 72.2% of the sample reported non-problematic gambling (scoring below 3), 11.1% reported problematic gambling (scoring 3–4), and the 16.7% reported probable pathological gambling (scoring 5 or more). The socio-demographic variables of the overall sample are reported in Table  1 .

Correlational analysis showed that SOGS score positively correlated with the Uncertainty subscale score of RFQ-8, as well as with all the three subscale scores of the GACS. The SOGS score negatively correlated with Certainty subscale score of the RFQ-8. Significant negative associations were found between the score on the Certainty subscale of the RFQ-8 and scores on both Desire and Relief. The score on the Uncertainty subscale of the RFQ-8 positively correlated with scores for both Desire and Relief (see Table  2 ).

To identify the potential predictors of older-aged problem gambling, age, scores on both GACS and RFQ-8 subscales, and the facilitation and disengagement bias scores at both 100 ms and 500 ms were entered into a hierarchical regression analysis with problem gambling (SOGS score) as the dependent variable. Because of high VIF value (= 2.8) the GACS Desire subscale was excluded. Results, reported in Table  3 , showed that high scores on both GACS Anticipation and RFQ-8 Uncertainty about mental states, and disengagement bias at 100 ms significantly predicted gambling severity among older-age gamblers. The overall model explained 62% of the total variance of the SOGS.

The aim of the present study was to analyze, for the first time, the role of attentional bias among older-aged male gamblers, specifically focusing on the attentional components and type of biases that can contribute to gambling in old age. Moreover, the present study investigated the role of craving and mentalization, as well as the interplay between the study variables among older-aged gamblers, for the first time. The present study’s results showed that GACS Anticipation, RFQ-8 Uncertainty about mental states, and disengagement bias at 100 ms predicted older-aged problem gambling.

The finding related to the disengagement bias for gambling stimuli when presented at 100 ms indicates that the attentional bias involved in older-aged gambling concerns a difficulty in diverting attention from gambling stimuli in the initial stage of attention, namely the phase in which attention is automatically captured by gambling stimuli, before any processing of the stimulus itself. Therefore, the gambler's attention is held by gambling stimuli so that they took longer to react to the dot, when it appears in the opposite position of the previous gambling cue. This finding clearly indicates that gambling stimuli are valenced to capture gamblers’ attention even when the time of presentation is so short that the individual cannot clearly identify them.

These results corroborate what was previously found in literature among younger adult gamblers [ 27 ]. McGrath et al. [ 15 ] observed that regular gamblers initially fixated on gambling images, focused on gambling images significantly earlier than neutral ones, and preferentially attended to gambling images for significantly longer periods of time than neutral stimuli. Similarly, Brevers et al. [ 26 ] found that individuals with gambling problems showed a difficulty in disengaging attention away from gambling cues, and tended to direct their attention on gambling more frequently than neutral pictures. Kim et al. [ 55 ], having observed that problem EGM gamblers preferentially attended to EGM images and had longer fixation times to these images, concluded that individuals with gambling problems could have difficulty shifting attention away from gambling-related stimuli, consistent with incentive sensitization theory [ 10 , 11 ].

In relation to incentive sensitization theory and the postulated mutual excitatory relationship between attentional bias and craving, despite the predictive role of the anticipation of the pleasure resulting from gambling – Anticipation, a subscale of the GACS – on gambling severity, the present study did not find any association between craving and attentional bias. This was in contrast to some past studies [ 23 , 29 , 30 ], but in line with others [ 26 , 30 , 33 ]. This lack of association could be ascribed to the characteristics of the sample, and, more specifically, to their level of gambling severity.

The studies that have documented the association between attentional bias and craving had a percentage of individuals with gambling problems (50%-67%) much higher than in the present study (28%, which is higher than the prevalence of problem gambling in the general population). Following the suggestion of Young and Wohl [ 47 ], because the GACS is able to discriminate different levels of gambling severity, higher craving scores correspond to a higher level of problem gambling. This may reflect the fact that the percentage of individuals with gambling problems in the present study was lower than in the past studies and, consequently, that the SOGS scores varied little between participants [ 26 , 30 ]. Alternatively, it could be that the relationship between craving and attentional bias changes over time. In the initial phase of gambling involvement, the strong desire to play (craving) is responsible for the gamblers’ attentional polarization towards gambling stimuli, so causing attentional bias. This bias is strategic, because it is driven by the motivational state of craving. This is supported by Ciccarelli et al. [ 30 ] who reported a strategic orientation of attention towards gambling among adolescent gamblers, who are likely to have a shorter gambling history than adults.

Over time, and with the repeated exposure to gambling activities, attentional bias becomes automatic, so losing the relationship with the craving. In other words, when the attentional bias becomes automatic, attention may no longer need the motivational drive of craving to be directed towards game stimuli. This explanation is compatible with past studies that (i) have observed an automatic attentional bias among adult gamblers [ 15 , 29 , 30 ], and (ii) did not find an association of craving with attentional bias [ 26 , 30 , 33 ], which is also compatible with the present study’s findings. Indeed, given that more than 80% of the present sample reported having started gambling before the age of 30 years, it is reasonable to assume that a longer gambling history makes strategic bias automatic. This could be the same reason why, in contrast with past studies [ 25 , 28 ], there was no bias in the maintenance of attention, namely in the phase in which the attention is consciously and strategically oriented towards gambling. In addition, it should be considered that while in the present study both phases of selective attention (initial engagement and maintenance) were investigated, the aforementioned studies have mainly explored attentional maintenance.

