a new perspective essay

How to Write Perspective Essay: Bringing Your Viewpoint

Table of contents

• 1 Understanding Perspective in Writing
• 2 Choosing a Subject for Your Perspective Essay
• 3 Techniques for Analyzing a Subject from Various Perspectives
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.3 Conclusion
• 5 Handling Conflicting Viewpoints in a Point-of-View Essay
• 6.1 Perspective Essay Example: “The World Through My Window”
• 6.2 Analysis of the Example
• 7 Crafting Perspectives: Key Takeaways

Embarking on the path of writing a perspective essay opens a window to the soul, revealing the depth of our perceptions and the breadth of our understanding. It is an invitation to introspect and articulate, to compare and contrast our inner landscapes with the vast world outside. Delving into perspective essays can be a transformative journey for any writer. This article offers a comprehensive guide to mastering the art of perspective writing.

Here’s what we’ll cover:

• The concept of perspective in writing highlighting its role in literature and essays.
• Distinguishing perspective essays from other essay types, emphasizing the role of personal viewpoints.
• How to select an engaging subject for perspective essays, with tips for unique angles.
• A step-by-step approach to writing a perspective essay, including structure and storytelling elements.
• We discuss methods for handling conflicting viewpoints and presenting a reasoned argument.

Continue reading to learn the secrets of creating a successful perspective essay.

Understanding Perspective in Writing

Like a kaleidoscope, shifting patterns with each turn, perspective in writing transforms the narrative landscape, offering a myriad of views and interpretations. Perspective in writing, especially in literature and essay writing, serves as a unique lens through which readers view the narrative or argument. It’s akin to wearing different glasses that change how we perceive the world in a story or essay. In literature, perspective often manifests through the eyes of the characters, influencing how the story unfolds. This concept becomes even more vital in perspective essays, as the writer’s viewpoint shapes the entire narrative.

A perspective essay differs fundamentally from other types of essays. While expository, descriptive, or argumentative essays focus on presenting facts, explaining ideas, or persuading the reader, a perspective essay dives into the writer’s personal viewpoint. It’s less about convincing the reader and offering a unique lens for viewing a topic. This type of essay enriches the reader’s understanding by showcasing a personal and subjective take on the subject matter.

Incorporating personal viewpoints and subjectivity is what sets perspective essays apart. This approach allows writers to infuse their narratives with personal experiences, beliefs, and emotions, offering a distinct flavor to the essay. It’s not just about presenting facts; it’s about weaving those facts with personal stories and insights. This style encourages readers to see the topic from a new angle, challenging their preconceptions. A well-written perspective essay example demonstrates this blend of personal insight and factual information, making it a powerful tool for expression and engagement.

When learning how to write a perspective essay, it’s crucial to understand that your viewpoint is the essay’s heartbeat. Unlike an essay on perspective that might discuss the concept, a perspective essay embodies it, giving readers a window into your world. This approach doesn’t just convey information; it invites readers into a conversation, fostering a deeper, more personal connection with the topic.

Choosing a Subject for Your Perspective Essay

Selecting a subject for a perspective essay is a crucial step that sets the tone for your entire piece. The key lies in choosing a topic that resonates with you personally, as this type of essay thrives on the depth and authenticity of your viewpoint. Start by considering issues or experiences that stir your emotions or provoke thought. It could be anything from a personal life event to a global issue you feel strongly about.

In perspective writing, the uniqueness of your angle is as important as the subject itself. Even common subjects can transform into compelling essays with a fresh viewpoint.

When considering topics, select the subjects you can explore in depth. Your essay should offer insight and depth, making a well-understood topic a safe bet.

Techniques for Analyzing a Subject from Various Perspectives

To fully grasp the essence of a subject, one must embark on a journey of exploration from every conceivable angle, peeling back layers to uncover the rich tapestry of insights beneath. Analyzing a subject from multiple perspectives requires a methodical approach, ensuring a comprehensive and balanced essay. Begin by identifying the core idea of your subject , and then examine it from different angles. This process involves looking beyond the obvious and questioning the underlying assumptions or beliefs associated with the subject .

Stepping into the shoes of others, we unlock the door to a world of varied perceptions, each offering a distinct piece of the puzzle that forms our understanding. One effective technique is to adopt various roles or personas . Imagine how individuals from different backgrounds, professions, or life experiences view your subject. For instance, a scientist, an artist, and a teacher would each bring a unique perspective to the same topic. This exercise broadens your understanding and helps uncover diverse viewpoints.

Another strategy involves historical and cultural analysis . How would your subject be perceived in a different era or culture? This approach offers depth, showing how perspectives can evolve over time or vary across societies. It’s crucial to research thoroughly to ensure accuracy and sensitivity in your analysis.

What is more, comparative analysis is also valuable. Compare and contrast your subject with similar or contrasting ideas. This method highlights the nuances of your subject, providing a richer perspective. For instance, when writing a perspective essay example about technology’s impact on communication, compare past and present communication methods to underscore the changes and their implications.

Lastly, engage with existing literature or discourse on your subject. What are experts saying? How do public opinions vary? Incorporating these into your essay adds credibility and depth. However, maintain a critical eye, assessing the validity and biases in these sources.

Applying these techniques allows you to dissect your subject comprehensively, bringing a well-rounded perspective to your essay. Remember, the goal is to present various viewpoints and weave them together coherently, offering a rich, multi-dimensional understanding of the subject.

How to Write a Perspective Essay

Writing a perspective essay is an artful balance between expressing personal views and engaging the reader with a broader understanding of the topic. This type of essay transcends mere opinion by offering a unique lens through which the subject matter is explored.

Introduction

To start with your introduction, it should hook the reader and introduce the topic. Use a compelling statement or a thought-provoking question to pique interest. Clearly state your main argument or viewpoint here. This section sets the stage for your perspective and gives readers a glimpse into the essay’s focus.

Paragraph 1: Start with personal anecdotes or experiences related to your topic. These stories should be relevant and serve as a foundation for your perspective.

Paragraph 2: Next, delve into the specifics of your viewpoint. It’s crucial to expand on why you hold this perspective, linking it to broader themes, cultural contexts, or historical background.

Paragraph 3: Incorporate elements of storytelling such as descriptive language, emotional appeal, and vivid imagery. This approach enriches your essay, making abstract ideas tangible and relatable.

Paragraph 4: Acknowledge other viewpoints. Discuss how these differ from or align with your perspective.

Paragraph 5: Tie in theoretical concepts or references from external sources. This shows that your perspective, while personal, is informed and well-considered.

Conclude by summarizing your main points and restating your thesis in light of the evidence and discussions in the body. Offer a final thought or question to leave the reader pondering, adding depth to your conclusion and reinforcing your perspective’s impact.

Key Elements to Include:

• Personal Experiences and Reflections

Share personal stories and reflections to make your viewpoint more tangible and engaging. This approach adds depth to your perspective and helps establish a connection with the reader.

• Clarity and Focus

Be clear and focused in your writing. Avoid straying from the main point. Each paragraph should contribute to building your argument or shedding light on your perspective.

• Contrasting Viewpoints

Including contrasting viewpoints provides a comprehensive view of the topic. It demonstrates that you have considered the subject matter from multiple angles, adding credibility to your perspective.

• Narrative Techniques

Use descriptive language, metaphorical expressions, and emotional appeals to make your essay vivid and compelling. This not only keeps the reader engaged but also makes your essay memorable.

• Objective Analysis

While your essay is centered on your perspective, ensure you objectively present your arguments and contrasting views. Avoid bias and ensure that your essay is fair and balanced.

• Direct Engagement

Address the reader to create a conversational and engaging tone. This approach makes the essay more personable and relatable.

A perspective essay is a blend of personal insights and a well-rounded understanding of the topic. It requires introspection, research, and the ability to articulate thoughts in a coherent and engaging manner. By weaving personal experiences with factual information and theoretical concepts, your essay becomes a rich narrative that informs and resonates with the readers.

Handling Conflicting Viewpoints in a Point-of-View Essay

In a point-of-view essay, addressing conflicting viewpoints is essential for presenting a reasoned argument. Firstly, start by acknowledging these differing viewpoints without bias. Understanding and presenting these views demonstrates respect and depth in your analysis.

If you start with discussing opposing arguments, avoid dismissive language. Instead, analyze these views critically, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses in a balanced manner. Then, logically present your counterarguments. Use evidence and reasoning to explain why your perspective offers a more compelling or comprehensive understanding of the topic. This approach strengthens your essay point of view and enhances your credibility as a writer. It’s crucial to maintain an objective tone throughout, focusing on logical reasoning rather than emotion.

By breaking down opposing views and building a well-reasoned argument, your essay becomes a thoughtful dialogue rather than a one-sided monologue, encouraging readers to consider your perspective.

Example of Perspective Essays

Crafting a perspective essay is akin to painting a landscape with words, where each stroke offers a different hue of insight and understanding. Such essays invite readers into the writer’s world, encouraging them to view familiar scenes through new eyes. By sharing personal viewpoints, reflections, and analyses, writers can transform abstract concepts into tangible experiences. This unique form of essay writing not only fosters a deeper connection between the writer and reader but also promotes a broader understanding of the subject at hand. Let’s delve into an example of a perspective essay, exploring its nuances and the techniques that make it both compelling and enlightening.

Perspective Essay Example: “The World Through My Window”

As I sit by the window of my fourth-floor apartment, the world below unfolds like a living tapestry. From this vantage point, the bustling city street transforms into a stage where each passerby plays a role in an unwritten play. The scene may appear mundane to a casual observer: people rushing to their destinations, cars honking, and the occasional dog walker. Yet, through my eyes, each element tells a part of a larger story about connectivity and isolation in the digital age. This perspective reveals more than just the physical distance between people; it highlights the paradox of our modern world. Here, in a crowded city, individuals navigate their paths, encapsulated in their thoughts or the screens of their smartphones. This observation leads me to ponder the role of technology in shaping our interactions. While it has the power to connect us across vast distances, it also has the uncanny ability to widen the gap between us, even as we stand shoulder to shoulder. Through the lens of my window, I witness the juxtaposition of connection and solitude. The elderly man who pauses to feed pigeons every morning at 8:00 am, seemingly cherishing this simple routine amidst the urban rush, symbolizes a longing for simpler times. Meanwhile, a group of teenagers laughs together, their attention shared between the physical and digital realms as they scroll through their feeds. This scene encapsulates the dual-edged sword of technological advancement, offering both a bridge and a barrier to genuine human connection.

Analysis of the Example

Delving into the analysis of a perspective essay sheds light on the intricate dance between personal reflection and universal truth, revealing how individual insights can mirror broader societal themes. This examination is crucial, not just for understanding the writer’s viewpoint but for uncovering the layers of meaning that resonate with readers from diverse backgrounds. By dissecting the example of “The World Through My Window,” we can appreciate the nuanced craftsmanship that bridges personal experience with collective consciousness. Here is what we analysed:

Initially, the essay’s introduction draws readers into a vivid tableau, setting the stage for a deep dive into the complexities of human connection in a digitized world. Importantly, descriptive imagery serves as the backbone of this narrative, enabling readers to visualize the bustling cityscape as more than a mere backdrop but as a character in its own right. This technique ensures that the essay’s themes are not only understood intellectually but felt viscerally.

Moreover, the strategic use of the window as a framing device acts as a powerful metaphor, symbolizing the writer’s observational detachment and inherent connectedness to the scenes unfolding below. Here, the transition from mere observation to profound reflection is seamless, demonstrating how physical spaces can echo the internal landscapes of our thoughts and emotions.

Reflectively, the essay navigates through the dichotomy of connection and isolation, highlighted by the poignant examples of the elderly man and the teenagers. These vignettes serve a dual purpose: they ground the essay’s abstract concepts in tangible reality and illustrate the nuanced impact of technology on human interactions. Furthermore, the transition between these examples is smooth, each serving to build upon the last, weaving a cohesive narrative thread that draws the reader deeper into the essay’s contemplative journey.

Finally, the reflective tone of the essay invites readers to engage in a dialogue with the text, prompting them to question and consider their own experiences with technology and connection. This interactive aspect of perspective essays is pivotal, as it transforms passive reading into an active exploration of both the self and society.

In essence, this analysis underscores the artistry behind crafting a perspective essay that resonates on multiple levels. Through deliberate descriptive imagery, metaphorical framing, reflective narration, and relatable examples, the writer achieves a harmonious balance between personal anecdote and universal insight. It’s this balance that elevates the essay from a mere narrative to a reflective mirror, offering readers a lens through which to examine their own views against the backdrop of the wider world.

Crafting Perspectives: Key Takeaways

In this comprehensive guide on writing perspective essays, we’ve explored essential strategies for conveying your viewpoint. Key takeaways include the importance of a well-structured approach, starting with a captivating introduction and flowing through a thoughtful body to a reflective conclusion. Employing storytelling, addressing the reader directly, and integrating personal reflections are pivotal in adding depth and relatability. Balancing your viewpoint with contrasting perspectives ensures a rounded and credible argument. Remember, the essence of a perspective essay lies in its ability to offer unique insights and foster a deeper understanding of the subject through your personal lens.

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How to Write a Perspective Essay?

Understanding the Importance of Perspective Essays

A perspective essay is a powerful tool that allows individuals to express their thoughts and opinions on a particular topic from their unique standpoint. Unlike other types of essays, a perspective essay requires a deep understanding of the subject matter and the ability to convey personal experiences, observations, and beliefs effectively. By sharing different perspectives, individuals contribute to a diverse and inclusive society where ideas are valued and respected.

Choosing a Compelling Topic

When selecting a topic for your perspective essay, it's important to choose something that you are passionate about and have a strong opinion on. Whether it's a social issue, political ideology, or personal experience, your topic should resonate with your audience and make them eager to read your insights. Research the chosen topic thoroughly to ensure you have a solid foundation of knowledge to build upon.

Gathering Evidence and Conducting Research

Before diving into writing your perspective essay, it's crucial to gather relevant evidence to support your claims and arguments. Conduct thorough research using credible sources such as books, scholarly articles, and reputable websites. Take notes, highlight important information, and carefully analyze different viewpoints to strengthen your own perspective.

Structuring Your Perspective Essay

The structure of a perspective essay is similar to other types of essays. It consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction should grab the reader's attention and provide a brief overview of the topic and your stance. The body paragraphs, which are the core of your essay, should present your arguments, supporting evidence, and counterarguments. Finally, the conclusion should summarize your main points and leave the reader with a thought-provoking closing statement.

Writing with Clarity and Coherence

When writing your perspective essay, aim for clarity and coherence. Use clear, concise, and precise language to articulate your ideas. Structure your paragraphs logically, ensuring a smooth flow of thoughts. Support your arguments with relevant examples, anecdotes, or statistics to engage your audience and strengthen your position. Remember to acknowledge and address opposing viewpoints respectfully, demonstrating open-mindedness and critical thinking.

Formatting and Stylistic Considerations

While the content of your perspective essay is crucial, don't overlook the importance of formatting and style. Use appropriate heading tags, such as H2 or H3, for each section and subsection to improve readability and assist search engines in understanding the structure of your content. Enhance the visual appeal of your essay by using bullet points or numbered lists to break down complex information into digestible chunks. Incorporate relevant keywords naturally throughout the text to optimize your chances of ranking higher in search engine results.

Editing and Proofreading

Once you've completed your perspective essay, take the time to review, edit, and proofread it carefully. Pay attention to grammar, spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure. Ensure your ideas flow smoothly and coherently. Remove any unnecessary repetition or tangential information. Consider seeking feedback from peers, teachers, or online communities to gain valuable insights and improve the overall quality of your essay.

Example Perspective Essay: The Power of Empathy

The following is an example of a perspective essay on the power of empathy:

Empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, is a remarkable human trait that holds immense power. In a world filled with turmoil and division, empathy acts as a bridge, fostering understanding, compassion, and connection. It enables us to step into someone else's shoes, see the world through their eyes, and recognize their struggles and challenges.

When we embrace empathy, we break down barriers and cultivate a sense of unity. It allows us to transcend our personal biases and preconceptions, opening our minds to a multitude of perspectives. Empathy promotes inclusivity and acceptance, nurturing a society where diversity is celebrated and everyone feels valued.

One powerful aspect of empathy is its ability to spark positive change. By understanding the experiences of others, we become motivated to take action and address social injustices. Through empathy, we recognize the need for equality, justice, and human rights. It fuels our determination to create a better world for ourselves and future generations.

In conclusion, writing a perspective essay is an opportunity to express your thoughts, opinions, and experiences in a unique and compelling way. By following the steps outlined in this guide, you can confidently tackle the task of writing a perspective essay. Remember to choose a captivating topic, conduct thorough research, structure your essay effectively, and write with clarity and coherence. By sharing your perspectives, you contribute to the rich tapestry of ideas that shape our society.

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21 Stellar Common App Essay Examples to Inspire Your College Essay

What’s covered:, what makes a good common app essay, is your common app essay strong enough.

When you begin writing your Common App essay, having an example to look at can help you understand how to effectively write your college essay so that it stands apart from others. 

These Common App essay examples demonstrate a strong writing ability and answer the prompt in a way that shows admissions officers something unique about the student. Once you’ve read some examples and are ready to get started, read our step-by-step guide for how to write a strong Common App essay.  

Please note: Looking at examples of real essays students have submitted to colleges can be very beneficial to get inspiration for your essays. You should never copy or plagiarize from these examples when writing your own essays. Colleges can tell when an essay isn’t genuine and will not view students favorably if they plagiarized. 

Read our Common App essay breakdown to get a comprehensive overview of this year’s supplemental prompts.

It’s Personal

The point of the Common App essay is to humanize yourself to a college admissions committee. The ultimate goal is to get them to choose you over someone else! You will have a better chance of achieving this goal if the admissions committee feels personally connected to you or invested in your story. When writing your Common App essay, you should explore your feelings, worldview, values, desires, and anything else that makes you uniquely you.

It’s Not Cliché

It is pretty easy to resort to clichés in college essays. This should be actively avoided! CollegeVine has identified the immigrant’s journey, sports injuries, and overcoming a challenging course as cliché topics . If you write about one of these topics, you have to work harder to stand out, so working with a more nuanced topic is often safer and easier.

It’s Well-Done

Colleges want good writers. They want students who can articulate their thoughts clearly and concisely (and creatively!). You should be writing and rewriting your essays, perfecting them as you go. Of course, make sure that your grammar and spelling are impeccable, but also put in time crafting your tone and finding your voice. This will also make your essay more personal and will make your reader feel more connected to you!

It’s Cohesive

Compelling Common App essays tell a cohesive story. Cohesion is primarily achieved through effective introductions and conclusions , which often contribute to the establishment of a clear theme or topic. Make sure that it is clear what you are getting at, but also don’t explicitly state what you are getting at—a successful essay speaks for itself.

Common App Essay Examples

Here are the current Common App prompts. Click the links to jump to the examples for a specific prompt, or keep reading to review the examples for all the prompts.

Prompt #1 :  Some students have a background, identity, interest, or talent that is so meaningful they believe their application would be incomplete without it. If this sounds like you, then please share your story.

Prompt #2 :  The lessons we take from obstacles we encounter can be fundamental to later success. Recount a time when you faced a challenge, setback, or failure. How did it affect you, and what did you learn from the experience?

Prompt #3 :  Reflect on a time when you questioned or challenged a belief or idea. What prompted your thinking? What was the outcome?

Prompt #4 : Reflect on something that someone has done for you that has made you happy or thankful in a surprising way. How has this gratitude affected or motivated you? (NOTE: We only have an example for the old prompt #4 about solving a problem, not this current one)

Prompt #5 :  Discuss an accomplishment, event, or realization that sparked a period of personal growth and a new understanding of yourself or others.

Prompt #6 :  Describe a topic, idea, or concept you find so engaging that it makes you lose all track of time. Why does it captivate you? What or who do you turn to when you want to learn more?

Prompt #7 :  Share an essay on any topic of your choice. It can be one you’ve already written, one that responds to a different prompt, or one of your own design.

Note: Names have been changed to protect the identity of the author and subjects.

Prompt #1: Some students have a background, identity, interest, or talent that is so meaningful they believe their application would be incomplete without it. If this sounds like you, then please share your story.

Prompt #1, example #1.

The room was silent except for the thoughts racing through my head. I led a spade from my hand and my opponent paused for a second, then played a heart. The numbers ran through my mind as I tried to consider every combination, calculating my next move. Finally, I played the ace of spades from the dummy and the rest of my clubs, securing the contract and 620 points when my partner ruffed at trick five. Next board.

It was the final of the 2015 United States Bridge Federation Under-26 Women’s Championship. The winning team would be selected to represent the United States in the world championship and my team was still in the running.

Contract bridge is a strategic and stochastic card game. Players from around the world gather at local clubs, regional events, and, in this case, national tournaments.

Going into the tournament, my team was excited; all the hours we had put into the game, from the lengthy midnight Skype sessions spent discussing boards to the coffee shop meetings spent memorizing conventions together, were about to pay off.

Halfway through, our spirits were still high, as we were only down by fourteen international match points which, out of the final total of about four hundred points, was virtually nothing and it was very feasible to catch up. Our excitement was short-lived, however, as sixty boards later, we found that we had lost the match and would not be chosen as the national team.

Initially, we were devastated. We had come so close and it seemed as if all the hours we had devoted to training had been utterly wasted. Yet as our team spent some time together reflecting upon the results, we gradually realized that the true value that we had gained wasn’t only the prospect of winning the national title, but also the time we had spent together exploring our shared passion. I chatted with the winning team and even befriended a few of them who offered us encouragement and advice.

Throughout my bridge career, although I’ve gained a respectable amount of masterpoints and awards, I’ve realized that the real reward comes from the extraordinary people I have met. I don’t need to travel cross-country to learn; every time I sit down at a table whether it be during a simple club game, a regional tournament or a national event, I find I’m always learning. 

I nod at the pair that’s always yelling at each other. They teach me the importance of sportsmanship and forgiveness.

I greet the legally blind man who can defeat most of the seeing players. He reminds me not to make excuses.

I chat with the friendly, elderly couple who, at ages ninety and ninety-two, have just gotten married two weeks ago. They teach me that it’s never too late to start anything.

I talk to the boy who’s attending Harvard and the girl who forewent college to start her own company. They show me that there is more than one path to success.

I congratulate the little kid running to his dad, excited to have won his very first masterpoints. He reminds me of the thrill of every first time and to never stop trying new things.

Just as much as I have benefitted from these life lessons, I aspire to give back to my bridge community as much as it has given me. I aspire to teach people how to play this complicated yet equally as exciting game. I aspire to never stop improving myself, both at and away from the bridge table.

Bridge has given me my roots and dared me to dream. What started as merely a hobby has become a community, a passion, a part of my identity. I aspire to live selflessly and help others reach their goals. I seek to take risks, embrace all results, even failure, and live unfettered from my own doubt.

This student draws readers in with a strong introduction. The essay starts ambiguous—“I led with a spade”—then intrigues readers by gradually revealing more information and details. This makes the reader want to keep reading (which is super important!) As the writer continues, there is a rather abrupt tone shift from suspenseful to explanatory with statements like “It was the final of the 2015 United States Bridge Federation Under-26 Women’s Championship” and “Contract bridge is a strategic and stochastic card game.” If you plan to start with an imagery-heavy, emotional, suspenseful, or dramatic introduction, you will need to transition to the content of your essay in a way that does not feel abrupt. 

You will often hear that essays need to “show, not tell.” This essay actually does both. First, the student tells readers the importance of bridge, saying “we gradually realized that the true value that we had gained wasn’t only the prospect of winning the national title, but also the time we had spent together exploring our shared passion” and “I’ve realized that the real reward comes from the extraordinary people I have met.” Then, the student shows the lessons they have learned from bridge through a series of parallel sentences: “I nod… sportsmanship and forgiveness” “I greet… not to make excuses” “I chat… it’s never too late to start anything” and so on. This latter strategy is much more effective than the former and is watered down because the student has already told us what we are supposed to get out of these sentences. Remember that your readers are intelligent and can draw their own conclusions. Avoid summarizing the moral of your story for them!

Overall, this essay is interesting and answers the prompt. We learn the importance of bridge to this student. The student has a solid grasp of language, a high-level vocabulary, and a valuable message, though they would be better off if they avoided summarizing their point and created more seamless transitions. 

Prompt #1, Example #2

Growing up, I always wanted to eat, play, visit, watch, and be it all: sloppy joes and spaetzle, Beanie Babies and Steiff, Cape Cod and the Baltic Sea, football and fussball, American and German.

My American parents relocated our young family to Berlin when I was three years old. My exposure to America was limited to holidays spent stateside and awfully dubbed Disney Channel broadcasts. As the few memories I had of living in the US faded, my affinity for Germany grew. I began to identify as “Germerican,” an ideal marriage of the two cultures. As a child, I viewed my biculturalism as a blessing. I possessed a native fluency in “Denglisch” and my family’s Halloween parties were legendary at a time when the holiday was just starting to gain popularity outside of the American Sector.

Insidiously, the magic I once felt in loving two homes was replaced by a deep-­rooted sense of rootlessness. I stopped feeling American when, while discussing World War II with my grandmother, I said “the US won.” She corrected me, insisting I use “we” when referring to the US’s actions. Before then, I hadn’t realized how directly people associated themselves with their countries. I stopped feeling German during the World Cup when my friends labeled me a “bandwagon fan” for rooting for Germany. Until that moment, my cheers had felt sincere. I wasn’t part of the “we” who won World Wars or World Cups. Caught in a twilight of foreign and familiar, I felt emotionally and psychologically disconnected from the two cultures most familiar to me.

After moving from Berlin to New York at age fifteen, my feelings of cultural homelessness thrived in my new environment. Looking and sounding American furthered my feelings of dislocation. Border patrol agents, teachers, classmates, neighbors, and relatives all “welcomed me home” to a land they could not understand was foreign to me. Americans confused me as I relied on Urban Dictionary to understand my peers, the Pledge of Allegiance seemed nationalistic, and the only thing familiar about Fahrenheit was the German after whom it was named. Too German for America and too American for Germany, I felt alienated from both. I wanted desperately to be a member of one, if not both, cultures.

During my first weeks in Scarsdale, I spent my free time googling “Berlin Family Seeks Teen” and “New Americans in Scarsdale.” The latter search proved most fruitful: I discovered Horizons, a nonprofit that empowers resettled refugees, or “New Americans,” to thrive. I started volunteering with Horizon’s children’s programs, playing with and tutoring young refugees.

It was there that I met Emily, a twelve­-year-­old Iraqi girl who lived next to Horizons. In between games and snacks, Emily would ask me questions about American life, touching on everything from Halloween to President Obama. Gradually, my confidence in my American identity grew as I recognized my ability to answer most of her questions. American culture was no longer completely foreign to me. I found myself especially qualified to work with young refugees; my experience growing up in a country other than that of my parents’ was similar enough to that of the refugee children Horizons served that I could empathize with them and offer advice. Together, we worked through conflicting allegiances, homesickness, and stretched belonging.

Forging a special, personal bond with young refugees proved a cathartic outlet for my insecurities as it taught me to value my past. My transculturalism allowed me to help young refugees integrate into American life, and, in doing so, I was able to adjust myself. Now, I have an appreciation of myself that I never felt before. “Home” isn’t the digits in a passport or ZIP code but a sense of contentedness. By helping a young refugee find comfort, happiness, and home in America, I was finally able to find those same things for myself.

Due to their endearing (and creative) use of language—with early phrases like “sloppy joes and spaetzle” as well as  “Germerican” and “Denglisch”—readers are inclined to like this writer from the get-go. Though the essay shifts from this lighthearted introduction to more serious subject matter around the third paragraph, the shift is not abrupt or jarring. This is because the student invites readers to feel the transition with them through their inclusion of various anecdotes that inspired their “feelings of cultural homelessness.” And our journey does not end there—we go back to America with the student and see how their former struggles become strengths.

Ultimately, this essay is successful due to its satisfying ending. Because readers experience the student’s struggles with them, we also feel the resolution. The conclusion of this essay is a prime example of the “Same, but Different” technique described in our article on How to End Your College Essay . As the student describes how, in the end, their complicated cultural identity still exists but transitions to a source of strength, readers are left feeling happy for the student. This means that they have formed a connection with the student, which is the ultimate goal!

Prompt #1, Example #3

“1…2…3…4 pirouettes ! New record!” My friends cheered as I landed my turns. Pleased with my progress, I gazed down at my worn-out pointe shoes. The sweltering blisters, numbing ice-baths, and draining late-night practices did not seem so bad after all. Next goal: five turns.

For as long as I can remember, ballet, in all its finesse and glamor, had kept me driven day to day. As a child, the lithe ballerinas, donning ethereal costumes as they floated across the stage, were my motivation. While others admired Messi and Adele, I idolized Carlos Acosta, principal dancer of the Royal Ballet. 

As I devoted more time and energy towards my craft, I became obsessed with improving my technique. I would stretch for hours after class, forcing my leg one inch higher in an effort to mirror the Dance Magazine cover girls . I injured my feet and ruined pair after pair of pointe shoes, turning on wood, cement, and even grass to improve my balance as I spun. At competitions, the dancers with the 180-degree leg extensions, endless turns, and soaring leaps—the ones who received “Bravos!” from the roaring audience—further pushed me to refine my skills and perfect my form. I believed that, with enough determination, I would one day attain their level of perfection. Reaching the quadruple- pirouette milestone only intensified my desire to accomplish even more. 

My efforts seemed to have come to fruition two summers ago when I was accepted to dance with Moscow’s Bolshoi Ballet at their renowned New York City summer intensive. I walked into my first session eager to learn from distinguished ballet masters and worldly dancers, already anticipating my improvement. Yet, as I danced alongside the accomplished ballerinas, I felt out of place. Despite their clean technique and professional training, they did not aim for glorious leg extensions or prodigious leaps. When they performed their turn combinations, most of them only executed two turns as I attempted four. 

“Dancers, double- pirouettes only.” 

Taken aback and confused, I wondered why our teacher expected so little from us. The other ballerinas seemed content, gracing the studio with their simple movements. 

As I grew closer with my Moscow roommates, I gradually learned that their training emphasized the history of the art form instead of stylistic tricks. Rather than show off their physical ability, their performances aimed to convey a story, one that embodied the rich culture of ballet and captured both the legacy of the dancers before them and their own artistry. As I observed my friends more intently in repertoire class, I felt the pain of the grief-stricken white swan from Swan Lake , the sass of the flirtatious Kitri from Don Quijote, and I gradually saw what I had overlooked before. My definition of talent had been molded by crowd-pleasing elements—whirring pirouettes , gravity-defying leaps, and mind-blowing leg extensions. This mindset slowly stripped me from the roots of my passion and my personal connection with ballet. 

With the Bolshoi, I learned to step back and explore the meaning behind each step and the people behind the scenes. Ballet carries history in its movements, from the societal values of the era to each choreographer’s unique flair. As I uncovered the messages behind each pirouette, kick, and jump, my appreciation for ballet grew beyond my obsession with raw athleticism and developed into a love for the art form’s emotive abilities in bridging the dancers with the audience. My journey as an artist has allowed me to see how technical execution is only the means to a greater understanding between dancer and spectator, between storyteller and listener. The elegance and complexity of ballet does not revolve around astonishing stunts but rather the evocative strength and artistry manifested in the dancer, in me. It is the combination of sentiments, history, tradition, and passion that has allowed ballet and its lessons of human connection to become my lifestyle both on and off stage.

The primary strength of this essay is the honesty and authenticity of the student’s writing. It is purposefully reflective. Intentional language creates a clear character arc that begins with an eager young ballerina and ends with the student reflecting on their past. 

Readers are easily able to picture the passion and intensity of the young dancer through the writer’s engagement with words like “obsessed,” “forcing,” and “ruined” in the second paragraph. Then, we see how intensity becomes pride as they “wondered why our teacher expected so little from us.” And ultimately, we see the writer humbled as they are exposed to the deeper meaning behind what they have worked so hard for. This arc is outstanding, and the student’s musings about ballet in the concl usion position them as vulnerable and reflective (and thus, appealing to admissions officers!)

The main weakness of this essay (though this is a stellar essay) is its formulaic beginning. While dialogue can be an effective tool for starting your essay, this student’s introduction feels a bit stilted as the dialogue does not match the overall reflective tone of the essay. Perhaps, in place of “Next goal: five turns,” the student could have posed a question or foreshadowed the growth they ultimately describe.

Prompt #1, Example #4

My paintbrush dragged a flurry of acrylic, the rich colors attaching to each groove in my canvas’s texture. The feeling was euphoric.

From a young age, painting has been my solace. Between the stress of my packed high school days filled with classes and extracurriculars, the glide of my paintbrush was my emotional outlet.

I opened a fresh canvas and began. The amalgamation of assorted colors in my palette melded harmoniously: dark and light, cool and warm, brilliant and dull. They conjoined, forming shades and surfaces sharp, smooth, and ridged. The textures of my paint strokes — powdery, glossy, jagged — gave my painting a tone, as if it had a voice of its own, sometimes shrieking, sometimes whispering.

Rough indigo blue. The repetitive upward pulls of my brush formed layers on my canvas. Staring into the deep blue, I felt transported to the bottom of the pool I swim in daily. I looked upward to see a layer of dense water between myself and the person I aspire to be, an ideal blurred by filmy ripples. Rough blue encapsulates my amorphous, conflicting identity, catalyzed by words spewed by my peers about my “oily hair” and “smelly food”. They caused my ever present disdain toward cultural assemblies; the lehenga I wore felt burdensome. My identity quivers like the indigo storm I painted — a duel between my self-deprecating, validation-seeking self, and the proud self I desire to be. My haphazard paint strokes released my internal turbulence.

Smooth orange-hued green. I laid the color in melodious strokes, forming my figure. The warmer green transitions from the rough blue — while they share elements, they also diverge. My firm brushstrokes felt like the way I felt on my first day as a media intern at KBOO, my local volunteer-driven radio station, committed to the voices of the marginalized. As a naturally introverted speaker, I was forced out of my comfort zone when tasked with documenting a KBOO art exhibition for social media, speaking with hosts to share their diverse, underrepresented backgrounds and inspirations. A rhythmic green strength soon shoved me past internal blue turbulence. My communication skills which were built by two years of Speech and Debate unleashed — I recognized that making a social change through media required amplifying unique voices and perspectives, both my own and others. The powerful green strokes that fill my canvas entrench my growth.

