genetically modified food advantages and disadvantages essay

12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetically Modified Foods

Genetically modified foods, often classified as GMOs, have changed the way that people view their food. Although genetic modifications have occurred throughout history with selective breeding and growing methods, scientific advances have allowed this practice to advance to the genetic level. In the modern GMO, plants can be resistant to specific pesticides and herbicides while becoming adaptive to changing environmental conditions.

The primary advantage of genetically modified foods is that crop yields become more consistent and productive, allowing more people to be fed. According to Oxfam, the world currently produced about 20% more food calories than what is required for every human being to be healthy.

GMOs are not without disadvantages. Although there are no conclusive links, Brown University concluded that changes to foods on a genetic level combine proteins that humans are not used to consuming. This may increase the chances of an allergic reaction occurring. Since 1999, the rates of food allergies in children has increased from 3.4% to 5.1%.

Here are some of the additional advantages and disadvantages of genetically modified foods to think about.

What Are the Advantages of Genetically Modified Foods?

1. Food supplies become predictable. When crop yields become predictable, then the food supply becomes predictable at the same time. This gives us the ability to reduce the presence of food deserts around the world, providing a greater population with a well-rounded nutritional opportunity that may not have existed in the past.

2. Nutritional content can be improved. Genetic modifications do more than add pest resistance or weather resistance to GMO crops. The nutritional content of the crops can be altered as well, providing a denser nutritional profile than what previous generations were able to enjoy. This means people in the future could gain the same nutrition from lower levels of food consumption. The UN Food and Agricultural Organization notes that rice, genetically modified to produce high levels of Vitamin A, have helped to reduce global vitamin deficiencies.

3. Genetically modified foods can have a longer shelf life. Instead of relying on preservatives to maintain food freshness while it sits on a shelf, genetically modified foods make it possible to extend food life by enhancing the natural qualities of the food itself. According to Environmental Nutrition, certain preservatives are associated with a higher carcinogen, heart disease, and allergy risk.

4. We receive medical benefits from GMO crops. Through a process called “pharming,” it is possible to produce certain proteins and vaccines, along with other pharmaceutical goods, thanks to the use of genetic modifications. This practice offers cheaper methods of improving personal health and could change how certain medications are provided to patients in the future. Imagine being able to eat your dinner to get a tetanus booster instead of receiving a shot in the arm – that’s the future of this technology.

5. It creates foods that are more appealing to eat. Colors can be changed or improved with genetically modified foods so they become more pleasing to eat. Spoon University reports that deeper colors in foods changes how the brain perceives what is being eaten. Deeper red colors make food seem to be sweeter, even if it is not. Brighter foods are associated with better nutrition and improved flavors.

6. Genetically modified foods are easier to transport. Because GMO crops have a prolonged shelf life, it is easier to transport them greater distances. This improvement makes it possible to take excess food products from one community and deliver it to another that may be experiencing a food shortage. GMO foods give us the opportunity to limit food waste, especially in the developing world, so that hunger can be reduced and potentially eliminated.

7. Herbicides and pesticides are used less often. Herbicides and pesticides create certain hazards on croplands that can eventually make the soil unusable. Farmers growing genetically modified foods do not need to use these products as often as farmers using traditional growing methods, allowing the soil to recover its nutrient base over time. Because of the genetic resistance being in the plant itself, the farmer still achieves a predictable yield at the same time.

What Are the Disadvantages of Genetically Modified Foods?

1. GMO crops may cause antibiotic resistance. Iowa State University research shows that when crops are modified to include antibiotics and other items that kill germs and pests, it reduces the effectiveness of an antibiotic or other medication when it is needed in the traditional sense. Because the foods contain trace amounts of the antibiotic when consumed, any organisms that would be affected by a prescription antibiotic have built an immunity to it, which can cause an illness to be more difficult to cure.

2. Farmers growing genetically modified foods have a greater legal liability. Crops that are genetically modified will create seeds that are genetically modified. Cross-pollination is possible between GMO crops and non-GMO crops as well, even when specified farming practices are followed. Because many of the crops and seeds that produce GMO crops are patented, farmers that aren’t even involved in growing these foods are subjected to a higher level of legal liability. Farmers that do grow GMO crops could also face liabilities for letting seeds go to other fields or allowing cross-pollination to occur.

3. Genes go into different plant species. Crops share fields with other plants, including weeds. Genetic migrations are known to occur. What happens when the genes from an herbicide-resistant crop get into the weeds it is designed to kill? Interactions at the cellular level could create unforeseen complications to future crop growth where even the benefits of genetically modified foods may not outweigh the problems that they cause. One example: dozens of weed species are already resistant to atrazine.

4. Independent research is not allowed. 6 companies control most of the genetically modified foods market at the core level. Because most GMO foods are made from corn, wheat, or soybeans, even food manufacturers that use these crops are at the mercy of the manufacturer’s preferences. Over 50% of the seed producers that have created the GMO foods market prohibit any independent research on the final crops as an effort to protect their profits.