With regards to mentalization, the present results corroborate what was previously found concerning the role of compromised reflective functioning as a key risk factor for both adult and adolescent problem gambling [ 35 , 37 , 38 , 39 ], demonstrating the importance of hypomentalizing in promoting gambling problems from adolescence to old adulthood, across the lifespan. Hypomentalizing refers to the inability to understand the mental states that give rise to behavior, such as desires, wishes, emotions, and intentions. In the specific case of gambling, genuine mentalizing would probably break the loop that leads individuals (often in an impulsive and unconscious manner) to gamble despite negative short- and long-term consequences. The inability to mentalize implies an “opaque” mind, unable to read itself. Under these conditions, it is likely that gamblers feel an uncontrollable urge to gamble (i.e., craving). In support of this, the present study observed significant associations between craving and hypomentalizing, emphasizing that the greater the individual’s inability to understand their own and others' mental states, the greater the levels of craving experienced. It is conceivable that in the presence of compromised mentalization, the individual, not being able to reflect on their own mental states, acts on them. Consequently, it is likely that gamblers with mentalizing deficits act out their craving by gambling.

Limitations

The present findings should be interpreted in the light of the study limitations. First, the study was correlational, so no conclusion about the cause-effect relationships between the study variables can be drawn. Although an a priori power analysis was performed to estimate the sample size, an effect size of 1 may be too large, and the recruited sample may therefore have been too small. The sample size, as well as the use of convenience sampling, does not allow generalization of the results to the broader population of gamblers. Moreover, the analysis of gender profiles in relation to old age gambling was not possible given that only male participants were recruited. Finally, in relation to the established role of matching gambling cues with the favorite gambling activities (which could have elicited stronger attentional bias among participants; see [ 15 ]), another limit relates to not having matched the gambling cues with the gambling activities preferred by participants. This may have resulted in an underestimation of attentional bias scores.

Conclusions

The present study is the first to assess the role of gambling-related attentional biases, craving, and mentalizing in gambling in older age. The study demonstrated that the profile of older-aged gamblers combines high levels of craving, a difficult to disengage attention away from gambling cues, and an impaired ability to mentalize. Despite the limitations (e.g., all participants being male only), the present findings make an important contribution, in as much as the identification of the variables contributing to problem gambling among older-aged gamblers. The findings will be useful in the development of programs aimed at prevention of gambling addiction in this specific age cohort.

Availability of data and materials

The data supporting the conclusions of this study are available upon request to the first author, Maria Ciccarelli.

The a-priori power analysis was performed with the program G* Power [ 43 ] for the present study. For the regression, having inserted these input parameters: effect size f 2  = 1.00, α err prob. = 0.05, power = 0.95, and number of predictors = 9, we obtained the following output parameters: critical F  = 2.30, sample size = 34, actual power = 0.95. The number of participants recruited reflects that required by the power analysis.

Although the SOGS is based on the DSM-III criteria, it should be noted that the diagnostic criteria have not changed qualitatively, but quantitatively (the number of criteria, the diagnostic threshold, and the time window for diagnosis has changed). However, the scored items of the SOGS refer to chasing, inability to stop gambling, loss of control over gambling activity, lying about gambling involvement, indebtedness, impaired work, and relationship functioning. In the present study, the time window for the SOGS was the last 12 months, in line with the latest version of the DSM.

Subramaniam M, Wang P, Soh P, Vaingankar JA, Chong SA, Browning CJ, Thomas SA. Prevalence and determinants of gambling disorder among older adults: a systematic review. Addict Behav. 2015;41:199–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.10.007 .

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Guillou Landreat M, Cholet J, Grall Bronnec M, Lalande S, Le Reste JY. Determinants of gambling disorders in elderly people - a systematic review. Front Psychiatry. 2019;10:837. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00837 .

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

van der Maas M, Nower L, Matheson FI, Turner NE, Mann RE. Sources of bias in research on gambling among older adults: considerations for a growing field. Curr Addict Rep. 2021;8:208–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-021-00365-9 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Blaszczynski A, Nower L. A pathways model of problem and pathological gambling. Addict. 2002;97(5):487–99. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00015.x .

Hønsi A, Mentzoni RA, Molde H, Pallesen S. Attentional bias in problem gambling: a systematic review. J Gambl Stud. 2013;29:359–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-012-9315-z .

Field M, Cox WM. Attentional bias in addictive behaviors: a review of its development, causes, and consequences. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;97:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.030 .

Bouton ME. A learning theory perspective on lapse, relapse, and the maintenance of behavior change. Health Psychol. 2000;19(1S):57–63. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.19.Suppl1.57 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Franken IH. Drug craving and addiction: Integrating psychological and neuropsychopharmacological approaches. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2003;27:563–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5846(03)00081-2 .

McCusker CG. Cognitive biases and addiction: An evolution in theory and method. Addict. 2001;96(1):47–56. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961474.x .