Bright, voluminous coral, hinted with magenta and yellow. I dabbed the color over my figure, giving my painting dimension. The paint, speckled, added depth on every inch it coated. As I moved the color in random but purposeful movements, the vitality ushered into my painting brought a smile across my face. It reminded me of the encounters I had with my cubicle-mate in my sophomore year academic autism research internship, seemingly insignificant moments in my lifelong journey that, in retrospect, wove unique threads into my tapestry. The kindness she brought into work inspired my compassion, while her stories of struggling with ADHD in the workplace bolstered my empathy towards different experiences. Our conversations added blobs of a nonuniform bright color in my painting, binding a new perspective in me.

I added in my final strokes, each contributing an element to my piece. As I scanned my canvas, I observed these elements. Detail added nuance into smaller pictures; they embodied complexities within color, texture, and hue, each individually delivering a narrative. But together, they formed a piece of art— art that could be interpreted as a whole or broken apart but still delivering as a means of communication.

I find beauty in media because of this. I can adapt a complex narrative to be deliverable, each component telling a story. Appreciating these nuances — the light, dark, smooth, and rough — has cultivated my growth mindset. My life-long painting never finishes. It is ever-expanding, absorbing the novel textures and colors I encounter daily.

This essay is distinct from others due to its melodic, lyrical form. This is primarily achieved because the student’s form follows the movements of the paintbrush that they use to scaffold their essay. As readers, we simply flow through the essay, occasionally picking up bits of information about its creator. Without even realizing it, by the end of the essay, admissions officers will know that this student is a swimmer, was in Speech and Debate, is Indian, and has had multiple internships.

A major strength of this essay is the command of language that the student demonstrates. This essay was not simply written, it was crafted. Universities are, of course, interested in the talents, goals, and interests of applicants, but an essay being well-written can be equally important. Writing skills are important because your reader will not learn about your talents, goals, and interests if they aren’t engaged in your essay, but they are also important because admissions officers know that being able to articulate your thoughts is important for success in all future careers.

While this essay is well-written, there are a few moments where it falls out of the flow and feels more like a student advertising their successes. For example, the phrases “media intern at KBOO” and “autism research internship” work better on a resume than they do in this essay. Admissions officers have a copy of your resume and can check your internship experiences after reading your essay! If you are going to use a unique writing style or narrative form, lean into it; don’t try to hybridize it with the standard college essay form. Your boldness will be attractive to admissions officers.

Readers are easily able to picture the passion and intensity of the young dancer through the writer’s engagement with words like “obsessed,” “forcing,” and “ruined” in the second paragraph. Then, we see how intensity becomes pride as they “wondered why our teacher expected so little from us.” And ultimately, we see the writer humbled as they are exposed to the deeper meaning behind what they have worked so hard for. This arc is outstanding, and the student’s musings about ballet in the conclusion position them as vulnerable and reflective (and thus, appealing to admissions officers!)

Prompt #2: The lessons we take from obstacles we encounter can be fundamental to later success. Recount a time when you faced a challenge, setback, or failure. How did it affect you, and what did you learn from the experience?

Prompt #2, example #1.

“You ruined my life!” After months of quiet anger, my brother finally confronted me. To my shame, I had been appallingly ignorant of his pain.

Despite being twins, Max and I are profoundly different. Having intellectual interests from a young age that, well, interested very few of my peers, I often felt out of step in comparison with my highly-social brother. Everything appeared to come effortlessly for Max and, while we share an extremely tight bond, his frequent time away with friends left me feeling more and more alone as we grew older.

When my parents learned about The Green Academy, we hoped it would be an opportunity for me to find not only an academically challenging environment, but also – perhaps more importantly – a community. This meant transferring the family from Drumfield to Kingston. And while there was concern about Max, we all believed that given his sociable nature, moving would be far less impactful on him than staying put might be on me.

As it turned out, Green Academy was everything I’d hoped for. I was ecstatic to discover a group of students with whom I shared interests and could truly engage. Preoccupied with new friends and a rigorous course load, I failed to notice that the tables had turned. Max, lost in the fray and grappling with how to make connections in his enormous new high school, had become withdrawn and lonely. It took me until Christmas time – and a massive argument – to recognize how difficult the transition had been for my brother, let alone that he blamed me for it.

Through my own journey of searching for academic peers, in addition to coming out as gay when I was 12, I had developed deep empathy for those who had trouble fitting in. It was a pain I knew well and could easily relate to. Yet after Max’s outburst, my first response was to protest that our parents – not I – had chosen to move us here. In my heart, though, I knew that regardless of who had made the decision, we ended up in Kingston for my benefit. I was ashamed that, while I saw myself as genuinely compassionate, I had been oblivious to the heartache of the person closest to me. I could no longer ignore it – and I didn’t want to.

We stayed up half the night talking, and the conversation took an unexpected turn. Max opened up and shared that it wasn’t just about the move. He told me how challenging school had always been for him, due to his dyslexia, and that the ever-present comparison to me had only deepened his pain.

We had been in parallel battles the whole time and, yet, I only saw that Max was in distress once he experienced problems with which I directly identified. I’d long thought Max had it so easy – all because he had friends. The truth was, he didn’t need to experience my personal brand of sorrow in order for me to relate – he had felt plenty of his own.

My failure to recognize Max’s suffering brought home for me the profound universality and diversity of personal struggle; everyone has insecurities, everyone has woes, and everyone – most certainly – has pain. I am acutely grateful for the conversations he and I shared around all of this, because I believe our relationship has been fundamentally strengthened by a deeper understanding of one another. Further, this experience has reinforced the value of constantly striving for deeper sensitivity to the hidden struggles of those around me. I won’t make the mistake again of assuming that the surface of someone’s life reflects their underlying story.

Here is a prime example that you don’t have to have fabulous imagery or flowery prose to write a successful Common App essay. You just have to be clear and say something that matters. This essay is simple and beautiful. It almost feels like having a conversation with a friend and learning that they are an even better person than you already thought they were.

Through this narrative, readers learn a lot about the writer—where they’re from, what their family life is like, what their challenges were as a kid, and even their sexuality. We also learn a lot about their values—notably, the value they place on awareness, improvement, and consideration of others. Though they never explicitly state it (which is great because it is still crystal clear!), this student’s ending of “I won’t make the mistake again of assuming that the surface of someone’s life reflects their underlying story” shows that they are constantly striving for improvement and finding lessons anywhere they can get them in life.

The only part of this essay that could use a bit of work is the introduction. A short introduction can be effective, but this short first paragraph feels thrown in at the last minute and like it is missing its second half. If you are keeping your introduction short, make it matter.

Prompt #2, Example #2

Was I no longer the beloved daughter of nature, whisperer of trees? Knee-high rubber boots, camouflage, bug spray—I wore the garb and perfume of a proud wild woman, yet there I was, hunched over the pathetic pile of stubborn sticks, utterly stumped, on the verge of tears. As a child, I had considered myself a kind of rustic princess, a cradler of spiders and centipedes, who was serenaded by mourning doves and chickadees, who could glide through tick-infested meadows and emerge Lyme-free. I knew the cracks of the earth like the scars on my own rough palms. Yet here I was, ten years later, incapable of performing the most fundamental outdoor task: I could not, for the life of me, start a fire. 

Furiously I rubbed the twigs together—rubbed and rubbed until shreds of skin flaked from my fingers. No smoke. The twigs were too young, too sticky-green; I tossed them away with a shower of curses, and began tearing through the underbrush in search of a more flammable collection. My efforts were fruitless. Livid, I bit a rejected twig, determined to prove that the forest had spurned me, offering only young, wet bones that would never burn. But the wood cracked like carrots between my teeth—old, brittle, and bitter. Roaring and nursing my aching palms, I retreated to the tent, where I sulked and awaited the jeers of my family. 

Rattling their empty worm cans and reeking of fat fish, my brother and cousins swaggered into the campsite. Immediately, they noticed the minor stick massacre by the fire pit and called to me, their deep voices already sharp with contempt. 

“Where’s the fire, Princess Clara?” they taunted. “Having some trouble?” They prodded me with the ends of the chewed branches and, with a few effortless scrapes of wood on rock, sparked a red and roaring flame. My face burned long after I left the fire pit. The camp stank of salmon and shame. 

In the tent, I pondered my failure. Was I so dainty? Was I that incapable? I thought of my hands, how calloused and capable they had been, how tender and smooth they had become. It had been years since I’d kneaded mud between my fingers; instead of scaling a white pine, I’d practiced scales on my piano, my hands softening into those of a musician—fleshy and sensitive. And I’d gotten glasses, having grown horrifically nearsighted; long nights of dim lighting and thick books had done this. I couldn’t remember the last time I had lain down on a hill, barefaced, and seen the stars without having to squint. Crawling along the edge of the tent, a spider confirmed my transformation—he disgusted me, and I felt an overwhelming urge to squash him. 

Yet, I realized I hadn’t really changed—I had only shifted perspective. I still eagerly explored new worlds, but through poems and prose rather than pastures and puddles. I’d grown to prefer the boom of a bass over that of a bullfrog, learned to coax a different kind of fire from wood, having developed a burn for writing rhymes and scrawling hypotheses. 

That night, I stayed up late with my journal and wrote about the spider I had decided not to kill. I had tolerated him just barely, only shrieking when he jumped—it helped to watch him decorate the corners of the tent with his delicate webs, knowing that he couldn’t start fires, either. When the night grew cold and the embers died, my words still smoked—my hands burned from all that scrawling—and even when I fell asleep, the ideas kept sparking—I was on fire, always on fire.

This Common App essay is well-written. The student is showing the admissions officers their ability to articulate their points beautifully and creatively. It starts with vivid images like that of the “rustic princess, a cradler of spiders and centipedes, who was serenaded by mourning doves and chickadees, who could glide through tick-infested meadows and emerge Lyme-free.” And because the prose is flowery, the writer can get away with metaphors like “I knew the cracks of the earth like the scars on my own rough palms” that might sound cheesy without the clear command of the English language that the writer quickly establishes.

In addition to being well-written, this essay is thematically cohesive. It begins with the simple introduction “Fire!” and ends with the following image: “When the night grew cold and the embers died, my words still smoked—my hands burned from all that scrawling—and even when I fell asleep, the ideas kept sparking—I was on fire, always on fire.” This full-circle approach leaves readers satisfied and impressed.

While dialogue often comes off as cliche or trite, this student effectively incorporates their family members saying “Where’s the fire, Princess Clara?” This is achieved through the apt use of the verb “taunted” to characterize the questioning and through the question’s thematic connection to the earlier image of the student as a rustic princess. Similarly, rhetorical questions can feel randomly placed in essays, but this student’s inclusion of the questions “Was I so dainty?” and “Was I that incapable?” feels perfectly justified after they establish that they were pondering their failure.

Quite simply, this essay shows how quality writing can make a simple story outstandingly compelling.

Prompt #2, Example #3

The muffled voices behind thin walls heralded trouble.

They were fighting about money.

It wasn’t the first time this had happened and it wasn’t going to be the last. It was one of those countless nights I had to spend curled up under the blanket while pretending to be asleep. My father had been unemployed for five years now, and my mother, a local kindergarten teacher, was struggling to support the family alone. Our situation was bleak: Savings had run out and my parents could no longer hide our lack of money from me. To make matters worse, I was a few weeks away from starting high school, which would inevitably lead to college, yet another financial stressor for my family.

The argument didn’t sound like it would end soon.

“Why did you spend money on that?” my mother said, with an elongated sigh.

“I had to,” my father said, decidedly.

Every fight over the years had left me in despair and the idea of going through another fight daunted me. I had looked forward to my teen years all my life, an age that allows, for the first time, more responsibility. Indeed, after this fateful night, after my fourteenth birthday, I felt a mounting responsibility to help my family, and started brainstorming.

Always being fascinated by computers, I spent my childhood burying myself under computer cabinets, experimenting with computer parts. Naturally, I wondered if my skills in this area might be marketable.

The next morning, my friend, Naba, mentioned that her computer wasn’t working. A tuk-tuk ride later, and I was at her doorstep, and her mother was leading me to her room. I was off to work: I began examining her computer, like a surgeon carefully manages his scalpels and tools. A proper diagnosis was not far from reach, as I realized a broken pin in her computer’s SATA slot. After an hour of work, and a short trip to the hardware store, I successfully fixed the computer. To my pleasant surprise, Naba’s mother drew out two fresh 500 Rupee notes. One covered the cost of the parts I bought and the other was a token of appreciation. Bidding her goodbye, I went straight back home and put one of the 500 Rupee notes inside my family’s “savings-jar.”

Later that day, I devised a plan. I told my friends to spread the word that I was available to fix computers. At first, I got only one or two calls per week. I would pick up the computer from my client’s home, fix it quickly, and return it, thus earning myself a commission. While I couldn’t market my services at a competitive price, because I wasn’t able to buy the parts wholesale, I compensated by providing convenience. All my clients had to do was call me once and the rest was taken care of. Thus, my business had the best customer service in town.

At the beginning of my junior year, after two years of expanding my business through various avenues, I started buying computer parts from hardware suppliers in bulk at a cheaper rate. My business grew exponentially after that. 

Before long, I was my town’s go-to tech person. In this journey throughout high school, I started realizing that I had to create my own opportunities and not just curl up under a blanket, seeking only comfort, as I used to. Interacting with people from all walks of life became my forte and a sense of work ethic developed in me. My business required me to be an all-rounder– have the technical skills, be an easily approachable person, and manage cash flow. Slowly becoming better at this, I even managed to sway admins of a local institution to outsource their computer hardware purchases and repairs through me. As my business upsized throughout the years, I went from being helpless to autonomous – the teenager I always aspired to be.

This essay truly feels like a story—almost making you forget you are reading a college essay. The student’s voice is strong throughout the entire essay and they are able to give us insight into their thoughts, feelings, and motivations at every step of the story. Letting the reader into personal challenges like financial struggles can be daunting in a college essay, but the way this student used that setback to establish an emotional ethos to their narrative was well done.

Because the essay is essentially just telling a story, there’s a very natural flow that makes it enjoyable and easy to read. The student establishes the conflict at the beginning, then describes their solution and how they implemented it, and finally concludes with the lessons they took away from this experience. Transitions at the beginning of paragraphs effortlessly show the passage of time and how the student has progressed through the story.

Another reason this essay is so successful is because of the abundance of details. The reader truly feels like they are hiding in the room with the student as their parents yell because of the inclusion of quotes from the argument. We understand the precision and care they have for fixing computers because of the allusion to a surgeon with their scalpel. Not only does this imagery make the story more enticing, it also helps the reader gain a deeper appreciation for the type of person this student is and the adversity they have overcome.

If there were one thing this essay could do to improve, it would be to include a resolution to the conflict from the beginning. The student tells us how this business helped them grow as a person, but we don’t ever get to find out if they were able to lessen the financial burden on their parents or if they continued to struggle despite the student working hard. It doesn’t have to be a happy ending, but it would be nice to return to the conflict and acknowledge the effect they had on it, especially since this prompt is all about facing challenges.

Prompt #3: Reflect on a time when you questioned or challenged a belief or idea. What prompted your thinking? What was the outcome?

Prompt #3, example #1.

When I was younger, I was adamant that no two foods on my plate touch. As a result, I often used a second plate to prevent such an atrocity. In many ways, I learned to separate different things this way from my older brothers, Nate and Rob. Growing up, I idolized both of them. Nate was a performer, and I insisted on arriving early to his shows to secure front row seats, refusing to budge during intermission for fear of missing anything. Rob was a three-sport athlete, and I attended his games religiously, waving worn-out foam cougar paws and cheering until my voice was hoarse. My brothers were my role models. However, while each was talented, neither was interested in the other’s passion. To me, they represented two contrasting ideals of what I could become: artist or athlete. I believed I had to choose.

And for a long time, I chose athlete. I played soccer, basketball, and lacrosse and viewed myself exclusively as an athlete, believing the arts were not for me. I conveniently overlooked that since the age of five, I had been composing stories for my family for Christmas, gifts that were as much for me as them, as I loved writing. So when in tenth grade, I had the option of taking a creative writing class, I was faced with a question: could I be an athlete and a writer? After much debate, I enrolled in the class, feeling both apprehensive and excited. When I arrived on the first day of school, my teacher, Ms. Jenkins, asked us to write down our expectations for the class. After a few minutes, eraser shavings stubbornly sunbathing on my now-smudged paper, I finally wrote, “I do not expect to become a published writer from this class. I just want this to be a place where I can write freely.”

Although the purpose of the class never changed for me, on the third “submission day,” – our time to submit writing to upcoming contests and literary magazines – I faced a predicament. For the first two submission days, I had passed the time editing earlier pieces, eventually (pretty quickly) resorting to screen snake when hopelessness made the words look like hieroglyphics. I must not have been as subtle as I thought, as on the third of these days, Ms. Jenkins approached me. After shifting from excuse to excuse as to why I did not submit my writing, I finally recognized the real reason I had withheld my work: I was scared. I did not want to be different, and I did not want to challenge not only others’ perceptions of me, but also my own. I yielded to Ms. Jenkin’s pleas and sent one of my pieces to an upcoming contest.

By the time the letter came, I had already forgotten about the contest. When the flimsy white envelope arrived in the mail, I was shocked and ecstatic to learn that I had received 2nd place in a nationwide writing competition. The next morning, however, I discovered Ms. Jenkins would make an announcement to the whole school exposing me as a poet. I decided to own this identity and embrace my friends’ jokes and playful digs, and over time, they have learned to accept and respect this part of me. I have since seen more boys at my school identifying themselves as writers or artists.

I no longer see myself as an athlete and a poet independently, but rather I see these two aspects forming a single inseparable identity – me. Despite their apparent differences, these two disciplines are quite similar, as each requires creativity and devotion. I am still a poet when I am lacing up my cleats for soccer practice and still an athlete when I am building metaphors in the back of my mind – and I have realized ice cream and gummy bears taste pretty good together.

This essay is cohesive as it centers around the theme of identity and the ability for two identities to coexist simultaneously (an interesting theme!). It uses the Full Circle ending strategy as it starts with a metaphor about food touching and ends with “I have realized ice cream and gummy bears taste pretty good together.”

The main issue with this essay is that it could come off as cliché, which could be irritating for admissions officers. The story described is notably similar to High School Musical (“I decided to own this identity and embrace my friends’ jokes and playful digs, and over time, they have learned to accept and respect this part of me”) and feels slightly overstated. 

At times, this essay is also confusing. In the first paragraph, it feels like the narrative is actually going to be about separating your food (and is somehow going to relate to the older brothers?). It is not entirely clear that this is a metaphor. Also, when the writer references the third submission day and then works backward to explain what a submission day is and that there are multiple throughout the semester, the timeline gets unnecessarily confusing. Reworking the way this paragraph unfolded would have been more compelling and less distracting.

Overall, this essay was interesting but could have been more polished to be more effective.

Prompt #3, Example #2

I walked into my middle school English class, and noticed a stranger behind my teacher’s desk. “Hello,” she said. “Today I will be your substitute teacher.” I groaned internally. “Let me start off by calling roll. Ally?” “Here!” exclaimed Ally. “Jack?” “Here.” “Rachel?” “Here.” “Freddie?” “Present.” And then– “…?” The awkward pause was my cue. “It’s Jasina,” I started. “You can just call me Jas. Here.” “Oh, Jasina. That’s unique.” The word “unique” made me cringe. I slumped back in my seat. The substitute continued calling roll, and class continued as if nothing had happened. Nothing had happened. Just a typical moment in a middle school, but I hated every second of it.

My name is not impossible to pronounce. It appears challenging initially, but once you hear it, “Jas-een-a”, then you can manage it. My nickname, Jas (pronounced “Jazz”), is what most people call me anyway, so I don’t have to deal with mispronunciation often. I am thankful that my parents named me Jasina (a Hebrew name), but whenever someone hears my name for the first time, they comment, and I assume they’re making assumptions about me. “Wow, Jas is a cool name.” She must be pretty cool.“I’ve never heard the name Jasina before.” She must be from somewhere exotic. “Jas, like Jazz?” She must be musical and artsy. None of these assumptions are bad, but they all add up to the same thing: She must be unique. 

When I was little, these sentiments felt more like commands than assumptions. I thought I had to be the most unique child of all time, which was a daunting task, but I tried. I was the only kid in the second grade to color the sun red. I knew it was really yellow, but you could always tell which drawings were mine. During snack time, we could choose between apple juice and grape juice. I liked apple juice more, but if everyone else was choosing apple, then I had to choose grape. This was how I lived my life, and it was exhausting. I tried to continue this habit into middle school, but it backfired. When everyone became obsessed with things like skinny jeans and Justin Bieber and blue mascara (that was a weird trend), my resistance of the norm made me socially awkward. I couldn’t talk to people about anything because we had nothing in common. I was too different. 

After 8th grade, I moved to Georgia, and I was dreading being the odd one out among kids who had grown up together. Then I discovered that my freshman year would be Cambridge High School’s inaugural year. Since there were students coming in from 5 different schools, there was no real sense of “normal”. I panicked. If there was no normal, then how could I be unique? That’s when I realized that I had spent so much energy going against the grain that I had no idea what my true interests were or what I really cared about. 

It was time to find out. I stopped concentrating on what everyone else was doing and started to focus on myself. I joined the basketball team, I performed in the school musical, and I enrolled in Chorus, all of which were firsts for me. I took art classes, joined clubs, and did whatever I thought would make me happy. And it paid off. I was no longer socially awkward. In fact, because I was involved in so many unrelated activities, I was socially flexible. My friends and I had things in common, but there was no one who could say that I was exactly like anyone else. I had finally become my own person.

My father named me Jasina because he wanted my nickname to be “Jazz.” According to Webster, “jazz” is “music characterized by syncopated rhythms, improvisation, and deliberate distortions of pitch.” Basically, jazz is music that is off-beat and unpredictable. It cannot be strictly defined. 

That sounds about right. 

Right off the bat, this essay starts extremely strong. The description of attendance in a class with ample quotes, awkward pauses, and the student’s internal dialogue immediately puts us in the middle of the action and establishes a lot of sympathy for this student before we’ve learned anything else. 

The strength of this essay continues into the second paragraph where the use of quotes, italics, and interjections from the student continues. All of these literary tools help the student express her voice and allow the reader to understand what this student goes through on a daily basis. Rather than just telling the reader people make assumptions about her name, she shows us what these assumptions look and sound like, and exactly how they make her feel.

The essay further shows us how the student approached her name by providing concrete examples of times she’s been intentionally unique throughout her life. Describing her drawing red suns and choosing grape juice bring her personality to life and allow her to express her deviance from the “norm” in a much more engaging and visual way than simply telling the reader she would go against the grain to be different on purpose.

One part of the essay that was a bit weaker than the others was the paragraph about her in high school. Although it was still well written and did a nice job of demonstrating how she got involved in multiple groups to find her new identity, it lacked the same level of showing employed in previous paragraphs. It would have been nice to see what “socially flexible” means either through a conversation she had with her friends or an example of a time she combined her interests from different groups in a way that was uniquely her.

The essay finishes off how it started: extremely strong. Taking a step back to fully explain the origin of her name neatly brings together everything mentioned in this essay. This ending is especially successful because she never explicitly states that her personality aligns with the definition of jazz. Instead, she relies on the points she has made throughout the essay to stick in the reader’s memory so they are able to draw the connection themselves, making for a much more satisfying ending for the reader.

Prompt #4 (OLD PROMPT; NOT THE CURRENT PROMPT): Describe a problem you’ve solved or a problem you’d like to solve. It can be an intellectual challenge, a research query, an ethical dilemma – anything that is of personal importance, no matter the scale. Explain its significance to you and what steps you took or could be taken to identify a solution.

Prompt #4, example #1.

“Advanced females ages 13 to 14 please proceed to staging with your coaches at this time.” 

Skittering around the room, eyes wide and pleading, I frantically explained my situation to nearby coaches. The seconds ticked away in my head; every polite refusal increased my desperation. 

Despair weighed me down. I sank to my knees as a stream of competitors, coaches, and officials flowed around me. My dojang had no coach, and the tournament rules prohibited me from competing without one. 

Although I wanted to remain strong, doubts began to cloud my mind. I could not help wondering: what was the point of perfecting my skills if I would never even compete? The other members of my team, who had found coaches minutes earlier, attempted to comfort me, but I barely heard their words. They couldn’t understand my despair at being left on the outside, and I never wanted them to understand. 

Since my first lesson 12 years ago, the members of my dojang have become family. I have watched them grow up, finding my own happiness in theirs. Together, we have honed our kicks, blocks, and strikes. We have pushed one another to aim higher and become better martial artists. Although my dojang had searched for a reliable coach for years, we had not found one. When we attended competitions in the past, my teammates and I had always gotten lucky and found a sympathetic coach. Now, I knew this practice was unsustainable. It would devastate me to see the other members of my dojang in my situation, unable to compete and losing hope as a result. My dojang needed a coach, and I decided it was up to me to find one. 

I first approached the adults in the dojang – both instructors and members’ parents. However, these attempts only reacquainted me with polite refusals. Everyone I asked told me they couldn’t devote multiple weekends per year to competitions. I soon realized that I would have become the coach myself. 

At first, the inner workings of tournaments were a mystery to me. To prepare myself for success as a coach, I spent the next year as an official and took coaching classes on the side. I learned everything from motivational strategies to technical, behind-the-scenes components of Taekwondo competitions. Though I emerged with new knowledge and confidence in my capabilities, others did not share this faith. 

Parents threw me disbelieving looks when they learned that their children’s coach was only a child herself. My self-confidence was my armor, deflecting their surly glances. Every armor is penetrable, however, and as the relentless barrage of doubts pounded my resilience, it began to wear down. I grew unsure of my own abilities. 

Despite the attack, I refused to give up. When I saw the shining eyes of the youngest students preparing for their first competition, I knew I couldn’t let them down. To quit would be to set them up to be barred from competing like I was. The knowledge that I could solve my dojang’s longtime problem motivated me to overcome my apprehension. 

Now that my dojang flourishes at competitions, the attacks on me have weakened, but not ended. I may never win the approval of every parent; at times, I am still tormented by doubts, but I find solace in the fact that members of my dojang now only worry about competing to the best of their abilities. 

Now, as I arrive at a tournament with my students, I close my eyes and remember the past. I visualize the frantic search for a coach and the chaos amongst my teammates as we competed with one another to find coaches before the staging calls for our respective divisions. I open my eyes to the exact opposite scene. Lacking a coach hurt my ability to compete, but I am proud to know that no member of my dojang will have to face that problem again.

This essay is great because it has a strong introduction and a strong conclusion. The introduction is notably suspenseful and draws readers into the story. Because we know it is a college essay, we can assume that the student is one of the competitors, but at the same time, this introduction feels intentionally ambiguous as if the writer could be a competitor, a coach, a sibling of a competitor, or anyone else in the situation.

As we continue reading the essay, we learn that the writer is, in fact, the competitor. Readers also learn a lot about the student’s values as we hear their thoughts: “I knew I couldn’t let them down. To quit would be to set them up to be barred from competing like I was.” Ultimately, the conflict and inner and outer turmoil is resolved through the “Same, but Different” ending technique as the student places themself in the same environment that we saw in the intro, but experiencing it differently due to their actions throughout the narrative. This is a very compelling strategy!

The main weakness of this essay is that it is slightly confusing at times—how the other students found coaches feels unintentionally under-explained (a simple phrase like “through pleading and attracting sympathy” in the fourth paragraph could have served the writer well) and a dojang is never defined. Additionally, the turn of the essay or “volta” could’ve packed a bigger punch. It is put quite simply with “I soon realized that I would have become the coach myself.” A more suspenseful reveal could’ve served the author well because more drama did come later.

Prompt #5: Discuss an accomplishment, event, or realization that sparked a period of personal growth and a new understanding of yourself or others.

Prompt #5, example #1.

Tears streamed down my face and my mind was paralyzed with fear. Sirens blared, but the silent panic in my own head was deafening. I was muted by shock. A few hours earlier, I had anticipated a vacation in Washington, D.C., but unexpectedly, I was rushing to the hospital behind an ambulance carrying my mother. As a fourteen-year-old from a single mother household, without a driver’s license, and seven hours from home, I was distraught over the prospect of losing the only parent I had. My fear turned into action as I made some of the bravest decisions of my life. 

Three blood transfusions later, my mother’s condition was stable, but we were still states away from home, so I coordinated with my mother’s doctors in North Carolina to schedule the emergency operation that would save her life. Throughout her surgery, I anxiously awaited any word from her surgeon, but each time I asked, I was told that there had been another complication or delay. Relying on my faith and positive attitude, I remained optimistic that my mother would survive and that I could embrace new responsibilities.

My mother had been a source of strength for me, and now I would be strong for her through her long recovery ahead. As I started high school, everyone thought the crisis was over, but it had really just started to impact my life. My mother was often fatigued, so I assumed more responsibility, juggling family duties, school, athletics, and work. I made countless trips to the neighborhood pharmacy, cooked dinner, biked to the grocery store, supported my concerned sister, and provided the loving care my mother needed to recover. I didn’t know I was capable of such maturity and resourcefulness until it was called upon. Each day was a stage in my gradual transformation from dependence to relative independence.

Throughout my mother’s health crisis, I matured by learning to put others’ needs before my own. As I worried about my mother’s health, I took nothing for granted, cherished what I had, and used my daily activities as motivation to move forward. I now take ownership over small decisions such as scheduling daily appointments and managing my time but also over major decisions involving my future, including the college admissions process. Although I have become more independent, my mother and I are inseparably close, and the realization that I almost lost her affects me daily. Each morning, I wake up ten minutes early simply to eat breakfast with my mother and spend time with her before our busy days begin. I am aware of how quickly life can change. My mother remains a guiding force in my life, but the feeling of empowerment I discovered within myself is the ultimate form of my independence. Though I thought the summer before my freshman year would be a transition from middle school to high school, it was a transformation from childhood to adulthood.

This essay feels real and tells readers a lot about the writer. To start at the beginning, the intro is 10/10. It has drama, it has emotions, and it has the reader wanting more.

And, when you keep going, you get to learn a lot about a very resilient and mature student. Through sentences like “I made countless trips to the neighborhood pharmacy, cooked dinner, biked to the grocery store, supported my concerned sister, and provided the loving care my mother needed to recover” and “Relying on my faith and positive attitude, I remained optimistic that my mother would survive and that I could embrace new responsibilities,” the reader shows us that they are aware of their resilience and maturity, but are not arrogant about it. It is simply a fact that they have proven!

Sometimes writing about adversity can feel exploitative or oddly braggy. This student backs up everything they say with anecdotes that prove and show their strength and resilience, rather than just claiming their strengths. When I read this essay, I want to cheer for its writer! And I want to be able to continue cheering for them (perhaps, if I were an admissions officer, that would make me want them at my school!).

Prompt #5, Example #2

Armed with a red pen, I slowly walked across the room to a small, isolated table with pink stools. Swinging her legs, my young student beamed and giggled at me, slamming her pencil bag on the table and bending over to pick up one of her toys. Natalie always brought some new toy with her to lessons—toys which I would sternly take away from her and place under the table until she finished her work. At the tutoring center where I work, a strict emphasis on discipline leaves no room for paper crowns or rubber chickens. 

Today, she had with her a large stuffed eagle from a museum. As she pulled out her papers, I slid the eagle to the other side of the table. She looked eagerly around, attempting to chat with other students as I impatiently called her attention to her papers. “I should name my eagle,” she chimed, waving her pencil in the air. I cringed—there was no wondering why Natalie always had to sit by herself. She was the antithesis of my academic values, and undoubtedly the greatest adversary of my teaching style.  

As the lesson progressed, Natalie became more fitful; she refused to release her feathered friend, and kept addressing the bird for help with difficult problems. We both grew increasingly more frustrated. Determined to tame this wryly, wiggling student, I stood my ground, set on converting this disobedient child to my calm, measured ways of study.  

As time slowly crept by, I noticed that despite Natalie’s cheerful tone and bright smile, the stuffed eagle was troublesomely quiet and stern-faced. Much like myself. Both the eagle and I were getting nowhere in this lesson—so we hatched a quick plan. Lifting the eagle up in the air, I started reading in my best impersonation of an eagle, squawking my way through a spelling packet. The result provided a sense of instant gratification I never knew I needed. She sang out every letter, clapped her hands at every page, and followed along with the eagle, stopping at every few letters to declare that “E is for eagle” and pet her teacher fondly on the beak.  

Despite my ostensibly dissatisfied attitude toward my students, I did not join the tutoring center simply to earn money. I had always aspired to help others achieve their fullest potential. As a young adult, I felt that it was time for me to step out of the role of a pupil and into the influential role of a teacher, naively believing that I had the maturity and skill to adapt to any situation and help these students reach their highest achievements academically. For the most part, the role of a stern-faced, strict instructor helped me get by in the workplace, and while my students never truly looked happy, I felt that it was part of the process of conditioning a child to learn. 

Ironically, my transition to adulthood was the result of a stuffed animal. It was indisputable that I always had the skill to instruct others; the only thing needed to instruct someone is knowledge of the subject. However, it was only upon being introduced to a stuffed bird in which I realized that students receive the most help not from instructors, but teachers. While almost anyone can learn material and spit it back out for someone, it takes the maturity and passion of a teacher not only to help students improve in their students, but also to motivate them and develop them into better citizens. From my young pupil and her little bird, I have undergone a change in attitude which reflects a growth in maturity and ability to improve the lives of others that I hope to implement in my future role as a student, activist, and physician. My newfound maturity taught me that the letter “e” stands for many things: empathy, experience, enthusiasm, and eagle.

In this essay, the student effectively explores their values (and how they learned them!) then identifies these values through a reflective conclusion. While the writer humbly recognizes the initial faults in their teaching style, they do not position their initial discipline or rigidity as mean or poorly intentioned—simply ineffective. This is important because, when you are discussing a transition like this, you don’t want admissions officers to think of you as having been a bad person. 

My favorite part about this essay is its subtlety. The major shift in the essay comes through the simple sentence “The result provided a sense of instant gratification I never knew I needed.” The facts of this narrative are not too complicated. Simply put, the writer was strict then learned that it’s sometimes more effective not to be strict. The complexity of this narrative comes through reflection. Notably, through the ending, the student identifies their values (which they hadn’t given a name to before): “it takes the maturity and passion of a teacher not only to help students improve in their students, but also to motivate them and develop them into better citizens.” 