5. Some genetically modified foods may present a carcinogen exposure risk. A paper that has been twice-published, but retracted once as well, showed that crops tolerant to commercial pesticides greatly increased the risk of cancer development in rats. The information from this research study, though limited, has been widely circulated and creates the impression that all GMO foods are potentially hazardous.

The advantages and disadvantages of genetically modified foods can spark a bitter debate. There is an advantage in providing the world with better food access, but more food should not come at the expense of personal health. GMO foods must be labeled in Europe and petitions in the US are seeking the same thing. We deserve to know what we’re eating and how that food is grown. Knowing more about genetically modified foods allows us to do just that.

Pros and cons of GMOs: An evidence-based comparison of genetically modified foods

• GMO foods are designed to be healthier and cheaper to produce.
• Advantages of GMO foods include added nutrients, fewer pesticides, and cheaper prices.
• Disadvantages of GMO foods can be allergic reactions or increased antibiotic resistance.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living organisms that have had their genes altered in some way — also called "bioengineering." 

GMOs can be animals or bacteria, but most often they are crops like corn or potatoes that have been tweaked in a lab to increase the amount or quality of food they produce. 

There are many advantages of GMO crops, but some groups have raised concerns that GMOs may have negative health effects. Here's what you need to know about the pros and cons of GMO foods and whether you should avoid them.

What are GMOs?

Humans have been altering the genetics of plants for thousands of years through the slow process of cross-breeding between crops. Today, scientists can take a shortcut to modify plants by editing their DNA in a lab setting.

Chances are, you've eaten GMO foods without even realizing it – in 2018, around 92% of corn and 94% of soybeans grown in the US came from genetically modified seeds.

The process of creating a GMO plant is complex, but it follows these basic steps :

1. Researchers identify the genes in a plant that cause specific traits, such as resistance to insects.

2. They then make copies of these insect resistance genes in a lab.

3. Scientists next insert the gene copies into the DNA of another plant's cells.

4. These modified cells are then used to grow new, insect-resistant plants that will go through various reviews and tests before they are sold to farmers.

Pros of GMOs

"GMOs are designed to be extra — extra healthy, extra fast-growing, and extra resistant to weather or pests," says Megan L. Norris, PhD , a biomedical researcher at the UT Southwestern Medical Center.

Because scientists can select the most ideal traits to include in GMO crops, there are many advantages of modified foods, including:

GMOs may have fewer pesticides 

Many GMO crops have been altered to be less vulnerable to insects and other pests. For example, Bt-corn is a GMO crop that has a gene added from Bacillus thuringiensis, a naturally occurring soil bacteria. 

This gene causes the corn to produce a protein that kills many pests and insects, helping to protect the corn from damage. "Instead of having to be sprayed with a complex pesticide, these crops come with an innate 'pesticide'," Norris says.

This means that farmers don't need to use as much pesticide on crops like Bt-corn – a 2020 study found that farmers with GMO crops reduced their pesticide use by 775.4 million kilograms (8.3%) between 1996 and 2018. 

GMOs are usually cheaper 

GMO crops are bred to grow efficiently – this means that farmers can produce the same amount of food using less land, less water, and fewer pesticides than conventional crops.

Because they can save on resources, food producers can also charge lower prices for GMO foods. In some cases, the costs of foods like corn, beets, and soybeans may be cut by 15% to 30% .

GMOs may have more nutrients 

Certain GMO crops are designed to provide more nutrients like vitamins or minerals. For example, researchers have been able to create a modified form of African corn that contains: 

• 2 times as much folate when compared to traditional crops
• 6 times as much vitamin C when compared to traditional crops
• 169 times more beta-carotene than traditional crops

Cons of GMOs

GMO crops can offer many advantages in costs and nutrition, but some experts worry that they carry health risks, as well.

GMOs may cause allergic reactions

Because GMO foods contain DNA from other organisms, it's possible that the new DNA can trigger allergies in people who wouldn't normally be allergic to the food. 

In one instance, a GMO soybean crop created using DNA from a Brazil nut was unsafe for people with nut allergies and couldn't be released to the public.

However, GMO foods go through extensive allergen testing, so they shouldn't necessarily be riskier than conventional crops.

GMOs may increase antibiotic resistance

When GMO scientists insert new DNA into plant cells, they will often add in an additional gene that makes the modified cells resistant to antibiotics . They can then use an antibiotic to kill off any plant cells that didn't successfully take in the new DNA.

However, researchers are finding that these antibiotic-resistant genes don't always go away once you digest GMO foods, but can actually be passed through your feces into sewage systems. Some experts worry that these genes may be absorbed into harmful bacteria found in sewers or your gut that can cause serious illnesses like staph infections . This means that the usual antibiotic treatments would be powerless against these new super-bacteria.

Not all experts agree on this concern, however – some scientists argue that this type of gene transfer is very unlikely and there is little risk to humans.

Insider's takeaway

GMO crops have many advantages for your health, such as greater nutritional value and fewer pesticides. They may also be cheaper for farmers to grow, allowing for lower food prices.