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Robinson TE, Berridge KC. The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Rev. 1993;18:247–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-0173(93)90013-P .

Robinson TE, Berridge KC. Review. The incentive sensitization theory of addiction: Some current issues. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2008;363:3137–46. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0093 .

Ryan F. Detected, selected, and sometimes neglected: cognitive processing of cues in addiction. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;10(2):67–76. https://doi.org/10.1037/1064-1297.10.2.67 .

Sayette MA, Shiffman S, Tiffany ST, Niaura RS, Martin CS, Shadel WG. The measurement of drug craving. Addiction. 2000;95(Suppl. 2):S189–210. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.95.8s2.8.x .

Hudson A, Olatunji BO, Gough K, Yi S, Stewart SH. Eye on the prize: High-risk gamblers show sustained selective attention to gambling cues. J Gambl Issues. 2016;34:100–19. https://doi.org/10.4309/jgi.2016.34.6 .

McGrath DS, Meitner A, Sears CR. The specificity of attentional biases by type of gambling: an eye-tracking study. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0190614. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190614 .

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

McGrath DS, Sears CR, Fernandez A, Dobson KS. Attentional biases in low-risk and high-risk gamblers and the moderating effect of daily psychosocial stress. Addict Res Theory. 2021;29(2):166–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2020.1762867 .

Atkins G, Sharpe L. Cognitive biases in problem gambling. Gambl Res: J Natl Assoc Gambl Stud. 2003;15:35–43.  https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.980796061646501 .

Google Scholar  

Diskin KM, Hodgins DC. Narrowed focus and dissociative experiences in a community sample of experienced video lottery gamblers. Can J Behav Sci. 2001;33:58–64.

Zack M, Poulos CX. Amphetamine primes motivation to gamble and gambling-related semantic networks in problem gamblers. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29:195–207. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300333 .

Zack M, Poulos CX. A D2 antagonist enhances the rewarding and priming effects of a gambling episode in pathological gamblers. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32:1678–86. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.130129521 .

Boyer M, Dickerson M. Attentional bias and addictive behaviour: automaticity in a gambling-specific modified Stroop task. Addiction. 2003;98(1):61–70. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00219.x .

McCusker CG, Gettings B. Automaticity of cognitive biases in addictive behaviors: further evidence with gamblers. Br J Clin Psychol. 1997;36:543–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1997.tb01259.x .

Molde H, Pallesen S, Sætrevik B, Hammerborg DK, Laberg JC, Johnsen BH. Attentional biases among pathological gamblers. Int Gambl Stud. 2010;10:45–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459791003652501 .

Fox E, Russo R, Bowles R, Dutton K. Do threatening stimuli draw or hold attention in subclinical anxiety? J Exp Psychol: General. 2001;130:681–700. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.681 .

Vizcaino EJV, Fernandez-Navarro P, Blanco C, Ponce G, Navio M, Moratti S, Rubio G. Maintenance of attention and pathological gambling. Psychol Addict Behav. 2013;27(3):861–7. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032656 .

Brevers D, Cleeremans A, Bechara A, Laloyaux C, Kornreich C, Verbanck P, et al. Time course of attentional bias for gambling information in problem gambling. Psychol Addict Behav. 2011;25:675–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024201 .

Brevers D, Cleeremans A, Tibboel H, Bechara A, Kornreich C, Verbanck P, et al. Reduced attentional blink for gambling-related stimuli in problem gamblers. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2011;42(3):265–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.01.005 .

Grant LD, Bowling AC. Gambling attitudes and beliefs predict attentional bias in non-problem gamblers. J Gambl Stud. 2015;31:1487–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-014-9468-z .

Ciccarelli M, Nigro G, Griffiths MD, Cosenza M, D’Olimpio F. Attentional biases in problem and non-problem gamblers. J Affect Disord. 2016;198:135–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.009 .

Ciccarelli M, Nigro G, Griffiths MD, Cosenza M, D’Olimpio F. Attentional bias in non-problem gamblers, problem gamblers, and abstinent pathological gamblers: an experimental study. J Affect Disord. 2016;206:9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.07.017 .

Ciccarelli M, Cosenza M, Griffiths MD, Nigro G, D’Olimpio F. Facilitated attention for gambling cues in adolescent problem gamblers: An experimental study. J Affect Disord. 2019;252:39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.04.012 .

Ciccarelli M, Griffiths MD, Cosenza M, Nigro G, D’Olimpio F. Disordered gambling and attentional bias: the mediating role of risk-taking. J Affect Disord. 2020;272:496–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.144 .

Wölfling K, Mörsen CP, Duven E, Albrecht U, Grüsser SM, Flor H. To gamble or not to gamble: at risk for craving and relapse-learned motivated attention in pathological gambling. Biol Psychol. 2011;87:275–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.03.010 .

Bateman AW, Fonagy P. Psychotherapie der borderline-persönlichkeitsstörung. Giessen: Psychosozial-Verlag; 2008.

Ciccarelli M, Nigro G, D’Olimpio F, Griffiths MD, Cosenza M. Mentalizing failures, emotional dysregulation, and cognitive distortions among adolescent problem gamblers. J Gambl Stud. 2021;37:283–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-020-09967-w .