The final sentence of this essay ties things up very nicely. Readers are left satisfied with the essay and convinced that its writer is a kind human with a large capacity for reflection and consideration. That is a great image to paint of yourself!

Prompt #5, Example #3

When it’s quiet, I can still hear the Friday night gossip and giggles of my friends. It’s a stark contrast from the environment I’ve known all my life, my home. My family has always been one to keep to themselves; introverts with a hard-working mentality—my father especially. He spent most of his time at work and growing up without him around, I came to be at peace with the fact that I’d probably never really get to know him. The thought didn’t bother me at the time because I felt that we were very different. He was stoic and traditional; I was trying to figure out who I was and explore my interests. His disapproval of the American music I listened to and my penchant for wearing hand-me-downs made me see him as someone who wanted to restrain my individuality. That explains why I relied heavily on my friends throughout middle and high school; they liked me for who I was. I figured I would get lonely without my friends during quarantine, but these last few months stuck at home gave me the time to make a new friend: my father. 

It was June. I had the habit of sleeping with my windows open so I wouldn’t need to set an alarm; the warmth of the sun and the sounds of the neighborhood children playing outside would wake me. One morning, however, it was not the chirping of birds or the laughter of children I awoke to, but the shrill of a saw. Through the window screen, on the grass below, my father stood cutting planks of wood. I was confused but didn’t question him—what he did with his time was none of my business. It was not until the next day, when I was attempting to work on a sculpture for an art class, that the sounds of hammering and drills became too much to ignore. Seeking answers, I trudged across my backyard towards the corner he was in. On that day, all there was to see was the foundation of what he was building; a shed. My intrigue was replaced with awe; I was impressed by the precision of his craft. Sharp corners, leveled and sturdy, I could imagine what it would look like when the walls were up and the inside filled with the tools he had spread around the yard. 

Throughout the week, when I was trying to finish my sculpture for art class—thinking about its shape and composition—I could not help but think of my father. Art has always been a creative outlet for me, an opportunity to express myself at home. For my dad, his craftsmanship was his art. I realized we were not as different as I had thought; he was an artist like me. My glue and paper were his wood and nails.

That summer, I tried to spend more time with my dad than I have in all my 18 years of life. Waking up earlier than usual so we could have our morning coffees together and pretending to like his favorite band so he’d talk to me about it, I took advantage of every opportunity I had to speak with him. In getting to know him, I’ve recognized that I get my artistry from him. 

Reflecting on past relationships, I feel I am now more open to reconnecting with people I’ve perhaps misjudged. In reconciling, I’ve realized I held some bitterness towards him all these years, and in letting that go, my heart is lighter. Our reunion has changed my perspective; instead of vilifying him for spending so much time at work, I can appreciate how hard he works to provide for our family. When I hear him tinkering away at another home project, I can smile and look forward to asking him about it later.

This is an outstanding example of the great things that can be articulated through a reflective essay. As we read the essay, we are simply thinking alongside its author—thinking about their past relationship with their father, about their time in quarantine, about aspects of themselves they think could use attention and growth. 

While we reflect, we are also centered by the student’s anecdote about the sculpture and the shed during quarantine. By centering us in real-time, the student keeps us engaged in the reflection.

The main strength here is the maturity we see on the part of its writer. The student doesn’t say “and I realized my father was the best dad in the world;” they say “and I realized my father didn’t have to be the best dad in the world for me to give him a chance.” Lots of students show themselves as motivated, curious, or compassionate in their college essays, but a reflective essay that ends with a discussion of resentment and forgiveness shows true maturity.

Prompt #5, Example #4

As a wide-eyed, naive seven-year-old, I watched my grandmother’s rough, wrinkled hands pull and knead mercilessly at white dough until the countertop was dusted in flour. She steamed small buns in bamboo baskets, and a light sweetness lingered in the air. Although the mantou looked delicious, their papery, flat taste was always an unpleasant surprise. My grandmother scolded me for failing to finish even one, and when I complained about the lack of flavor she would simply say that I would find it as I grew older. How did my adult relatives seem to enjoy this Taiwanese culinary delight while I found it so plain?

During my journey to discover the essence of mantou, I began to see myself the same way I saw the steamed bun. I believed that my writing would never evolve beyond a hobby and that my quiet nature crippled my ambitions. Ultimately, I thought I had little to offer the world. In middle school, it was easy for me to hide behind the large personalities of my friends, blending into the background and keeping my thoughts company. Although writing had become my emotional outlet, no matter how well I wrote essays, poetry, or fiction, I could not stand out in a sea of talented students. When I finally gained the confidence to submit my poetry to literary journals but was promptly rejected, I stepped back from my work to begin reading from Whitman to Dickinson, Li-Young Lee to Ocean Vuong. It was then that I realized I had been holding back a crucial ingredient–my distinct voice. 

Over time, my taste buds began to mature, as did I. Mantou can be flavored with pork and eggplant, sweetened in condensed milk, and moistened or dried by the steam’s temperature. After I ate the mantou with each of these factors in mind, I noticed its environment enhanced a delicately woven strand of sweetness beneath the taste of side dishes: the sugar I had often watched my grandmother sift into the flour. The taste was nearly untraceable, but once I grasped it I could truly begin to cherish mantou. In the same way the taste had been lost to me for years, my writer’s voice had struggled to shine through because of my self-doubt and fear of vulnerability.

As I acquired a taste for mantou, I also began to strengthen my voice through my surrounding environment. With the support of my parents, peer poets, and the guidance of Amy Tan and the Brontё sisters, I worked tirelessly to uncover my voice: a subtle strand of sweetness. Once I stopped trying to fit into a publishing material mold and infused my uninhibited passion for my Taiwanese heritage into my writing, my poem was published in a literary journal. I wrote about the blatant racism Asians endured during coronavirus, and the editor of Skipping Stones Magazine was touched by both my poem and my heartfelt letter. I opened up about being ridiculed for bringing Asian food to school at Youth Leadership Forum, providing support to younger Asian-American students who reached out with the relief of finding someone they could relate to. I embraced writing as a way to convey my struggle with cultural identity. I joined the school’s creative writing club and read my pieces in front of an audience, honing my voice into one that flourishes out loud as well.

Now, I write and speak unapologetically, falling in love with a voice that I never knew I had. It inspires passion within my communities and imparts tenacity to Asian-American youth, rooting itself deeply into everything I write. Today, my grandmother would say that I have finally unearthed the taste of mantou as I savor every bite with a newfound appreciation. I can imagine her hands shaping the dough that has become my voice, and I am eager to share it with the world.

This essay is structurally-sound, with the student’s journey learning to savor mantou and their journey trying to find their voice serving as outstanding parallels. Additionally, as they describe the journey to find a voice in their writing, they definitely show off their voice! The clear introduction provides a great image and draws us in with an intriguing question. Additionally, their little inserts like “a strand of sweetness” and “falling in love with a voice that I never knew I had” work very well.

When the student describes their first published poem, however, their writing gets a little more stilted. This is a common error students make when writing about their achievements. If this student is writing about the craft that goes into writing, we should hear the details of the craft that went into the poem, instead of simply learning that they “opened up about being ridiculed for bringing Asian food to school at Youth Leadership Forum.” This is interesting information but would be stronger if it were supplemented by descriptions of the voice they created, comparisons to the styles of other poets, and analysis of their stylistic choices. This would make the essay feel more cohesive, centering entirely around concepts of voice and style.

Prompt #6: Describe a topic, idea, or concept you find so engaging that it makes you lose all track of time. Why does it captivate you? What or who do you turn to when you want to learn more?

Note: We don’t have a stellar example for this prompt, so instead, we’re sharing a couple examples that need improvement, and what can be done to make the essays more engaging. 

Prompt #6, Example #1

What factors shape the depth and allure of a literary character? This is the exact question I asked myself as my eyes riveted on the white pages covered with little black letters.

I was reading my old novels. I’ve written three novels and many short stories. Each of them repetitively portrayed the hero as intelligent and funny, and the antagonists as cold and manipulative. I came to the appalling realization that my characters were flat, neither exciting nor original. They just didn’t stand out! 

As Oscar Wilde said, ‘Vice and virtue are to the artist material to an art.’ Their mixing makes a novel addictive because its plot is rich with turnarounds and its characters more engaging. In his famous work The Picture of Dorian Gray , Wilde deconstructs the psyche of his characters. He brilliantly plays with the protagonist’s youthful appearance and the decaying portrait to build a truly unique idiosyncratic identity. The persona of Dorian Gray is so complicated a psychologist could analyze it for hours on end!

Inspired by this character, It was my turn to explore good and evil into characters to make my stories more enthralling. I skillfully played with vice and virtue, separating, merging them… My latest novel is the fruit of this exercise. I chose to set it in 20th century London. Its opium dens and exclusive salons; middle-class workers, peasants and politicians breathed the same newly industrialized air; modernity in Blackfriars bridge and tradition in St Paul’s Cathedral; all of these contrasts set the perfect environment for my characters to grow. Following Laclos’ Valmont, Maupassant’s Georges Duroy and Duffy’s Myra Hindley, I played with those contrasts to present an intricate character, truly creative – unlike my previous ones. Insanity, religion, depravity and love are merged into each character, reflecting Edwardian London. As I reflected on my work, I realized vice and virtue altogether made them more human and credible. These characters stood out, they were interesting, I even wanted to know more about them! 

After rewriting, erasing, typing, and thinking countless times, I realized writing is a unique exercise. Nothing is definite when you are holding a fountain pen, hearing its screeching sound on the white paper and watching the ebony ink forming letters. When I wasn’t too happy about a change I made in my story, I simply erased and rewrote it. Everything I imagined could happen: white pages are the only place the mouse eats the cat or the world is taken by a zombie attack! 

This exact exercise of diversifying my characters satisfied my relentless curiosity. Asking myself ‘how could this character be if she had lost her parents in a maritime tragedy?’ allowed me to view the world from different perspectives (some very dissimilar to my own) and considering how each character would react to different situations brought them to life. As I was writing, I was aiming to change the usual narratives I had previously traversed. I loved experimenting with countless personality traits in my characters – minutes flowing, my hand dancing on the paper as my mind was singing words coming alive….

There were times where my hand just stopped writing and my mind stopped raging. I tried thinking differently, changing a character’s background, the story, the setting. I was inspired by Zola, A.Carter, Fitzgerald, the Brontë sisters… I could observe the different reactions of their characters, and reflect on mine theoretically. But it was only part one of the work: I then had to write, sometimes aimlessly, sometimes frantically, always leading to fresh ideas – I was exploring the practical, trying, erasing and rewriting. Both theory and practice are required to gain intellectual independence and experience, in writing and more globally: before I can change a character, I have to understand it. Before we can change the world, we have to understand it.

The main strength of this essay is the authenticity of the topic the student chose. They aren’t making anything up or stretching the truth. Writing is something that captivates them, and that captivation shines through—particularly through their fourth paragraph (where they geek out over specific plots and characters) and their fifth paragraph (where they joyfully describe how writing has no limitations). Admissions officers want to see this passion and intensity in applicants! The fact that this student has already written three novels also shows dedication and is impressive.

The main weakness of this essay is its structure. Ironically, it is not super captivating. The essay would have been more compelling if the student utilized a “anecdote – answer – reflection” structure. This student’s current introduction involves a reflective question, citations about their past writing experience, then their thoughts on Oscar Wilde’s Dorian Gray. Instead, this student could’ve provided one cohesive (and powerful!) image of them being frustrated with their own writing then being inspired by Dorian Gray. This would look something like:

“I stayed up three nights in a row studying my own writing—bored by my own writing. The only thing more painful than seeing failure in the fruits of your labor is not seeing a path for improvement. I had written three novels and numerous short stories, and all I could come up with was funny and intelligent heroes going up against cold and manipulative villains. What kind of writer was so consistently cliche? On the third night, I wandered over to my bookshelf. Mrs. Dalloway caught my eye (it has such a beautiful cover). I flipped through. Then, I grabbed Giovanni’s Room . I was so obsessed with my shortcomings that I couldn’t even focus long enough to see what these authors were doing right. I picked up The Picture of Dorian Gray and decided to just start reading. By the end of the night, I was captivated.”

An introduction like this would flow nicely into the student describing their experience with Dorian Gray then, because of that experience, describing how they have altered their approach to writing. The conclusion of this essay would then be this student’s time for reflection. Instead of repeating content about their passion—“I then had to write, sometimes aimlessly, sometimes frantically” and “I was exploring the practical, trying, erasing and rewriting”—, the student could dedicate their conclusion to reflecting on the reasons that writing is so captivating or the ways that (until the day they die) writers will always be perfecting their craft.

This essay is a great example of how important it is to pick a topic that truly excites you. It also illustrates how important it is to effectively structure that excitement.

Prompt #6, Example #2

Astonished by the crashing sound of waves in my ear, I was convinced this magical shell actually held the sound of the big blue sea — my six-year-old self was heartbroken when I couldn’t take the thirty-dollar artificial shell from SeaWorld’s gift shop . It distinctly reminded me of the awestruck feeling I had when I witnessed the churning waves of a windy night by the ocean the previous weekend; I lost track of time gazing at the distant moonlit border dividing our world from the ever-growing black void. Turning to my mom, I inquired curiously, “Can we go to the place where the water ends one day?”

She explained to me I could never reach the end of the ocean because the harsh line I had seen was actually an illusion called the horizon —  there was no material end to the ocean. For a mind as young as mine was, the idea of infinity was incomprehensible. As my infatuation with the ocean continued to grow, I finally understood that regardless of how far I travel, the horizon is unattainable because it’s not a physical limit. This idea is why the ocean captivates me — no matter how much you discover, there is always more to explore. 

Learning about and exploring the ocean provided an escape from one reality into another; though we are on the same planet, it’s an entirely separate world. Through elementary and middle school, I devoted vast amounts of my free time to learning about simpler concepts like a dolphin’s ability to echolocate and coral reef ecosystems. I rented countless documentaries and constantly checked out books from my local library — my all-time favorite was an episode of the television series Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey titled “The Lost Worlds of Planet Earth.” This episode remained memorable because it was centered around the impacts of fossil fuels on marine animals; it was the first time I’d learned about the impending crisis we are faced with due to the human mistreatment of our planet.

Prior to viewing that episode, I relied on the ocean as an outlet — I fueled all of my emotions into studying marine organisms. Once I learned of its grave future, I delved into the world of environmental activism. This path was much more disheartening than studying echolocation — inevitable death due to climate change took a toll on my mental health. I attended two climate strikes in November of my sophomore year. Following the strikes, I joined Sunrise Movement Sacramento, a youth-led climate justice organization advocating for the Green New Deal. While analyzing legislation and organizing protests were significant takeaways from my experience with climate activism, they were not the most important. I became an organizer because of my love for the ocean and I remain an organizer because of my passion for dissolving the disproportionalities marginalized groups face due to the sacrificing of people’s livelihood for the sake of profit. The more I learned about our modern society, the more hopeless I grew that I could see any significant change within my lifetime.

However, this hopelessness comes in waves; every day, I remind myself of the moment I discovered the horizon. Or the moment I first dove into the beautiful waters of the Hawaiian coast and immediately was surrounded by breathtaking seas of magnificent creatures and coral gardens — life felt ethereal and beautiful. I remind myself that like the ocean, the vast majority of the universe has yet to be discovered; that distant border holds infinite opportunity to learn. In a universe as vast as ours, and life as rare as ours, individuals still choose to prioritize avarice over our planet. Despite this grave individualism, the ocean reminds me every day there is hope in the fight for a better world. Though I will never discover every inch of the ocean’s floor, I will forever envision and reach for new horizons.

Sometimes the path to a great essay is taking something normal and using it to show admissions officers who you are and what you value—that is precisely this student’s approach! Finding the ocean fascinating is not unique to this student. Tons of kids (and adults, too!) are obsessed with the ocean. What this student does is take things a step further as they explain their curiosity about the ocean in relation to their pain about the destruction of the environment. This capacity for reflection is great!

This student shows a good control of language through their thematic centering on ocean and horizons that carries through their essay—with ”this hopelessness comes in waves” and “I will forever envision and reach for new horizons.” The details provided throughout are also effective at keeping readers engaged—things like “ my six-year-old self was heartbroken when I couldn’t take the thirty-dollar artificial shell from SeaWorld’s gift shop” and “ my all-time favorite was an episode of the television series Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey titled “The Lost Worlds of Planet Earth.”

The main weakness of this essay is the lack of reflection when the student discusses environmental activism. There’s reflection on the student’s connection to the ocean and horizons at the beginning and at the end, but when the student discusses activism, the tone shifts from focusing on their internal thoughts to their external actions. Remember, a lot of students write about environmental activism, but not a lot of students write about an emotional connection to the ocean as an impetus for environmental activism. This student would stand out more to admissions officers if they had dug into questions of what the ocean means to them (and says about them) in the paragraphs beginning “Learning about and exploring the ocean…” and “Prior to viewing that episode.”

Prompt #7: Share an essay on any topic of your choice. It can be one you’ve already written, one that responds to a different prompt, or one of your own design.

Prompt #7, example #1.

Scalding hot water cascades over me, crashing to the ground in a familiar, soothing rhythm. Steam rises to the ceiling as dried sweat and soap suds swirl down the drain. The water hisses as it hits my skin, far above the safe temperature for a shower. The pressure is perfect on my tired muscles, easing the aches and bruises from a rough bout of sparring and the tension from a long, stressful day. The noise from my overactive mind dies away, fading into music, lyrics floating through my head. Black streaks stripe the inside of my left arm, remnants of the penned reminders of homework, money owed and forms due. 

It lacks the same dynamism and controlled intensity of sparring on the mat at taekwondo or the warm tenderness of a tight hug from my father, but it’s still a cocoon of safety as the water washes away the day’s burdens. As long as the hot water is running, the rest of the world ceases to exist, shrinking to me, myself and I. The shower curtain closes me off from the hectic world spinning around me. 

Much like the baths of Blanche DuBois, my hot showers are a means of cleansing and purifying (though I’m mostly just ridding myself of the germs from children at work sneezing on me). In the midst of a hot shower, there is no impending exam to study for, no newspaper deadline to meet, no paycheck to deposit. It is simply complete and utter peace, a safe haven. The steam clears my mind even as it clouds my mirror. 

Creativity thrives in the tub, breathing life into tales of dragons and warrior princesses that evolve only in my head, never making their way to paper but appeasing the childlike dreamer and wannabe author in me all the same. That one calculus problem that has seemed unsolvable since second period clicks into place as I realize the obvious solution. The perfect concluding sentence to my literary analysis essay writes itself (causing me to abruptly end my shower in a mad dash to the computer before I forget it entirely).  

Ever since I was old enough to start taking showers unaided, I began hogging all the hot water in the house, a source of great frustration to my parents. Many of my early showers were rudely cut short by an unholy banging on the bathroom door and an order to “stop wasting water and come eat dinner before it gets cold.” After a decade of trudging up the stairs every evening to put an end to my water-wasting, my parents finally gave in, leaving me to my (expensive) showers. I imagine someday, when paying the water bill is in my hands, my showers will be shorter, but today is not that day (nor, hopefully, will the next four years be that day). 

Showers are better than any ibuprofen, the perfect panacea for life’s daily ailments. Headaches magically disappear as long as the water runs, though they typically return in full force afterward. The runny nose and itchy eyes courtesy of summertime allergies recede. Showers alleviate even the stomachache from a guacamole-induced lack of self-control. 

Honestly though, the best part about a hot shower is neither its medicinal abilities nor its blissful temporary isolation or even the heavenly warmth seeped deep into my bones. The best part is that these little moments of pure, uninhibited contentedness are a daily occurrence. No matter how stressful the day, showers ensure I always have something to look forward to. They are small moments, true, but important nonetheless, because it is the little things in life that matter; the big moments are too rare, too fleeting to make anyone truly happy. Wherever I am in the world, whatever fate chooses to throw at me, I know I can always find my peace at the end of the day behind the shower curtain.

This essay is relatable yet personal! The writer makes themself supremely human through discussing the universal subject of showering. That being said, an essay about showering could easily turn boring while still being relatable. This writer keeps its relatable moments interesting and fun through vivid descriptions of common feelings including “causing me to abruptly end my shower in a mad dash to the computer before I forget it entirely” and “the stomachache from a guacamole-induced lack of self-control.”

While describing a universal feeling, this student also cleverly and intentionally mentions small facts about their life through simple phrases like “I’m mostly just ridding myself of the germs from children at work sneezing on me” and “the childlike dreamer and wannabe author in me.” To put it simply, though we are talking about a shower, we learn about so much more!

And, at the end, the student lets us know that that is exactly why they love showers. Showers are more than meets the eye! With this insightful and reflective ending (“the big moments are too rare, too fleeting to make anyone truly happy”), readers learn about this student’s capacity for reflection, which is an important capacity as you enter college.

The one major error that this writer commits is that of using a trite transition. The inclusion of “Honestly though” at the beginning of this student’s ending detracts from what they are trying to say and sticks out in their writing.

Prompt #7, Example #2

Steam whooshed from the pot as I unveiled my newest creation: duck-peppercorn-chestnut dumplings. The spicy, hearty aroma swirled into the kitchen, mingling with the smell of fresh dough. Grinning, I grabbed a plump dumpling with chopsticks, blew carefully, and fed it into the waiting mouth of my little sister. Her eyes widening, she vigorously nodded and held up five stubby fingers. I did a little happy dance in celebration and pulled my notebook out of my apron pocket. Duck-peppercorn-chestnut: five stars.

In my household, dumplings are a far cry from the classic pork and cabbage. Our menu boasts everything from the savory lamb-bamboo shoot-watercress to the sweet and crispy apple-cinnamon-date. A few years ago, my sister claimed she was sick of eating the same flavors over and over. Refusing to let her disavow our family staple, I took her complaint as a challenge to make the tastiest and most unconventional dumplings to satisfy her. With her as my taste tester and Mum in charge of dough, I spent months experimenting with dozens of odd ingredient combinations. 

During those days spent covered in flour, my dumplings often reminded me of myself—a hybrid of ingredients that don’t usually go together. I am the product of three distinct worlds: the suburbs of Boston, the rural Chinese village of [location removed], and the coastal city of [location removed]. At school, I am both the STEM nerd with lightning-fast mental math and the artistic plant mom obsessed with funky earrings. I love all that is elegant, from Chinese calligraphy to the rolling notes of the Gourd flute, yet I can be very not elegant, like when my sister and I make homemade slime. When I’m on the streets, marching for women’s rights and climate action, I’m loud, bellowing from the bottom of my gut. In the painting studio, though, I don’t speak unless spoken to, and hours can slip by like minutes. I’m loud and quiet. Elegant and messy. Nerdy and artistic. Suburban, rustic, and metropolitan.

While I’m full of odd combinations, they are only seemingly contradictory. Just as barbeque pork and pineapple can combine beautifully in a dumpling wrapper, different facets of my identity also converge. After my tenth-grade summer, when I spent six weeks studying design at art school and another three researching the brain at Harvard Med, I began asking myself: What if I mixed art and neuroscience together? That fall, I collaborated with my school’s art museum for an independent research project, exploring two questions: How are aesthetic experiences processed in the brain? And how can neuroscience help museums design exhibits that maximize visitor engagement? I combed through studies with results from tightly controlled experiments, and I spent days gathering my own qualitative data by observing museum visitors and asking them questions. With the help of my artistic skills, I could identify the visual and spatial elements of the exhibits that best held visitors’ attention. 

By synergizing two of the ingredients that make me who I am—art and neuroscience—I realized I shouldn’t see the different sides of myself as separate. I learned to instead seek the intersections between aspects of my identity. Since then, I have mixed art with activism to voice my opinions nonverbally, created Spotify playlists with both Chinese and western pop, and written flute compositions using music theory and math. In the future, by continuing to combine my interests, I want to find my niche in the world. I can make a positive impact on society without having to choose just one passion. As of now, my dream is to be a neuroscientist who designs art therapy treatments for mental health patients. Who knows though? Maybe my calling is to be a dim sum chef who teaches pottery on the side. I don’t know where I’ll go, but one thing’s for sure—being a standard pork and cabbage dumpling is definitely not my style.

This essay is outstanding because the student seems likable and authentic. With the first image of the student’s little sister vigorously nodding and holding up “five stubby fingers,” we find ourselves intrigued by the student’s daily life. They additionally show the importance of family, culture, and creativity in their life—these are great things to highlight in your essay!

After the introduction, the student uses their weird dumpling anecdote to transition to a discussion of their unique intersections. This is achieved smoothly because weirdness/uniqueness is the focus of both of these topics. Additionally, the comparison is not awkward because dumplings are used as more than just a transition, but rather are the through-line of the essay—the student weaves in little phrases like “Just as barbeque pork and pineapple can combine beautifully in a dumpling wrapper,” “By synergizing two of the ingredients that make me who I am,” and “being a standard pork and cabbage dumpling is definitely not my style.” This gives the essay its cohesive feel.

Authenticity comes through in this essay as the student recognizes that they don’t know what the future holds. They just know what kind of a person they are—a passionate one! 

One change that would improve this student’s essay would be focusing on fewer intersections in their third and last paragraph. The student mentions STEM, music, family activities, activism, and painting, which makes it feel like a distraction in middle of the essay. Focus on the most important things you want to show admissions officers—you can sit at intersections, but you can’t be interested in everything.

Prompt #7, Example #3

“Everyone follow me!” I smiled at five wide-eyed skaters before pushing off into a spiral. I glanced behind me hopefully, only to see my students standing frozen like statues, the fear in their eyes as clear as the ice they swayed on. “Come on!” I said encouragingly, but the only response I elicited was the slow shake of their heads. My first day as a Learn-to-Skate coach was not going as planned. 

But amid my frustration, I was struck by how much my students reminded me of myself as a young skater. At seven, I had been fascinated by Olympic performers who executed thrilling high jumps and dizzying spins with apparent ease, and I dreamed to one day do the same. My first few months on skates, however, sent these hopes crashing down: my attempts at slaloms and toe-loops were shadowed by a stubborn fear of falling, which even the helmet, elbow pads, and two pairs of mittens I had armed myself with couldn’t mitigate. Nonetheless, my coach remained unfailingly optimistic, motivating me through my worst spills and teaching me to find opportunities in failures. With his encouragement, I learned to push aside my fears and attack each jump with calm and confidence; it’s the hope that I can help others do the same that now inspires me to coach. 

I remember the day a frustrated staff member directed Oliver, a particularly hesitant young skater, toward me, hoping that my patience and steady encouragement might help him improve. Having stood in Oliver’s skates not much earlier myself, I completely empathized with his worries but also saw within him the potential to overcome his fears and succeed. 

To alleviate his anxiety, I held Oliver’s hand as we inched around the rink, cheering him on at every turn. I soon found though, that this only increased his fear of gliding on his own, so I changed my approach, making lessons as exciting as possible in hopes that he would catch the skating bug and take off. In the weeks that followed, we held relay races, played “freeze-skate” and “ice-potato”, and raced through obstacle courses; gradually, with each slip and subsequent success, his fear began to abate. I watched Oliver’s eyes widen in excitement with every skill he learned, and not long after, he earned his first skating badge. Together we celebrated this milestone, his ecstasy fueling my excitement and his pride mirroring my own. At that moment, I was both teacher and student, his progress instilling in me the importance of patience and a positive attitude. 

It’s been more than ten years since I bundled up and stepped onto the ice for the first time. Since then, my tolerance for the cold has remained stubbornly low, but the rest of me has certainly changed. In sharing my passion for skating, I have found a wonderful community of eager athletes, loving parents, and dedicated coaches from whom I have learned invaluable lessons and wisdom. My fellow staffers have been with me, both as friends and colleagues, and the relationships I’ve formed have given me far more poise, confidence, and appreciation for others. Likewise, my relationships with parents have given me an even greater gratitude for the role they play: no one goes to the rink without a parent behind the wheel! 

Since that first lesson, I have mentored dozens of children, and over the years, witnessed tentative steps transform into powerful glides and tears give way to delighted grins. What I have shared with my students has been among the greatest joys of my life, something I will cherish forever. It’s funny: when I began skating, what pushed me through the early morning practices was the prospect of winning an Olympic medal. Now, what excites me is the chance to work with my students, to help them grow, and to give back to the sport that has brought me so much happiness. 

A major strength of this essay comes in its narrative organization. When reading this first paragraph, we feel for the young skaters and understand their fear—skating sounds scary! Then, because the writer sets us up to feel this empathy, the transition to the second paragraph where the student describes their empathy for the young skaters is particularly powerful. It’s like we are all in it together! The student’s empathy for the young skaters also serves as an outstanding, seamless transition to the applicant discussing their personal journey with skating: “I was struck by how much my students reminded me of myself as a young skater.”

This essay positions the applicant as a grounded and caring individual. They are caring towards the young skaters—changing their teaching style to try to help the young skaters and feeling the young skaters’ emotions with them—but they are also appreciative to those who helped them as they reference their fellow staffers and parents. This shows great maturity—a favorable quality in the eyes of an admissions officer.

At the end of the essay, we know a lot about this student and are convinced that they would be a good addition to a college campus!

Prompt #7, Example #4

Flipping past dozens of colorful entries in my journal, I arrive at the final blank sheet. I press my pen lightly to the page, barely scratching its surface to create a series of loops stringing together into sentences. Emotions spill out, and with their release, I feel lightness in my chest. The stream of thoughts slows as I reach the bottom of the page, and I gently close the cover of the worn book: another journal finished.

I add the journal to the stack of eleven books on my nightstand. Struck by the bittersweet sensation of closing a chapter of my life, I grab the notebook at the bottom of the pile to reminisce.

“I want to make a flying mushen to fly in space and your in it” – October 2008

Pulling back the cover of my first Tinkerbell-themed diary, the prompt “My Hopes and Dreams” captures my attention. Though “machine” is misspelled in my scribbled response, I see the beginnings of my past obsession with outer space. At the age of five, I tore through novels about the solar system, experimented with rockets built from plastic straws, and rented Space Shuttle films from Blockbuster to satisfy my curiosities. While I chased down answers to questions as limitless as the universe, I fell in love with learning. Eight journals later, the same relentless curiosity brought me to an airplane descending on San Francisco Bay.

“I wish I had infinite sunsets” – July 2019

I reach for the charcoal notepad near the top of the pile and open to the first page: my flight to the Stanford Pre-Collegiate Summer Institutes. While I was excited to explore bioengineering, anxiety twisted in my stomach as I imagined my destination, unsure of whether I could overcome my shyness and connect with others.

With each new conversation, the sweat on my palms became less noticeable, and I met students from 23 different countries. Many of the moments where I challenged myself socially revolved around the third story deck of the Jerry house. A strange medley of English, Arabic, and Mandarin filled the summer air as my friends and I gathered there every evening, and dialogues at sunset soon became moments of bliss. In our conversations about cultural differences, the possibility of an afterlife, and the plausibility of far-fetched conspiracy theories, I learned to voice my opinion. As I was introduced to different viewpoints, these moments challenged my understanding of the world around me. In my final entries from California, I find excitement to learn from others and increased confidence, a tool that would later allow me to impact my community.

“The beauty in a tower of cans” – June 2020

Returning my gaze to the stack of journals, I stretch to take the floral-patterned book sitting on top. I flip through, eventually finding the beginnings of the organization I created during the outbreak of COVID-19. Since then, Door-to-Door Deliveries has woven its way through my entries and into reality, allowing me to aid high-risk populations through free grocery delivery.

With the confidence I gained the summer before, I took action when seeing others in need rather than letting my shyness hold me back. I reached out to local churches and senior centers to spread word of our services and interacted with customers through our website and social media pages. To further expand our impact, we held two food drives, and I mustered the courage to ask for donations door-to-door. In a tower of canned donations, I saw the value of reaching out to help others and realized my own potential to impact the world around me.

I delicately close the journal in my hands, smiling softly as the memories reappear, one after another. Reaching under my bed, I pull out a fresh notebook and open to its first sheet. I lightly press my pen to the page, “And so begins the next chapter…”

The structuring of this essay makes it easy and enjoyable to read. The student effectively organizes their various life experiences around their tower of journals, which centers the reader and makes the different stories easy to follow. Additionally, the student engages quotes from their journals—and unique formatting of the quotes—to signal that they are moving in time and show us which memory we should follow them to.

Thematically, the student uses the idea of shyness to connect the different memories they draw out of their journals. As the student describes their experiences overcoming shyness at the Stanford Pre-Collegiate Summer Institutes and Door-to-Door Deliveries, this essay can be read as an Overcoming Obstacles essay.

At the end of this essay, readers are fully convinced that this student is dedicated (they have committed to journaling every day), thoughtful (journaling is a thoughtful process and, in the essay, the student reflects thoughtfully on the past), and motivated (they flew across the country for a summer program and started a business). These are definitely qualities admissions officers are looking for in applicants!

Prompt #7, Example #5

“We’re ready for take-off!” 

The tires hit the tarmac and began to accelerate, and I just realized what I had signed up for. For 24 hours straight, I strapped myself into a broken-down SUV whereas others chose the luxury of soaring through the skies for a mere two hours. Especially with my motion sickness and driving anxiety, I would call myself crazy too.

To say I have always remained in my comfort zone is an understatement. Did I always order chicken fingers and fries at a restaurant? Yup! Sounds like me. Did I always create a color-coded itinerary just for a day trip? Guilty as charged. Did I always carry a first-aid kit at all times? Of course! I would make even an ambulance look unprepared. And yet here I was, choosing 1,000 miles of misery from Las Vegas to Seattle despite every bone in my body telling me not to.

The sunlight blinded my eyes and a wave of nausea swept over me. Was it too late to say I forgot my calculator? It was only ten minutes in, and I was certain that the trip was going to be a disaster. I simply hoped that our pre-drive prayer was not stuck in God’s voicemail box. 

All of a sudden, I noticed brightly colored rocks in the distance, ones I had been dying to see for years. Their fluorescence popped amongst the magnificent winding hills as the sunset became romantic in hue. The desert glistened with mirages of deep blue water unlike anything I had ever seen. Nevada was home, but home always seemed to be just desert and casinos. For once, I looked forward to endless desert outside my window rather than a sea of clouds.

I never realized how little I discovered of the world beyond home. For years I complained about how there was nothing to do or discover outside. Not once did I set out to prove myself wrong. Instead, I chose a daily routine of homework at the kitchen table and late-night TV. However, as summer vacation ended, I decided to set my stubbornness aside and finally give this drive back home a chance. Little did I know that it would turn out to be my favorite trip of all time. 