Though there are possible risks, major agencies like the US Food and Drug Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency tightly regulate GMO foods and ensure that they are safe for people to eat. "I consume GMO products and feed them to my family without hesitation," Norris says.

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• v.8(4); 2017

The impact of Genetically Modified (GM) crops in modern agriculture: A review

Ruchir raman.

Faculty of Science (School of Biosciences), The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia

Genetic modification in plants was first recorded 10,000 years ago in Southwest Asia where humans first bred plants through artificial selection and selective breeding. Since then, advancements in agriculture science and technology have brought about the current GM crop revolution. GM crops are promising to mitigate current and future problems in commercial agriculture, with proven case studies in Indian cotton and Australian canola. However, controversial studies such as the Monarch Butterfly study (1999) and the Séralini affair (2012) along with current problems linked to insect resistance and potential health risks have jeopardised its standing with the public and policymakers, even leading to full and partial bans in certain countries. Nevertheless, the current growth rate of the GM seed market at 9.83–10% CAGR along with promising research avenues in biofortification, precise DNA integration and stress tolerance have forecast it to bring productivity and prosperity to commercial agriculture.

INTRODUCTION

Genetic modification (GM) is the area of biotechnology which concerns itself with the manipulation of the genetic material in living organisms, enabling them to perform specific functions. 1 , 2 The earliest concept of modification for domestication and consumption of plants dates back ∼10,000 years where human ancestors practiced “selective breeding” and “artificial selection” – the Darwinian-coined terms broadly referring to selection of parent organisms having desirable traits (eg: hardier stems) and breeding them for propagating their traits. The most dramatic alteration of plant genetics using these methods occurred through artificial selection of corn – from a weedy grass possessing tiny ears and few kernels (teosinte; earliest recorded growth: central Balsas river valley, southern Mexico 6300 years ago) to the current cultivars of edible corn and maize plants (Doebley et al., 2016, Fig 1 ). The use of similar techniques has also been reported to derive current variants of apples, broccoli and bananas different from their ancestral plant forms which are vastly desirable for human consumption. 3

The evolution of modern corn/maize (top) from teosinte plants (bottom) by repetitive selective breeding over several generations. [Sources: 50 (top figure), 51 (bottom figure)].

The developments leading to modern genetic modification took place in 1946 where scientists first discovered that genetic material was transferable between different species. This was followed by DNA double helical structure discovery and conception of the central dogma – the transcription of DNA to RNA and subsequent translation into proteins – by Watson and Crick in 1954. Consequently, a series of breakthrough experiments by Boyer and Cohen in 1973, which involved “cutting and pasting” DNA between different species using restriction endonucleases and DNA ligase – “molecular scissors and glue” (Rangel, 2016) successfully engineered the world's first GM organism. In agriculture, the first GM plants – antibiotic resistant tobacco and petunia – were successfully created in 1983 by three independent research groups. In 1990, China became the first country to commercialise GM tobacco for virus resistance. In 1994, the Flavr Savr tomato (Calgene, USA) became the first ever Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved GM plant for human consumption. This tomato was genetically modified by antisense technology to interfere with polygalacturonase enzyme production, consequently causing delayed ripening and resistance to rot. 4 Since then, several transgenic crops received approvals for large scale human production in 1995 and 1996. Initial FDA-approved plants included corn/maize, cotton and potatoes ( Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) gene modification, Ciba-Geigy and Monsanto) canola (Calgene: increased oil production), cotton (Calgene: bromoxynil resistance) and Roundup Ready soybeans (Monsanto: glyphosate resistance), 4 Fig 2 ). Currently, the GM crop pipeline has expanded to cover other fruits, vegetables and cereals such as lettuce, strawberries, eggplant, sugarcane, rice, wheat, carrots etc. with planned uses to increase vaccine bioproduction, nutrients in animal feed as well as confer salinity and drought resistant traits for plant growth in unfavourable climates and environment. 4 , 2

A timeline of events leading to the current GM crop era.

Since their commercialisation, GM crops have been beneficial to both economy and the environment. The global food crop yield (1996–2013) has increased by > 370 million tonnes over a relatively small acreage area. 2 Furthermore, GM crops have been recorded to reduce environmental and ecological impacts, leading to increases in species diversity. It is therefore unsurprising that GM crops have been commended by agricultural scientists, growers and most environmentalists worldwide.

Nevertheless, advancements in GM crops have raised significant questions of their safety and efficacy. The GM seed industry has been plagued with problems related to human health and insect resistance which have seriously undermined their beneficial effects. Moreover, poor science communication by seed companies, a significant lack of safety studies and current mistrust regarding GMOs have only compounded problems. These have led many countries, particularly the European Union and Middle East to implement partial or full restrictions on GM crops. GM agriculture is now widely discussed in both positive and negative frames, and currently serves as a hotbed of debate in public and policymaking levels.