Ciccarelli M, Cosenza M, Nigro G, Griffiths MD, D’Olimpio F. Gaming and gambling in adolescence: the role of personality, reflective functioning, time perspective and dissociation. Int Gambl Stud. 2022;22(1):161–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459795.2021.1985583 .

Cosenza M, Ciccarelli M, Sacco M, Nigro G, Pizzini B. Attachment dimensions and adolescent gambling: The mediating role of mentalization. Mediterr J Clin Psychol. 2022;10(3). https://doi.org/10.13129/2282-1619/mjcp-3446 .

Cosenza M, Ciccarelli M, Pizzini B, Griffiths MD, Sacco M., Nigro G. The role of loneliness, negative affectivity, mentalization, and alcohol use in adolescent gambling. Mediterr J Clin Psychol. 2022;10(3). https://doi.org/10.13129/2282-1619/mjcp-3425 .

Cosenza M, Ciccarelli M, Nigro G. The steamy mirror of adolescent gamblers: Mentalization, impulsivity, and time horizon. Addict Behav. 2019;89:156–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.10.002 .

Nigro G, Matarazzo O, Ciccarelli M, D’Olimpio F, Cosenza M. To chase or not to chase: a study on the role of mentalization and alcohol consumption in chasing behavior. J Behav Addict. 2019;8(4):743–53. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.8.2019.67 .

Moran JM, Jolly E, Mitchell JP. Social-cognitive deficits in normal aging. J Neurosci. 2012;32(16):5553–61. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5511-11.2012 .

Pardini M, Nichelli PF. Age-related decline in mentalizing skills across adult life span. Exp Aging Res. 2009;35(1):98–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610730802545259 .

Erdfelder E, Faul F, Buchner A. GPOWER: a general power analysis program. Behav Res Methods Instrum Comput. 1996;28(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203630 .

Posner MI. Orienting of attention. Q J Exp Psychol. 1980;32:3–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335558008248231 .

Lesieur HR, Blume SB. The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS): a new instrument for the identification of pathological gamblers. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144(9):1184–8.

Cosenza M, Matarazzo O, Baldassarre I, Nigro G. Deciding with (or without) the future in mind: Individual differences in decision-making. In: Recent advances of neural network models and applications. Proceedings of the 23rd workshop of the Italian neural networks society (SIREN), may 23-25. Salerno: Springer International Publishing; 2014. p. 435–443.

Young MM, Wohl MJ. The Gambling Craving Scale: psychometric validation and behavioral outcomes. Psychol Addict Behav. 2009;23:512–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015043 .

Fonagy P, Luyten P, Moulton-Perkins A, Lee YW, Warren F, Howard S, et al. Development and validation of a self-report measure of mentalizing: The reflective functioning questionnaire. PLoS one. 2016;11:e0158678. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158678 .

Morandotti N, Brondino N, Merelli A, Boldrini A, De Vidovich GZ, Ricciardo S, et al. The Italian version of the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire: Validity data for adults and its association with severity of borderline personality disorder. PLoS One. 2018;13(11):e0206433. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206433 .

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Washington DC: APA; 1980.

Bradley B, Field M, Mogg K, De Houwer J. Attentional and evaluative biases for smoking cues in nicotine dependence: component processes of biases in visual orienting. Behav Pharm. 2004;15(1):29–36.

Field M, Munafò MR, Franken IH. A meta-analytic investigation of the relationship between attentional bias and subjective craving in substance abuse. Psychol Bull. 2009;135(4):589–607. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015843 .

Tabachnick BG, Fidell LS. Using multivariate statistics (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson; 2019.

Johnston R, Jones K, Manley D. Confounding and collinearity in regression analysis: a cautionary tale and an alternative procedure, illustrated by studies of British voting behaviour. Qual Quant. 2018;52:1957–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0584-6 .

Kim HS, Sears CR, Hodgins DC, Ritchie EV, Kowatch KR, McGrath DS. Gambling-related psychological predictors and moderators of attentional bias among electronic gaming machine players. Psychol Addict Behav. 2021;35(8):961–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000716 .

Download references

This publication was supported by the Young Researcher Grant initiative of the University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli” (project “GOLD – Gambling in OLD age”, cup number B63C23000650005).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Psychology, Università degli studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Viale Ellittico, 31, Caserta, 81100, Italy

Maria Ciccarelli, Marina Cosenza, Giovanna Nigro & Francesca D’Olimpio

Università Giustino Fortunato, Via Raffaele Delcogliano, 12, Benevento, 82100, Italy

Barbara Pizzini

Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, 50 Shakespeare Street, Nottingham, NG1 4FQ, UK

Mark D. Griffiths

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

MCi and FD together designed the study. MCo and GN conducted literature searches. BP provided summaries of previous research studies. MCi and MCo performed data collection. MCi conducted the statistical analysis and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. MG revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to and have approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maria Ciccarelli .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This experiment was conducted with the approval of the examination of the Ethics Committee of the Department of Psychology of University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”. The participants provided informed consent prior to data collection. We confirm that this study and all methods used were performed in accordance with the guidelines provided by the Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

Mark D. Griffiths has received research funding from Norsk Tipping (the gambling operator owned by the Norwegian government). Mark D. Griffiths has received funding for a number of research projects in the area of gambling education for young people, social responsibility in gambling and gambling treatment from Gamble Aware (formerly the Responsibility in Gambling Trust), a charitable body which funds its research program based on donations from the gambling industry. Mark D. Griffiths undertakes consultancy for various gambling companies in the area of player protection and social responsibility in gambling.