As we drove along, the world chose to prove me wrong when I discovered Heaven on Earth along Shasta Lake. I stood out of the sunroof, surrounded by lush green mountains and fog. I extended my arms out and felt a sense of flight that no plane could ever take me on. As the water vapor kissed my face, I floated into a dreamland I never wanted to leave. I didn’t have to go to great lengths to discover the beauty of the world; it was right in front of me.  From this moment on, comfort and convenience would no longer be my best friends. Rather than only looking for famous travel destinations or following carefully mapped-out routes, I would let curiosity lead the way. 

Since then, my daily life has been anything but routine. I’m proud to boast of my family’s homemade kombucha attempts, of flights purchased and taken in one day, and of a home flooded with knick-knacks from thrifting trips. Every day I set out to try something new, see a different perspective, and go beyond normal. Whether it is by trying a new recipe using taro, making a risky fashion choice with wide-legged pants, or listening to a new music genre in Spanish, I always act with curiosity first.

Over the years, I have devoted my time towards learning Swedish, building computers, and swimming. Although my accent is horrid, some computers almost broke, and even a starfish would outswim me, I continue to enjoy activities I once criticized. For me, there is no enjoyment without some risk. Nobody I know is a kazoo-playing, boogie-board loving, boba connoisseur like me.

This essay is an Overcoming Challenges story that centers around a single anecdote. The structure works nicely as the student describes what they were like before their road trip, what happened on the road trip, and what they were like after. 

The most major improvement that this essay needs is better-communicated authenticity. At the beginning, it feels a bit gimmicky. The student describes their preparedness, particularly the fact that they always carry a first aid kit, and it’s not super believable. Then, when they write “Was it too late to say I forgot my calculator?” it feels like we are in a sitcom and the student is that funny obsessive kid. Sitcom characters don’t feel real and you want to make yourself appear profoundly real.

On a similar note, the narrative arc of this essay isn’t entirely believable. The student describes a large personality and value shift but doesn’t describe any struggles that accompany the shift. A quick shift like that is far from easy. On the other hand, if the immediacy of the shift was easy, they could write about moments after their shift in mindset when they have felt troubled by residual desires to stay in their comfort zone, instead of writing “I always act with curiosity first.”

The greatest strength of this essay is the paragraphs beginning “I never realized how little…” and “As we drove along…” The fixation on comfort seems much more believable when it involves “homework at the kitchen table and late-night TV.” The descriptions of the drive provide beautiful, evocative imagery. And it’s topped off with some nice reflection! Digging into this great portion of the essay would make this an even stronger essay!

Want to see more examples? Check out this post with 16 strong essay examples from top schools , including common supplemental essay questions.

At selective schools, your essays account for around 25% of your admissions decision. That’s more than grades (20%) and test scores (15%), and almost as much as extracurriculars (30%). Why is this? Most students applying to top schools will have stellar academics and extracurriculars. Your essays are your chance to stand out and humanize your application.

That’s why it’s vital that your essays are engaging, and present you as someone who would enrich the campus community.

Before submitting your application, you should have someone else review your essays. It’s even better if that person doesn’t know you personally, as they can best tell whether your personality shines through your essay. 

That’s why we created our free Peer Essay Review tool , where you can get a free review of your essay from another student. You can also improve your own writing skills by reviewing other students’ essays. 

If you want a college admissions expert to review your essay, advisors on CollegeVine have helped students refine their writing and submit successful applications to top schools. Find the right advisor for you to improve your chances of getting into your dream school!

Related CollegeVine Blog Posts

New Law School Diversity Statements ("Life Experience/Perspective Essays"): FAQ

This blog post comes from our consultants Anne Dutia, Danielle Early, Paula Gluzman, and Tom Robinson. You can read their full bios here or at the end of this post.

Over the last year, as a result of the 2023 Supreme Court decision on race-conscious admissions, most law schools have changed their prompts for the essays that have long been known as “Diversity Statements.” These new prompts have many names, but two of the most common are Life Experience Essays and Perspective Essays, so we will refer to them as “E/P essays” moving forward.

Choosing whether and/or how to write the new versions of these E/P essays can be a difficult decision. Our team has collectively guided hundreds of applicants as they navigated this new component of the application process in the past admissions cycle. Below, we’ve collected our responses to frequently asked questions about these newer essay prompts. We hope you find them helpful! 

Quick disclaimer that the 2024-2025 application instructions and prompts are not yet available. It is very important to pay special attention to the schools’ prompts as they may well change again this coming cycle. 

Law School Life Experience/Perspective Essay FAQs

What’s the difference between life experience and life perspective essays, and how do they differ from what law schools wanted before .

For a bit of context, along with the required personal statement, law schools have traditionally offered the option of writing a diversity statement for applicants to share more about aspects of their identity, background, and overcoming hardships and adversity. In more recent years, but specifically, after the 2023 SCOTUS decision to remove race-conscious admissions practices, diversity statement prompts have evolved to encompass broader life experiences and perspectives—hence the new names and titles for these optional statements.  

In many ways, both types of these new essay prompts are asking about the understanding you have developed and the insights you have gleaned on issues important to you. For some people, those insights will come from personal experience, and for others, it may be from study. Regardless of how you came to these experiences or perspectives, there should be a clear articulation of why your insights would be valuable in the study and practice of law, whether it’s how you engage with others or the questions you may raise that wouldn’t occur to others. Here is a quick diagram to illustrate the differences a bit more.

What if I am not a member of an underrepresented minority group? Should I still write an E/P essay, even when it is optional?

Everyone’s experiences and the insights derived from them are valuable. E/P essays are certainly not limited to members of underrepresented minority groups but can be about a significant aspect of your life or identity, exposure to new ideas, and/or impactful experiences. If you can connect those in a meaningful way to how you would approach certain situations or interact with certain groups, that could be quite effective. Or, if you can use your experience to demonstrate grit, compassion, or a particular understanding of a specific issue, that could also work well. If you are writing about challenges or adversity, these also don’t have to be limited to challenges or adversity associated with being a member of a minority group. For example, you could discuss what you learned growing up while spending all of your free time working for a small family-owned business, or as the caretaker of elderly grandparents or younger siblings, or the leadership lessons gained from being a student-athlete—these could be interesting topics that could make for excellent E/P essays. 

I am an underrepresented student. What should/can I share in my E/P essay? Is there anything I should avoid writing about now that these prompts are not traditional Diversity Statements?

First and foremost, write your story authentically and do not feel like you have to hide or undermine your true identity. Let your story illustrate your diversity, perspectives, and how your experiences shape the contributions you will make. Your identity should be shared within the context of your story, and it may encompass new perspectives you have shared in personal, academic, or professional settings. In some cases, underrepresented students might have painful stories to share about encountering racism, discrimination, or marginalization. While you are not required to share these aspects of your life story, it can help the admissions committee understand the distance you have traveled in your journey to law school. Many applicants from underrepresented student groups have both positive and negative experiences to share in an E/P essay. The key is to tell your story in the context of how it will help you contribute during your law school years and as a legal professional.

How long should the E/P essay be?

Pay attention to schools’ instructions. While you don’t have to use the entire length allowed, be sure not to go over the maximum length. Some schools limit the E/Pessay to 500 words, one page, or two pages, while others do not give a page limit. If a school does not give a page limit, then anything in the range of one to one and a half pages would be a good guide to follow. 

Is this essay really optional? How many should I write when a school provides multiple prompts?

For most schools, the answer is, yes, they are optional! (However, don’t count yourself out because at first glance you can’t think of a topic.) The E/P essays are required for a few schools (e.g. Harvard and Vanderbilt), while other schools may require one additional essay from a list that may include a Diversity or an E/P-related prompt. 

If a school allows for more than one essay, be judicious and use good judgment on whether your application needs another essay added to the collective materials you are already submitting. More is not always better.

What types of life experiences and perspectives are they interested in? Can I share about my own personal growth? Interpersonal experiences in my family or community? Work/professional experience? How far back can I go? What if I am still in college and don’t have work experience?

We have provided a sample of ideas below that clients successfully wrote about last year. This list shows you the array of experiences, ranging from one-of-a-kind unique situations to common occurrences experienced by many. Don’t count yourself out just because you think your experiences aren’t significant, unique, or compelling. You can speak to experiences from as far back or as recent as you want as long as they are still relevant to you today. 

Law School Life Experience/Perspective Essay Examples Topics: 

• Trying to promote female empowerment within their industry
• Being a woman in a mal/e-dominated space
• Being raised gender neutral 
• Ways, as a member of mostly majority classes, the applicant’s experiences being exposed to different groups influenced their approach to their jobs/lives
• As a leader, having to deal with difficult, emotionally-charged conversations 
• Acknowledgments of the value of ensuring all voices are heard
• Learning how to communicate across different academic and cultural backgrounds
• Volunteering in a prison
• Dealing with family difficulties, abuse, mental health issues, incarceration, or other major adversities
• Being a primary caregiver for siblings, parents, or grandparents
• Military experience
• Experiences with racism
• Positive experiences with cultural identity
• How being mixed race provides perspective
• Reckoning experience as bisexual in a traditional family
• Experiences with discrimination based on sexuality

Socio - economic

• Growing up with significant financial struggles
• Living in an area with severe blatant wealth inequality

Religion  

• Struggling with finding their place within their family’s religion
• Growing up in multiple religions
• How religion emphasizes acts of service
• Connecting to faith later in life

Immigration

• Growing up with different cultural expectations between immigrant parents and US standards
• Following an unexpected path to STEM
• Creating and developing communities in new places

Disability/Medical 

• Being misdiagnosed
• Being ignored by doctors 
• How having a diagnosis changes the way people see your actions
• -Neurodivergence or late-diagnosed neurodivergence
• Having a “hidden” illness or disability

Do I have to write a different essay for each school?

Many times, you can use the general topic or theme of one school’s prompt and adapt it to other schools, but you probably won’t be able to use the same exact essay for every school on your list. The reality of these newer and broader prompts is that they make it more challenging for applicants to select one workable topic or to write one relevant essay that applies to all. You’ll likely have to write a few different versions, either slightly augmenting your first essay to work for one unique prompt or tweaking the topic to work for prompts of multiple schools. This is especially true for applicants who may have more traditional diversity statement content to share. 

There are so many different E/P prompts! How do I adapt my essay for the various schools? 

There are several different strategies you can use for picking your essay topics. One way is to start by focusing on the message or story you want to share about yourself, and then read the school’s prompt to see how your messaging fits into the prompt. Ask yourself if there are stories and experiences not covered in your personal statement that law schools should know about you, and how those circumstances can be conveyed in ways that directly respond to the prompts.

Another strategy is to begin with the prompts, determine the different categories of content they want to learn about you, and then see which aspects of your story fit into them. For some prompts, you may need to write a new essay, but the topic could be the same. For example, you may have written your essay for one school about your life experience growing up in a religious household, realizing that you have different beliefs, and how you came to that realization. However, another school might ask you to write about difficult conversations you have experienced. For this prompt, you might then consider sharing how you told your parents about your conflicted feelings about the family’s religion. 

Another working strategy is to figure out which schools require an E/P essay (for example, Harvard and Vanderbilt), use those prompts to draft your essay, and then customize versions as needed for the other schools. 

Depending on your story and experiences, your strategy may differ from that of another applicant. Regardless, take the time to be strategic so you can work smarter, not harder when it comes to crafting these essays. Make sure you read each school's prompts and think about how you can share your story based on what they are asking for. Hopefully, you won’t need to write too many different versions.

Should I write about my race or ethnicity if I am underrepresented in the legal field? Can I speak to intersectionality? 

Certainly speak to intersectionality, if you can. If you are choosing between multiple options for your topic, and if you do come from a traditionally underrepresented race or ethnicity, keep the following in mind: Now that the Supreme Court has ruled that schools cannot directly ask about a student’s racial background, they can still consider your identity(ies) if you share them through your essays—in other words, law schools can no longer ask, but applicants can certainly still tell. Race cannot be a deciding factor in admissions, but it can still be one of many considerations if the applicant shares their perspective in their application. Essays that highlight your racial diversity and speak to how that perspective shapes you will be the only place that a school will learn about your diverse identity as they make their admission decision.  

How do I include information about my background in a way that is helpful to the admissions reviewers?

The Supreme Court made sure to emphasize that it is not just your experience and perspective that matters, but how this can contribute to your law school community and the legal profession at large. Paraphrasing Chief Justice Roberts’ words: 

Nothing prohibits universities from considering an applicant’s discussion of how race affected the applicant’s life, so long as that discussion is concretely tied to a quality of character or unique ability that the particular applicant can contribute to the university.

Accordingly, it will be most helpful to admissions for applicants to connect the dots between your experience/perspective and the contribution you will make. Think outside of the box about what “contribution” means in the context of your actions, viewpoints, representation, interactions with others, and work outcomes you bring as a person, student, and future professional. Have your experiences encouraged you to see from multiple different viewpoints with more clarity? Have they allowed you to empathize and identify with communities you hope to work with as an attorney? Will they allow you to share a perspective that is often overlooked in the classroom or the judicial system? These could all be themes of a strong E/P essay.

How can I talk about overcoming adversity for schools that don’t ask for it?

In some cases, it may not be advisable to attach an unsolicited E/P essay. It is important to consider whether a school allows for this or if they would frown on unsolicited information. One option is to ask an admissions officer at the school if they would be open to an unsolicited E/P  essay. For example, Stanford Law and Yale Law do not currently have a space for this type of essay. In 2023-2024, Yale did have a “Grit” essay, but some applicants might not feel that this prompt would be appropriate for what they want to share. So, think carefully and maybe inquire about this possibility before doing it. Also, when the 2024-2025 applications are launched, YLS and SLS may bring back this opportunity. 

Parting thoughts:

As more relevant hot topics and burning questions come our way, we will update this post. For now, we hope these FAQs are helpful as you navigate the best strategy, topics, and story to share in your E/P essays.

Anne Dutia has been involved on both sides of the admissions process since 2001. After practicing law for a few years, she spent four years in admissions at The University of Michigan Law School as Assistant Director and then served as a pre-law advisor at The University of Texas at Dallas until joining Spivey Consulting in October of 2017. As a pre-law advisor, Anne was on the Executive Board of the Southwestern Association of Pre-Law Advisors (SWAPLA) and on the Pre-Law Advisors National Council (PLANC), helping to organize multiple pre-law advising conferences. She was also a coach of a Top 15 undergraduate Moot Court team and continues to serve on the Executive Board of the American Moot Court Association (AMCA).

Born in Bombay, India, Anne has lived all over the United States. She earned her BA at Birmingham-Southern College in Birmingham, Alabama, and her JD from the University of Alabama. Despite living in Texas for almost 20 years, she still calls Alabama home and can be found cheering on the Crimson Tide most Saturdays in the fall.

Danielle Early has 15 years of admissions experience, most recently serving as Associate Director of Admissions at Harvard Law School. As a voting member of the HLS admissions committee, she evaluated over 10,000 applications and conducted hundreds of admissions interviews. Prior to joining Karen in the HLS admissions office, Danielle worked in undergraduate admissions at Harvard College as well as Clark University.

In addition to the many roles Danielle filled in the HLS admissions office, she also served as a proctor (or dorm parent/resident hall director) while at Harvard, acting as an academic and career advisor for students. Danielle has spent considerable time counseling students throughout their undergraduate careers, job searches and grad school applications.

Danielle earned her Bachelor’s Degree at Clark University as a double major in Communications and Studio Art and then continued on there to earn a Master’s Degree in Professional Communications. These days, you are likely to find her hiking with her dog, taking cooking classes or working on a new drawing.

Paula Gluzman has over a decade of experience in legal practice and law school administration. Her true passion for working with students throughout their entire law school journey is demonstrated through her diverse professional positions. As the Assistant Director of Admissions & Financial Aid at the University of Washington School of Law and later at UCLA School of Law, Paula has read and evaluated hundreds of admissions files, interviewed applicants, and worked directly with candidates all over the country and abroad to advise them on the law school admissions process. In addition to mentoring and advising pre-law students and traveling the country to present on law school admissions topics, Paula also worked in law school career services, employer outreach and recruiting, and professional development training. She has reviewed and edited hundreds of resumes, cover letters, and other application materials, as well as graded California Bar exam practice tests. Additionally, Paula’s work as a law school career advisor allows her to bring the full-circle perspective to the admissions process, helping applicants make informed and strategic law school decisions from a career and professional development perspective.

Paula has served in elected leadership and board positions during law school (including a journal comments editor), and professionally in NALP (National Association for Law Placement), SDLRA (San Diego Legal Recruiting Association), and LEAP (Legal Education Access Pipeline). As an immigrant and the first in her family to attend law school, Paula is proactive in promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion in legal education and hiring. In the years that she has studied and engaged in DE&I work, she understands the challenges involved in getting to law school and the value of knowledgeable mentorship through the admissions process. As Spivey Consulting Group’s Director of Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives, Paula also spearheads the firm’s annual Pro-Bono Program and other efforts to provide equal access to law school admissions information.

Lastly, to complement her advising and counseling experience, Paula prides herself on helping her clients bring their stories to life through their statements. Through her personal passion for written expression, as well as her academic and professional writing and editing experience, Paula provides each client with the guidance to showcase their best attributes and highlight how they add distinguishing value to their future law school.

Paula lives in Northern California with her family and their scruffy little pup.

Tom Robinson has worked in admissions for over 20 years and enjoys advising students as they navigate the admissions process. Most recently, Tom served as the Director of J.D. Admissions at Harvard Law School, where he received the 2018 Dean’s Award for Excellence. During his years in admissions, Tom has evaluated thousands of applications, interviewed more than 900 law applicants, and served on admissions committees within three different universities.

As a first generation college student himself, Tom understands the value of good advising throughout the admissions process. He is particularly proud of his role in admitting the first-ever class at Harvard Law with more than 50% women, has advised students from across China, Europe, and North and South America, and enjoys talking with veterans about their law school aspirations.

In addition to his professional experience, Tom earned a Master of Education at the University of Vermont and a Doctorate in Leadership in Higher Education from the University of Massachusetts, where he concentrated on issues related to learning outcomes and campus racial climates.

Tom has focused on academic and creative writing throughout his education, including while conducting a qualitative ethnographic study that became the basis of his dissertation. He has also co-authored several articles in peer-reviewed journals within the education field. Tom invests time in getting to know his clients and how their stories can be persuasively and compellingly shared with admissions committees.

When not working with potential applicants, you can find Tom hiking with his yellow lab Wilma, spending time with family, kayaking, or cycling northwest of Boston!

Calculate for all schools

Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, what is a perspective essay.

Hi everyone, I just came across a term 'perspective essay.' I haven't heard of this before, so can anyone give me a quick overview of what it is and how to write one? Thanks!

Hi there! A "perspective essay" refers to a type of paper that presents the writer's viewpoint or opinion on a specific topic as a form of personal reflection. The primary goal of a perspective essay is to show your unique perspective and establish a clear argument or position on the subject matter.

To write a perspective essay, follow these steps:

1. Choose a topic: Pick something you're passionate or knowledgeable about, as it makes for a more compelling read. Make sure the topic is not too broad, and it should be something that has room for debate or discussion.

2. Develop a thesis statement: This is the central point of your essay and should clearly state your perspective on the topic. Your thesis statement should be concise, well-defined, and easy to understand.

3. Organize your thoughts: Outline the structure of your essay before you start writing. This can help you ensure that your thoughts flow seamlessly from one point to the next and prevent you from drifting off-topic.

4. Write the introduction: Engage your readers by providing some context or background information about the topic. Then, present your thesis statement, which will act as the guideline for the rest of your paper.

5. Present your arguments: Use the body paragraphs to discuss your main points or arguments that support your thesis statement. Be sure to provide evidence by citing relevant sources, examples, or personal experiences to solidify your claims.

6. Address counterarguments: It's essential to offer a balanced perspective by considering opposing viewpoints. You can either dedicate a separate paragraph for counterarguments or address them throughout your body paragraphs. This allows you to demonstrate critical thinking and shows that your opinion is well-informed and well-reasoned.

7. Write the conclusion: Sum up your main points and restate your thesis in a different way. Leave your reader with a thought-provoking statement or question that encourages further discussion and reflection.

8. Revise and edit: Carefully review your essay for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and clarity. It's always helpful to have someone else proofread your work to identify any errors or areas that could be improved.

Remember that in a perspective essay, it's not about being right or wrong — it's about presenting your viewpoint effectively and persuasively. Good luck and happy writing!

About CollegeVine’s Expert FAQ

CollegeVine’s Q&A seeks to offer informed perspectives on commonly asked admissions questions. Every answer is refined and validated by our team of admissions experts to ensure it resonates with trusted knowledge in the field.

How To Write a Critical Perspective Essay

When you are faced with an essay title that incorporates the phrase “deliver a critical perspective on…”, the temptation can be to think that this means finds fault with a concept. However, in academic terms, taking a critical perspective means being able to demonstrate knowledge of different attitudes, interpretations, and viewpoints on the subject, and from this, being able to deliver a considered and informed opinion. In effect, a critical perspective essay requires to you to be able to show that there may be multiple ways to approach the main subject under discussion, but also to pick out, through analysis, which is the most viable perspective.

Sounds easy enough doesn’t it? If you follow our guide to producing the perfect critical perspective essay than yet it really is easy. An easy way to understand critical examination and thus arrive at a critical perspective is to remember that critical examination or evaluation picks out what is relevant or noteworthy to ensure understanding of how a thing (framework, hypothesis, phenomenon) works.

The aim of a persuasive essay is to convince your reader that your opinions and perspectives are correct. This can be done with a combination of emotive language and hard evidence to back up your viewpoint. You have to make the reader believe in the value of your opinion or standpoint, and sometimes to make the reader act. Fortunately, there are a number of techniques and approaches that can be used to ensure your persuasive essay presents a coherent, logical argument that cannot be denied by the reader.

In terms of structure, persuasive essays are relatively simple. Your arguments or opinions need to be clearly stated, reinforced, and backed with facts and evidence. Your summation, or conclusion should ensure that the reader is very clear about where you stand on the issue, so you need to be consistent throughout.

Planning your critical perspective essay

Stage one is identifying what it is you are being asked to critically evaluate and then take a perspective on. Typical essay titles include, “Discuss critical perspectives on the role censorship in modern music”, “Critically evaluate the main perspectives on the impact of social media on body image and state your own views on the subject”. In both cases, you are being asked to look at both sides of the argument and identify your own views.

Stage two requires identifying the key sources that will form the framework and rationale for your perspective. Whilst a critical perspective essay is essentially your own viewpoint, it is important to demonstrate how you have arrived at that view, based on research, evaluation of the evidence and an objective assessment of the facts.

Stage three draws up an outline of the arguments /points you wish to make in your essay and put them in a logical order. Chronologically works well but so does giving greater importance to key themes and then moving into sub-themes.

Writing your Critical Perspective Essay

Introduction.

Your introduction should be clear and unambiguous in stating the topic under question. Frequently a good essay will use either a clear statement (declarative) or a question which reflects the essay title. This tells the reader what you are discussing. The second part of the introduction should draw in your reader and motivate them to read more, as well as a clear statement of your own perspectives and how you intend to prove that they are correct (a thesis statement). Your introduction should conclude with a brief background to the topic and current views in the area. What this achieves is placing your work and perspective into a clear context for your reader.

The body text of your essay should have a focus of one paragraph per point / argument or topic so that the flow of information and argument is consistent. This is where an effective plan can help you clearly structure your essay. For each paragraph, you should introduce the main point/theme you are discussing before moving on to an explanation of your perspectives and why they are accurate in terms of the context of the work.

The explanation should then be followed by presentation of evidence that backs up your point of view. Here you can use quotes, statistics and other illustrative evidence but always ensure that your sources are credible and from trustworthy sources, as well as being correctly cited in the text and listed at the end of the work. An important element of every paragraph, and one most frequently missed by students is the linking of paragraphs, both to the opening statement and to the next point. Without linking the paragraphs an essay lacks cohesion and logical flow.

There are some key tips for critical perspective essay writing that help to reinforce the view you are trying to put across. These include repetition, which means making similar points in a range of ways, with different evidence. Repetition of points is not appropriate, but re-stating or reaffirming a perspective is crucial to ensuring that the reader comes to the same opinion as you.

A further valid approach is to indicate understanding of opposing perspectives. These should be stated, again with appropriate evidence from reliable sources. However, you should also add in reasons, backed by evidence as to why these perspectives are incorrect, which again reaffirms your own critical perspective.

The conclusion of your critical perspective essay should deliver a summation of all the points, bringing them together and reaffirming your original statement of opinion. A strong conclusion can ensure that your readers will be swayed by your arguments and thus take the same perspective on the issue that you have evidenced as being accurate.

Some Key phrases for a critical perspective essay

To ensure your essay is clearly persuasive, include some of the following words and phrases:

• I am certain that…
• It clearly follows that…
• Regardless…
• Although it may seem…
• Considering…. this clearly indicates that …….
• I believe that…
• By the same token…
• Furthermore…

3a. Synthesizing Multiple Perspectives

Synthesis: putting together different perspectives.

Image: Different perspectives; rawpixel, CC0

In college writing and in any situation where you have to sift through a lot of information, you will need to critically evaluate what is useful and relevant to you, as well as separate what is true from what is not true. When you have done extensive reading or research on a topic, you’ll need to present your research clearly and concisely to your readers so that they understand all sides or aspects of an issue. Synthesizing your sources into your writing allows you to:

• demonstrate your knowledge of a topic or issue;
• make sense of different perspectives and claims on a topic or issue;
• present the most important claims or points from your sources;
• put your sources into conversation with one another to give context for your point of view and come to new insights and questions;
• and support your claim fully.

“The scholar of the first age received into him the world around; brooded thereon; gave it the new arrangement of his own mind, and uttered it again. It came into him life; it went out from him truth. It came to him short-lived actions; it went out from him immortal thoughts. It came to him business; it went from him poetry.”

~Ralph Waldo Emerson, The American Scholar

What is synthesis?

When you synthesize in your writing, you are building a relationship between different ideas or sources. Synthesis means that you:

• bring together lots of information in a meaningful way
• show connections between different things
• come to new insights
• draw intriguing conclusions
• take in the world around you, and give back truth

You synthesize multiple perspectives (including your own) in an essay, and you often synthesize two or more perspectives in a paragraph. Thus, synthesis is a creative and interpretive act. How you put together different perspectives and sources will not be the same as how another writer puts them together.

“Make it work!”

Any Project Runway fans? The show has an “unconventional challenge” segment, where the designers put together a dress from different and unusual sets of materials. For example, for one challenge, they had to put together a dress with materials from a hardware store and a flower shop. In the example below, the designers use different candies to create a dress:

Synthesis in writing is like winning the unconventional challenge, and your essay is the beautifully finished piece you create by synthesizing various sources to support your overall goal. When facing any writing challenge in college, you can use the skills of critical inquiry and synthesis to meet any deadline and remember Tim Gunn’s motto – “Make it work!”

How do I synthesize?

Synthesizing sources into your writing is a juggling act. First, you want to figure out what your paragraph is doing: Is it providing information to the reader about a topic? Is it developing support and evidence for a particular claim you are making? Is it presenting a counterargument? Is it helping you to respond to a counterargument?

• If you are providing information to your reader, then multiple sources will help you to present a complete picture of the topic/issue to your reader by offering different perspectives on this topic/issue or by offering several expert sources that support a single perspective.
• If you are developing support and evidence for a particular claim or point you are making, then your sources should build upon each other. Each one should further the point of the one previously made.
• If you are using multiple sources to develop a counterargument, you can pit your sources against each other. Use one to help acknowledge an opposing viewpoint and use another to help develop your response to that viewpoint.

It is important when you are writing several different voices into a single paragraph that your voice does not get lost in the mix. Remember, an essay is about presenting and supporting your claims and ideas. Each paragraph should always make clear where you fit into the conversation.

See the next two pages for examples of synthesis paragraphs and a synthesis table.

Synthesis: Example Paragraphs

From: “what we talk about when we talk about obesity” by catherine womack for  the conversation.

Does reframing the debate help fight obesity? Yes – in fact it’s necessary, says series lead author Christina Roberto in “Patchy progress on obesity prevention: emerging examples, entrenched barriers, and new thinking.” They suggest a variety of new or retooled strategies ranging from educating health care providers about the dangers of weight stigmatization to mobilizing citizens to demand policy changes to address obesity. Their key insights are locating problems of obesity in the interactions between individuals and their environments, and breaking the vicious cycle of unhealthy food environments that reinforce preferences for those foods. But reframing is just the first step in the process of reversing the trend of obesity. Researchers also have to ask the questions that health policy makers want to hear and act on, says food and health policy expert Kelly Brownell in a commentary, co-authored with Roberto. Historian of science Naomi Oreskes says that scientists tend to follow a supply-side model of information, assuming their results will somehow naturally reach those who need it.  Brownell and Roberto underscore this error , and strongly advise obesity researchers to frame questions and convey results in ways that understandable and relevant to policy makers’ and the public. Otherwise their work will remain unheard and unused.

From: “The Persistent Myth of the Narcissistic Millennial” by Brooke Lea Foster for  The Atlantic

             Whether it’s  Time ’s 2013 cover story “The Me, Me, Me Generation” or Jeffrey Kluger’s book  The Narcissist Next Door: Understanding the Monster in Your Family, in Your Office, in Your Bed—in Your World , the same statistics are cited as proof of Millennial narcissism. In a 2008 study published in the  Journal of Personality,  San Diego State University psychology professor Jean Twenge found that narcissistic behaviors among college students studied over a 27-year period had increased significantly from the 1970s. A second study published in 2008 by the National Institutes of Health showed that 9.4 percent of 20- to 29-year-olds exhibit extreme narcissism, compared with 3.2 percent of those older than 65. But there’s a problem with all of this evidence: The data is unreliable. “It’s incredibly unfair to call Millennials narcissistic, or to say they’re more so than previous generations,” says Jeffrey Jensen Arnett, a professor of psychology at Clark University and author of  Getting to 30: A Parent’s Guide to the Twentysomething Years .  Arnett has devoted a significant amount of time and research to disproving the statistics that San Diego State’s Twenge has built a career on . He says that her assertion that narcissistic behaviors among young people have risen 30 percent is flimsy, since she’s basing it around data collected from the 40-question Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), the results of which leave quite a bit up for interpretation. For example, does agreement with statements like “I am assertive” or “I wish I were more assertive” measure narcissism, self-esteem, or leadership?

From: “Working Out the Meaning of ‘Meaningful’ Work” by Katherine Moos for  Vitae

Adam Smith believed that work forces the worker to sacrifice “his tranquility, his freedom, and his happiness.”  Karl Marx criticized Smith’s view  and believed that labor in the form of creative problem solving could indeed provide “self-realization.” (To Marx, the problem lay not in labor itself, but in the system of wage labor that exploited workers and alienated them from the creation of the final product.) A history of economic thought shows us that the progressive scorn nowadays of the do-what-you-love motto, is actually switching sides on a very old debate. Arguing that work is inherently unpleasant reinforces one of the more insidious assumptions in mainstream economics and one of the more cynical claims in our culture: that people are merely consumers trying to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. That sort of thinking leads managers to assume that workers are bound to shirk responsibility whenever possible, and are only motivated by money. It breeds extremely dysfunctional work environments with high surveillance and competition among co-workers. The polymath Herbert Simon has written about how workers’ sense of  identification  with the mission of an organization explains why employees actually perform the duties necessary to promote the institution’s goals, and not just pursue their self-interest as economic theory would expect.

Worksheet – Synthesis Table

Worksheet – Synthesis Table (download here)

SYNTHESIS: PUTTING DIFFERENT VOICES AND VIEWPOINTS IN CONVERSATION

Writing as Inquiry Copyright © 2021 by Kara Clevinger and Stephen Rust is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Justification and the New Perspective on Paul

Other essays.

The New Perspective on Paul argues that the traditional-Protestant understanding of justification is mistaken; rather than opposing works-righteousness, Paul is, according to the New Perspective, opposing Jewish boundary markers in the New Testament people of God. One standard view within the New Perspective on Paul is that initial justification is by faith and recognizes covenant status (ecclesiology), while final justification is partially by works, albeit works produced by the Spirit.

The New Perspective on Paul, a major scholarly shift that began in the 1980s, argues that the Jewish context of the New Testament has been wrongly understood and that this misunderstand has led to errors in the traditional-Protestant understanding of justification. According to the New Perspective, the Jewish systems of salvation were not based on works-righteousness but rather on covenantal nomism, the belief that one enters the people of God by grace and stays in through obedience to the covenant. This means that Paul could not have been referring to works-righteousness by his phrase “works of the law”; instead, he was referring to Jewish boundary markers that made clear who was or was not within the people of God. For the New Perspective, this is the issue that Paul opposes in the NT. Thus, justification takes on two aspects for the New Perspective rather than one; initial justification is by faith (grace) and recognizes covenant status (ecclesiology), while final justification is partially by works, albeit works produced by the Spirit. However, Reformed theologians argue that the New Perspective’s reconstruction of the Jewish context is not altogether correct and that it is easy to find examples of works-righteousness that Paul could have been opposing in the NT. Additionally, taking the entire witness of the NT letters (rather than only Romans, Galatians, and Philippians) points towards the traditional-Protestant understanding of justification.

Starting in the 1980s and continuing to the present, a major scholarly shift has taken place among many concerning Paul’s view of justification with the leading scholars being E. P. Sanders, James D. G. Dunn, and N. T. Wright. Before this shift, most biblical scholars, even those within the various liberal/critical camps, more-or-less equated Paul’s view of justification with the traditional-Protestant view. This newer view has come to be known as the “New Perspective on Paul” with the explicit understanding that the “old” perspective, that is, the traditional-Protestant perspective, is wrong or at least needs serious modification.

This essay will critically engage the New Perspective as it relates to the doctrine of justification. This article will concentrate on explaining the rationale as to how New Perspective authors arrive at their views. This rationale will be summarized as the “five points of the New Perspective” (following Cara, Cracking the Foundation of the New Perspective on Paul , pp. 20–25). Then, several broad-brush critiques of the New Perspective will be presented. For a discussion of the traditional-Protestant (biblical!) view of justification per se, see the related articles in this Concise Theology series.

