essay about plants and animals

Animal Essay

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500 Words Essay on Animal

Animals carry a lot of importance in our lives. They offer humans with food and many other things. For instance, we consume meat, eggs, dairy products. Further, we use animals as a pet too. They are of great help to handicaps. Thus, through the animal essay, we will take a look at these creatures and their importance.

Types of Animals

First of all, all kinds of living organisms which are eukaryotes and compose of numerous cells and can sexually reproduce are known as animals. All animals have a unique role to play in maintaining the balance of nature.

A lot of animal species exist in both, land and water. As a result, each of them has a purpose for their existence. The animals divide into specific groups in biology. Amphibians are those which can live on both, land and water.

Reptiles are cold-blooded animals which have scales on their body. Further, mammals are ones which give birth to their offspring in the womb and have mammary glands. Birds are animals whose forelimbs evolve into wings and their body is covered with feather.

They lay eggs to give birth. Fishes have fins and not limbs. They breathe through gills in water. Further, insects are mostly six-legged or more. Thus, these are the kinds of animals present on earth.

Importance of Animals

Animals play an essential role in human life and planet earth. Ever since an early time, humans have been using animals for their benefit. Earlier, they came in use for transportation purposes.

Further, they also come in use for food, hunting and protection. Humans use oxen for farming. Animals also come in use as companions to humans. For instance, dogs come in use to guide the physically challenged people as well as old people.

In research laboratories, animals come in use for drug testing. Rats and rabbits are mostly tested upon. These researches are useful in predicting any future diseases outbreaks. Thus, we can protect us from possible harm.

Astronomers also use animals to do their research. They also come in use for other purposes. Animals have use in various sports like racing, polo and more. In addition, they also have use in other fields.

They also come in use in recreational activities. For instance, there are circuses and then people also come door to door to display the tricks by animals to entertain children. Further, they also come in use for police forces like detection dogs.

Similarly, we also ride on them for a joyride. Horses, elephants, camels and more come in use for this purpose. Thus, they have a lot of importance in our lives.

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Conclusion of Animal Essay

Thus, animals play an important role on our planet earth and in human lives. Therefore, it is our duty as humans to protect animals for a better future. Otherwise, the human race will not be able to survive without the help of the other animals.

FAQ on Animal Essay

Question 1: Why are animals are important?

Answer 1: All animals play an important role in the ecosystem. Some of them help to bring out the nutrients from the cycle whereas the others help in decomposition, carbon, and nitrogen cycle. In other words, all kinds of animals, insects, and even microorganisms play a role in the ecosystem.

Question 2: How can we protect animals?

Answer 2: We can protect animals by adopting them. Further, one can also volunteer if one does not have the means to help. Moreover, donating to wildlife reserves can help. Most importantly, we must start buying responsibly to avoid companies which harm animals to make their products.

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Essay On Plants – 10 Lines, Short And Long Essay For Kids

Key Points To Remember When Writing An Essay On Plants For Lower Primary Classes

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Humans have depended on plants for generations for food and medicine. Plants go through photosynthesis and can pull nutrients from the soil and return them to the earth. They also provide clean air to breathe and scrub the atmosphere off pollutants. Many animals depend on plants for survival and live in environments surrounded by them, as they serve as natural habitats. If you are trying to write about plants in English and educate your kids, there are a lot of things you need to know to get started. Read on below to learn how to write an essay on plants for classes 1, 2, and 3.

Plants are valued not just for their beauty but for our well-being. Below are key points to remember on the importance of plants and how to write an essay on the same.

Start with an introductory paragraph. Write a few simple sentences on how they influence our daily lives.
Talk about the different types and uses of plants.
You can also cover plants’ health benefits and briefly add how they improve emotional and mental well-being.
Conclude with how to pick the best plants for your home, where to start, and why you love plants.

You can write a few lines on plants, but it’s crucial to understand their natural design and processes. We cannot enjoy the quality of life we live and breathe if it weren’t for plants. Here are 5 lines on plants for children:

Plants do a lot for our environment, and their role is often underestimated.
Plants in oceans maintain balance in the ecosystem and are essential for the survival of various aquatic species.
Most plants absorb harmful outdoor gasses and purify the air.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen to sustain life on earth.
The roots of plants bind them to the soil, and photosynthesis is a process that occurs through plants’ leaves.