The other authors declare they have no conflict of interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Ciccarelli, M., Pizzini, B., Griffiths, M.D. et al. Attentional disengagement, craving, and mentalizing: a preliminary experimental study among older-aged male gamblers. BMC Psychol 12 , 164 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01651-7

Download citation

Received : 04 September 2023

Accepted : 07 March 2024

Published : 19 March 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01651-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Older-aged gambling
• Attentional bias
• Disengagement bias
• Mentalizing

BMC Psychology

ISSN: 2050-7283

• General enquiries: [email protected]

You are using an outdated browser. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience.

Issues We Care About

• Digital Divide
• Affordability
• College Readiness
• Environmental Barriers

Measuring Impact

• WGU's Success Metrics
• Policy Priorities
• Annual Report
• WGU's Story
• Careers at WGU
• Impact Blog

Types of Psychology: The 4 Branches

• See More Tags

The mind is a powerful and complex wonder—and psychology is the key to unlocking and understanding it. Psychology is a broad field that delves into human thought processes, emotions, motivations, and actions. As a result, psychologists employ diverse research methods and theories to understand human cognition and behavior.

• There are four main branches of psychology, each offering distinct insights into the complexities of  human behavior and mental processes. 
• Clinical psychology. This branch focuses on diagnosing and treating mental illnesses and disorders through therapeutic methods.
• Cognitive psychology. By investigating mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving, researchers better understand how individuals acquire, process, and apply information. 
• Developmental psychology. Understanding how people grow and change across their lifespan, from infancy to old age, reveals factors that influence human development and behavior. 
• Social psychology. This discipline examines how social interactions, relationships, and group dynamics influence behavior and cognition. 
• Gaining knowledge of each area can help individuals interested in psychology decide where to focus their academic and career pursuits. This article will explore the applications and benefits of the four main branches of psychology.

Clinical Psychology 

Clinical psychology focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders through various therapeutic methods. According to the American Psychological Association, professionals within this specialty provide comprehensive and continuing mental and behavioral health care for a broad spectrum of mental health issues. Their goal is to work toward the psychological well-being of individuals, couples, families, and communities. Key interventions include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and psychoanalysis, which help patients navigate challenges to improve their quality of life. 

Clinical psychologists play a crucial role in identifying and addressing mental disorders and stressors. They work in a variety of settings, including hospitals, private practice, community mental health centers, and academic institutions. Working closely with clients and healthcare teams, clinical psychologists conduct assessments and intake interviews, and administer psychological tests to gain insights into cognitive, emotional, and behavioral patterns. Clinical psychologists also contribute significantly to research, training, supervision, and consultation.

Cognitive Psychology 

Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes such as perception, learning, thinking, memory, language, and problem-solving. It enhances our understanding of human intellectual abilities and how people acquire, process, store, and retrieve information. In other words, cognitive psychology helps researchers understand the human brain.

Cognitive psychology has broad applications in education, healthcare, technology, and beyond. Through various research methods such as experiments, observation, and computer simulations, cognitive psychologists examine how individuals interpret and make sense of information from their environment. They explore sensory interpretation, memory encoding, storage and retrieval, and how these processes contribute to improving memory, problem-solving skills, and decision-making abilities. Studying this branch of psychology allows researchers to develop strategies that address memory deficits and cognitive disorders. Most cognitive psychologists work in academic settings, where they teach or conduct research. They may also work directly with patients in private practice, treatment facilities, or other clinical settings.  

Developmental Psychology 

Developmental psychologists study how people grow, develop, and change at different life stages. In addition to physical development, psychologists who specialize in this field study the social, emotional, and cognitive development that occurs throughout life. This may include language acquisition, moral reasoning, motor skill development, self-awareness, social and cultural influence, and personality development. Two key theories that developmental psychologists study are Piaget's stages of cognitive development, which examines how children's thinking evolves, and Erikson's stages of psychosocial development over the course of a lifetime. 

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development elaborates upon how children's intelligence develops and changes as they grow. According to Piaget’s theory, children progress through four distinct stages:

• Sensorimotor (0 to 2 years) 
• Preoperational (2 to 7 years) 
• Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) 
• Formal operational (12+ years)

Each stage is defined by distinct parameters regarding cognitive abilities and limitations, such as abstract reasoning and object permanence, which help shape a child's understanding of the world. By describing these stages, Piaget illustrates how cognitive growth intertwines with psychological development for a holistic view of human development.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development emerge as individuals progress through life, from childhood through adulthood. Each stage is characterized by two contrasting psychological tendencies, one positive/syntactic and one negative/dystonic (for example, trust versus mistrust or intimacy versus isolation). These tensions shape an individual’s psychological growth and interpersonal dynamics, influencing their sense of self and their relationships throughout life. Accordingly, Erikson notes that resolving any conflicts that arise is essential for achieving a healthy psychosocial balance and successful development.