Explanation of the New Perspective Relative to Justification

The New Perspective is really two new perspectives that build upon each other. The foundation is a new perspective of the soteriological (salvation) system that existed in first-century AD Judaism.  Given this new foundation, a different view of Paul’s soteriological system must be constructed upon it. Why is the soteriology of first-century Judaism important for Paul’s view? New Perspective authors note that justification is discussed by Paul several times in contexts that include either non-Christian Jews or Christian Jews (e.g., Rom. 2; 9–11; Gal. 3–5; Phil. 3). Given this, they insist that this new view of Judaism must change our understanding Paul’s view of justification because it better explains Paul’s opponents and even Paul himself.

So what is this new perspective on first-century Judaism? Judaism in all its forms was uniformly a grace-based soteriological system; it was not a works-righteousness system. This uniform system was given the name, “covenantal nomism” by E. P. Sanders (“nomism” comes from the Greek word for law, nomos ). One enters the covenant by election/grace and stays in by obedience to the law . Sanders stressed that staying in the covenant by obedience to the law was not considered legalistic works-righteousness, at least by his definition of works righteousness.

How does this new Jewish perspective relate to Paul’s view of justification and the wrongness of the traditional-Protestant view? The New Perspective correctly understood that the traditional-Protestant view sees justification by faith as the opposite of legalistic works righteousness; one is declared righteous based on Christ’s work versus being declared righteous based on one’s own works. That is, the traditional-Protestant view sees Paul opposing two soteriological systems: justification by grace/Christ’s-work/faith (grace soteriology) versus justification by works of the law (works-righteousness soteriology). The New Perspective rejects that Paul is opposing these two systems. Why? Because according to the new view of Judaism, a works-righteousness soteriology did not exist! Therefore, Paul could not have been arguing against a non-existent works-righteousness soteriology. Therefore, the first of the “five points” is that New Perspective authors agree that Paul was not arguing against a legalistic works-righteousness view because it did not exist—that is, they accept Sanders’s covenantal nomism . And since the traditional-Protestant view of justification is at least partially understood by what it is opposes (i.e., works righteousness), then its view of justification must be wrong. Hence, the second point is that New Perspective authors agree on what justification is not—it is not the traditional-Protestant view .

The above shows what the New Perspective is against; it is against the traditional-Protestant views of works and justification based on its understanding of Judaism. But, according to the New Perspective, what does Paul mean by these terms? New Perspective authors define “works of the law” (e.g., Rom. 3:28; Gal. 2:16) as primarily emphasizing three Jewish boundary markers: Sabbath, circumcision, and food laws. In the first-century Greco-Roman world, these three separated Jews from Gentiles. Paul states that one is justified by faith and not by Jewish boundary markers. (Note that the New Perspective does not see these boundary markers as part of a larger category of works righteousness as the traditional-Protestant view does.) The third of the “five points” is that New Perspective authors agree that “works of the law” primarily refers to Jewish boundary markers: Sabbath, circumcision, and food laws .

Why are these boundary markers so important to Paul? New Perspective authors argue that Paul’s Gentile mission is what prompted his discussion of justification; it is not necessarily a core soteriological view for Paul. In situations where Paul wanted to ensure that Jewish Christians were accepting Gentile Christians, he discussed justification. If this was not an issue, there was no need for it. The fourth point, which builds directly on the third, is that New Perspective authors agree that Paul’s mission to the Gentiles is the context for his teaching on justification .

Finally, what is the New Perspective view of justification? Before answering, we must note that the above four points are all agreed upon by all New Perspective authors; however, the actual Pauline meaning of justification is debated among New Perspective authors. One prominent view is held by Dunn and Wright. For them, justification has two components, initial and final. Initial justification concerns who is in the church or the status of being in the covenant community (ecclesiology); it is not related to conversion (soteriology). Initial justification is related to grace, Christ’s work, and faith, but it does not relate to the imputation of Christ’s work to the believer. Final justification is partially based on one’s works, although one’s works done in the Spirit. Finally, the fifth of the five points is that New Perspective authors are not united on justification. One standard view is that initial justification is by faith and recognizes covenant status (ecclesiology), while final justification is partially by works, albeit works produced by the Spirit.

To summarize the “five points of the New Perspective”:

• New Perspective authors agree that Paul was not arguing against a legalistic works-righteousness view because it did not exist—that is, they accept Sanders’s covenantal nomism.
• New Perspective authors agree on what justification is not—it is not the traditional-Protestant view.
• New Perspective authors agree that “works of the law” primarily refers to Jewish boundary markers: Sabbath, circumcision, and food laws.
• New Perspective authors agree that Paul’s mission to the Gentiles is the context for his teaching on justification.
• New Perspective authors are not united on justification. One standard view is that initial justification is by faith and recognizes covenant status (ecclesiology), while final justification is partially by works, albeit works produced by the Spirit.

Three Broad-Brush Critiques of the New Perspective’s View of Justification

The traditional-Protestant view has two major problems with New Perspective’s view of justification: (1) A believer’s works are included as part of final justification; that is, in the end, a believer is declared righteous (justified) based on some combination of his faith and his works; and (2) imputation of Christ’s work to the believer is denied. Given these two, justification is no longer a once-for-all declaration that by grace alone God declares sinners to be righteous in his sight based on the work of Christ alone through the instrument of faith alone (Rom. 4:5; 8:1; Gal. 2:16; Phil. 3:9; Eph. 2:8; 2 Tim. 2:9; Titus 3:7).

This brief article is not the place for extended Jewish-background arguments and significant exegesis of Pauline texts. However, three broad-brush critiques of the New Perspective arguments will be provided. Since the New Perspective view of justification is strongly tied to the denial that Paul is contrasting justification with works righteousness, what follows will concentrate on works righteousness.

Jewish Documents and Works-Righteousness

As can be seen from the above discussion of the five points of the New Perspective, the logical starting point and foundation of the New Perspective is a new view of first-century Judaism, which emphasizes that legalistic works-righteousness uniformly did not exist. How did Sanders argue for this when there are numerous examples of early Jewish documents that on the surface include a works-righteousness soteriology, either a crass version (“Pelagian”) or a version that combines faith and works (“semi-Pelagian”)? Examples include 4 Ezra 7; Sirach 3:14, 30; 16:14; 2 Baruch 14:12; 24:1; 41:6; Testament of Abraham A12:12–13; A 14:2–4; Rule of the Community (1QS) I, 7–8; III, 9–12; Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab) VIII, 1–3; Miqsat Ma‘ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT) C 26–32; m. Abot 2:16; 3:15; 4:11, 22; and t. Qiddushin 1:13–16.

Part of the answer to this is Sanders’s imprecise definition of works righteousness. His own definition of “covenantal nomism” includes that staying in the covenant is done by obedience to the law. He does not see that this definition itself could easily be construed as a semi-Pelagian works-righteousness soteriology. What about some of examples where works are weighed on scales in order to determine whether one gets into heaven? Sanders answers that these documents are not written by systematic theologians and sometimes they use incentives to do good works that violate their actual soteriology. One could respond, however, that one’s incentives for good works is part of one’s overall theology.

However, not every early Jewish group and document were works-righteousness oriented; only some were. Once given that some groups were works-righteousness oriented, there is no need to deny that Paul’s opponents had these views since this is the straightforward way to take Paul’s comments. Once some documents are admitted to have works-righteousness, the inner-logic of the New Perspective’s own presuppositions should destroy its conclusions concerning the need for a new view of Pauline justification. (Note that the ultimate argument for the traditional-Protestant view must be made from Scripture. Non-canonical sources may be useful, but only as fallible aids to interpret Scripture.)

Jewish Boundary Markers and Works Righteousness

The New Perspective defines Paul’s expression “works of the law” as primarily including three Jewish boundary markers: Sabbath, circumcision, and food law. Also, it does not see that Paul is opposing two soteriological systems when he contrasts justification by faith and justification by works of the law (Rom. 4:2; Gal. 2:16). That is, “works of the law” is not considered in any way related to works-righteousness. Why not? For Paul, according to the New Perspective, OT saints were finally justified based on faith in God and works. Similarly, NT saints are finally justified based on faith in Christ and works. Both the OT and NT soteriological systems are the same, both include faith and works; Paul’s concentration on “works of the law” is simply to say that the boundary-marker aspect of works in the NT are no longer in force.

The traditional-Protestant view is that Paul realizes that his opponents’s unhealthy view of Jewish boundary markers, especially in Galatians, is part of a more basic works-righteousness soteriology. This more basic works-righteousness soteriology is shown by examples were the boundary markers could not possibly be in view, but Paul still uses the expression “works” or “works of the law.” In Romans, for example, works (in the negative sense) is used in a variety of ways that sometimes includes the Mosaic legislation and sometimes it does not. Paul discusses works related to Abraham and Isaac, and they clearly lived before Moses and the boundary markers (Rom. 4; 9:10–12). Paul’s discussion of David does not focus at all on the boundary markers (Rom. 4:6–8). In Galatians, Paul indicates that both Christ and NT Christians are “under the law” (Gal. 4:4–5) even though NT Christians are no longer under the boundary-marker aspects of the law. These examples show that for Paul, “works” and “works of the law” have a works-righteousness component that is more basic than the Jewish boundary markers because he uses these expressions when boundary markers are clearly not the issue. Hence, it may be true that for some texts in Galatians the boundary markers are in focus, but Paul is concerned to show that the opponents are functionally considering them as works done within a works-righteousness soteriology.

Ephesians 2:8–10; 2 Timothy 1:8–10; Titus 3:4–7 and Works Righteousness

On the surface, Ephesians 2:8–10; 2 Timothy 1:8–10; and Titus 3:4–7 contrast a grace soteriology with a works-righteousness soteriology. However, there is not much discussion of these three texts in pro-and-con New Perspective arguments in critical/liberal scholarship. Should not these texts be part of the analysis concerning justification in Romans, Galatians, and Philippians 3? Why are they not? Because in the critical/liberal world, most scholars believe Paul is not the author of Ephesians, 2 Timothy, and Titus.

Surprisingly, many, although not all, New Perspective authors do agree that Ephesians 2:8–10; 2 Timothy 1:8–10; and Titus 3:4–7 contrast a grace soteriology with a works-righteousness soteriology (e.g., Dunn). These New Perspective authors believe that the biblical author(s) of these three texts has moved more toward a traditional-Protestant understanding of works-righteousness and past seeing works as simply Jewish boundary markers. From a traditional-Protestant perspective, these three texts are considered to be written by Paul. Hence, they dovetail nicely with the understanding of justification in Romans, Galatians, and Philippians 3.

Admitting that the author(s) of Ephesians, 2 Timothy, and Titus were aware of the concept of works righteousness creates an internal difficulty for the New Perspective relative to its view that this concept did not exist in early Judaism. Even if one assumes that these three books are not arguing explicitly against Jews or Jewish Christians, one would have to admit that the works-righteousness concept was “in the cultural air” and Christians who were interested in the OT were aware of it.

Further Reading

Pro-New Perspective Authors

• E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion
• James D. G. Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul
• Kent L. Yinger, The New Perspective on Paul: An Introduction
• N. T. Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity?
• N. T. Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God

Anti-New Perspective Authors

• Guy P. Waters, Justification and the New Perspective on Paul: A Review and Response
• Robert J. Cara, Cracking the Foundation of the New Perspective on Paul: Covenantal Nomism versus Reformed Covenantal Theology
• Stephen Westerholm, Justification Reconsidered: Rethinking a Pauline Theme
• Thomas Schreiner, Faith Alone: The Doctrine of Justification

This essay is part of the Concise Theology series. All views expressed in this essay are those of the author. This essay is freely available under Creative Commons License with Attribution-ShareAlike, allowing users to share it in other mediums/formats and adapt/translate the content as long as an attribution link, indication of changes, and the same Creative Commons License applies to that material.

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How Reading Changes Your Perspective

Ah, the joys of losing ourselves in a great book. A paradise for adults and children alike! But did you know that reading can change and broaden our perspective on everyday life? It's been a topic on the minds of philosophers, educators, social scientists, and psychologists for centuries. Reading can be so much more than an enjoyable pastime. There are real benefits to reading, no matter what the literary genre. Let's look at some specific ways in which reading changes, expands, and enhances our perspective on life. 

1. Expanding Your Imagination

Reading exposes us to a totally different world of new places and adventures that we may never experience firsthand. It stimulates the imagination when characters in a story turn into animals, travel far away in a spacecraft, or shrink to the size of an ant. The escapades of pirates in the 19th century or children surviving in a dystopian future make us wonder, “What would it be like?” or “How would I use my wits to get out of this awful situation?" A book doesn't need to be fantasy or sci-fi to expand the imagination. Through nonfiction books like memoirs and autobiographies, we can imagine what life would be like in different countries, time periods, and more. Stories are undoubtedly one of the most creative art forms in existence. As we read, we can absorb ideas and improve our own creative abilities.

2. Helping You Grow as a Person

Reading also gives us a different perspective by breaking down preconceived notions we might have about others. This helps to increase our understanding of the world around us and the people who live in it. The positive result is improvement in our own self-awareness and emotional intelligence. Social scientists and psychologists have done a great deal of research on how literature, particularly fiction, can impact aspects of our personality. Through enveloping ourselves in the experiences of different characters, we can relate to these experiences in our own daily lives. This helps us navigate through our own self-development journey and become better versions of ourselves.

Reading a life story about how a person overcame adversity can inspire us to do the same. When we learn about how others have dealt with poverty, tragedy, or a family crisis, it gives us the feeling that we can also manage the difficulties life throws at us. Stories of historical figures, such as George Washington or Marie Curie, teach us about how even these famous people made mistakes and worked through self-doubt. We get the opportunity to experience these other lives, to an extent, from a first-person perspective. Success for them did not come easily.  It reminds us that no matter who we are, we'll have our own struggles and opportunities to move forward.

Books don't have to be about celebrities or some extraordinary person to touch us in a special way. Oftentimes, when we read about people who have similar disappointments (such as failing a test or not getting cast in the school play), we don't feel so alone. Such stories can help us find our own personal success and contentment.

3. Developing Empathy

Educators, authors, and psychologists often say that reading puts us in others’ shoes. Years of clinical research and formalized testing supports these claims. The Reading the Mind-in-the-Eyes test , for example, measures empathy and the ability to understand others who have different intentions and desires than our own. In these studies , researchers found that children who read fiction were more likely to help a stranger who had, say, dropped pens on the floor. In other words, they became better at practicing altruism.

The experience of becoming more attuned to the backgrounds, beliefs, and thought processes of different characters in books transfers to real life and can even extend to lifelong positive relationships.  Studies have found that those who read more are better at sensing and interpreting the emotions of others, putting them in a position to help them (emotionally or otherwise) if needed. 

4. Building Self-Confidence

Not only do our peers benefit from a great story through the practice of empathy, but we can benefit personally as well. Reading books is a great confidence-builder. Author and self-described introvert Susan Cain states that, because many writers are introverts, so are their protagonists. They have contemplative, cerebral, and intellectual personality traits. In fact, introverts often engage in reading because it is one of the few types of media that depict the depths of their emotions . Introverted characters are often endowed with special abilities, such as being magical, artistic, or highly intelligent. This is in major contrast to the more negative media stereotype of introverts as being aloof or dull. 

Readers can also develop confidence and self-esteem by observing how the protagonist and other characters handle their hardships and challenges. As we share in the characters' journey of learning to accept and conquer their struggles, we get ideas (either consciously or subconsciously) about how we can do the same. We learn that we, too, can craft our own strategies to deal with the complex world around us.

5. Reducing Stress

Growing up is tough, especially as the chaos of global events has intensified over the last several years. It's no surprise that young people are feeling stressed out. 

Studies show that childhood stress increases the risk of mental health disorders such as depression. Research also indicates that there are several long-term health effects, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and even cancer, from early toxic stress. Reading both nonfiction and fiction can help reduce stress. This is because books tend to, at least temporarily, provide respite from personal issues. We can relax, calm our busy minds, and, in our own time, emerge with a sense of peace and tranquility.

Some feel that reading can decrease stress levels more effectively than listening to music or even going for a walk. This may be because, as we focus on the words in the book, muscle tension tends to decrease.

6. Exposing You to Different Points of View

When people pick their own reading material and immerse themselves in a story that interests them, they get to look at the world from a different lens. This adds a new perspective on different topics, places, times, cultures, and people. Through total engagement and immersion, the reader learns that the whole can be greater than the sum of its parts. Topics that are mere inconveniences in one situation may take on a totally different flavor in another. For example, a lack of water is much different for a family who is on a camping trip than it would be, say, for a family that is stuck in the middle of a refugee crisis. Through total engagement and immersion, readers can see a new side of an issue or situation and even overcome stereotypes or preconceived notions.

It's truly an amazing thing when we read a story that gives us insight into a completely different point of view. And nonfiction and fiction can both help broaden our worldviews. For example, students who struggle to engage with factual historical accounts, such as assigned reading about the Revolutionary War or the Civil Rights Movement, might find that fictional, historically based stories from the perspective of a single character sparks their interest more.

Helping young people understand how different points of view can entirely change the perspective of a story is an exciting prospect. Educators and other literary experts use several key terms to help students and readers of all ages understand different viewpoints through modes of narration. Check out this additional resource of reading worksheets to learn more about different points of view in literature.

7. Thinking More Analytically

Some research supports the view that reading (particularly artistic fiction such as poetry and fantasy) invites us to engage in a “conversation” with the characters in the story. By sharing experiences and emotions, a form of indirect communication occurs. Through these intimate conversations, we grow to understand why and how people feel the way they do. They allow us as readers to make inferences, or in other words, come to conclusions or judgments regarding what the author may be implying. The ability to make inferences is an extremely important component of advanced learning in all subjects, not just literature.

Another way that reading strengthens analytical thinking is by encouraging us to ask questions and ponder how the story is going to end. We are constantly kept on our toes as we speculate on who the killer or the kidnapper is or how the main character is going to conquer their fears.

...And One More Thing

It's predictable that reading contributes to improvements in vocabulary and writing. But it also makes perfect sense that involved readers tend to be more advanced in other academic areas, including STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering and math). These advantages create more opportunities in higher education, leadership, and earning potential.

Diving into a World of Books

A poignant quote by George RR Martin about reading says it all when it comes to changing our perspective:

“A reader lives a thousand lives before he dies. The man who never reads only lives once.”

With all the amazing gifts that the world of books gives us, don’t wait any longer to start reading—or to start reading more! At Beanstack, we strongly encourage everyone (that means children, adults, and also our elders), to jump full force into the joy of reading. Take every opportunity to read books online or visit your local bookstore and library.

Are you or a loved one having a bit of trouble getting started on the pathway to reading? Check out Beanstack’s Author Spotlights , which describe what some diverse modern authors are writing about. You can also check out a reading list sorted by book  titles or  genres available to browse online. 

Happy Reading!

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Example of My Personal Perspective

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The New Perspective on Paul: A Bibliographical Essay

This article was originally part of The Paul Page, a site dedicated to academic study of the apostle, with special focus on the work of N.T. Wright.

About this Bibliography

This bibliography is my collection, annotation, and contribution to the growing mass of literature on the New Perspective on Paul (NPP).  It is by no means an exhaustive collection, although I hope it is far more extensive than the average bibliography you’ll find at the end of lecture notes or even at the back of a textbook.  There are works that could appear under three or four different headings (esp. when they deal with Luther, Law, Justification and Judaism rolled into one!).  I have tried to stratify the various monographs and articles in a thematic way, but some works could easily overlap under different headings.  I have also cited only a handful of materials available on the internet and I limited my selection to works which I deem to be significant to the on-going debate.

Table of Contents

Introductions to the npp, antecedents to sanders, works by e.p. sanders, justification.

• Law and “Works of the Law”

Studies on Judaism in Light of the NPP

Commentaries that engage the npp.

• Online Resources

Mark M. Mattison, “ A Summary of the New Perspective on Paul .”

James A.  Meek, “The New Perspective on Paul: An Introduction for the Uninitiated,”  Concordia Journal 27 (2001): 208-33.

Jay E. Smith, “The New Perspective on Paul: A Select and Annotated Bibliography,”  Criswell Theological Review 2.2 (2005): 91-111.

Michael B. Thompson,  The New Perspective on Paul (Cambridge: Grove Books Limited, 2002). Probably the best introduction to the NPP in print.   

C. G. Montefiore,  Judaism and St. Paul: Two Essays (New York: Dutton, 1915).  The Judaism that Paul knew was a cold form of Diaspora Judaism and not Rabbinic Judaism.

G. F. Moore, “Christian Writers on Judaism,”  HTR 14 (1921): 197-254.  Moore supposed that Christian writers are influenced by an apologetic desire to see in Judaism the antithesis to grace.

G. F. Moore,  Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era (2 vols.; Harvard: HUP, 1927).

W. D. Davies,  Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology (4th ed.;Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980 [1948]).

Samuel Sandmel,  The Genius of Paul: A Study in History (New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1958).

H. J. Schoeps,  Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961).

Preston M. Sprinkle, “The Old Perspective on the New Perspective: A Review of Some ‘Pre-Sanders’ Thinkers,”  Themelios 30 (2005): 21-31.  Highlights antecedents to Sanders in works by G.F. Moore, K. Stendahl, George Howard, Joseph Tyson and N.A. Dahl.

Krister Stendahl, “The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West,”  HTR 56 (1963): 199-215; repr. in  Paul among Jews and Gentiles (London: SCM, 1976), 76-96.  The seminal article where Stendahl urges that Paul had a ‘robust conscience’ and did not wrestle with feelings of personal guilt like Augustine and Luther.

E.P. Sanders, “Patterns of Religion in Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: A Holistic Method of Comparison,”  HTR 66 (1973): 455-78.

E.P. Sanders, “The Covenant as a Soteriological Category and the Nature of Salvation in Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism,” in  Jews, Greeks and Christians , eds. Robert Hamerton Kelly and RobinScroggs (Leiden: Brill, 1976), 11-44.

E. P. Sanders,  Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison in Patters of Religion (London: SCM, 1977).  The ground-breaking book by Sanders where he proposes his view of Palestinian Judaism as covenantal nomism: “Covenantal nomism is the view that one’s place in God’s plan is established on the basis of the covenant and that the covenant requires as the proper response of man his obedience to its commandments, while providing means of atonement for transgression” (p. 75); “The ‘pattern’ or ‘structure’ of covenantal nomism is this: (1) God has chosen Israel and (2) given the law.  The law implies (3) God’s promise to maintain the election and (4) the requirement to obey.  (5) God rewards obedience and punishes transgression.  (6) The law provides for means of atonement, and atonement results in (7) maintenance or re-establishment of the covenantal relationship.  (8) All those who are maintained in the covenant by obedience, atonement and God’s mercy belong to the group which will be saved.  An important interpretation of the first and last points is that election and ultimately salvation are considered to be God’s mercy rather than human achievement” (p. 422).

E.P. Sanders, “On the Question of Fulfilling the Law in Paul and Rabbinic Judaism,” in  DonumGentilicum : New Testament Studies in Honour of David Daube , eds. C.K. Barrett, E. Bammel and W.D. Davies (Oxford: Clarendon, 1978), 103-26.

E.P. Sanders, “Paul’s Attitude Toward the Jewish People,”  USQR 33 (1978): 175-87.

E. P. Sanders,  Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People (Fortress: Philadelphia, 1983).

E.P. Sanders,  Paul (Oxford: OUP, 1991).

Dale C. Allison, “Jesus and the Covenant: A Response to E.P. Sanders,”  JSNT 29 (1987): 57-78.

C. K. Barrett, “Paul and the Introspective Conscience,” in  The Bible, the Reformation and the Church: Festschrift for James Atkinson , ed. W. P. Stephens (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 36-48.

Paul Barnett, “Galatians and Earliest Christianity,”  RTR 59 (2000): 112-29.

Markus Barth, “Jews and Gentiles: The Social Character of Justification in Paul,”  JES 5 (1968): 241-67.

F. Best, “The Apostle Paul and E.P. Sanders: The Significance of Paul and Palestinian Judaism,” ResQ 25 (1982): 65-74.

Michael F. Bird, “When the Dust Finally Settles: Reaching a Post New Perspective Perspective,” Criswell Theological Review (forthcoming 2005).  Bird argues that Judaism was variegated and some strands emphasized grace and others obedience.  Merit theology (of some kind) does provide the backdrop for Paul’s formulation of law and justification.  However, Paul’s primary problem was not confronting legalism but trying to get Gentiles accepted  as Gentiles by Jews into fellowship.

Michael F. Bird, “Justification as Forensic Declaration and Covenant Membership: A  Via Media between Reformed and Revisionist Readings of Paul,” (forthcoming in  Tyndale Bulletin ).  This article contends that justification includes God’s declaration of righteousness for believers and the inclusion of Gentiles into the people of God.  Paul confronts an “ethnocentric nomism” and espouses a view of justification whereby God “creates a new people with a new status in a new covenant as a foretaste of the new age”.

Brendan Byrne, “Interpreting Romans Theologically in a Post-‘New Perspective’ Perspective,”  HTR 94 (2001): 227-41.  Byrne considers himself within the NPP but still thinks that the NPP is theologically impoverished since it fails to adequately reckon with the intense exploration of human sin and alienation from God in the early part of Romans.

Brendan Byrne, “Interpreting Romans: The New Perspective and Beyond,”  Interpretation 58 (2004): 241-52.

W. S.  Campbell, “The New Perspective on Paul: Review Article.”  ExpT 114.11 (2003): 383-86. Review of Seyoon Kim,  Paul and the New Perspective , Michael B. Thompson,  The New Perspective on Paul , and Simon J. Gathercole,  Where is the Boasting? .  Campbell thinks that these works are significant but fail to abolish or refute the primary contentions of the NPP.

D. A. Campbell, “The DIAQHKH from Durham: Professor Dunn’s  The Theology of Paul the Apostle ,” JSNT 72 (1998): 91-111.

Tim Chester, “Justification, Ecclesiology and the New Perspective,”  Themelios 30 (2005): 5-20.  A critical, yet sympathetic reading of the NPP (see esp. his summary on the pros and cons of the NPP on pp. 18-19).

Michael Cranford, “The Possibility of Perfect Obedience: Paul and an Implied Premise in Galatians 3:10 and 5:3,”  NovT 36 (1994): 242-58.

Michael Cranford, “Abraham in Romans 4: The Father of All Who Believe,”  NTS 41 (1995): 71-88.

A. Andrew Das, “Beyond Covenantal Nomism: Paul, Judaism, and Perfect Obedience,”  Concordia Journal 27 (2001): 234-52.

James E. Davidson, “The Patterns of Salvation in Paul and in Palestinian Judaism,”  JRS 15 (1989): 99-118.

W. D. Davies, “Paul: from the Jewish Point of View,” in  The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 3 – The Early Roman Period, eds. William Horbury, W. D. Davies and John Sturdy (Cambridge: CUP, 1999), 3.678-730.

Terence L. Donaldson, “Zealot and Convert: The Origin of Paul’s Christ-Torah Antithesis,”  CBQ 51 (1989): 655-82.

James D. G. Dunn, “The New Perspective on Paul,”  BJRL 65 (1983): 95-122.

James D. G. Dunn, “A Man More Sinned Against than Sinning? A Response to Carl Trueman.”  Dunn’s impassioned response against Trueman’s accusation that Dunn repudiates the reformers.

James D. G. Dunn, “Did Paul have a covenant theology? reflections on Romans 9.4 and 11.27,” In Concept of the Covenant in the Second Temple Period , Stanley E. Porter and Jacqueline De-Roo, eds., (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 287-307.

James D. G. Dunn, “Paul and Justification by Faith,” in  The Road From Damascus , ed. Richard N.Longenecker (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997), 85-101.

James D. G. Dunn, “The Theology of Galatians: The Issue of Covenantal Nomism,”  Pauline Theology Volume 1: Thessalonians, Philippians, Galatians, Philemon , ed. Jouette M. Bassler(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991), 125-146.

Pamela Eisenbaum, “A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans,”  JBL 123/4 (2004): 671-7-2.

Timo Eskola, “Paul, Predestination and Covenantal Nomism – Reassessing Paul and Palestinian Judaism,”  JJS (1997): 390-412.

J. M. Espy, “Paul’s ‘Robust Conscience’ Re-examined,”  NTS 31 (1985): 161-88.

J.V. Fesko, “N.T. Wright and the Sign of the Covenant,”  SBET 23 (2005): 30-39.

Donald B. Garlington, “The New Perspective on Paul: An Appraisal Two Decades Later,”  Criswell Theological Review 2.2 (2005): 17-38.

Robert H. Gundry, “Grace, Works, and Staying Saved in Paul,”  Bib 66 (1985): 1-38.

Simon Gathercole, “After the New Perspective: Works, Justification and Boasting in Early Judaism and Romans 1-5,”  TynBul 52 (2001): 303-6.

Simon Gathercole, “Early Judaism and Covenantal Nomism: An Article-Review,” EQ 76 (2004): 153-162.

Donald A. Hagner, “Paul and Judaism: The Jewish Matrix of Early Christianity: Issues in the Current Debate,”  BBR 3 (1993): 111-130.

Donald A. Hagner, “Paul and Judaism: Testing the New Perspective,” in  Revisiting Paul’s Doctrine of Justification (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2001), 75-105.

Donald A. Hagner, “Paul’s Quarrel with Judaism,” in  Anti-Semitism and Early Christianity: Issues of Polemic and Faith , eds. Craig A. Evans and Donald A. Hagner (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993) 128-50.

James M. Hamilton Jr., “N.T. Wright and Saul’s Moral Bootstraps,”  TrinJ 25 (2004), 139-55. Hamilton contends that Wright over-emphasizes the lack of merit theology in Judaism.

Daniel J. Harrington, “Paul and Judaism: 5 Puzzles.”   Bible Review 9 (1993): 19-25, 52.

Roman Heiligenthal, “Soziologische Implikationen der paulinischen Rechhfertigungslehre imGalaterbrief am Beispiel der ‘Werke des Gesetzes.’ Beobachtunger zur Identitätsfindung einerfrühchristenlichen Gemeinde,” Kairos 26 (1984): 38-53.

Morna D. Hooker, “Paul and Covenantal Nomism,” in  Paul and Paulinism: Essays in Honour of C.K. Barrett , eds. M.D. Hooker and S.G. Wilson (London, 1982), 47-56.

Bruce Longenecker, “On Critiquing the ‘New Perspective’ on Paul: A Case Study,” 96  ZNW (2005): 263-271.

Donald Macleod, “How Right Are the Justified? Or, What is a  Dikaios ?”  SBET 22.2 (2004): 173-95.

Donald Macleod, “The New Perspective: Paul, Luther and Judaism,”  SBET 22 (2004): 4-31

I. Howard Marshall, “Salvation, Grace and Works in the later Writings in the Pauline Corpus,”  NTS 42 (1996): 339–58.

J. Louis Martyn, “Events in Galatia: Modified Covenantal Nomism Versus God’s Invasion of the Cosmos in the Singular gospel: A Response to J. D. G. Dunn and B. R. Gaventa,” in  Pauline Theology Volume 1: Thessalonians, Philippians, Galatians, Philemon , ed. Jouette M. Bassler(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991), 160-79.

Frank J. Matera, “Galatians in Perspective: Cutting a New Path through Old Territory,”  Int 54 (2000): 233-43.

R. B. Matlock, “Sins of the Flesh and Suspicious Minds: Dunn’s New Theology of Paul,”  JSNT 72 (1998): 67-90.

R. Barry Matlock, “Almost Cultural Studies? Reflections on the ‘New Perspective’ on Paul,” in Bible/Cultural Studies: The Third Sheffield Colloquium , eds. J. Cheryl Exum and Stephen D. Moore (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), 433-59.

Douglas Moo, “Excursus: Paul, ‘Works of the Law,’ and First-Century Judaism,” in  The Epistle to the Romans (NICNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996), 211-17.

C. F. D. Moule, “Jesus, Judaism, and Paul,” in  Tradition and Interpretation in the New Testament: Essays in Honor of E. Earle Ellis for His 60th Birthday , eds. Gerald F. Hawthorne and Otto Betz (Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1987), 43-52.

Nicholas Perrin, “A Reformed Perspective on the New Perspective,”  WTJ 67 (2005): 381-89.

Charles L. Quarles, “The New Perspective and the Means of Atonement in Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period,”  Criswell Theological Review 2.2 (2005): 39-56.

Charles L. Quarles, “The Soteriology of R. Akiba and E.P. Sanders’ Paul and Palestinian Judaism,” NTS 42 (1996): 185-95.

Heikki Räisänen, “Legalism and Salvation by the Law,” in  Die Paulinische Literatur und Theologie (FS S. Pedersen; Göttingen, 1980), 63-83.

Karl Olav Sandnes, “‘Justification by Faith’ – An Outdated Doctrine?  The ‘New Perspective’ on Paul – A Presentation and Appraisal,”  Theology and Life 17-19 (1996): 127-46.

Thomas R. Schreiner, “Israel’s Failure to Attain Righteousness in Romans 9:30-10:3,”  TrinJ 12 (1991): 209-20.

Christian Stettler, “Paul, the Law and Judgement by Works,”  EQ 76 (2004): 195-215.

Mark A. Seifrid, “Blind Alleys in the Controversy over the Paul of History,”  TynBul 45 (1994): 73-96

Mark A. Seifrid, “The ‘New Perspective on Paul’ and its Problem,”  Them 25 (2000): 4-18.

Vincent M. Smiles, “The concept of ‘zeal’ in Second-Temple Judaism and Paul’s critique of it in Romans 10:2,”  CBQ 64 (2002): 282-299.

Charles H. Talbert, “Paul on the Covenant,”  RevExp 84 (1987): 299-313.

Charles H. Talbert, “Freedom and Law in Galatians,”  Ex Auditu 11 (1995): 17-28.

Charles H. Talbert, “Paul, Judaism, and the Revisionists,”  CBQ 16 (2001): 1-22.

Frank Thielman, “Paul as Jewish Christian Theologian: The Theology of Paul in the Magnum Opus of James Dunn,”  Perspectives in Religious Studies 25 (1998): 381-87.

Carl Trueman, “A Man More Sinned Against than Sinning?  The Portrait of Martin Luther in Contemporary New Testament Scholarship: Some Casual Observations of a Mere Historian.” Unpublished paper presented at Tyndale Fellowship in Cambridge in 2000.  http://www.crcchico.com/covenant/trueman.html .

Gerhard H. Visscher, “New Views regarding Legalism and Exclusivism in Judaism: Is There a Need to Reinterpret Paul?”  Koinonia 18 (1999): 15-42.