The countless benefits of plants cannot be denied since plants have existed for thousands of years. You can mention this in your essay for classes 1 and 2. Here are 10 sentences on plants for children:

Plants purify the air we breathe and help to maintain balance in an ecosystem.
They reduce the harmful effects of UV rays coming from the sun and cool down the air.
Plants are crucial to our survival as humans since they produce oxygen which is key to life.
Transpiration is a process through which plants move water from the soil to the atmosphere.
Plants give us different resources such as food, gum, herbal medicine, etc.
Dried hay and straw are plants that are used to feed animals like cows, horses, and sheep.
Plants make their own food. This process of making food is known as photosynthesis.
The study of plants is known as Botany.
Green algae are called primitive plants because they live in water.
Liverworts are plants that thrive in damp and tiny conditions, often known for lacking vascular tissue.

Plants are always around us; we see them in houses and parks. Writing a short paragraph on plants will enhance kids’ knowledge of the subject.

A plant comprises more than 95% water; every tree we find around us was once a plant many years ago. It’s no surprise that they provide sustenance to living beings; without plants, it would be impossible to have a life on earth. There are three main types of plants – conifers, ferns, and flowering plants. Flowering plants are described as those species that grow leaves such as roses, tulips, dandelions, sunflowers, etc. Conifers are evergreens that grow tall and sometimes have needles instead of leaves. Ferns are non-flowering plants that don’t have leaves or flowers. Blue-green algae originated 3 billion years ago and were known to be the first plants on this earth.

Plants are found in all shapes and sizes and are known to improve our lives. Here’s a short essay for classes 1, 2, and 3 on plants:

Trees are the most significant plants, and they are full of leaves during the summers. Plants are the beauty of the earth. As humans, we depend on plants for food and various other things like gum, rubber, and paper for our consumption. Through photosynthesis, plants can make their own food. Plants cannot run away from animals to protect themselves but have specific safety mechanisms. Sharp spines and allergic reactions triggered by leaves are common ways to defend against prey in nature. Plants provide various benefits for people. They can purify the air and help keep us healthy. Some plants can even provide medicine or food when needed. Plants provide a variety of vegetables, fruits, oxygen, and other things and assist in controlling carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Botany is the study of plants and their species and features. Plants are important because they provide habitats for animals and aquatic species and make other valuable things like rubber, resin, vegetable oils, and natural dyes. Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are also by-products of plants used in automobiles.

Photosynthesis occurs during the day, and plants require sunlight, oxygen, and nutrients from the soil to survive and thrive. Unlike humans, plants are anabolic and catabolic by nature. Below is a long essay for class 3 kids on plants:

Plants are necessary for humans to survive and thrive. Chlorophyll in plant leaves absorbs light from the sun and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen into the environment.

During respiration, oxygen gets utilised, and CO2 is given out. If the number of plants in our environment decrease, it can pose significant health hazards since there will be no control over air pollution. Plants provide animals with food and edible parts such as fruits and nuts. The roots of many plants are ground into fine powders and store medicinal value, and many plants, such as the aloe vera and neem plant, treat skin conditions such as acne, eczema, and rashes. Some plants can be used for getting relief from stomach ulcers and food allergies, boost metabolism and fix appetite.

Plant fibres are used for manufacturing clothing materials such as jute, flax, and hemp.

What Are Plants?

Plants are photosynthetic eukaryotes that comprise all living organisms that are not animals. They include some fungi, algae, aquatic, and land species.

Important Characteristics Of Plants

The important characteristics of plants are:

Photosynthesis – It is the process they make their own food and survive.
Cell walls – They descend from the green algae and are multicellular.
Meristems – New tissues and organs are formed at the meristems.
Hydrostatic Systems – Plant cell walls are made of cellulose, and these species serve as hydrostatic systems.
Reproduction – Plants are capable of reproduction and can disperse new life through airborne spores.
Stationary – Plants cannot move and are bound static to the soil.
Aesthetics – Plants are pleasing to the eyes and provide humans with aesthetic pleasure. They can liven up indoor and outdoor environments.
Life cycles- Each plant has its definite life cycle, and its growth or lifespan depends on environmental factors and nutrition.
Protoplasm – Protoplasm is the actual living matter present in plants.
Adaptability – Some plants are versatile and can adapt to harsh living conditions.