Social Psychology 

Social psychology explores how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts. By studying group behavior, social perception, and interpersonal relationships, social psychologists uncover the underlying processes that govern human interaction and influence behavior.

From conformity and obedience to prejudice and interpersonal attraction, social psychologists examine a wide range of phenomena that shape our social world. Their research findings have practical implications in areas such as marketing, politics, and organizational behavior, highlighting the profound impact of social psychology on various aspects of society.

Understanding the four main branches of psychology—clinical, cognitive, developmental, and social—provides valuable insights into human behavior and mental processes. The foundational knowledge gained from a bachelor's degree program in psychology lays the groundwork for a career in psychology or other industries. 

WGU's B.S. Psychology degree is an online program that allows you to study and work at your own pace. Virtual simulations enhance the experience, teaching students how to apply psychologically sound approaches to interpersonal communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution. About 49% of graduates with a bachelor’s degree in psychology go on to earn an advanced degree. Whether you plan to pursue further education to become a therapist or utilize the knowledge in another field , a bachelor's degree in psychology equips you with vital research, analysis, and communication skills that will benefit you in any career you choose. 

Ready to Start Your Journey?

HEALTH & NURSING

Recommended Articles

Take a look at other articles from WGU. Our articles feature information on a wide variety of subjects, written with the help of subject matter experts and researchers who are well-versed in their industries. This allows us to provide articles with interesting, relevant, and accurate information. 

What Is Health Science?

10 Jobs You Can Get with a Health Sciences Degree

National Disability Employee Awareness Month: Employee and Student Spotlight Carli Mullen

5 Things To Know About Student Teaching

ACE President Ted Mitchell Receives Honorary Degree at WGU Commencement

Omnichannel vs. Multichannel Supply Chain: Understanding the Key Differences

The university.

• Accessibility
• Accreditation

For Students

• Student Portal
• Alumni Services

Most Visited Links

• Business Programs
• Bachelor's Degrees
• Student Experience
• Online Degrees
• Scholarships
• Financial Aid
• Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
• Testimonials
• Student Communities

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Research Roundup: How the Pandemic Changed Management

• Mark C. Bolino,
• Jacob M. Whitney,
• Sarah E. Henry

Lessons from 69 articles published in top management and applied psychology journals.

Researchers recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic that were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology. The review highlights the numerous ways in which employees, teams, leaders, organizations, and societies were impacted and offers lessons for managing through future pandemics or other events of mass disruption.

The recent pandemic disrupted life as we know it, including for employees and organizations around the world. To understand such changes, we recently reviewed 69 articles focused on the management implications of the Covid-19 pandemic. These papers were published between March 2020 and July 2023 in top journals in management and applied psychology.

• Mark C. Bolino is the David L. Boren Professor and the Michael F. Price Chair in International Business at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business. His research focuses on understanding how an organization can inspire its employees to go the extra mile without compromising their personal well-being.
• JW Jacob M. Whitney is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at Kennesaw State University. His research interests include leadership, teams, and organizational citizenship behavior.
• SH Sarah E. Henry is a doctoral candidate in management at the University of Oklahoma’s Price College of Business and an incoming assistant professor at the University of South Florida. Her research interests include organizational citizenship behaviors, workplace interpersonal dynamics, and international management.

Partner Center

Emory primatologist Frans de Waal remembered for bringing apes ‘a little closer to humans’

Emory University | March 16, 2024

40 years of publishing : From "Chimpanzee Politics" in 1982 to "Different" in 2022.

Emory University primatologist Frans de Waal — who pioneered studies of animal cognition while also writing best-selling books that helped popularize the field around the globe — passed away March 14, 2024, from stomach cancer.

De Waal, Charles Howard Candler Professor Emeritus of Psychology and former director of the Living Links Center for the Advanced Study of Ape and Human Evolution at the Emory National Primate Research Center, was 75.

From his groundbreaking 1982 book “Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes” to 2019’s “Mama’s Last Hug: Animal Emotions and What They Tell Us About Ourselves,” de Waal shattered long-held ideas about what it means to be an animal and a human.

“One thing that I’ve seen often in my career is claims of human uniqueness that fall away and are never heard from again,” de Waal said in 2014. “We always end up overestimating the complexity of what we do. That’s how you can sum up my career: I’ve brought apes a little closer to humans but I’ve also brought humans down a bit.”

“It’s difficult to sum up the enormity of Frans de Waal’s impact, both globally and here at Emory,” says Lynne Nygaard, chair of Emory’s Department of Psychology. “He was an extraordinarily deep thinker who could also think broadly, making insights that cut across disciplines. He was always ready to participate in an intellectual discussion.”

In addition to being a world-renowned scholar, beloved teacher and supportive colleague, “Frans was funny,” Nygaard says. “If a discussion became fraught, he could make just the right irreverent remark to get everyone to laugh and break the tension.”

“We may accept that we are descended from apes, but it takes the likes of Frans de Waal to remind us that we haven't traveled that far.” —TIME Magazine, Top 100 People who Shape Our World

Breaking taboos

George Romanes, a protégé of Charles Darwin, tried to connect ideas of animal consciousness and human consciousness in the late 1800s, but his theories were dismissed as anecdotal and anthropomorphic.