CHALLENGES IN COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE

The agriculture industry has been valued at an estimated US$ 3.2 trillion worldwide and accounts for a large share of the GDP and employment in developing and underdeveloped nations. 5 For instance: Agriculture contributes only 1.4% towards the GDP and 1.62% of the workforce in US in comparison with South Asian regions, where it contributes 18.6% towards the GDP and 50% of the workforce. 6 However, despite employing nearly 1 in 5 people worldwide (19% of the world's population), 7 the agriculture industry is projected to suffer significant global setbacks (population growth, pest resistance and burden on natural resources) by 2050, which has been elaborated further in this section.

Explosive Population Growth

The Food and Agricultural Organisation projects the global population to grow to approximately 9.7 billion by 2050 – a near 50% increase from 2013 – and further to an estimated 11bn by 2100. Current agricultural practices alone cannot sustain the world population and eradicate malnutrition and hunger on a global scale in the future. Indeed, the FAO also estimates that despite a significant reduction in global hunger, 653 mn people will still be undernourished in 2030. 8 Additionally, Ray et al. and other studies depict the top four global crops (soybean, maize, wheat and rice) are increasing at 1.0%, 0.9%, 1.6% and 1.3% per annum respectively– approximately 42%, 38%, 67% and 55% lower than the required growth rate (2.4%/annum) to sustain the global population in 2050. 9 Compounded with other problems such as improved nutritional standards in the burgeoning lower-middle class and projected loss in arable land (from 0.242 ha/person in 2016 to 0.18 ha/person in 2050) 2 due to degradation and accelerated urbanization, rapid world population expansion will increase demand for food resources.

Pests and Crop Diseases

Annual crop loss to pests alone account for 20–40% of the global crop losses. In terms of economic value, tackling crop diseases and epidemics and invasive insect problem costs the agriculture industry approximately $290 mn annually. 8 Currently, major epidemics continue to plague commercial agriculture. It has been projected that crop disease and pest incidences are expanding in a poleward direction (2.7 km annually), 10 indicated by coffee leaf rust and wheat rust outbreaks in Central America. These incidences have largely been attributed to an amalgamation of globalisation leading to increased plant, pest and disease movement, increase in disease vectors, climate change and global warming. 8

While integrated pest management and prevention techniques somewhat mitigate the pest problem, they are insufficient to tackle the transboundary crop-demics. The epidemiology of the Panama disease (or Panama wilt), caused by the soil fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense (Foc) 11 provides solid evidence in this regard. Since the early-mid 1990s the Tropical Race-4 (TR4) strain, a single pathogen Foc fungus clone, has significantly crippled the global banana industry. In 2013, the Mindanao Banana Farmers and Exporters association (in Philippines) reported infection in 5900 hectares of bananas, including 3000 hectares that were abandoned. In Mozambique, symptomatic plants currently account for >20% of total banana plantations (570,000 out 2.5m) since the reporting of TR4 in 2015. Additionally, TR4 losses have cost Taiwanese, Malaysian, and Indonesian economies a combined estimate of US$ 388.4 mn. 12 Therefore, an alarming increase in transboundary crop and pest diseases have broad environmental, social and economic impacts on farmers and threaten food security.

Burden on Natural Resources

The FAO's 2050 projections suggest projected natural resource scarcities for crop care. 8 Despite overall agricultural efficiency, unsustainable competition has intensified due to urbanisation, population growth, industrialisation and climate change. Deforestation for agricultural purposes has driven 80% of the deforestation worldwide. In tropical and subtropical areas where deforestation is still widespread, agricultural expansion accounted for loss of 7 million hectares per annum of natural forests between 2000–2010. 8 Additionally, water withdrawals for agriculture accounted for 70% of all withdrawals, seriously depleting natural water resources in many countries. This has particularly been observed in low rainfall regions, such as Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia where water for agriculture accounts for 80–90% 8 of the total water withdrawal. These trends are predicted to continue well into the 21st century and therefore increase the burden of natural resource consumption globally.

SOLUTIONS PROVIDED BY GM CROPS

GM crops have been largely successful in mitigating the above major agriculture challenges while providing numerous benefits to growers worldwide. From 1996–2013, they generated $117.6 bn over 17 years in global farm income benefit alone. The global yearly net income increased by 34.3% in 2010–2012. 13 , 14 Furthermore, while increasing global yield by 22%, GM crops reduced pesticide (active ingredient) usage by 37% and environmental impact (insecticide and herbicide use) by 18%. 15 To achieve the same yield standards more than 300 million acres of conventional crops would have been needed, which would have further compounded current environmental and socioeconomic problems in agriculture. 2

To further emphasise the impact of GM crops on economies: two case studies – GM Canola (Australia) and GM cotton (India) – have been highlighted in this review.