Francis Watson, “Not the New Perspective,” Unpublished paper delivered to the British New Testament Conference 2001.  An excellent article by a NPP turncoat!  Watson’s taxonomy of the NPP using the Calvinistic acronym TULIPS is humorous and worth reading, not to mention the reasons for his change of mind on the issue.

Stephen Westerholm, “The Righteousness of the Law and the Righteousness of Faith in Romans,” Interpretation 55 (2004): 253-64.

N. T. Wright, “The Paul of History and the Apostle of Faith,”  TynBul 29 (1978): 61-88  Synopsis: The debate between E Käsemann and K Stendahl about justification and salvation history may be resolved with the help of a new overall view of Pauline theology.  For Paul, the messiah represents his people, so that a crucified messiah means a crucified Israel. This provides Paul with his critique of Israel, aimed not at “works-righteousness” but at “national righteousness”. Paul has been distorted by various schools of NT criticism: this view combines their strong points while avoiding their weaknesses.

N.T. Wright, “Gospel and Theology in Galatians,” in  Gospel in Paul: Studies on Corinthians, Galatians and Romans for Richard N. Longenecker , eds. L. Ann Jervis and Peter Richardson (JSNTSup 108; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 222–239.

N.T. Wright, “Two Radical Jews: a review article of Daniel Boyarin,  A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity ,”  Reviews in Religion and Theology 3 (1995): 15–23.

N.T. Wright, “Romans and the Theology of Paul,” in  Pauline Theology, Volume III , eds. David M. Hay & E. Elizabeth Johnson, (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 30–67. (Republished, with minor alterations, from  SBL 1992 Seminar Papers , ed. E. H. Lovering, pp. 184–213).

N.T. Wright, “New Exodus, New Inheritance: the Narrative Substructure of Romans 3—8,” in Romans and the People of God: Essays in Honor of Gordon D. Fee on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday , eds. S. K. Soderlund & N. T. Wright (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 26–35.

N.T. Wright, “The Letter to the Galatians: Exegesis and Theology,” in Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies and Systematic Theology , eds. Joel B. Green & Max Turner (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 205–36.

N.T. Wright, “Coming Home to St Paul? Reading Romans a Hundred Years after Charles Gore,” SJT 55 (2002): 392–407.

N.T. Wright, “Redemption from the New Perspective,” in  Redemption , eds. S.T. Davis, D. Kendall, & G. O’Collins (Oxford: OUP, 2004).

Paul F. M. Zahl, “A New Source for Understanding German Theology: Käsemann, Bultmann, and the ‘New Perspective on Paul’,”  Sewanee Theological Review 39 (1996): 413-22.

Paul F. M. Zahl, “E. P. Sanders’ Paul Versus Luther’s Paul: Justification by Faith in the Aftermath of the Scholarly Crisis,”  St. Luke’s Journal of Theology 34 (1994): 33-40.

Paul F. M. Zahl, “Mistakes of the New Perspective on Paul,”  Themelios 27 (2001): 5-11.

Michael Bachmann and Johannes Woyke,  Lutherische und Neue Paulusperspektive: Beiträg zueinem Schlüsselproblem der gegenwärtigen  exegetischen Diskussion (WUNT 2.182: Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2005).

John Barclay,  Obeying the Truth: A Study of Paul’s Ethics in Galatians (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1988).

Daniel Boyarin,  A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity (California: University of California Press, 1994).

Gary W. Burnett,  Paul and the Salvation of the Individual (Leiden: Brill, 2001).

W. S. Campbell,  Paul’s Gospel in an Intercultural Context: Jew and Gentile in the Letter to the Romans (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1991).

D. A. Carson,  Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility: Divine Perspectives in Tension (Atlanta: John Knox, 1981).

D. A. Carson, Peter O’Brien and Mark A. Seifrid, eds.,  Justification and Variegated Nomism: Volume 2 – The Paradoxes of Paul (WUNT 2.181: Tubingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2004; Grand Rapids,MI: Baker, 2004). Essays include: Stephen Westerholm (The “New Perspective” at Twenty-Five); Mark A. Seifrid (Paul’s Use of Righteousness Language Against Its Hellenistic Background); MartinHengel (The Stance of the Apostle Paul Toward the Law in the Unknown Years Between Damascus and Antioch); Mark A. Seifrid: (Unrighteous by Faith: Apostolic Proclamation in Romans 1:18-3:20); S. J. Gathercole (Justified by Faith, Justified by his Blood: The Evidence of Romans 3:21-4:25); Douglas J. Moo (Israel and the Law in Romans 5-11: Interaction with the New Perspective); MoisésSilva (Faith Versus Works of Law in Galatians); Peter T. O’Brien (Was Paul a Covenantal Nomist?); Robert Yarbrough (Paul and Salvation History); Timo Laato (Paul’s Anthropological Considerations: Two Problems); Peter T. O’Brien (Was Paul Converted?); D. A. Carson (Mystery and Fulfillment: Toward a More Comprehensive Paradigm of Paul’s Understanding of the Old and the New); Timothy George (Modernizing Luther, Domesticating Paul: Another Perspective); Henri Blocher (Justification of the Ungodly [Sola Fide]: Theological Reflections).

A. Andrew Das,  Paul, the Law, and the Covenant (Peabody, MA:  Hendrickson, 2001).

A. Andrew Das,  Paul and the Jews (Library of Pauline Studies; ed. Stanley E. Porter; Peabody,MA:  Hendrickson, 2003).

David A. DeSilva,  An Introduction to the New Testament: Context, Methods & Ministry Formation (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2004).  See section: “The ‘New Perspective’ on Paul and Early Judaism” (pp. 500-1) and “Criticisms of the ‘New Perspective’” (pp. 518-19).

Terence L. Donaldson , Paul and the Gentiles: Remapping the Apostle’s Convictional World (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997).

John W. Drane,  Paul: Libertine or Legalist? (London: SPCK, 1975).

J. Ligon Duncan,  Misunderstanding Paul? Responding to the New Perspectives (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2005).

James D. G. Dunn,  Jesus, Paul and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians (London: SPCK, 1990).

James D. G. Dunn,  The New Perspective on Paul: Collected Essays (WUNT 185; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2005).

James D. G. Dunn,  The Theology of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians (Cambridge: CUP, 1993).

James D. G. Dunn and Alan M. Suggate,  The Justice of God: A fresh look at the old doctrine of justification by faith (Carlisle, UK: Paternoster, 1993).

James D. G. Dunn,  The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Edinburgh: T& T Clark, 1998).

James D. G. Dunn, ed.,  The Cambridge Companion to St . Paul (Cambridge: CUP, 2003).

Brad Eastman,  The Significance of Grace in the Letters of Paul (New York: Peter Lang, 1999).

Kathy Ehrensperger,  That We May Be Mutually Encouraged: Feminism and the New Perspective in Pauline Studies (London: T&T Clark, 2004).

Neil Elliott,  The Rhetoric of Romans: Argumentative Constraint and Strategy and Paul’s Dialogue with Judaism (JSNTSup 45; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990).

Timo Eskola,  Theodicy and Predestination in Pauline Soteriology (WUNT 2.100; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1998).  See “Excursus: The Theory of Covenantal Nomism” pp. 52-60.  He raises three main points: (1) If legalism means that keeping the law affects eschatological salvation, then covenantal nomism is legalistic nomism by definition. (2) Covenantal nomism is a synergisticnomism. (3) Sanders reduces soteriology to the categories of sociology.

Don B. Garlington,  The Obedience of Faith (WUNT 2.38; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1991).

Don B. Garlington,  Faith, Obedience, and Perseverance: Aspects of Paul’s Letter to the Romans (WUNT 79; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1994).

Don B. Garlington,  In Defense of the New Perspective on Paul: Essays and Reviews (Eugene, OR:Wipf & Stock, 2005).

John G. Gager,  Reinventing Paul (Oxford: OUP, 2000).

Simon J. Gathercole,  Where is the Boasting? Early Jewish Soteriology and Paul’s Response in Romans 1-5 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002).  Gathercole argues that Jewish boasting concerned both election and obedience to the law.

Michael J. Gorman  Apostle of the Crucified Lord: A Theological Introduction to Paul and His Letters (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004).

Sigurd Grindheim,  The Crux of Election: Paul’s Critique of the Jewish Confidence in the Election ofIsrael (WUNT 2.202; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2005).

Martin Hengel (with R. Deines),  The Pre-Christian Paul (London: SCM, 1991).  “Although people nowadays are fond of asserting otherwise, no one understood the real essence of Pauline theology, the salvation given  sola gratia , by faith alone, better than Augustine and Martin Luther. Despite this rigorous reversal of all previous values and ideals (Phil 3.7-11), Pauline theology – and therefore also Christian theology – remains very closely bound up with Jewish theology. Its individual elements and thought-structure derive almost exclusively from Judaism. This revolutionary change becomes visible precisely in the fact that its previous theological views remain present even in their critical reversal as a negative foil, and help to determine the location of the new position.” (p. 86).

Martin Hengel & Anne M. Schwemer,  Paul Between Damascus and Antioch (London: SCM, 1997).

Martin Hengel and U. Heckel, eds.,  Paulus und das antike Judentum (WUNT 158; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1996).

Tom Holland,  Contours of Pauline Theology: A Radical New Survey of the Influences on Paul’s Biblical Writings (Mentor, 2004).

David Horrell,  An Introduction to the Study of Paul (New York: Continuum, 2000).

Philip H. Kern,  Rhetoric and Galatians: Assessing an Approach to Paul’s Epistle (Cambridge: CUP, 1998).

Seyoon Kim,  Paul and the New Perspective: Second Thoughts on the Origin of Paul’s Gospel (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002).

Matthias Konradt,  Gericht und Gemeinde: Eine Studie  zur Bedeutung und Funktion vonGerichtsaussagen im  Rahmen der Paulinischen Ekklesiologie und Ethik im  1 Thess und 1 Kor (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003).

Colin G. Kruse,  Paul, the Law and Justification (Leicester: Apollos, 1996).

Kari Kuula,  The Law, the Covenant, and God’s Plan: Paul’s Polemical Treatment of the Law in Galatians (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999).

Timo Laato,  Paul and Judaism: An Anthropological Approach (South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism 115; Atlanta: Scholars, 1995).

Bruce W. Longenecker,  Eschatology and the Covenant: A Comparison of 4 Ezra and Romans 1-11 (JSNTSup 57; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991).

Bruce W. Longenecker,  The Triumph of Abraham’s God: The Transformation of Identity in Galatians (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998).

Richard Longenecker, ed.   The Road from Damascus: The Impact of Paul’s Converstion on His Life, Thought, and Ministry (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997).

I. Howard Marshall,  New Testament Theology: Many Witnesses, One Gospel (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2004) 444-50.

Mark D. Nanos,  The Mystery of Romans: The Jewish Context of Paul’s Letter (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996).

Mark D. Nanos,  The Irony of Galatians: Paul’s Letter in First-Century Context (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2002).

Mark D. Nanos, ed.,  The Galatians Debate: Contemporary Issues in Rhetorical and Historical Interpretation (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson 2002).  A collection of studies on Galatians by various authors regarding the historical, rhetorical and theological issues surrounding Galatians.

Eung Chun Park, Either Jew or Gentile: Paul’s Unfolding Theology of Inclusiveness (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2003).

Alan F. Segal,  Paul the Convert: The Apostolate and Apostasy of Saul the Pharisee (New Haven: YUP, 1990).

Vincent M. Smiles,  The Gospel and Law in Galatia: Paul’s Response to Jewish-Christian Separatism and the Threat of Galatian Apostacy (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1998).

Peter Stuhlmacher,  Revisiting Paul’s Doctrine of Justification: A Challenge to the New Perspective (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2001).

Thomas R. Schreiner,  Paul: Apostle of God’s Glory in Christ (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2001).

Stanley K. Stowers,  A Rereading of Romans: Justice, Jews, and Gentiles (New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1994.

Chris Vanlandingham,  Judgment and Justification in Early Judaism and the Apostle Paul (Peabody,MA: Hendrickson, 2006).

Guy Prentiss Waters,  Justification and the New Perspectives on Paul: A Review and a Response (P&R Publishing, 2004).

Francis Watson,  Paul, Judaism and the Gentiles: A Sociological Approach (SNTS 56; Cambridge: CUP, 1986).

Stephen Westerholm,  Israel’s Law and the Church’s Faith (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988).

Stephen Westerholm,  Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003).  Revised and updated version of Westerholm’s 1988 monograph.

N. T. Wright,  The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1991).

N.T. Wright,  Paul: In Fresh Perspective (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005).

Tom Wright,  What St. Paul Really Said (London: Lion, 1997).

Tet-Lim N. Yee,  Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul’s Jewish Identity and Ephesians (New York: CUP, 2005).

Kent L. Yinger,  Paul, Judaism, and Judgment According to Deeds (Cambridge: CUP, 1999).

Michael F.  Bird, “Incorporated Righteousness: A Response to Recent Evangelical Discussion Concerning the Imputation of Christ’s Righteousness in Justification,”  JETS 47.2 (2004): 243-75. This article contends that “union with Christ” rather than “imputation” provides the proper exegetical context for understanding justification in Paul.

Gerald Bray, “Justification: The Reformers and Recent New Testament Scholarship,”  Churchman 109 (1995): 102-26.

F. F. Bruce, “Justification by Faith in the Non-Pauline Writings of the New Testament,”  EQ 24 (1952): 13-26.

Craig B. Carpenter, “A Question of Union with Christ? Calvin and Trent on Justification,”  WTJ 64 (2002): 363-86.

D. A. Carson, “Reflections on Salvation and Justification in the New Testament,”  JETS 40 (1997): 581-608.

D. A. Carson, “The Vindication of Imputation: On Fields of Discourse and, of Course, Semantic Fields,” in  “Justification”: What’s at Stake in the Current Debates? , eds. M. A. Husbands & D. J.Treier (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2004),  46-78.

Charles H. Cosgrove, “Justification in Paul: A Linguistic and Theological Reflection,”  JBL 106 (1987): 653-70.

Martinus C. de Boer,  ‘Paul’s Use and Interpretation of a Justification Tradition in Galatians 2.15-21,’ JSNT 28 (2005): 189-216.

William J.  Dumbrell, “Justification in Paul: A Covenantal Perspective,”  RTR 51 (1992): 91-101.

William J.  Dumbrell, “Justification and the New Covenant,”  Churchman 112 (1998): 17-29.

James D. G. Dunn, “The Justice of God: A Renewed Perspective on Justification by Faith,”  JTS 43 (1992): 1-22.

Philip Eveson,  The Great Exchange: Justification by faith alone in light of recent thought (Kent, England: Day One Publications, 1996).

R. Y. K. Fung, “The Status of Justification by Faith in Paul’s Thought: A Brief Survey of a Modern Debate,”  Themelios 6 (1981): 4-11.

Don B. Garlington, “A Study of Justification by Faith,”  Reformation and Revival 11 (2002): 55-73.

Don B. Garlington, “Imputation or Union with Christ: A Response to John Piper,”  Reformation and Revival 12 (2003): 45-113.

Robert H. Gundry, “The Nonimputation of Christ’s Righteousness,” in  “Justification”: What’s at Stake in the Current Debates? eds. M. A. Husbands & D. J. Treier (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2004), 17-45.  Gundry defends a forensic view of justification wholly apart from notions of imputation.

Richard B. Hays, “Justification,” in  Anchor Bible Dictionary , ed. David Noel Freedman (6 vols.;ABRL; New York: Doubleday, 1992), 3:1129-33.

Mark Husbands and Daniel J. Treier, eds.,  Justification: What’s at Stake in the Current Debates (Leicester, England: Apollos, 2004).

Eberhard Jüngel,  Justification: The Heart of the Christian Faith (trans. Jeffrey F. Cayzer;Edinburg/New York: T&T Clark, 2001).

Jan Lambrecht and R.W. Thompson,  Justification by Faith: The Implications of Romans 3:27-31 (Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1989).  Justification signifies the universality of God’s love and marks the demise of boasting in ethnocentric particularism.

Eduard Lohse, “Theologie der Rechtfertigung im kritischen Disput – zu einigen neuen Perspektivenin der Interpretation der Theologie des Apostels Paulus,”  Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen 249 (1997): 66-81.

Mark C. Mattes,  The Role of Justification in Contemporary Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004).

Alister McGrath,  Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (Cambridge: CUP, 1986).

Alister McGrath, “Justification,” in  DPL , eds. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1993), 517-23.

Richard K. Moore,  Rectification (‘Justification’) in Paul, in Historical Perspective, and in the English Bible: God’s Gift of Right Relationship (3 vols.; Edward Mellen Press, 2002).  Moore’s massive tome argues for a relational model of Paul’s doctrine of justification.

Stephen Motyer, “Righteousness by Faith in the New Testament,” in  Here We Stand: Justification by Faith Today (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1986), 33-56.  All should note Motyer’s comment: “there is  no doctrine of justification in the New Testament, rather, there is a doctrine of righteousness ” (p. 34).

Peter O’Brien, “Justification in Paul and Some Crucial Issues of the Last Two Decades,” in  Right with God: Justification in the Bible and the World (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1992), 69-95.

John Piper,  Counted Righteous in Christ: Should We Abandon the Imputation of Christ’s Righteousness? (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2002).  A robust defense of the traditional Reformed view of imputed righteousness.  The section on the pastoral significance of the doctrine of justification (pp. 27-39) is superb.  Also available electronically at the  Desiring God website.

Joseph Plevnik, “Recent Developments in the Discussion Concerning Justification by Faith,”  TJT 2 (1986): 47-62.

P. Sedgwick, “Justification by Faith: One Doctrine, Many Debates?”  Theology 93 (1990): 5-12.

Thomas R. Schreiner, “Did Paul Believe in Justification by Works? Another Look at Romans 2,” BBR 3 (1993): 131-58.

Mark A Seifrid,  Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme (NovTSup 68; Leiden: Brill, 1992).

Mark A. Seifrid,  Christ, our Righteousness: Paul’s theology of justification (NSBT 9; Downers Grove: IVP, 2000).

Mark A. Seifrid, “In What Sense is ‘Justification’ a Declaration?”  Churchman 114.2 (2000): 123-36.

Mark A. Seifrid, “Paul, Luther, and Justification in Gal 2:15-21,”  WTJ 65 (2003): 215-30.

Robert Smith, “Justification in ‘the New Perspective on Paul’,”  RTR 58.1 (1999): 16-30.

Robert S. Smith,  Justification and Eschatology: A Dialogue with “The New Perspective on Paul” (Doncaster: Reformed Theological Review, 2001).

Robert Smith, “A Critique of the ‘New Perspective’ on Justification,”  RTR 58.2 (1999) 98-113.

George Vandevelde, “Justification between Scripture and Tradition,”  ERT 21 (1997): 128-148.

N.T. Wright, “Justification: The Biblical Basis and its Relevance for Contemporary Evangelicalism,” in  The Great Acquittal , ed. G. Reid (London: Collins, 1980), 13–37.

N. T. Wright, “Justification,” in  New Dictionary of Theology , eds. Sinclair B. Ferguson, David F. Wright (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1988), 359-61.

N.T. Wright, “The Shape of Justification,”  Bible Review 17 (April 2001): 8, 50. Available electronically at: http://www.thetpaulpage.com/Shape.html.  Wright’s response to Paul Barnett’s critique.

N. T. Wright, “New Perspectives on Paul.” Paper presented to 10 th Edinburgh DogmaticsConference August 2003.  Available electronically at:http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_New_Perspectives.htm.

John Zeisler, “Justification by Faith in Light of the ‘New Perspective’ on Paul,”  Theology 94 (1991): 189-94.

Law and Works of the Law

Martin Abegg, “Paul, ‘Works of the Law’ and MMT,”  BAR 20.6 (1994): 52-55, 82.

M. G. Abegg, “4QMMT C 27, 31 and Works Righteousness,”  DSD 6 (1999): 139-47.

M. G. Abegg, “4QMMT,” in  DNTB , eds. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2000), 709-11.

Martin G. Abegg, “4QMMT, Paul, and ‘works of the law’,” in  Bible at Qumran: Text, Shape and Interpretation , eds. Peter W. Flint & Tae Hun Kim (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 203-16.

A. J. Bandstra, “Paul and the Law: Some Recent Developments and an Extraordinary Book,”  CTJ 25 (1990): 249-61.

Jacqueline C. R. de Roo, “The concept of ‘works of the law’ in Jewish and Christian literature,” in Christian-Jewish Relations Through the Centuries , eds. Brook W.R. Pearson & Stanley E. Porter (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 116-147.

Robert Badenas,  Christ the End of the Law: Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective (JSNTSup 10; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1985).

M. Bachmann, “4QMMT und Galaterbrief, MIQSAT MA ‛AŚEY HA-TORAH und ERGA NOMOU,” ZNW 89 (1998): 91-113.

Otto Betz, “The Qumran Halakah Text Miqsat Ma’ase Ha-Torah (4QMMT) and Sadducean, Essene, and Early Pharisaic Tradition,” in  The Aramaic bible: Targums in Their Historical Context , eds. D.R.G. Beattie and M.J. McNamara (JSOTSS 166; Sheffield: SAP, 1994), 176-202.

C. E. B. Cranfield, “‘The Works of the Law’ in the Epistle to the Romans,”  JSNT 43 (1991): 89-101.

James D. G. Dunn, “Works of the Law and the Curse of the Law (Galatians 3:10-14),”  NTS 31 (1985): 523-42.

James D. G. Dunn, ed.,  Paul and the Mosaic Law (WUNT 89; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1991).

James D. G. Dunn, “Yet Once More – ‘The Works of the Law’: A Response,”  JSNT (1992): 99-117.

James D. G. Dunn, “4QMMT and Galatians,”  NTS 43 (1997): 147-53.

Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Paul’s Jewish Background and the Deeds of the Law,” in  According to Paul: Studies in the Theology of the Apostle (New York: Paulist, 1993), 18-35.

Lloyd Gaston,  Paul and the Torah (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1987).

G. Hamerton-Kelly, “Sacred Violence and ‘Works of the law’,”  CBQ 52 (1990): 55-75.

Hans Hübner,  The Law in Paul’s Thought , trans. James C.G. Greig (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1984).

Veronica Koperski,  What are They Saying About Paul and the Law? (New York: Paulist, 2001).

Hermann von Lectenberger, “Paulus und das Gesetz,” in  Paulus und das antike Judentum , eds.Martin Hengel & Ulrich Heckel (Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1991).

Bruce Longenecker, “Lifelines: Perspectives on Paul and the Law,”  Anvil 1 (1999): 125-30.

Brice L. Martin,  Christ and the Law in Paul (NovTestSup 62; Leiden: Brill, 1989).

Douglas J. Moo, “‘Law’, ‘Works of the Law,’ and Legalism in Paul,”  WTJ 45 (1983): 90-100.

Douglas J. Moo, “Paul and the Law in the Last Ten Years,”  SJT (1987): 287-307.

C. Marvin Pate,  The Reverse of the Curse: Paul, Wisdom, and the Law (WUNT 2.114; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2000).

Heikki Räisänen,  Paul and the Law (WUNT 29; 2d ed.; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1986).

Robert Keith Rapa,  The Meaning of ‘Works of the Law’ in Galatians and Romans (New York: Peter Lang, 2001).

Peter Richardson, Stephen Westerholm, et. al.,  Law in Religious Communities in the Roman Period: The Debate Over Torah and Nomos in Post-Biblical Judaism and Early Christianity (SCJ 4; Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1991).

Calvin J. Roetzel, “Paul and the Law: Whence and Whither?”  CBR 3 (1995): 249-75.

Thomas R. Schreiner, “Is Perfect Obedience to the Law Possible?  A Re-examination of Galatians3:10,”  JETS 27 (1984): 151-60.

Thomas R. Schreiner, “Paul and Perfect Obedience to the Law: An Evaluation of the view of E. P. Sanders,”  WTJ 47 (1985): 245-78.

Thomas R. Schreiner, “‘Works of the Law’ in Paul,”  NovT 33 (1991): 217-44.

Thomas R. Schreiner,  The Law and Its Fulfillment: A Pauline Theology of Law (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1993).

Moises Silva, “The Law and Christianity: Dunn’s New Synthesis,”  WTJ 53 (1991): 339-53.

R.B. Sloan, “Paul and the Law: Why the Law Cannot Save,”  NovT 33 (1991): 35-60.

Klyne Snodgrass, “Spheres of Influence: A Possible Solution to the Problem of Paul and the Law,” JSNT 32 (1988): 93-113.

Frank Thielman,  From Plight to Solution: A Jewish Framework for Understanding Paul’s View of the Law in Galatians and Romans (NTS LXI; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989).

Frank Thielman,  Paul and the Law: A Contextual Approach (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1994).

Lauri Thurén,  Derhetorizing Paul: A Dynamic Perspective on Pauline Theology and the Law (WUNT 2/110; Tübinen: Mohr/Siebeck, 2000).

Peter J. Tomson,  Paul and the Jewish Law: Halakha in the Letters of the Apostle to the Gentiles (CRINT; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990).

Chris Alex Vlachos, “Law, Sin, and Death: An Edenic Triad? An Examination with Reference to 1 Cor 15:56.”  JETS 48 (2004): 277-98. Vlachos argues that the theological soil from which Paul derived his law problematic was the Genesis Fall narrative, where the serpent expropriated the prohibition to provoke the first transgression. Rather than being polemically motivated, or being precipitated in response to either legalistic or nationalistic tendencies, Paul’s concern with the law was thus driven by primeval considerations.

Michael Winger,  By what Law?  The Meaning of Nomos in the Letters of Paul (SBLDS 128; Atlanta: Scholars, 1992).

N. T. Wright, “The Law in Romans 2,” in  Paul and the Mosaic Law , ed. J. D. G. Dunn (Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1996), 131–50.

N. T. Wright, “Paul and Qumran : When Paul shuns the ‘works of the law,’ is he referring to the very works commended by the Dead Sea Scroll known as MMT?”  Bible Review 14 (1998): 18, 54.

Fredrich Avemarie,  Tora und Leben: Untersuchungen zur Heilsbedeutung der Tora in der frühen rabbinschen Literatur (TSAJ 55; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1996).

Fredrich Avemarie and Hermann Licentenberger, eds.   Bund und Tora: Zuratheologischen Begriffsgeschicgte in alttestamentlicher, frühjüdischer und urchristlicher Tradition (WUNT 135; Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck, 1996).

Friedrich Avemarie, “Erwählung und Vergeltung: Zur optionalen Struktur rabbinischer Soteriologie,” NTS 45 (1999): 108-26.

J. M. G. Barclay,  Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE – 117 CE) (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1996).

Gabriele Boccaccini,  Middle Judaism: Jewish Thought, 300 B.C.E to 200 C.E. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991).

Marcus Bockmuehl,  Jewish Law in Gentile Churches: Halakhah and the Beginning of Christian Public Ethics (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000).

D. A. Carson, Peter O’Brien and Mark A. Seifrid, eds.,  Justification and Variegated Nomism: Volume 1 – The Complexities of Second-Temple Judaism (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2001). Chapters include: “Psalms and Prayers (Daniel Falk); “Scripture-Based Stories” (Craig A. Evans); “Expansions of Scripture” (Peter Enns); “Didactic Stories” (Philip R. Davies); “Apocalypse” (RichardBauckham); “Testaments” (Robert A. Kugler); “Wisdom” (Donald E. Gowan); “Tannaitic Literature” (Philip S. Alexander); Targumic Themes (Martin McNamara); “Qumran” (Markus Bockmuehl); “Josephus” (Paul Spilsbury); “Philo” (David M. Hay); “Righteousness Language in the Hebrew Scriptures” (Mark A. Seifrid); and “Pharisees” (Roland Deines).

Karl T. Cooper, “Paul and Rabbinic Soteriology: A Review Article,”  WJT 44 (1982): 123-39.

Ellen Juhl Christiansen,  The Covenant in Judaism and Paul: A Study of Ritual Boundaries as Identity Markers (AGAJU 27; Leiden: Brill, 1995).

James D. G. Dunn,  The Parting of the Ways Between Christianity and Judaism and Their Significance for the Character of Christianity (London: SCM, 1991).

M. A. Elliott,  The Survivors of Israel: A Reconsideration of the Theology of Pre-Christian Judaism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000).

Paul Garnet, “Qumran Light on Pauline Soteriology,” in  Pauline Studies , eds. D.A. Hagner andMurray J. Harris (FS for F.F. Bruce; Exeter: Paternoster, 1980), 19-32.

Beverly Roberts Gaventa, “Comparing Paul and Judaism: Rethinking our Methods,”  BTB 10 (1980): 37-44.

Martin Hengel and Roland Deines, “E.P. Sanders’ ‘Common Judaism’, Jesus, and the Pharisees,” JTS 46 (1995): 1-70.

Timo Laato,  Paulus und das Judentem (Ǻbo: Ǻbo Akademi, 1991).  Laato recognizes Sanders’ contribution of undoing the caricature of Judaism as “legalism” but criticizes Sanders on various points: (1) Sanders fails to adequately appropriate the late nature of rabbinic materials; (2) Sanders does not recognize the difference between Paul and Judaism as being Paul’s pessimistic outlook on the human condition; and (3) Sanders is effectively arguing for a concept of “normative Judaism” which did not exist in the first-century (see esp. 65-82).

Jacob Neusner, “Comparing Judaisms,”  History of Religions 18 (1978-79): 177-91.

Jacob Neusner, “E.P. Sanders  Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People ,” in  Ancient Judaism: Debates and Disputes (Brown Judaic Studies 64; Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1994).

Jacob Neusner,  Judaic Law from Jesus to the Mishnah: A Systematic Reply to Professor E.P. Sanders (Atlanta: Scholars, 1993).

Jacob Neusner, “Mr Sanders’ Pharisees and Mine: A Response to E P Sanders,  Jewish Law from Jesus to the Mishnah ,”  SJT 44 (1991): 73-95.

Jacob Neusner, “The Use of Later Rabbinic Evidence for the Study of Paul,” in  Approaches to Ancient Judaism , ed. W. S. Green (6 vols.; Chico: Scholars, 1980), 2:43-63.

George W. E. Nickelsburg,  Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins: Diversity, Continuity, and Transformation (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003).  See chapter 2 “Torah and the Righteousness of Life” and chapter 3 “God’s Activity on Behalf of Humans” which compares and contrasts the soteriologyof Christianity and Judaism.  Nickelsburg does not think Judaism can be characterized as “works-righteousness” and the main Christian differences between the two were Christological.

George W. E. Nickelsburg and Robert A. Kraft, eds.,  Early Judaism and its Modern Interpreters (SBL; Atlanta: Scholars, 1986).  See esp. “Introduction” pp. 20-21.

Stanley E. Porter and Jacqueline De-Roo, eds. Concept of the Covenant in the Second TemplePeriod (Leiden: Brill, 2003).

E. P. Sanders,  The Jewish Law (London: SCM, 1990).

E. P. Sanders,  Judaism: Practice and Belief 63 BCE – 66 CE (London: SCM, 1992).

J. J. Scott, “Crisis and Reaction: Roots of Diversity in Intertestamental Judaism,”  EQ 64 (1992): 197-212.

Mikael Winninge,  Sinners and the Righteous: A Comparative Study of the Psalms of Solomon and Paul’s Letters (ConBNT 26; Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell, 1995).

N. T. Wright,  The New Testament and the People of God (COQG 1; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992).

Brendan Byrne,  Romans (Sacra Pagina; Collegeville, MN: Michael Glazier, 1996).

William Dumbrell,  Romans: A New Covenant Commentary (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2005).

James D. G. Dunn,  Romans 1-8 (WBC; Dallas, TX : Word, 1988).

James D. G. Dunn,  Romans 9-16 (WBC; Dallas, TX : Word, 1988).

James D. G. Dunn,  Galatians (BNTC; London: A&C Black, 1993).

Don B. Garlington,  Exposition of Galatians: A New Perspective/Reformational Reading (Eugene,Oregon: Wipf & Stock, 2002).

A. Katherine Grieb,  The Story of Romans: A Narrative Defense of God’s Righteousness (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 2002).

R. David Kaylor,  Paul’s Covenant Community: Jew and Gentile in Romans (Atlanta: John Knox, 1988).

Richard N. Longenecker,  Galatians (WBC; Dallas, TX: Word, 1990).  Longenecker is sympathetic to works by Sanders but maintains that Paul’s opponents were still “nomistic” and “legalistic”, see esp. pp. xcviii, 86.

Frank J. Matera,  Galatians (Sacra Pagina; Collegeville, MN: Litrugical Press, 1992).

Scot McKnight,  Galatians (NIVAC; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1995).

Peter T. O’Brien,  The Epistle to the Philippians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991).

Thomas R. Schreiner,  Romans (BECNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1998).  The draw back of this commentary is that in a subsequent work ( Paul Apostle of God’s Glory in Christ ) Schreiner has changed his mind from a transformative understanding of justification to a strictly forensic view.

Charles H. Talbert,  Romans (Macon: Smyth and Helwys, 2002).

Ben Witherington,  Romans: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004). Witherington approaches Romans through the grid of socio-rhetorical criticism and also attempting to offer a non-Reformed reading of the epistle.  The excursus on “A Closer Look: Righteousness in the LXX, Early Judaism and Paul” (pp. 52-54) and “A Closer Look: ‘Justified’ and Concepts ofCovenental Nomism” (pp. 102-7) are useful and represent a middle ground in regard to faith and obedience.

Ben Witherington,  Grace in Galatia: A Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the Galatians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998).

N. T. Wright, “Romans,” in  New Interpreter’s Bible (ed. Leander E. Keck; Nashville: Abingdon 2002), 10:395-770.

N.T. Wright,  Paul for Everyone: Romans (London: SPCK; 2004).

Michael F. Bird

Michael F. Bird (PhD University of Queensland) is Deputy Principal at Ridley College, Melbourne, Australia. He is an Anglican priest and the author of over 30 books about the New Testament and Theology.

Michael on Logos

"Logos is a software powerhouse for pastors, students, and scholars working in biblical studies and theology." —Michael F. Bird

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How to change your perspective and change your life

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How to change your perspective: 15 tips

Learn how to discern and change your life.

You’re in the middle of a presentation, and you notice a peer who should be paying attention checking their phone. Why are they ignoring you? Are you not engaging enough? Do they not like you?

Your feelings and inner monologue can tell you things that aren’t necessarily true. That person could be texting a sick family member or struggling to focus in a way that has nothing to do with you. If you just change your perspective and open your mind to every possibility, you can get on with the presentation without letting their distraction affect you. 