For nearly 100 years, the subject of the social mind of animals remained largely taboo in the scientific community. Finally, in 1976, neuroscientist Donald Griffin published his first edition of “The Question of Animal Awareness: Evolutionary Continuity of Mental Experience.” That book compiled observations suggesting animals might have thoughts worthy of exploring and that it was possible to do so in a scientifically objective way.

“Donald Griffin opened the door just a little bit and then Frans pushed it wide open. The rest is history,” says Harold Gouzoules, an Emory professor of psychology who studies primate social behavior and vocal communication.

Frans de Waal as a young scholar

De Waal wrote hundreds of peer-reviewed scientific articles comparing primate and human behavior. He demonstrated the roots of human nature in our closest living relatives through his studies of conflict resolution, reconciliation, cooperation, empathy, fairness, morality, social learning and culture in chimpanzees, bonobos and capuchin monkeys.

A prolific writer and editor, his impact reached far beyond academia through his articles for major magazines and newspapers and his 16 popular books that have been translated into 20 languages. He was a gifted speaker who wove deadpan humor into his many public talks — usually filled to capacity — about his research. His TED Talks have been viewed millions of times.

Animal emotions: In this Emory video, watch Frans de Waal discuss his 2019 book, "Mama's Last Hug."

Training the next generation

Through teaching and research projects, de Waal also helped train and influence many leaders in the field of animal cognition.

“Frans was a fantastic mentor, he really believed in his students,” says Sarah Brosnan, who received a PhD in 2004 in Emory’s Population Biology, Ecology and Evolution Program. Brosnan is now Distinguished University Professor of psychology at Georgia State University where she investigates the evolution of cooperation, decision-making and economic behavior among primates.

“Frans told us the best way to come up with research questions was to watch your animals and they will tell you what’s important,” recalls Brosnan.

She took his advice to heart.

One day, while Brosnan was feeding capuchin monkeys at the primate center, she tried to distract the dominant male, Ozzie, while she slipped peanuts to the others, to keep him from grabbing them all. Ozzie caught on, however, and brought Brosnan a piece of a naval orange from his enclosure, offering it in exchange for a peanut.

Oranges are generally a choice treat to monkeys, rating even higher than peanuts. “I wondered if the reason Ozzie was willing to trade a chunk of orange for a peanut was because everyone else was eating one,” she recalls.

A master of visualization

That simple question led to Brosnan and de Waal developing the famous cucumber-grape study on fairness.

Two capuchins were situated in enclosures next to one another. A researcher would ask them to do a task and if they succeeded give them a treat. The catch was one monkey was always rewarded with a piece of cucumber while the other monkey sometimes got a piece of cucumber and sometimes got a grape — a preferred treat among capuchin monkeys.

A video de Waal filmed of one of the experiments created a media sensation.

Unequal pay for equal work:  When the first monkey gives the researcher a rock, she is rewarded with a cucumber slice. But watch what happens when the first monkey sees the second monkey hand the researcher a rock — and get a much tastier grape instead.

A monkey that received only cucumber appears perfectly happy until she sees her companion receive a grape. Then her behavior changes. She accepts the next piece of cucumber only to throw it back at the researcher, pounding the surface in front of the enclosure and shaking its Plexiglas walls.

“That video struck home with a lot of people,” Brosnan says. “Who hasn’t felt like that monkey that’s only getting cucumbers? Our research showed something about the evolution of the sense of human fairness.”

De Waal, a skilled visual artist and photographer, routinely videotaped experiments — long before that became common practice in labs.

“Both Frans and I used the cucumber-grape experiment video in our TED Talks,” Brosnan notes. “Frans taught his students how to write well and how to give a good presentation. You weren’t allowed to just read some text. Your slides always had to have images and videos.”

Image captions

Animal reconciliation

Franciscus Bernardus Maria “Frans” de Waal was born in 1948 in s’Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands, where he trained as a zoologist and ethologist at three universities — Nijmegen, Groningen and Utrecht. In 1977 he received a PhD in biology from the University of Utrecht where Jan van Hooff, a Dutch biologist renowned for his research involving primates, was his mentor.

Frans de Waal as a young boy

For his dissertation, de Waal began working with the colony of chimpanzees at the Arnhem Zoo in the Netherlands. That work led to his first major discovery: chimpanzees make up after fights.

“I discovered that by just seeing how the opponents would come together after fights and kiss and embrace,” de Waal later said. “I never had trouble getting primatologists interested or convincing them, but other scientists were often skeptical. This meant conducting experiments and collecting data to convince them.”

Instead of describing the behavior he observed using a clinical term, such as “post-fight, affiliative contact,” de Waal called it reconciliation — a word, up until then, reserved for humans. This research became the basis of his book “Chimpanzee Politics,” which compared the schmoozing and scheming of chimpanzees involved in power struggles with that of human politicians.

“There really was no history of someone studying something as complex as reconciliation in animals,” says Kim Wallen, who recently retired as an Emory professor of psychology. “Frans faced a lot of challenges because he looked at questions that were outside the mainstream of animal behavior research. He persisted and carved out an area of his own.”