GM Cotton (India)

In India, cotton has served as an important fibre and textile raw material and plays a vital role in its industrial and agricultural economy. Nearly 8 million farmers, most of them small and medium (having less than 15 acres of farm size and an average of 3–4 acres of cotton holdings) depend on this crop for their livelihood. In 2002, Monsanto-Mahyco introduced Bollgard-I, India's first GM cotton hybrid containing Cry1Ac -producing Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ) genes for controlling the pink bollworm ( P. gossypiella ) pest. 16 Initially, only 36% of the farmers adopted the new crop however this statistic soon grew to 46% in 2004 17 after Bt- cotton was approved nationwide. This was followed by approval and launch of Bollgard-II (a two-toxin Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab -producing Bt- pyramid conferring resistance to bollworm) by Monsanto-Mahyco, which subsequently enhanced Bt- cotton adoption among Indian cotton growers ( Fig 3 ).

Adoption of GM canola (top) and GM cotton (bottom) in Australia and India respectively. The primary vertical axis shows the total acreage of cotton and canola along with the proportion of GM and non-GM crops grown per year, while the secondary horizontal axis depicts the percentage of GM crop adoption among farmers and growers per year. (Sources: 22 , 18 ).

Despite controversies, Bt -cotton's implementation has largely benefited Indian farmers and agricultural economy. Bt -cotton has increased profits and yield by Rs. 1877 per acre (US$38) and 126 kg/acre of farmland respectively, 50% and 24% more than profit and yield by conventional cotton. This translates to a net increase of Bt -cotton growers' annual consumption expenditures by 18% (Rs. 15,841/US$321) compared to non-adapters, highlighting improved living standards. 17 Bt -cotton adoption has also resulted in a 22-fold increase in India's agri-biotech industry due to an unprecedented 212-fold rise in plantings from 2002–2011 (accounting for ∼30% of global cotton farmland), surpassing China and making it a world leading grower and exporter. 7 million out of the 8 million farmers (88%) are growing Bt-cotton annually. Cotton crop yields have also increased 31% while conversely insecticide usage has more than halved (46% to 21%) enhancing India's cotton income by US$11.9 bn. 18 Therefore, Bt- cotton has resulted in economic prosperity among Bt -cotton growers, with 2002–11 often being called a white gold period for India's GM cotton industry.

GM Canola (Australia)

Canola in Australia is grown as a break crop, providing farmers a profitable alternative along with rotational benefits from continuous cereal crop phases and their related weed/pest mechanisms. Other benefits include broadleaf weed and cereal root disease control and better successive cereal crop growth. It is most prominently grown in Western Australia (WA), where it accounts for 400–800,000 ha of farmland and is the most successful of four break crops (oat, lupin, canola and field pea). From 2002–2007, Canola production in WA alone accounted for a yield of 440 mn tonnes valued at A$200mn. 19 Nevertheless Canola has been a high risk crop and particularly susceptible to blackleg disease (caused by fungus Leptosphaeria maculans ), and weeds such as charlock ( Sinapis arvensis ), wild radish ( Raphanus raphanistrum L) and Buchan ( Hirschfeldia incana (L.) Lagr.-Foss) which increase anti-nutritional compound content and composition in canola oil, degrading quality. 20

In 2008–09, two herbicide resistant GM canola varieties: Roundup Ready® (Monsanto) and InVigor® (Bayer Cropsciences) were introduced in Australia. Roundup Ready® contained gene variants with altered EPSP synthase (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate) alterations along with a glyphosate oxidoreductase gene making it glyphosate resistant. It gained OGTR approval after trials showed its environmental impact was less than half (43%) of triazine tolerant canola varieties 21 , 19 and remains the only OGTR-approved GM canola till date. The introduction of Roundup Ready® canola has had a positive impact on farmers by controlling weeds that were erstwhile difficult to mitigate. In 2014, GM canola planting area (hectares) was up to 14% in 2014 from just 4% in 2009 ( Fig 3 ), representing a near three-fold increase and contributing to Australia's growing biotech crop hectarage. This increase was more notable in WA, where GM canola was planted from 21% canola farmers in 2014, up from 0% in 2009. 22 This has led to more research and development of different canola varieties to improve oil content and quality, yield and maturity. 20

PROBLEMS AND CONTROVERSIES

Although a successful technology, GM crop use has been controversial and a hotbed for opposition. Their public image has been severely impacted leading to full or partial bans in 38 countries including the European Union ( Fig 4 ). This section highlights major controversies and reflects on some real problems faced by commercialised GM crops.

The figure depicts the current acceptance of GM crops in different countries. Green: National bans. Yellow: Restrictive laws, Red: No formal laws (Source: 52 ).