Shifting perspectives can help you thwart automatic thoughts and navigate situations with a balanced outlook. It also gives you the chance to unpack your biases , develop a growth mindset , and even reinvent yourself as a more positive person. Here’s how to change your perspective and recognize when your thoughts lead you astray.  

You don’t have control over every aspect of your life. But you can change your perspective by learning how to recognize a fixed mindset and maintain a positive outlook when it comes to the things you can’t change.

Here are 15 ways to start changing perspectives in your daily life and better control your mind :

1. Reframe 

Start listening to your thoughts to see if you typically track toward negativity. Do you usually frame the events of your life as positive or neutral, or do you start the day from a pessimistic place, dreading the things you have to do? 

Suppose your boss asks you to give a presentation . A negative perspective could cause you to immediately panic or feel like you don’t want to expend the energy because you’ll do a bad job. Instead, you could frame this task as an opportunity to prove yourself and strengthen your public speaking skills. Remind yourself that you’re capable of presenting well and might even enjoy the task.

Slow down your thoughts by reflecting on the situation at hand instead of jumping to conclusions. Many of life’s difficult moments have a lesson to teach you — and most of the time, challenging scenarios are more than just “good” or “bad.” 

Encourage reflection, either before or after a situation that made you question your perspective, by journaling . Free-write about your day, a conflict, or a negative experience. Then, see what upsides and insights you can gather. After writing your thoughts down, you might find that your perspective needs a change.

3. Turn inner monologues positive

The voice in your head may narrate negative thoughts, like “I could never get that promotion,” or, “I’ll always be alone.” This action can dampen your self-esteem and close off your mind to new experiences. 

Spark a change of perspective by affirming yourself . The next time you’re in a tense meeting, remind yourself that you have the negotiation skills to forge a solution instead of assuming that the situation is too stressful to handle. 

4. Stand in someone else’s shoes

Feelings can be all-consuming when you’re in an emotionally charged situation. A great way to gain perspective is to see a situation from a third-party point of view, like that of a friend or family member. What would they tell you? Perhaps your best friend would say you’re talented and can handle the challenge before you. Try to find that energy within yourself.

5. Assess toxic relationships 

Research shows that when someone expresses an emotion, you’re likely to feel it as well through emotional contagion . That means if you surround yourself with negative people, you might become more negative as well. People who make you feel bad about yourself — whether or not it’s their intention — can also cloud your thinking. 

If someone constantly focuses on the negative or underestimates your skills, they may influence your self-perception. Set boundaries with people who are too critical or whose bad attitudes rub off on you. Your personal and professional circles should uplift you, not bring you down. 

6. Embrace change

Change is inevitable and often offers pleasant surprises, learning moments, and opportunities. But it can also be difficult to accept. Adjusting your perspective can help you overcome the fear , stress , and anxiety of change and approach it with excitement instead. 

Practice gratitude for past lessons and focus on potential positive outcomes in the future. You may miss the tight-knit team you worked with in your previous role, but your new job provides exciting opportunities to reach your full growth potential . 

7. Stop comparing yourself

Social comparison pushes you to rank your achievements and abilities against others’, which can lead to lower self-esteem. For a perspective change, focus instead on appreciating your unique gifts. Congratulate yourself for a job well done, and cite what you did successfully without wondering how others fare and if it’s better or worse than you. Let yourself appreciate your strengths as they are.

8. Help others

A 2023 scientific review showed that volunteering boosts your social, emotional, and physical well-being . It also helps you step out of your comfort zone and gain a new perspective by empathizing with situations outside your own. 

When facing a life challenge, it’s natural to think that your circumstances are uniquely dire. When you volunteer, you help provide solutions for others who are struggling and remind yourself you’re not alone. You’ll also interact with people of all kinds of backgrounds, which can open your mind to new perspectives. 

9. Take care of yourself

Your general well-being can slip when you don’t get enough sleep , proper nutrition , or hydration . The following physical and mental fatigue can cast a negative light on your perceptions. You’ve experienced this phenomenon if you’ve ever felt “ hangry ” and lashed out at someone before mealtime. Taking care of yourself can give you the mental energy you need to seek new perspectives and see situations as they are. 

10. Let little things go 

Some issues deserve your attention. Others are distractions that keep you from focusing on your day and doing your best work. A change in perspective could mean filtering what’s worth worrying about and learning how to let things go. 

Ask yourself what the consequences would be to let a situation go instead of being confrontational or ruminating on the negative. If they’re insignificant, chances are that engaging with this minor upset will only consume energy you could channel into something more productive or enjoyable. 

11. Learn a new skill

Low self-confidence or esteem may be at the root of your negative perspective. Feeling stuck and stagnant in life can pull you into a pessimistic thought spiral and devalue your contributions, contributing to a limiting perspective. Instead, transform and empower yourself by continuing your education. 

Take a class, earn a certification, or learn a new skill — even if just for fun. If you don’t have time for a course, listen to educational podcasts and read personal growth books . You’ll remind yourself how capable you are and empathize with different perspectives. 

12. Practice gratitude

You always have something to be grateful for. But if you don’t make an effort to take stock of your gifts, you may adopt a “nothing’s working out” perspective or a scarcity mindset. Shift the narrative by practicing gratitude for what you have. 

Journaling can encourage you to reflect on the good things in your life. Use a prompt like “List three things you’re grateful for today,” or, “What do you most like about yourself?” to get the ink flowing. Instead of developing an all-or-nothing mindset , you’ll adjust your perspective to appreciate what you have. 

13. Accept yourself 

Nobody’s perfect, so when you aim for perfectionism , you fall into the trap of never feeling like you’re enough. Overcome this tendency by allowing yourself to make mistakes and learning to accept yourself. Shifting your perspective could change your mindset from, “I need to do this perfectly,” to, “I’ll do my best, and that’s enough.” 

14. Ask yourself questions

Challenge the perspectives you automatically form when something goes wrong. All emotions are valid, but that doesn’t mean they’re well-attuned to a situation. Ask yourself whether your emotions are rational, and if you catch yourself overreacting, don’t punish yourself. Explore the feelings that came up in your journal or with the help of a coach . Through that reflection, you can unpack the reasons why you hold this perspective and take steps to deconstruct them. 

15. Think big

A limited perspective can prevent you from considering all aspects of a situation. Zoom out and see the bigger picture when you encounter an issue. At work, this might look like performing an in-depth analysis to understand a problem instead of jumping to conclusions. In your personal life, it could mean asking yourself if and how the current issue impacts your life. If not, take a deep breath, let feelings go, and get back to your day.

When you learn how to change your perspective, you gain a more balanced view of your life. You shake off the rigidity of thinking that situations are positive or negative and understand that they can all help you better yourself . 

But mindset shifts don’t always happen naturally. You have to stop, assess the situation, and interrogate your feelings — and sometimes even start over . It takes work, but it’s worth it to ditch negative current perspectives and move toward a more positive mental attitude .

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Elizabeth Perry, ACC

Elizabeth Perry is a Coach Community Manager at BetterUp. She uses strategic engagement strategies to cultivate a learning community across a global network of Coaches through in-person and virtual experiences, technology-enabled platforms, and strategic coaching industry partnerships. With over 3 years of coaching experience and a certification in transformative leadership and life coaching from Sofia University, Elizabeth leverages transpersonal psychology expertise to help coaches and clients gain awareness of their behavioral and thought patterns, discover their purpose and passions, and elevate their potential. She is a lifelong student of psychology, personal growth, and human potential as well as an ICF-certified ACC transpersonal life and leadership Coach.

How to reset your life in 10 ways

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Animal Suffering from a Buddhist Perspective: A Reinterpretation of the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path

• Original Article
• Open access
• Published: 11 September 2024

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• María del Carmen Valle-Lira   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2706-7996 1 &
• Ricardo Noguera-Solano   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6463-908X 2  

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The suffering of non-human animals has been debated for a long time, given the challenge of understanding the subjectivities of other beings. A general Buddhist perspective allows us to have a new frame of reference to this phenomenon that is not only theoretical, but also provides us with practical guidelines. This paper is an essay on animal suffering that proposes a general Buddhist perspective with an ethical emphasis. It addresses the issue through a reinterpretation of the Four Noble Truths formulation and the Noble Eightfold Path using them as frameworks to reflect on human actions and their consequences for other animals.

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Introduction

For the pure each day is sacred, an uposatha, a day of observance to those who do good. So bathe in this wisdom, brahman: make peace among all beings, Harming naught that draws breath, telling no lies, Taking nothing not given, having faith, being generous. Buddha (Majjhima Nikāya ).

Throughout history, philosophy and religions have approached the issue of animal suffering from different perspectives. Buddhism is a relevant view that should not be left behind, as it includes an ethical consideration of all living beings, along with several tools that can help us to think and act in a less harmful way, for the benefit of all beings. Some authors have analysed the issue in the context of the ethical precepts (Shih, 2019 ; Valle-Lira, 2023 ; Waldau, 2000 ), but other formulations, like the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path have yet remained to be explored. This approach provides a more practical exploration of our relationship with other animals that, hopefully, might support the transformation of reason through experience (Davis, 2007 , p. 109).

Buddhism, as a philosophical and religious ideology, has changed throughout history. In this paper, when we mention Buddhism, we are referring to the perspective that emerges from conditionality ( Pratītyasamutpāda ) and the formulation of the Four Noble Truths. Considering that Buddhism has evolved over thousands of years in several countries and cultures, it is impossible to obtain a single conceptualization and attitude towards non-human animals (which will be referred to as animals from here on). This study will not be limited to a canonical or traditional form of Buddhism, nor to a modernist view focused on rationality, but instead it will be centred on the fundamental teachings and principles regarding animals, which are applicable to present day life. This type of approach has been described as post-modern, ecumenical or globalised Buddhism and which has given birth to Western Buddhist orders, such as Arya Maitreya Mandala and Triratna Footnote 1 (Baumann, 1996 ). Footnote 2 These new traditions strive for an ecumenical, integrative (intellectual and devotional) and practical interpretation of the principles. Within this framework, a short and general review of how animals have been present throughout the Buddhist tradition is possible.

Animals have been discussed in contexts such as those illustrating the difference between humans and other animals, or those denoting their similarities, or as a literary resource (Ohnuma, 2017 ). Some traditions and teachers do not give much importance to the consideration of other animals or have criticised contemplating them through an ethical lens (Ambros, 2014 ; Jena, 2019 ; Waldau, 2000 ). Footnote 3 However, the path to enlightenment, especially as understood from Mahāyāna Buddhism, consists of compassion and care for all beings. Several traditions and teachers consider animals as important beneficiaries of Buddhist thought (Barstow, 2019 ; Ohnuma, 2016 ).

From early Buddhism, the Karaṇīyamettā Sutta urges us to care for all lifeforms (Sangharakshita, 2004 ):

Whatever living beings there be: feeble or strong, tall, stout or medium, short, small or large, without exception; seen or unseen, those dwelling far or near, those who are born or those who are to be born, may all beings be happy! (…) Just as a mother would protect her only child at the risk of her own life, even so, let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings.

Later on, the Bodhisattva ideal emerged emphasising compassion and active engagement with the world. Śāntideva’s Bodhicaryāvatāra , one of the main texts of the Mahāyāna tradition, repeatedly mentions our closeness to other lifeforms and the importance of alleviating all suffering (Shantideva, 2007 ):

8. Meditative Concentration 95. Since I and other beings both, In wanting happiness, are equal and alike, What difference is there to distinguish us, That I should strive to have my bliss alone? 96. Since I and other beings both, In fleeing suffering, are equal and alike, What difference is there to distinguish us, That I should save myself and not the others? 102. Suffering has no “possessor,” Therefore no distinctions can be made in it. Since pain is pain, it is to be dispelled. What use is there in drawing boundaries? 122. Wishing to relieve our bodies’ ills, Our hungry mouths, the dryness of our throats, We steal the lives of fishes, birds, and deer And lie in wait along the road.

Chinese Buddhism integrated animal protection into its scope using arguments such as the human duty to protect all life (particularly sentient beings) and transmigration (which implies the same ontological status between humans and other animals which also have a Buddha-nature Footnote 4 ). It is argued that the negative karma created by killing animals and consuming their meat destroys the roots of compassion (Schumann, 2021 ). The Net Sutra, a Chinese Buddhist text from the fifth century, states (Muller, 2012 , p. 260):

“ Bodhisattvas should give rise to an enduring attitude of compassion, an attitude of reverence and obedience, devising skillful means to save and protect all sentient beings ”

Furthermore, even though several vinayas (monastic codes of conduct) considered it important to not harm animals, Chinese Buddhists emphasised respecting and protecting their lives, including invertebrates (Heirman, 2020 ).

Finally, as an example of animal consideration in Tibetan Buddhism, verses 1 and 4 in the Eight Verses for Training the Mind include a compassionate attitude towards all living beings (Dalai-Lama, 2004 ):

1 With determination to achieve the highest aim For the benefit of all sentient beings Who surpass even the wish-fulfilling gem May I hold them dear at all times. 4 When I see beings of unpleasant character, Oppressed by strong negativity and suffering, May I hold them dear, for they are rare to find, As if I have discovered a jewel treasure!

Is not an easy task to delimit which beings are covered by these declarations considering the existence of microscopic organisms. However, given that animals (both vertebrate and invertebrate) are living, sentient and conscious in most cases, we can deduce they all should be included within these considerations. This perspective is enriched with the scientific findings on animal sentience and cognition, which reaffirm not only these shared capacities, but also our biological and evolutionary kinship or interconnection (Beauchamp & Wobber, 2014 ; Heirman, 2020 ; Rose et al., 2014 ; Sneddon et al., 2014 ; Stelling, 2014 ).

In light of this, we believe that a general Buddhist approach that is focused on animals and human’s shared capacity to experience pain and suffering is possible and useful nowadays since there is a global environmental crisis. The need to reconnect with other life forms is an important step in caring for others and the environment.

Unlike previous studies, this paper explores animal suffering within the Four Noble Truths framework, followed by a short reflection on how we can understand and apply the Noble Eightfold Path to cease or alleviate animal suffering. Throughout this approach, it is possible to understand our role in causing and easing animal suffering, not only theoretically, but through a more practical approach. That is, the way in which actions, speech and mental states are relevant when contemplating the wellbeing of other animals. The complete analysis of such a topic would require further studies; however, we present this text as a first general exploration of the issue.

The Four Noble Truths

Buddhism emerged more than 2500 years ago, when Siddharta Gautama achieved what is called “enlightenment”. There is not a single way to describe what enlightenment is. Some refer to a direct experience of reality without the sociocultural biases that we create and get attached to (Edelglass & Garfield, 2009 , p. 241). This allows us to get a direct and more truthful grasp of what reality truly is. In this sense, enlightenment is a specific kind of wisdom, an understanding of how our minds and reality work and therefore, an appropriate way to relate to the world (Boyle, 2017 , p. 156; Goodman, 2014 ; Sangharakshita, 2001 , pp. 3, 9; Sarao, 2017 ). Siddharta, who was later called the Buddha, observed and understood reality as a complex flux of phenomena that arise and cease depending on causes and conditions. He named this pratītyasamutpāda , which can be translated as the law of conditionality, dependent origination, dependent arising, interdependent co-arising or conditioned arising (Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 51,111):

Imasmiṁ sati, idaṁhoti; imass’ uppādā, idaṁ uppajjati; imasmiṁ asati, idaṁ na hoti; imassa nirodhā, idaṁ nirujjhati. (This being, that becomes; from the arising of this, that arises; this not being, that does not become; from the ceasing of this, that ceases.)

No phenomenon arises without a cause, there is no phenomenon that exists in isolation, but rather connected to every other phenomenon in the universe, so that each one influences and acts on everyone and everyone influences and acts on each one.

Wisdom might be attained by realising the interdependence and interconnection of the arising and cessation of all phenomena. It is important to mention that these relationships do not refer only to causal interdependence but have several dimensions, of which causality would be only one. Forming these relationships also requires a temporal synchronicity between all the parts involved, a mereological dependence, as well as a conceptual designation, a convention that collects all the parts into a single entity and assigns a reference to it by naming it. This process is exactly the same for inanimate objects as for living beings, making it clear that the origin process is the same for all phenomena, including human beings (Edelglass & Garfield, 2009 , p. 5; Garfield, 2014 , pp. 26–27).

Conditionality establishes impermanence within the phenomenological world and at the same time indicates that everything can be explained. Since no event or entity exists independently of other events and entities for its existence, we are potentially able to understand the causes and conditions that support them. This type of processual metaphysics eliminates the ontological duality between humans and other living beings. Human beings are considered intimately related to the world around them, especially to other life forms (Sangharakshita, 2001 , 56; Garfield, 2014 , 30; Shih, 2019 , 319). This conditioned idea of reality serves as a starting point to understand specific phenomena and, since Buddhism is particularly concerned with suffering, this is a relevant topic.

When the Buddha set out on the path to enlightenment, he intended to face the problem of suffering. After years of study and meditation, he finally managed to understand the conditionality of the phenomenal world and applied this knowledge to suffering. The explanation of human suffering through the law of conditionality is summarised in the formulation of the Four Noble Truths (Garfield, 2014 ; Sangharakshita, 2001 , pp. 144–161):

There is suffering. There is physical and mental suffering (dissatisfaction, restlessness, stress, anxiety). Even though there are several unpleasant experiences, the primary concerns are the existential and mental suffering that human beings endure.

It is possible to know the causes of suffering. Suffering arises from greed, the attachment to pleasure and the craving of certain sensations. However, the connection between craving and suffering comes from a primordial confusion about the fundamental nature of reality. If our hopes and desires differ from reality, we will not be able to fulfil them and that will cause us suffering.

By knowing its causes, the cessation of suffering is possible. If greed and attachment cease, suffering ceases. For this to happen, a reorientation in accordance with the conditioned nature of reality is required. Our hopes and desires must be in line with reality, not against it.

There is a path to the cessation of suffering called the “Noble Eightfold Path” which comprises the following components: (1) Right understanding or view; (2) Right intention or aspiration; (3) Right speech; (4) Right action; (5) Right livelihood; (6) Right effort; (7) Right attention (mindfulness); and (8) Right concentration.

This formulation aims to balance attention, cognition and affection, but also to weaken the roots of suffering: craving and attachment, aversion and hatred and confusion and ignorance. It also encompasses the three pillars of Buddhism: wisdom (right understanding and intention), ethics (right action, speech, livelihood and effort) and meditation (right mindfulness and concentration). The steps of the path are not separate, as each one influences the others (Huxter, 2015 , p. 34): right view is the understanding that actions have consequences and that unhelpful actions often lead to things not working out for the best. Right view leads to making skillful decisions and commitments to act in ways that are harmless, kind, and liberating (right intention). When one acts in a manner that is wise (right speech, action, and livelihood), there is a level of mental composure that is conducive to motivation and focused attention. Looking at oneself honestly (mindfulness) often requires courageous effort. The combination of effort, remembering to be attentive, and seeing deeply with focused attention gives rise to understanding. When understanding arises, this leads to right intentions, then right actions and the path of liberation continues. In essence, this eight-factored pathway describes a process for changing or releasing unhelpful habits and behaviours and developing, instead, what is helpful to reach desired goals that are beneficial for self and others.

The Four Noble Truths emerge from a human experience of suffering. However, it is also possible to analyse animal suffering from the perspective of conditionality, following the same steps, but focusing on how human actions affect animal suffering and what we can do about it.

The Four Noble Truths of Animal Suffering

There is physical pain and mental suffering in animals . Footnote 5 The Buddha recognized this in the Majjhima Nikāya : “I could speak on in many a way about the realm of the animals, and yet not be able to express in words how dreadful the sufferings there (in the animal realm) are” (Bruce, 2018 , p. 9). This has already been extensively tested and proven in vertebrates (Mendl & Paul, 2004 ; Plotnik et al., 2006 ; Rose et al., 2014 ; Sneddon et al., 2014 ; Špinka, 2012 ) and even in some invertebrates (Corning and Lahue, 2019 ; Stelling, 2014 ). Such research found anatomical, neurophysiological and ethological similarities with human beings, as well as a similar pharmacological response to analgesic drugs, but it also detected variable and unique types of sensitivities. Since the existence of pain sensations and pain-avoiding behaviours in animals strongly suggests mental suffering and many Buddhist teachings aim not only to alleviate and cease suffering, but also to achieve wisdom and compassion, it would be contradictory to disregard pain and suffering just because it is not experienced by a human being. Furthermore, as the interconnection concept states, humans are not separate from other living beings; if Buddhism aims to tackle suffering, limiting its concern to the human experience would be negligent.

It is possible to know the causes of animal suffering and cease or alleviate it. Although there are many ways to approach this point from medical and biological perspectives, this is an ethical analysis, so we will differentiate between the suffering that occurs without anthropogenic causes, and suffering that involves anthropogenic causes (non-anthropogenic and anthropogenic for short, respectively). In this sense, non-anthropogenic suffering arises from the physical, biological, psychological and social conditions that impact animals without human intervention: diseases, periods of deprivation, predation, isolation, ageing and death. On the other hand, there is suffering that humans cause directly or indirectly to animals (anthropogenic). Direct causes include actions such as instrumentalizing them (i.e. livestock) or acts of cruelty. Indirect causes comprise the destruction and contamination of their habitats, and the environmental crisis.

By knowing its causes, the cessation or alleviation of animal suffering is possible. Regarding non-anthropogenic suffering, there will be situations in which we can prevent or eliminate their suffering, for example, through medical care when they undergo a disease process. Ceasing anthropogenic suffering might seem like a simple thing to do. If it is possible for us to know which of our actions cause suffering directly or indirectly to other animals, then we can act or stop acting accordingly to alleviate or cease the harm. However, the humans who perform these actions should have the capacity, possibility and will to stop these behaviours, which is not so easy sometimes, especially when basic human needs and interests are involved.

There is a path to the end of animal suffering. It is not possible to completely eliminate non-anthropogenic suffering in animals; it is part of the condition of their physical and biological existence. Footnote 6 However, many animals are conscious and intelligent beings and capable of intentional actions, and therefore are able to alleviate their own suffering to an extent. Footnote 7 Human intervention is possible in certain cases, especially within domestic and captive animals. On the other hand, stopping anthropogenic suffering requires a considerable change, not only in our lifestyle and attitudes, but also in psychological and socio-cultural factors, since actions such as the instrumentalization, use and abuse of animals are strongly embedded in many human societies and cultures.

Animals are related to humans in many ways. Mereologically, both are biological beings that share several anatomical and neurophysiological traits. Furthermore, when Mahāyāna Buddhism incorporated the concept of Buddha nature , it was granted to all sentient beings (D. Jones, 2007 ). Metaphysically, conditionality is the origination process for all phenomena, including living beings. The final question here would be if animals are capable of attaining enlightenment in their current lifetimes, which is a difficult topic and beyond the scope of this paper. For now, let us keep in mind that these similarities include the experience of pain and suffering.

Addressing animal suffering is an important part of several Buddhist ethical perspectives, particularly in reference to the first precept Footnote 8 : refrain from the destruction (killing) of life (Shih, 2019 , p. 313). This precept corresponds to the concept of ahiṃsā or not harming. Intentionally killing or harming any living being should be avoided. It literally refers to beings that breathe, so it can be inferred that it includes animals (Harvey, 2000 , p. 67). This is also mentioned in other texts:

Laying aside violence toward all living creatures, both the firm & unfirm in the world, one should not kill a living being, nor have it killed, nor condone killing by others. Sutta Nipāta (Bhikkhu, 2016 , p. 122). Abandoning onslaught on breathing beings, he abstains from this; without stick or sword, scrupulous, compassionate, trembling for the welfare of all living beings. Majjhima Nikāya (Harvey, 2000 , p. 69).

Traditionally, killing an animal is not usually considered real harm in Western culture, as long as it is done for “acceptable” reasons and in a “humane” manner (arguing that they have no life plan that is affected by the termination of their existence) (Bekoff & Pierce, 2017 , pp. 52–53; Waldau, 2000 , p. 7). However, in the discourse on unconditional love, the Karaṇīyamettā Sutta ( Ryan, 1998 , pp. 34–35) , as well as in the Dhammapada ( Sangharakshita, 2008 , p. 44) , it is stated that animals fear death and desire the continuation of their existence, and this must be taken into account. This constitutes an ethical standard, and the development of benevolent emotions and empathy is fundamental to satisfy it. Being able to think about the mental states of others allows us to consider the suffering and welfare of other species and not just our own. Furthermore, our interconnectedness with the rest of the world means that our welfare and happiness are not separated from those of other living beings, and therefore neither is suffering (Sangharakshita, 2004 ; Shih, 2019 , p. 319).

Based on statements like these, it could be speculated that harming any living being would have the same ethical weight. However, other texts explain that the seriousness of hurting another being varies. Buddhagosha (a fifth century Indian master) says:

Harming breathing beings is an action of lesser guilt when they are small, greater guilt when they have a large physical frame. Why? Due to the greater effort involved. But when the size or good qualities are equal, the failure of the action is less due to the (relative) softness of the attack and mental impurities, and greater due to its intensity. There are five factors involved: a living being, the actual perception of a living being, a thought of murder, the attack, and death and suffering as a result (Harvey, 2000 , p. 52).

However, another interpretation by Daoxuan, a Chinese Buddhist master (596–667), states that killing an insect with malicious intent is worse than killing a human being out of compassion. This is because in the first case, if the unwholesome mental states are not perceived, the harmful acts will continue and also bad karma will be produced (Heirman, 2020 ). As a general rule, a constant effort must be made to not harm any type of living being, regardless of their characteristics. Hence there are practices such as filtering the water to avoid drinking them, giving food to ant colonies, or examples of monks who respect the life of generally despised beings, such as lice or poisonous animals. We can deduce from this that harm should only be done to other beings when there is no way to avoid it, such as in self-defence or for survival (Shih, 2019 , p. 314,322). Living beings should be regarded with kindness, as expressed in the Karaṇīyamettā Sutta.

In this regard, the concept of love or kindness ( mettā ) implies specific characteristics. It goes beyond mere goodwill, since it includes compassion, empathic joy and equanimity qualities that avoid falling into sentimentality, excessive rationality or favouritism (Goodman, 2014 , p. 59; Harvey, 2000 , p. 105). Mettā is a love that is enough for everyone, all living beings (Ryan, 1998 , p. 31). This ability to emotionally consider other species is not unique to the Buddhist tradition, as other cultures, religions and philosophies have also reached similar conclusions, which is important to note, since it shows that it is a general human capacity, and not an isolated phenomenon (Castillo-Huitrón et al., 2020 ; Martín-Dabezies, 2022 ).

Within this context, it is necessary to reflect more deeply about our responsibility towards other animal species. Early Buddhist metaphysics explains the composition of sentient and conscious beings through the five aggregates or skandhas : (1) form and body ( rūpa ); (2) feelings and sensations ( vedanā ); (3) perception and memory ( saññā ); (4) mental states ( samskāras ); (5) consciousness (viññāna). All the components are equally necessary and important, since they have a codependent emergence (Ryan, 1998 , pp. 40, 73–74; Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 123). Moreover, in Mahāyāna Buddhism, the focus is on the relational existence of the being as a dynamic presence, avoiding the error of interpreting the aggregates as fixed or essential components (Pynn, 2007 , p. 140). If human beings and other animals have similar physical, biological and psychological characteristics, what is the difference between us? There are thousands of different answers to this question; however, the Aggañña Sutta provides an intriguing one: humans are distinguished by virtue of their ethical responsibility. Footnote 9 Human beings are widely considered as being capable of self-regulating their behaviour according to ethical principles. The term khattiya , which means “the lord of the fields”, is a concept that originally represented the warrior caste, but which is redefined in this text by modifying the human relationship with others and the environment. This relationship is not based on possessing, but on caring for, so that khattiya should be understood primarily as “protector”. The warrior is the protector of the people regardless of their social status, but with special attention for the poor; the warrior is also the protector of animals and all living things. In this text, the message of non-violence and non-destruction is repeated over and over again. The khattiya is a human being who has the power and moves it away from dominion and towards protection; as the transgressor of the first precept (refraining from the destruction of life), they become its devoted defender (Ryan, 1998 , pp. 90–93; Shih, 2019 , p. 326).

The first ethical precept states that we should not destroy life. This here is where the Noble Eightfold Path offers us a framework for reflection and a practical guide to minimise the damage inflicted on other animals. It allows us to focus on areas of concern that benefit or damage our own life, as well as those of others. It represents a way of moving cognitively, behaviourally and affectively from a state in which we are the cause of suffering to one in which we are immune to suffering and in which our thoughts, speech and actions tend to alleviate it in others (Garfield, 2014 , p. 283).

The Noble Eightfold Path to Alleviate and Cease Animal Suffering

The following is a brief reflection on each point of the Noble Eightfold Path regarding how it relates to the human relationship with other animals and their suffering. It is important to remember that this is not a list of hierarchical steps, since each point is equally important.

I. Right understanding or view. Right understanding is usually listed as the first item of the path. It arises from the goal of achieving enlightenment by developing wisdom and compassion. Wisdom provides us with the ability to have a right understanding of reality (as a transient, compound group of phenomena) and avoid wrong views, which emerge from ignorance, greed and hatred. Moreover, by observing reality it is possible to understand it as numerous conditioned and interconnected processes (because of the law of conditionality) . From this, the Buddha inferred what is known as the three marks of existence, which are characteristics shared by all phenomena (Huxter, 2015 , p. 36; Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 197):

Impermanence ( aniccā) — Because phenomena are conditioned, the conditions necessary for their emergence and maintenance eventually cease. The principle of creation is the same as the principle of cessation.

Unsatisfactoriness ( dukkhā) — All objects of our enjoyment disintegrate sooner or later. It is not possible to own or control anything at all, and there are no eternal satisfiers. Our desires must be in harmony with reality and accept the transitoriness of all phenomena.

Insubstantiality or emptiness (anattā) — As a consequence of conditionality, phenomena do not have their own substance or essence because they do not arise from autopoiesis. No phenomenon originates exclusively from itself, rather, each depends on external causes and conditions. This results in a relational ontology of interdependence and the lack of intrinsic nature of all phenomena, including all living beings.

A right view of reality should be according to the law of conditionality. A right understanding of ourselves should comprehend our impermanence as well as our interconnectivity with the rest of the world. Furthermore, regarding our actions, we must acknowledge that they are expressions of our thoughts, feelings and emotions and that actions have consequences not just for ourselves, but also for many other sentient beings. When we fail to understand our deep connections with the rest of the world, we also fail to see how we affect others (Huxter, 2015 , p. 35). This approach does not contradict the theory of evolution, since we are not a different kind of living being; we share a common ancestry and a common physical-biological functionality. All lifeforms are interconnected, meaning that other beings suffer similarly and therefore there is no reason not to take their suffering as seriously as ours.

Wisdom should inform and modify our thoughts and emotions and enable us to create the conditions for the emergence of different actions. A wise and clear mind would be able to see the world without the sociocultural biases that separate us from other animals. The same distortions of reality that cause human suffering are also behind the actions that hurt other animals (greed, hatred and ignorance) (Pynn, 2007 , p. 140). If we see ourselves as insubstantial beings that exist in interdependence with the rest of the world, and if we realised that the happiness and suffering of all sentient beings are similar and connected by conditional causes that allow for their arising and cessation and that human beings have a huge role in the creation and cessation of those conditions, the rational attitude that we can adopt towards others is compassion (Garfield, 2010 , pp. 341–342). Compassion arises at the point of identifying without alienating, and is the direct manifestation of wisdom, the understanding that there is no separation between self and other. It arises out of intimacy, not out of pity. When we identify ourselves with other animals and notice their suffering, compassion emerges (Pynn, 2007 , p. 154).

Buddhist philosophy offers an ontological and epistemological reorientation that entails an ethical redirection based on empathy, benevolence and care as well as a commitment to act for the benefit of others. From the epistemological point of view, the idea is that, if suffering is caused by a misconception of reality, then it can be alleviated by the cessation of these delusions, including the hierarchy of the suffering experienced between humans and animals.

A right understanding based on conditionality is to see ourselves as part of the animal kingdom, as part of nature, to see that we all (animals) suffer and that all suffering should be equally considered. Even though human beings have certain characteristics that facilitate achievements such as enlightenment, we still have a physical-biological body similar to all other animals, and these characteristics are the basis for pleasure and pain, wellbeing and suffering. This should not be confused with some utilitarian perspectives, since it goes beyond the sentience consideration, given that intention and character are also important for Buddhist ethics, as well as care and compassion. Buddhist ethical contemplation of other animals (as it is proposed here) arises from a metaphysical and ontological perspective, from a deep shift in how we understand ourselves and the rest of the world as conditioned and interconnected phenomena. All of this is possible to realise through practice, study and meditation.

An important part of the mental training necessary to achieve the right view is to prevent the interference of symbolic processing systems, such as language. Our minds materialise ideas and behaviour patterns through symbol processing. We use two lines of symbolisms, one that derives from the perception of the world (descriptive) and another that is related to how things should be (prescriptive), that is, what should be done, desired or feared. This discriminatory consciousness has been described as both a blessing and a curse to humanity, since it entails our alienation from each other and nature. These shared ideas are socially important because they give homogeneity to the group and increase commitment and conformity. They form narratives that are not only fed by perceptual experience, but are also associated with memories and emotional attachments that impose a very heavy cognitive load on the brain. This topic is also approached later in the paper regarding the right concentration (Boyle, 2017 ; Davis, 2007 , p. 107).

Buddhist practice is concerned with the perception of reality since it has very important repercussions on our behaviour and therefore on ethical deliberation. Mahāyāna ethics do not primarily seek to question our duties, or which actions are good or recommendable, or even what would make us individually happy. Mahāyāna Buddhism begins with a problem that must be solved: the ubiquity of suffering, whose origin is attachment and aversion, whose roots stem from a basic ontological confusion based on the previously described cognitive and sociocultural biases. To solve the problem, it is necessary to analyse our experience and thus our place in the world. The solution to the problem is not found in the transformation of the world or our behaviour, but in the transformation of our experience (Garfield, 2010 , p. 356).