In 1981 de Waal moved to the United States to join the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center.

Wallen, who studied sex-related behaviors in humans and non-humans, recruited de Waal to join Emory in 1991. “His reputation preceded him,” Wallen recalls. “It was a big coup for Emory.”

Understanding our inner ape

At the field station of the Emory National Primate Research Center, de Waal kept a small office atop a tower. A windshield-like opening in the office overlooks a habitat where multi-generational groups of chimpanzees live outdoors.

De Waal supervised the construction of a building adjacent to the habitat for cognition research with the chimpanzees. A door would slide up allowing the chimpanzees to voluntarily come inside to try to solve a puzzle or perform a task.

A large part of de Waal’s research also encompassed bonobos, what he called “the forgotten ape,” including studies of bonobos in the San Diego Zoo and in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Both the chimpanzee and the bonobo are our genetic twins, but for 1.5% difference in DNA. And while chimpanzees rely on aggression to solve problems, the peaceable, sex-loving, female-dominated bonobos are so chill de Waal described them as “the hippies of the primate world.”

In his 2005 book, “Our Inner Ape,” a New York Times Notable Book of the Year, he used these contrasting ape societies as the context to examine some of the most fundamental, complex and intense manifestations of human nature.

“We have an enormous spectrum of behavior, so don’t believe claims that we are inherently nasty, aggressive, selfish and uncooperative,” de Waal said in a 2006 interview. “My argument is that we have the potential to be everything we want to be. Our job is to bring out what we want.”

Making the most of every minute

In addition to his extreme productivity as a scientist, teacher and communicator, de Waal was a social animal, especially when it came to his students.

“I think Frans came across sometimes as reserved but he wasn’t like that once you got to know him,” Brosnan says. “He was so much fun. He would hold what he called ‘simian soirees’ at his house where graduate students would gather to talk. He was a fantastic piano player and he would play for us.”

De Waal retired from Emory in 2019 but remained active. He was in demand internationally and traveled widely, attending conferences and giving public talks. “The number of talks he would give in a year was always off-the-charts impressive,” Gouzoules said. “It was almost like a rock star touring around.”

De Waal also continued writing, publishing “Different: Gender Through the Eyes of a Primatologist” in 2022. In 2023, he made an appearance in New York for a public discussion with film icon Isabella Rossellini about the book, and what we may learn about sex and gender from primate studies.

Frans de Waal speaking at the Phil.Cologne international festival for philosophy in Germany in June 2023. (Photo by Ying Tang/NurPhoto via AP)

De Waal made his home in Stone Mountain, Georgia, where he lived with his wife of more than 40 years, Catherine Marin. The couple also maintained an apartment in the Netherlands where he had an affiliation with the University of Utrecht.

De Waal was made a Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion In 2010 and elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2008 and the National Academy of Sciences in 2004. Among his many awards are the E.O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award (2020), the Galileo Prize (2014), the Ig Nobel Prize (2012), Discover magazine’s “47 All-time Great Minds of Science” (2011), Time magazine’s 100 world’s most influential people (2007), the American Psychological Foundation Arthur W. Staats Award (2005) and the Los Angeles Times Book Award for “Peacemaking Among Primates” (1989).

Frans de Waal: Highlights from a career exploring animal and human behavior

1948: Born in s’Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands 1970s: Trained as a zoologist and ethologist at three Dutch universities (Nijmegen, Groningen and Utrecht) 1975: Began working with chimpanzees at the Arnhem Zoo (the Netherlands) 1977: Received PhD in biology from the University of Utrecht 1981: Joined the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, focused on reconciliation behavior in monkeys  1982: Published first book, “ Chimpanzee Politics ,” which compared the schmoozing and scheming of chimpanzees involved in power struggles with that of human politicians 1984: Began working with bonobos (San Diego Zoo) and chimpanzees (Emory National Primate Research Center) 1989: Published “ Peacemaking Among Primates ” 1991: Joined Emory University’s Department of Psychology and National Primate Research Center, and began mentoring graduate students and post-doctoral fellows 1993: Elected to the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences 1996: Published “ Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals ” 1997: Published “ Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape ” 2001: Published “ The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections by a Primatologist ” 2004: Elected to the National Academy of Sciences 2005: Published “ Our Inner Ape .” Elected to the American Philosophical Society 2006: Published “ Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved ” 2007: Named one of TIME magazine’s Top 100 People Who Shape Our World 2008: Elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences (AAAS) 2010: Knighted: Order of the Netherlands Lion. Published “ The Age of Empathy: Nature’s Lessons for a Kinder Society ” 2014: Published “ The Bonobo and the Atheist: In Search of Humanism Among the Primates ” 2016: Published “ Are We Smart Enough To Know How Smart Animals Are? ” 2019: Published “ Mama’s Last Hug: Animal Emotions and What They Tell Us About Ourselves .” Retired from Emory University.

2022: Published “ Different: Gender Through the Eyes of a Primatologist ”

Story by Carol Clark. Title center portrait photo by Catherine Marin. Other photos by Emory Photo/Video or courtesy unless noted. Design by Laura Douglas-Brown.

To learn more about Emory University:

Please visit the  emory.edu  and the  emory news center ..