Monarch Butterfly Controversy (1999)

The Monarch butterfly controversy relates Losey et al.’s publication in Nature wherein they compared Monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus ) larval feeding cycle of milkweed ( Asclepias curassavica) dusted with N4640- Bt maize pollen to a control (milkweed dusted with untransformed corn pollen). They observed the N4640- Bt reared larvae to eat lesser, grow slower and have higher mortality and predicted N4640- Bt maize to have significant off target effects and significantly impact Monarch populations due to the following reasons:

• • Monarch larvae's main nutrition is derived from milkweed, which commonly occurs in and around the corn field edges.
• • Maize pollen shedding coincides with monarch larval feeding cycles during seasonal summer.
• • ∼50% of the Monarch population is concentrated within the US maize belt during summer, a region known for intense maize production. 23

Losey et al. ’s conclusions were challenged by academics for improper experimental design and validity and soundness of extrapolating laboratory assays to field testing. There were many subsequent studies performed, depicting Bt- maize to be highly unlikely to affect Monarch population. For instance: Pleasants et al., 24 reasoned that several factors, most notably rainfall (reducing pollen by 54–86%) and leaf pollen distribution (30–50% on upper plant portions/preferred larval feeding sites) reduced larval exposure to Bt- maize pollen 24 and Sears et al., 25 argued that Bt- maize production, should it rise to ∼80% would only affect 0.05%-6% monarch population. 25

Nevertheless, Losey et al. ’s results garnered acclaim in the press for raising both the public's and biotech companies' consciousness about possible off-target Bt- maize on monarch butterflies. However further attempts to extrapolate their results to other Bt and GM crops have been unsuccessful, with current evidence suggesting effectiveness in insect control without off-target effects. 25

The Séralini Affair (2012)

The Séralini affair concerns itself with a controversial GM crop study by Gilles-Éric Séralini in Springer during 2012–14. The original paper published in 2012 studied the effect of NK-603 Roundup Ready® Maize (NK-603 RR Maize) on rats. It used the same experimental setup as an earlier Monsanto safety study to gain maize approval 26 and reached the following observations:

• • Significant chronic kidney deficiencies representing 76% of altered parameters.
• • 3–5x higher incidence of necrosis and liver congestions in treated males.
• • 2–3-fold increase in female treatment group mortality.
• • High tumour incidences in both treated sexes, starting 600 days earlier than control (only one tumour noted in control).

The 2012 study attributed observations to EPSPS overexpression in NK-603 RR Maize, found the Monsanto study conclusions “unjustifiable” and recommended thorough long-term toxicity feeding studies on edible GM crops. 27 The paper divided opinion, with Séralini being framed as both as a hero of the anti-GM movement and as an unethical researcher. His paper drew heavy criticism for its flawed experimental design, animal type used for study, statistical analysis and data presentation deficiencies and overall misrepresentations of science and was retracted (Arjó et al., 2012,. 28 In 2014, Séralini republished his nearly-identical study in expanded form which since continues to fuel the GM crop debate.

GM Crops: An Imperfect Technology

Despite the above controversies being proven unfounded, GM crops are an “imperfect technology” with potential major health risks of toxicity, allergenicity and genetic hazards associated to them. These could be caused by inserted gene products and their potential pleiotropic effects, the GMO's natural gene disruption or a combination of both factors. 4 , 2 The most notable example of this is Starlink maize, a Cry9c- expressing cultivar conferring gluphosinate resistance. In the mid-1990s, the USDA's Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP) classified Cry9c Starlink as “potentially allergenic” due to its potential to interact with the human immune system. In 1998, the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) granted approval for Starlink's use in commercial animal feed and industry (eg: biofuels) but banned it for human consumption. Following this, relatively small Starlink quantities (∼0.5% of the US corn acreage) were planted between 1998–2000. 29 , 30 In 2000, Starlink residues were detected in food supplies not only in USA but also EU, Japan and South Korea where it completely banned. Furthermore, the EPA received several adverse allergic event reports related to corn, prompting a worldwide Starlink recall. About 300 different maize products were recalled in US alone by Kellogg's and Mission Foods. Starlink inadvertently affected ∼50% of US maize supply and depressed US corn prices by 8% for CY2001. 31

Another problem faced by GM crops currently is pest resistance due to gene overexpression leading to pest evolution via natural selection. Indeed, an analysis of 77 studies' results by Tabashnik et al. depicted reduced Bt- crop efficacy caused by field evolved pest resistance for 5 out of 13 (38.4%) major pest species examined in 2013, compared to just one in 2005, 32 Table 1 ). Furthermore, such resistance can be evolved over several generations in a relatively short time as most insects have shorter life spans. In maize, S.frugiperda and B.fusca resistance was reported after just 3 and 8 years respectively, consistent with the worst case scenarios. In the former, it led to crop withdrawal in Puerto Rico and was reported to still affect maize growers in 2011, 4 years after crop withdrawal. In India, P. gossypiella resistance currently affects ∼90% Bollgard-II Bt- hybrid cotton growers and ∼35% (4 million ha) of cultivable cotton area in key regions. 32 , 33

Crops reported with >50% pest resistance and reduced efficacy.

1- Time to first reported resistance of pest to GM plant. 2-Toxin secreted by affected GM plant.