All these reflections arise from the fact that there is a great source of animal suffering that originates from human actions such as the exploitation, consumption, confinement of animals, the destruction and contamination of their habitats, as well as direct aggression. If we ask about the origin of this inflicted damage, according to this logic, we can answer that it is a problem that emerges from our perceptions. There is an underlying dualistic and hierarchical discourse in which humanity is separated from and superior to the rest of the natural world; therefore other animals are conceived as less valuable or not valuable at all. Animals are seen as foreign and distant beings due to the emphasis on arbitrary parameters that favour human beings (such as human ways of thinking and communication), which generates mental states of rejection and aversion that are materialised into actions that constitute abuse towards other life forms.

Through a change of perception, based on conditionality, interconnection and scientific findings, it is possible to change the position we have towards animals and accept that we are not only part of the animal kingdom, but also belong to the global group of living beings. As Śāntideva affirms, pain and suffering are equally important for all beings, there is no basis for ranking one above another, therefore all suffering must be alleviated, regardless of who suffers it (Shantideva, 2007 ).

The human-animal duality is one of the main barriers to modifying our attitudes towards them. Acknowledging that all animals have the same ontological status would be a first and fundamental step to modifying our perception of them and, with this, our way of impacting them. They are not alien to us; we are part of the same life process that began millions of years ago. Therefore, their suffering is not worth less than ours, and differential treatment of other animals should be considered improper, unfair and unjustified.

Although it could be argued that this biological continuity between human beings and other animals has been known about for a long time thanks to evolutionary and biological studies, this knowledge continues to be frequently suppressed by Cartesian dualism. Footnote 10 We are related in theory, but not in the reality created by our biassed minds. This shows us that information is not always enough for a change of perspective and much less of ethical consideration. Deeper reflection and meditation are needed to explore and dismantle the mental barriers that alienate us from the rest of the living beings.

II. Right intention or aspiration. Right intention or aspiration is the volitional counterpart of right understanding. Right or skillful intentions and aspirations are based on wisdom, non-attachment, and goodwill; they lead to happiness for ourselves and other beings. Wrong or unskillful intentions and aspirations emerge from craving, ill will, and ignorance, leading to acting in a manner that may complicate our lives or harm ourselves or others.

There are several types of right intentions, such as renunciation (to craving, attachment or wrong views), loving kindness or mettā (unconditional love and goodwill towards ourselves and other beings) and compassion or karuṇā , the intention to alleviate suffering, regardless of who endures it (Huxter, 2015 , p. 37; Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 160). The intention to alleviate non-human suffering is not easy to achieve. Animal instrumentalisation is so normalised in many societies, that it is not usually seen or questioned. It is “normal, necessary and natural” (Aguilera, 2019 ). Speciesism argues for human superiority above all other animals and for our right to use them, creating feelings of contempt that are sometimes so subtle they become invisible. Most people do not experience actual hate towards animals but allow them to be exploited and killed. Human beings get to decide who lives and who dies. Nonetheless, from another perspective, if human beings’ superiority arises from spiritual wisdom or prajñā as conceived in Buddhism, it implies compassion, transcendence of egocentrism and acting to alleviate suffering in others (Ohnuma, 2017 ; J. J. Stewart, 2010 ; Waldau, 2002 ). Footnote 11 Although it is considered meritorious to care for an animal, this action loses its virtues if it is carried out with the intention of obtaining something in return, that is, caring for an animal is not a justification for its instrumentalisation, an egoic action motivated by self-interest or greed (Granoff, 2019 ).

The perspective that right intention must be based on wisdom and compassion poses a problem for the food and biomedical industries, which might make an effort to give animals a better life, yet the ultimate motivation is not animal welfare but rather the benefit of human beings at the expense of animals. For a selfless act and kind generosity to manifest, it must come from a non-anthropocentric perspective where due attention is given to others and action is preceded by observation and consideration of their needs in an effort to understand their subjectivities.

Keeping in mind the perspective on animal suffering and the ethical response presented here, right aspiration is an appeal to uphold and fulfil our ethical capacity and honour our duties to other beings. Our actions would be much less hurtful for ourselves and other living beings if we had our collective well-being as a purpose. Buddhism provides us with the hermeneutical and epistemic tools to help us understand our thoughts and experiences in a different manner, making them the foundation for a distinct way of acting. Hermeneutically, it helps us to reconceive our place within nature and our duties to other sentient beings as we no longer perceive them as separate from ourselves. Further reflection and meditation about the constitutive similarities between humans and other animals might help us realise that we are not so different or disconnected from them.

III. Right speech. For Dogen, words are a double-edged sword: they can either be a sublime expression of the truth and connect us with the world, or lead us astray and alienate us. Discursive reasoning divides the world; classification might lead to separation and objectification if we get trapped in words and accept them as a reality. However, words are useful as a provisional step towards truth (Davis, 2007 , p. 119; Pynn, 2007 , p. 142), and this is why it is important to reflect on the use of language. Wrong or unskillful speech is also an expression of greed, ignorance or hatred; it inflicts harm on ourselves and others. On the other hand, when we speak from a place of generosity, wisdom, and kindness, speech is a source of gentleness, usefulness, honesty and harmony (Huxter, 2015 , p. 38).

Speech is relevant because it is an expression, materialisation and reinforcement of our mental conceptions. It is therefore related to the treatment and level of ethical consideration we think we owe to others (Sidnell, 2010 ). Unskillful speech causes mental confusion and suffering in oneself and others. Unskillful speech is considered any type of lying, cheating, misrepresenting, slandering or exaggeration, including non-verbal communication (Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 177). Discriminatory discourse of any kind (i.e. racism, sexism, speciesism) uses wrongful speech as propaganda to create a world of hierarchies and privilege for some and oppression for others (Faria, 2017 ; Holborn, 1964 ).

Everyday language reinforces interpretations of reality and ourselves. There is speech that emphasises the hierarchies between humans and other animals by using a different lexicon for each group or even using animal names as insults. For example, speaking about animals as things or properties using “it” as a pronoun eliminates the existence of an intrinsic value. Furthermore, the use of euphemisms instead of precise words to disguise and distort reality is often applied to situations where animals are harmed (Ricard, 2016 , pp. 48–51). Animals are not killed, but rather “put to sleep” or “sacrificed”; they are not sentient living beings used and hurt, but rather “biological research tools”; wild animals are not captive but “under human (professional) care”. Speech is often deceptive and even dishonest, perhaps as a means for not losing our so-called humanity and still allowing ourselves to benefit from their misfortune (Harvey, 2000 , pp. 74–75). Ironically, the term humane is frequently used as a way to sanitise particular actions, That is, if an animal is killed, but it is done humanely, it is therefore a good action, regardless of the motivation, results or even methods (Bekoff & Pierce, 2017 , pp. 50–52). Speaking about animals as if they were inert things is a mental and cognitive misrepresentation that leads to an incorrect perception and a lack of consideration and empathy. Humans are typically upgraded to owners and animals downgraded to possessions (Wagner et al., 2019 ).

The Buddhist ethical precepts related to the use of language support the avoidance of lying, misdirection, promoting ill will and disharmony. Speech that expresses contempt towards sentient beings expresses a form of hatred. Referring to other animals as inert things is a misrepresentation. The use of words that disguise the consequences of a damaging action is a type of lie. This is not a right speech that leads to wisdom and compassion. In order to reevaluate our relationship with other animals and nature in general, it is necessary to also analyse our speech and not be afraid to change the words we use. Let us remember what Buddhism has said for centuries; words are not reality, only fingers pointing to those realities. Words are tools that should be used wisely (Garfield, 2014 , p. 273, Valle-Lira, 2023 ).

Communication in general, not just spoken language, is an important component of the human experience. The words we use when we talk about animals are powerful, but it is also important to remember that direct communication with other animals is possible, not only with pets, but in any human-animal interaction. They might not be aware of the exact meaning or grammatical structure of our language, but they can learn to recognise intonation, gestures and some words, including their own names (de Waal, 2003 ; Kulick, 2017 ; Pika et al., 2018 ; Rendall & Owren, 2002 ). Even though language and naming can be a source of violence, as authors like Jacques Derrida have argued (McNamara, 2010 ), a practice that might be encouraged is the use of names to designate animals as a way of giving them an identity and facilitating the connection with human beings (Bertenshaw & Rowlinson, 2009 ). Naming them reduces anonymity and commodification. It is a reminder that they are someone, not something. Examples of animals with names and personalities in the Buddhist tradition are Kanthaka, the Buddha’s horse, and Nāḷāgiri, an enraged elephant that is appeased by the Buddha (Ohnuma, 2017 , p. 96, 97).

Furthermore, we must open our senses to the messages animals express through vocalisations, gestures, touch, sights and other forms of non-verbal communication (de Waal, 2003 ; Kulick, 2017 ; Pika et al., 2018 ; Rendall & Owren, 2002 ). This requires attention, but it also means being careful not to incorporate our interests into these interpretations. It is not possible to know and understand them without paying attention to them, and this is necessary in order to properly help them to alleviate their suffering. Footnote 12 Although, to our knowledge, this is not explicitly tackled in Buddhist literature, the authors propose it as an important aspect to be included, since animals are a ubiquitous presence in human lives, and therefore the communication about and to them should be regarded ethically. This is different from the listening of nature that is preached, for example, in the Zen tradition (Davis, 2007 ) as a one-sided contemplation and not a two-sided communication exercise.

IV. Right action. For our actions to be correct, they should abide by the Buddhist ethical precepts, particularly the first one: abstaining from damaging life by acting with kindness and compassion. Although there is a consideration of degrees (already mentioned), this is only useful when there is no alternative or when the facts are subsequently evaluated, especially within monastic contexts in order to make a decision based on the seriousness of the damage and to be able to establish a form of atonement (Harvey, 2000 , pp. 52, 156, 167, 172). However, outside of these particular situations and in daily life, a constant effort must be made to not harm any type of living being regardless of their characteristics. In order to achieve this, selfless decisions must be made along with understanding that if actions are not entirely skilful, it is possible to humbly admit that these might be the best decisions at this time to cause minimal damage. This kind of humble attitude, even if it cannot guarantee the absolute correctness of the decision, can reduce the possibility of stubbornly repeating mistakes. From this, harm will only be done to other beings when there is no way to avoid it, for example in self-defence or survival situations (Shih, 2019 , p. 314,322).

It has been mentioned above that killing an animal contradicts certain teachings and should be considered a harmful act, however, this position can be enriched by Jakob von Uexküll’s theories about the subjective lives of animals. Uexküll stated that all animals have a particular and unique way of feeling, understanding and relating to the world around them (Domínguez, 2012 ). Killing them is destroying that special life, that individual and unique way of being. Furthermore, an emotional sensibility towards the suffering of a sentient being is part of Buddhist ethics, especially through certain meditation techniques. The Sanskrit word mettā does not imply a mere feeling of affection but has various components that complement each other and are cultivated through a series of meditations called the sublime abodes or brahmavihārās , which are the following: love and kindness ( mettā ); compassion and care ( karuṇā ); empathic joy ( muditā ); and equanimity ( upekṣā ) (Garfield, 2014 ; Harvey, 2000 ; Sangharakshita, 2001 ). As a whole, mettā is about generating an emotion of love and kindness, which includes compassion for the suffering of others, not as pity, but as motivation to help and care for them, and the same time that joy is shared through empathy, all within a context of equanimity and impartiality (Goodman, 2014 , p. 59; Harvey, 2000 , p. 105). Mettā is a type of kindness that does not seek to be tinged with sentimentality or possessiveness but strives to understand others in all their complexity and uniqueness, to love them beyond a desire for well-being, acting for their benefit. Affection towards animals should not be based on attributing them human qualities or on idealising their animality, but on an active and passive appreciation of them, letting them be who they are, observing them, learning how their life expresses itself: “the dog barks.. just like a dog” (Davis, 2007 , p. 124). Life and the universe are not rational, it is the anthropocentric thought that expects that the voices of other beings should conform to human ways of knowing, communicating and expressing. Humans should engage with the otherness of animals, their faces, which for Dogen are not merely the front of the head, but their interdependent phenomenalities. Emmanuel Levinas said: “To see a face is already to hear: you shall not kill” (Pynn, 2007 , pp. 145–147; Schroeder, 2007 ).

In the context of animal suffering, the right actions should take care of the well-being of other animals directly and indirectly. This includes taking proper care of those who depend on humans to survive (domestic and wild animals in captivity) and causing no indirect harm to other sentient beings by damaging the environment. Right actions should arise from right intentions, the aspiration to ease suffering (i.e. by renouncing superfluous desires that make us exploit them), but also by cultivating loving kindness towards them that emerges from positive feelings and wisdom (right understanding), generating an ethic of compassion where alleviating all kinds of suffering is a priority.

It has been observed that the areas surrounding monasteries in Thailand function as nature reserves. There are programs to train monks in nature conservation, which is appreciated for many reasons: in addition to containing numerous living beings, nature is also a source of tranquillity and provides a means to understand reality, since it is considered its purest manifestation (Harvey, 2000 , p. 180).

Generosity or dana is another form of right action and complement of the second ethical precept, to refrain from taking what is not given. We frequently take from animals what is not given to us freely. We force them to produce for us, to live with us, to risk their lives for us and to die for us. Taking their lives by force is in itself an act of violence that violates their agency and interests and could only be justified as a subrogated decision that seeks their best interest (i.e. euthanasia for those ongoing painful terminal diseases such as cancer) or perhaps as a last act of survival.

In Buddhism, generosity is understood beyond a material standpoint, since giving immaterial things such as time, company and support is also valued. In fact, one of the greatest forms of generosity is the following of the precepts per se, because it frees others from the threat and ill will that are avoided by following these conduct guidelines (Harvey, 2000 , page 66). We should begin by liberating animals from the threat of our wrong actions, a great gift. If humanity could, through the precepts, benefit animals in various ways, not exploiting or killing them, not affecting their habitats, not depriving them of their freedom, providing them with lodging when they need it or not making them live by and die for human beings, we could speak of great generosity.

We can also be generous by giving them freedom, autonomy, capacity for agency, respect, and non-interference in the affairs of wild animals, except in cases of special need. We should only interfere in their lives if it is for their well-being and in particular situations in which their suffering is such that there is a fundamental imperative for altruistic aid.

In addition to giving animals care and resources, there are other ways of being generous with them. Even though animals are considered to lack the cognitive capabilities to fully practise the Dharma , they might benefit from it. There are several texts and tales about animals being in touch with Buddhism, particularly by listening to it and obtaining merits, including a better rebirth such as a human being or a deva (Ambros, 2014 ; J. Stewart, 2017 ). Animals also gain merit by receiving kindness from humans. This highlights the importance of making an effort towards improving our relationship with them.

V. Right livelihood. It is traditionally advised to not engage in trading animals, either dead or alive (Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 160; J. J. Stewart, 2010 , p. 5). However, given the industrial and technological revolutions and the actual environmental crisis, the ways in which our jobs and lifestyles harm other animals have greatly increased. Nowadays several professions deal directly with animals. Some are related to science, like biomedical research and veterinary medicine, or non-scientific activities, such as animal breeders, farming, show business or the military use of animals, among others. Moreover, even though many people might not be directly involved in harming animals, they support it economically or by social acceptance of these practices. Our society is largely based on the labour and suffering of animals that are exploited to be consumed, used as labour force, experimental subjects, companions, a means of transportation and for entertainment. We risk their lives to save ours in rescue missions, as police or military tools, or in animal-based therapy.

Every day, millions of animals are killed all around the world, causing them suffering but also harming the humans nearby, along with many other environmental and public health problems (Pluhar, 2010 ; Porcher, 2011 ; Rubio et al., 2020 ). Even though the issue of meat consumption is quite controversial and various teachers and traditions have been quite open to the idea, it is evident that it is not ethically innocuous. Early Buddhism outlined restrictions to meat consumption, both for monks and lay people, as well as special purification rituals after killing an animal (Harvey, 2000 ; J. J. Stewart, 2010 , 2015 ). Later emphasis on compassion and the benefit of all beings leaned in favour of avoiding it (Chophel et al., 2012 ; Shantideva, 2007 ).

There is no easy answer to the question of which ones of all these activities should be abolished, modified or continued. Welfarism Footnote 13 is not necessarily satisfactory. Regardless of the improvement in treatment and care, animal exploitation and use is still a form of harm. On the other hand, Buddhism is not a prohibitive philosophy. Since wrongful actions come from ignorance and confusion, changing these conditions would also change the outcome actions. Enforcing a prohibition would not create the right understanding. So, instead of an abolitionist position, a pedagogical one is possible by encouraging the necessary studying and reflection so that people would cease these activities not because of an imposition but because they understand their unwholesomeness (Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 168). An example of this is the kingdom of Bhutan, where animal consumption is not strictly prohibited, but discouraged and considered incompatible with some Buddhist celebrations (Chophel et al., 2012 ).

There are also many human activities that harm other living beings indirectly, like polluting the earth, deforestation, and causing the current climate crisis. Several industries cause serious environmental pollution, like oil, textile, mining, maritime, etc. The construction of infrastructure such as motorways, railways and dams also damages living beings by changing and fragmenting their habitats. So it is not only our professional activity that should be analysed, but our whole lifestyle and the activities needed to support it. What and how much we consume, where it comes from, where our waste goes and how we are a part of it all. It can be overwhelming to think about this, since renouncing the comforts of our modern lifestyle is not always easy. However, Buddhist ethics are not an imposition, nor an immediate demand. The ethical precepts are training guidelines that point towards a better life for all. Achieving ethical conduct is a training process, a path, just as the Noble Eightfold Path indicates. As understanding and compassion grow, behaviour will modify according to the goal to benefit all beings. Furthermore, right livelihood is not meant to be a life of deprivation and misery; it is meant to be a life of contentment, serenity and happiness, a peace of mind that emerges from the conviction of doing what is right, a delightful life that takes pleasure in the many aspects of our experience that are skillful (friendship, art, nature, etc.), a joyful life filled with the knowledge that many other beings are benefiting from our actions.

We might ask if there should be a public policy involved in order to take this to a larger scale and beyond personal decisions. Buddhist commitment to non-violence as a public policy is evidenced in the edicts of King Ashoka (304–232 BC), emperor of Mauria who converted to Buddhism. Animal protection laws were established, and although the consumption of animals was not strictly prohibited, policies were put in place for its gradual reduction, with the intention of ending in the future (Harvey, 2000 ; Ryan, 1998 ). The Emperor Wu of the Liang (r. 502–549) of China also implemented animal protection policies, such as abstention from meat consumption (Schumann, 2021 ). Other texts like the Dīgha Nikāya condemn the killing of animals by considering them relatives and collaborators in various tasks (Ryan, 1998 , p. 50). All these writings make it clear that just as there is no discrimination by species, neither should there be discrimination based on their relationship with human beings, so domestic animals must be respected in the same way as wild animals.

A contemporary example of the application of Buddhist philosophy is the aforementioned kingdom of Bhutan, a country that has followed this tradition for more than a thousand years. The government of this nation seeks the happiness and welfare of the population and the environment, while preserving culture and spiritual values. This policy has been materialised in laws that guarantee a minimum of 60% forest cover across its territory. Focusing on the specific attitude towards animals, consumption and use of animals is not prohibited but rather it is discouraged, in such a way that most of the population avoids these practices. The animal liberation ritual called Tsethar in Tibetan ( Tse  = life, Thar  = liberation) is common in Bhutan. It is usually done to release animals that were intended for consumption. What they are told at the time of the ceremony is: “now you are free, we will not kill you for your meat, we will not sell you for a price, we will not make you work for us, we will not use your wool (in the case of a lamb), the moment is propitious, the consequences are good” (Chophel et al., 2012 ) . These words reveal that the spirit of the practice is to free animals from being used by humans by perceiving them as valuable beings in themselves and respecting their lives (Uddin et al., 2007 ; van Vuuren & Smeets, 2000 ). Footnote 14 It is problematic when these kinds of rituals forget their original goal of helping animals, and become just a cultural activity. In this regard, the situation that occurred in China after the establishment of the republic is quite exemplary. With the purpose of protecting animals, associations were created in which Buddhist ethics and values towards animals were expressed. However, in order to survive, they had to align with the political agenda. Because of this, animal protection became a political and economic project, safeguarding only those animals considered useful but still allowing their instrumentalization (i.e. livestock), and neglecting or even targeting as enemies those animals that were considered harmful, such as the mice and insects that were affecting agricultural production (Schumann, 2021 ). This case is an example of why it is important to keep animal protection grounded in axiology and ideology, if this activity is carried out within a Buddhist framework.

Regarding animals used for scientific research and biotechnological production, this is a use of animals that some might consider analogous to the sacrifice of animals in religious rituals. Laboratory animals are killed for human interests, but also for something higher and for the greater good, Footnote 15 which the Buddha considered reprehensible (Harvey, 2000 , p. 168). However, it cannot be denied that biomedical advances are of vital importance not only for humans, since many animals also benefit from them when they receive medical care. It is interesting to note that some research centres in Japan have placed headstones and carry out rituals for the animals killed by these institutions. Researchers have even declared that these rituals are important for the spirit of these animals and easing their conscience after hurting and killing them (Nishikawa & Morishita, 2012 ).

In order to achieve the right livelihood, some activities related to non-vital human needs may need to stop (i.e. cosmetic or military research and use of animals), while others, if considered impossible to abandon (i.e. biomedical research), should at least be reduced and abide to a minimal harm policy, along with more sensitive conduct and special rituals, such as funeral ceremonies for the animals.

VI. Right effort. In the Dhammapada , two ordinances of the Enlightened Ones are: (a) The not doing of anything evil, undertaking to do what is (ethically) skilful ( kusala ), and complete purification of the mind; and (b) to not speak evil, not injure, to exercise restraint through the observance of the code of conduct, to be moderate in diet, to live alone, and to occupy oneself with higher mental states (Sangharakshita, 2008 , p. 57). According to this, the right effort begins by avoiding doing harm. In this regard, the ethical precepts should be abided by not harming living beings, not taking the not given, avoiding sexual misconduct and having rightful speech. Most of these have already been mentioned, except for sexual misconduct, which is definitely a wrong action when it involves animals, as they are similar to children Footnote 16 and there cannot be proper consent to participate in such activities with humans.

Besides avoiding harmful actions, mind purification is also an important task. A right effort includes the decision to work on the mental states that precede action, in accordance with right understanding and intentions. Citta is the word usually translated as mind, but a more accurate translation would be mind-heart as it also refers to emotions (Huxter, 2015 , p. 39). Thoughts and emotions together are the source of actions. This is why the right effort should also focus on mental training, meaning that we must strive to prevent the arising of unskilful thoughts and emotions and to develop and to maintain the arising of skilful thoughts and emotions (Sangharakshita, 2001 , p. 160). Meditation is a direct way to work with our mental states and this does not have to have a religious approach, as numerous mindfulness programs have proven over the years (Eberth & Sedlmeier, 2012 ; Tang et al., 2015 ). Although mindfulness training has mainly been oriented towards stress management, it is possible to apply it also to the improvement of our relationship with other animals. There are meditations especially designed for this purpose, like mettā bahavna , which translates as to foster fondness or kindness. It consists of five stages, of which traditionally the first four are used to develop kindness and goodwill towards specific human beings (oneself, a friend, a stranger and an enemy), and the fifth stage includes all of humanity, but also other living beings, like animals (Manuello et al., 2016 ; Rana, 2015 ; Sangharakshita, 2013 ).

It is important to remember that there should be a balance in our effort; the image of a string instrument (i.e. a guitar or sitar) is traditionally used to remind us that just as the string should not be too tight or too loose to produce a beautiful sound, we should not force ourselves too much, nor to be self-indulgent. A balanced effort is also guided by the discernment to determine what should be accepted, what should be changed and when to just let go (Huxter, 2015 , p. 40). The sudden forbiddance of any use of animals might be a forced and problematic kind of effort (especially if the people and society are not ready for it), while indulgence regarding this topic represents no effort at all to continue with business as usual.

VII. Right attention (mindfulness) and VIII. Right concentration. Right attention or mindfulness, involves remembering to be attentive with an ethical quality that discerns between what is useful to follow mentally and what is not, discerning between what is harmful for the self or others and what is beneficial. As mindfulness training progresses there are less mental distractions so that in later stages, through concentration, it is possible to observe, note, and discern the law of conditionality in every phenomenon and clearly see the three marks of existence (impermanence, emptiness, and unsatisfactoriness) enabling wisdom and compassion to arise (right understanding) (Huxter, 2015 , p. 42). This kind of mental work is also a part of a right effort.

Right concentration is also called samādhi , which means to collect one’s attention and place it on an object. However, it includes an element of self-transformation. Buddhist meditation is not an end in itself, but a training system to achieve a disciplined mind, in order not only to choose which emotions and thoughts are to be cultivated or diminished but also to prevent the interference from symbolic processing systems, such as language. When a symbolic structure of this script does not agree with the reality that is perceived, this ontological security is threatened. To resolve the inconsistency between the two there are two options: either modify the conceptual system or the perception of reality. Humans usually opt for the latter option in order to keep the symbolic corpus intact, through which numerous sociocultural biases are created, which then interfere in the perception and interpretation of reality (Boyle, 2017 ).

Meditation work allows us to move from subjective perception to objective observation, to remember that the ideas we build to describe the world end up structuring the world in which we think we live. However, it is not an easy job; dematerialising these ideas means moving away and deviating from the group with its respective consequences of alienation (Boyle, 2017 ). This includes gender roles that affect how we relate to other animals, since masculinity is associated with violent activities like meat eating and hunting, while femininity is ascribed to care and nature (Reggio, 2018 ; Warren, 2000 ). Ideas of human and male supremacy are rooted in many parts of our lives, our psyches, our culture and our lifestyle. Denouncing this situation is frequently received with scorn or disbelief (Reggio, 2018 ). This is why forming a community is important in Buddhism, in order to provide support and company to ease the path (Sangharakshita, 2001 , pp. 34–6).

Regarding emotions, these are not fixed. They can be modified by changing the affective dimensions of our perceptual experience. For this, there are several meditation techniques such as the brahmavihārās, already mentioned, and Tonglen, Footnote 17 among others (Garfield, 2014 , p. 290; Mah et al., 2021 ). Throughout these techniques, our emotional responses to animals can be modified and nourished.

Buddhist philosophy and meditation techniques are helpful tools to diminish speciesism because they acknowledge and tackle the issue at its roots, from mental states (thoughts and emotions) and how these affect perceptions and actions. This can be comprehended as a type of ethical enhancement, one that alters the individual not artificially (pharmacologically or technologically) (Ahlskog, 2017 ; Persson & Savulescu, 2019 ), but rather wilfully by studying and meditating.

The ethical precepts of the mind Footnote 18 are relevant to this topic because a lack of mental clarity breaks the other precepts with all the related consequences and harm. The emphasis on the practice of meditation stems from the understanding that a clear mind means greater awareness of our actions. Thoughts are not innocuous because, on the one hand, they have material manifestations through actions, but they also forge character and habits. If we keep our minds clear and cultivate positive mental states derived from wisdom and kindness, this will cause skilful actions of benefit to the agent and others, while those who maintain negative mental states stemming from ignorance and aversion will engage in harmful actions that affect everyone.

Refraining from greed in favour of tranquillity is another ethical precept and an important step. When the mind does not dwell in tranquillity because it covets for possessions or sensations, searching for satisfiers might cause great damage. A mind guided by greed steps over others, because obtaining its objectives is a priority. Even though monastic codes are restrictive regarding economic wealth, for lay people obtaining profits is not prohibited, but this activity should abide by the fulfilment of the ethical precepts, meaning, avoiding the harm and killing of sentient beings (Goodman, 2014 , p. 65). Wealth should be conceived as an instrument for the benefit of all beings, not as an end in itself (Harvey, 2000 , p. 113).

Negative mental states are not always as evident as when they reach the extremes of hate. Sometimes they present themselves in very subtle ways. It could be said that most human beings do not hate most animals, but most people feel aversion towards some of them. Numerous cultures and civilizations have been built on the idea of human superiority. Challenging this is often considered not only inappropriate, but an affront to society itself. Although hate is an emotion that is diametrically opposed to compassion, it is believed that holding wrong points of view (cognitive and sociocultural biases that prevent us from seeing reality) is more important and fundamental because they are the precise cause of hatred and aversion (Sangharakshita, 2010 ).

The mindfulness meditation movement that emerged from the Buddhist meditation system began over 50 years ago and has proven that meditation is helpful for stress and health issues (Eberth & Sedlmeier, 2012 ; Huxter, 2015 ; Rana, 2015 ; Tang et al., 2015 ). However, it is time to unlock more of meditation potential and also use it to alleviate the suffering of other beings. In order to achieve this, it should not be separated from its Buddhist context (Huxter, 2015 , p. 30), because if it is reduced to a serenity practice we limit its scope, and the emotional training and support are removed as well. Raising awareness and consciousness without developing positive emotions might be harmful for practitioners (Lomas et al., 2015 ).

Right attention and concentration lead to a right understanding that emphasises our close connection with the rest of the animals and therefore the importance of considering their suffering as a relevant element in the way we relate to them, it encourages us to reconsider our attitudes, practices and emotional responses. This is where Buddhist thought makes a great contribution; it gives us a conceptualisation of the world that unites us with life in all its forms.

Buddhism provides us with a different perspective to approach the issue of animal suffering, given that the perspective of an ontological duality between human beings and other animals is one of the main barriers to modify certain attitudes towards them. Buddhist philosophy contains an elaborated and sophisticated group of theories and explanations that approach many of the same issues as other traditions, but with a different perspective that results in valuable contributions to the philosophical debate. Furthermore, it not only gives us a theoretical framework, but also a training system that comprehends the most important aspects of our lives. It provides us with ethical guidelines, bases for reflection and a mental training system. Amongst these, the Noble Eightfold Path is particularly useful for its comprehensiveness. Even though it was formulated more than 2500 years ago, human lives still fit within its scope. All these tools could be used to improve our relationship with other animals and reduce their suffering, whether caused by human beings or not.

Acknowledging that all animals have the same ontological status through the understanding of conditionality and interconnection is a fundamental step towards modifying our perception of animals and improving our actions towards them. If we are kin fellows within the same life process, then our suffering is not more worthy than theirs. Therefore the differentiated treatment towards other animals would be considered improper and unjust. Their exploitation, abuse and confinement would be seen with different eyes and would not be so easily accepted. We should feel the same commitment to easing the suffering of other animals, out of compassion and care and not as a charity or an imposition.

We can ease the non-anthropogenic suffering of animals by giving them medical care, food and shelter. We can ease their anthropogenic suffering by understanding the consequences of our actions; that cruelty and neglect harm them in a way that is the same or very similar to the ways they harm human beings. In order to maintain our lifestyles we need many resources and somewhere, somebody is paying the price, mainly vulnerable humans and animals. Even though the environmental crisis and the effects of industrialisation affect us all, they hit harder on those whose suffering is ignored because they are not being regarded as worthy of ethical consideration.

Through the Noble Eightfold Path, it is possible to analyse and transform our relationships with other animals using a philosophical perspective that includes metaphysical, ontological, phenomenological and epistemological tools and to ground this perspective in the practical aspects of our everyday life: what we consume, what we do for a living, what we focus our minds on. Buddhism offers us a different way to relate and to appreciate animals, and it shows us our interrelations, the deep and intimate connections between us as an opportunity to experience ourselves with them, in them and for them.

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Formerly known as the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order.

A previous example is the Rime ecumenic movement in Tibet in the nineteenth century (Baumann, 1996 , p. 361).

Some authors have criticised the inclusion of animals in Buddhist ethics, arguing that violence against them is not absolutely prohibited and that in the end, anthropocentrism is maintained by valuing the life of human beings more (Jena, 2019 ; Waldau, 2000 ).

A detailed description of the concept of Buddha-nature is depicted in “Buddha Nature and Animality” edited by David Jones.

In this text, the term “animal suffering” refers to physical pain, as well as mental and emotional suffering, since all of these conditions affect their wellbeing.

To explain this further, we must recall Caroline Rhys Davids and her interpretation of the five niyāmas : utu-niyāma , physical (inorganic) order, bīja-niyāma, order of germs, or seeds (physical organic order), citta-niyāma , order of mind, or conscious life, kamma-niyāma , order of act-and-result (ethics) and dhamma-niyāma , order of the norm, or Dharma (D. T. Jones, 2012 ). Animals are subjected to the first three niyāmas (at least), which means that they have physical bodies which are impermanent and will decay, get sick and die, while those in the wild are often subjected to predation.

They can escape enemies and predators, ask for help, satisfy their needs (i.e. food, water, company) and even take medicinal substances (de Roode & Hunter, 2019 ; Shurkin, 2014 ).

There are many groups of precepts both for monks and lay practitioners. The most known formulation is the five precepts for lay disciples: avoiding unnecessary killing and harming, avoiding taking what is not freely offered, avoiding sexual misconduct, avoiding false and harsh speech and avoiding having the mind clouded by unwise use of intoxicants or drugs.

It is not clear if animals that kill other animals are to blame for their actions or even if this generates any kind of karma.

Substance dualism, or Cartesian dualism, most famously defended by Rene Descartes, argues that there are two kinds of foundations: mental and physical. Since animals were thought of as devoid of reason and language, it was assumed they lacked mental substance (Robinson, 2023 ), and they were described as mindless biological machines.

This has been called hierarchy of compassion instead of hierarchy of oppression (Davis, 2007 , p. 113).

Helping without the proper knowledge and skills can be inefficient or even harmful.

Welfarism is the view that only well-being is intrinsically valuable. When this is applied to animals, it is usually assumed that, as long as they are not treated badly, humans can continue using and exploiting them.

These rituals may have a negative impact on the lives of these animals, as well as on the ecosystems where they are released when biological and ecological considerations are not taken into account (Ambros, 2014 , p. 259).

Actually, when animals are killed in scientific activities, this act is often referred to as a sacrifice .

There are many similarities between children and animals; both are emotionally and cognitively alike but also vulnerable to the actions of adult human beings.

Also known as taking and sending, this is the technique of taking in the pain of others with every in-breath and sending out whatever will benefit them on the out-breath (Mah et al., 2021 ).

There are different mind precepts contained in different formulations of the precepts, which include: not using intoxicants (like alcohol or drugs), avoiding greed, hatred and ignorance.

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This research was carried out as part of a postdoctoral research program, thanks to the Postdoctoral Scholarship Program at UNAM (POSDOC).

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All authors contributed to the conception and design of this study. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by María del Carmen Valle-Lira. The first draft of the manuscript was written by María del Carmen Valle-Lira, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Valle-Lira, M.d.C., Noguera-Solano, R. Animal Suffering from a Buddhist Perspective: A Reinterpretation of the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. DHARM (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42240-024-00188-7

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