To mitigate the problems regarding GM technologies, a series of strict regulatory measures have been proposed to prevent cross-contamination of split-approved GM crops banned for human consumption. These include implementation and enforcement buffer zones to prevent cross contamination of crops, better laboratory testing to confirm adverse allergic event cases and an overall inclusion of stakeholders and representatives in policymaking and communication. 30 Additionally, Bt pest resistance could be controlled by implementation of high-dose Bt toxin standards in transgenic crops and evaluation of insect responses, integration of Host plant resistance (HPR) traits in cultivars to control secondary pests, 34 preparation of abundant non- Bt plants refuges near Bt crops and proactive implementation of two-toxin Bt- pyramids producing ≥ 2 distinct toxins against as single pest species. 32 These suggested measures in pest management and regulation if implemented could help the agriculture industry overcome the imperfect problems of GM crops while significantly regaining public trust of this technology.

GM AGRICULTURE: TRENDS AND FUTURE AVENUES

The GM seed market has changed drastically since 1996 from a competitive sector owned by family owners to one of the fastest growing global industries dominated by a small number of corporations. Analysts predict a Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) between 9.83–10% between 2017–2022 for this industry where it is projected to reach US$113.28 bn, an approximately four-fold increase from US$26.7 bn in 2007, 35 , 36 MarketWatch, 2016). This has been attributed to a rising biofuel adoption in lieu of conventional fuels in Asia-Pacific (APAC) and Africa, leading to increase plantings of energy crops (wheat, sugarcane, corn and soybean) for production. Nevertheless, despite growth spikes in APAC and Africa, North America currently dominates the GM seed industry with a market share of ∼30%, and is forecast to do so in 2020 (MarketWatch, 2017).

The GM seed market has currently been consolidated by the “big five” companies: Monsanto, Bayer CropScience, Dupont, Syngenta and Groupe Limagrain ( Table 2 ). As of 2016, they account for 70% of the market (up from ∼60% in 2009). 37 , 38 The “big five” players are currently acquiring and forming joint ventures with smaller firms and competitors on a transnational scale, serving as strong entry barriers in this industry. 36 Since 2016, major ongoing Mergers and Acquisitions (M&As): Syngenta's takeover by ChemChina (completed June 2017- US$43 bn), 39 Bayer-Monsanto merger (ongoing- $66bn) 40 and Dow-Dupont merger (∼US$140 bn- antitrust approval) 41 have been happening in the industry. Only time will determine how these M&As impact the industry, growers and consumers.

A snapshot of the “big five” GM seed companies.

1 – Converted from EUR at current NASDAQ rates (July 2017), 2 – Ongoing Merger/Acquisition, 3- Completed Merger/Acquisition, 4- Public non-quoted company, 5- Sourced from Hoovers D&B, 2017, 6 – In this case, market share represents global market share and market capitalisation is local.

The latest reports indicate that the agriculture industry invests around $69 billion globally on its Research and Development (R&D). 42 This investment has fuelled research many emerging avenues for GM crop technology. However, innovation has strictly been influenced by the “big five” due to broad patent claims, and high research, legal and development costs for patent eligible products. For instance, the top 3 seed companies controlled 85% transgenic and 70% non-transgenic corn patents in USA in 2009. 36

In the GM seed market, R&D is currently occurring in the conventional areas of insect resistance, increased crop yield and herbicide tolerance. Increasing R&D has also been invested on precision site-directed nuclease techniques (CRISPR, ZFNs and TALENs) for desired gene integration in host plants. 14 , 43 Current studies show negligible/zero off target mutations (Schnell et al., 2015,. 44 This is starkly contrasting to conventional breeding techniques which are often associated with undesired alteration risks via linkage drag and random, unspecified mutations. 45 Additionally, biofortification and stress tolerance have been identified as areas for future GM seed research. Both fields are currently of major interest with a growing body of scientific studies. They tackle key problems: while biofortification addresses malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency; stress tolerance addresses biodegradation, climate change and shrinking cultivable area. Since the development of Vitamin-A biofortified rice in 2000, 46 studies highlight further extrapolation in enhancing human diet using biofortifications, with recorded success in iron and zinc. 47 Moreover, recent genetic modification studies in Arabidopsis and Barley have depicted adaptation to stress tolerance and biomass growth in adverse conditions (Mendiondo et al., 2016,. 48 Three stress-tolerant corn hybrids [Pioneer Optimum AQUAmax™ (Dupont Pioneer), Syngenta Artesian™ (Syngenta) and Genuity™ DroughtGard™ (Monsanto)] are currently being marketed for drought resistance, 49 showcasing enormous potential for economic profitability in the above areas.

GM crops can mitigate several current challenges in commercial agriculture. Current market trends project them as one of the fastest growing and innovative global industries, which not only benefit growers but also consumers and major country economies. However, it is imperative that the agricultural industry and science community invest in better science communication and regulation to tackle unethical research and misinformation. Imperfections and major GM technology can also be combated by stricter regulation, monitoring and implementation by government agriculture bodies, a globally improved risk mitigation strategy and communication with growers, therefore ensuring greater acceptance. With key innovation in precision gene-integration technologies and emerging research in biofortification and stress tolerance, GM crops are forecast to bring productivity and profitability in commercial agriculture for smoother progress in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Although this review article is my own work, it would not have been possible without certain people. I would like to thank the editor and the reviewers for their helpful comments and remarks. I would also like to extend my gratitude towards the University of Melbourne staff, especially Dr. Matthew Digby and Mrs. Fiona Simpson for their encouragement in this venture. I would further extend my thanks to my peers, teachers and other people I met during my academic journey. Lastly, I would like to extend my deepest appreciation towards my family, who encouraged me to pursue a scientific career in Biotechnology and have been wonderfully supportive of my career goals. This review article is my maiden article in an academic journal, and I would like to thank all the readers for being a part of it.

Benefits and Concerns Regarding Genetically Modified Crops Essay

The concerns regarding gm foods, benefits of gm foods, reference list.

Genetic modification or engineering of food entails changing the DNA make-up of the seeds used to grow certain food crops and pharmaceutical plants.

As a result, genetic modification aims at altering the characteristics of plants so that they can be grown within a short period, to suit the prevailing climatic conditions, to resist the damage from pests, diseases, and weeds, and to increase food production (Windley, 2008, p. 1).

Therefore, research studies note that genetically modified foods hold the key to solving the current issues regarding the global food production patterns. Conversely, critics of these modified foods have raised several concerns regarding the safety of these foods and their effect on the environment and traditional varieties of food crops.

Thus, this essay presents discussions on the concerns raised over the safety and effect of genetically modified (GM) foods, and the benefits of these foods in order to assess whether the benefits outweigh the risks.

Most researchers are concerned about the safety of GM foods to human health. Here, the researchers note that there are no human studies regarding the effect of GM foods on human beings and therefore, one cannot certainly state the effect of these crops relative to their digestibility, their present and future impact on human health, and their effect on the human microbiota (Windley, 2008, p. 1).

In addition, studies note that most GM foods contain a lot of pesticide and herbicide residues, which are potential risk factors in the development of different food allergies (Bant, 2008). Conversely, other studies posit that some GM foods such as GMO potatoes can lead to the development of pre-cancerous lesions in the intestinal tract, testicles, and the liver of test animals (Windley, 2008, p. 2).

Additionally, there are concerns over the long-term effect of GM seeds in that their increased use threatens the existence of natural seeds. Here, most researchers note that GM seeds have found popularity in different parts of the world whereby they have been replanted over the years and therefore, raising concerns in that they may lead to the lose of the natural seeds.

Furthermore, natural plants may lose their nutritional profile and the cost of farm inputs may increase because farmers will be forced to purchase seeds, which were previously available for free (Windley, 2008, p. 2).

Furthermore, there are concerns regarding the effect of GM foods on the environment. Here, the critics of GM foods argue that the increased use of herbicides and pesticides may lead to the emergence of resistant strains of weeds and insects, which may become potentially harmful to the environment (Bant, 2008).

Moreover, certain GM crops including pharmaceutical plants may escape from containment fields to the food crop fields and therefore, contaminate the natural crops (Marvier, 2007, p. 59).

Despite the increased criticism against GM foods, they are important in terms of guaranteeing the global food safety because of their potential to increase the yield and the nutritional content of some food crops (Bant, 2008).

Additionally, GM crops can survive in different climatic conditions and therefore, they have the potential to expand the cultivation areas and resources relative to the diminishing natural resources. Furthermore, GM crops are designed to resist herbivores, insects, and herbicides. As a result, there is maximal utilization of the limited resources to realize increased yields with GM foods (Bant, 2008).

Furthermore, most GM foods can endure long-distance transportation, which does not normally favor most natural crops such as greens. As a result, GM foods can expand the shelf life of foods and thus, reduce the costs incurred due to food spoilage (Bant, 2008).

Additionally, since most developing countries rely on grains as the only staple food, they can derive several benefits from GM crops, which aim at diversifying the nutritional profile of food grains. Moreover, most GM crops have been designed by excluding potential allergens in the original plants and therefore, GM foods have increased the range of food crops available to farmers (Bant, 2008).

Lastly, scientists have designed genetically modified pharmaceutical plants, which possess the ability to produce large quantities of drugs and vaccines. As a result, genetic engineering of plants allows the increased availability of pharmaceuticals while reducing the cost of health care provision in the world (Marvier, 2007, p. 59).

The essay presents discussions on the benefits and concerns regarding the production of GM foods and pharmaceuticals. The discussions above note that GM foods and pharmaceuticals hold several benefits amid the intense criticism regarding their safety and their effect on the environment.

As noted above, most critics base their arguments on assumptions while the benefits of GM foods cannot be overemphasized. As a result, there is the possibility that the benefits of GM foods outweigh the concerns over their safety and potential impact on human beings and the environment unless the claims made against GM foods are supported by factual and statistical data.

Bant, O., 2008. Genetically modified crops: boon or bane? Illumin . Web.

Marvier, M., 2007. Pharmaceutical crops have a mixed outlook in California. California Agriculture . Web.

Windley, S., 2008. Genetically modified foods. University of Sussex: AAC Reading Pack. Web.

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