Significance And Benefits Of Plants

Following are different benefits, significance, and uses of plants:

Lower anxiety and stress – Indoor plants have reduced anxiety and stress. As per multiple studies, people exposed to the greenery around them performed better than those that didn’t.
Improve indoor air quality – Plants scrub dust, contaminants, and pollutants from the air through phytoremediation. Several species, such as areca, spider plant, etc., have been helpful.
Alleviate allergies or asthma – If you have any seasonal allergies or asthma, you may find that having various plants in your home can help alleviate them.
Boost oxygen levels – Plants are good at filtering out carbon dioxide from the environment and boosting oxygen levels. They also remove unwanted chemicals from the air, thus making it easier to breathe.
Reduce global warming – Plants help lower the global temperature of the atmosphere; without them, we wouldn’t be able to survive on this earth.
Prevent soil erosion – Plants keep soils fertile worldwide and supply all the significant nutrients to them.
Enhance creativity – Plants can significantly improve creativity for those trying to exercise their imagination. Many artists, singers, musicians, and great people in history had plants in their homes.
Absorb background noise – If you live in a noisy environment, you’d be surprised to learn that plants can absorb background noise. The best way to reap this gift is by positioning them around the edges and corners of rooms, and some excellent examples are the Snake Plant and Weeping Fig.

Factors That Are Affecting Plants

The following are common factors that affect plants:

Climactic Factors – Plants are affected by climate conditions such as temperature, light, wind, humidity, and precipitation.
Nutrition – Plants absorb nutrients from the soil, and soil composition is essential for their growth and development.

Your child can learn a lot by writing an essay on plants. They will learn how nature works, where they get their food from, and why plants are vital to their lives.

Now that you know enough about plants, you can get to work on writing about them. Look up popular houseplants and study the varieties you like. That’s how you write a unique and creative essay that’s not only informational but a fun read!

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Plant and Animal Reproduction

While all organisms reproduce, not all organisms reproduce the same way. Explore the similar and different ways that plants and animals pass on their genes.

Biology, Genetics

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What Is Reproduction? All organisms reproduce, including plants and animals. The biological process involves an organism producing and/or giving birth to another organism. Just because all organisms reproduce doesn’t mean the methods of reproduction are the same, however. Plants and animals occupy different phylogenetic kingdoms, but they have evolved reproductive systems that overlap and diverge from each other in several ways. Even within the same kingdom, different species may have different methods of reproduction. Types of Reproduction There are two types of reproduction: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction . The former involves a single parent that produces a genetically identical offspring, whereas the latter involves two parents of the opposite sex, each of whom contributes genetic material to produce a diverse offspring. Different plants and animal can reproduce either asexually or sexually; however, a sexual reproduction is more common among plants than animals. Asexual and sexual reproduction each have benefits and drawbacks. Organisms that reproduce asexually have the advantage of producing several genetically identical offspring quickly and with little energy. On the other hand, the lack of genetic diversity among asexual offspring means they have a lower chance of acclimating to an unstable environment. By contrast, organisms that reproduce sexually have the advantage of producing a genetically diverse offspring, which is able to adapt to its environment. But sexual reproduction comes at a cost, requiring more time and energy to produce an offspring than a sexual reproduction . Fertilization One difference between plant and animal sexual reproduction concerns fertilization . In flowering plants, the fertilization of an egg is achieved by cross- pollination . This process involves an insect like a bee that transfers the pollen grains from the anther , the male part of a flower, to the stigma , the female part of a flower. Once the pollen lands on the stigma , it passes through a long, tube-like structure called a style to reach the ovaries where fertilization takes place. It should be noted that some plants, called hermaphrodites , have male and female parts on the same plant, and are able to self-pollinate. Animals, by contrast, do not depend on third parties like insects in order to mate. As mobile creatures, animals reproduce by physically interacting with each other and often perform various mating rituals in order to woo potential partners. Embryonic Development Despite differences in the fertilization process, the embryonic development of plants and animals is similar. Once a plant egg is fertilized, it starts developing into a multicellular organism in a way similar to an animal embryo. The only major difference between the two is that a plant embryo is contained within a seed, which provides the nutrients it needs to grow, while an animal embryo develops within an egg, outside the organism, or within a uterus, inside the female parent organism. Birth and Germination Plants and animals also differ with respect to how they give birth. Animals exit their mother’s uterus as a newborn or hatch from an egg that has already left the mother’s body. A plant, by contrast, arises by germinating from a seed. The plant releases the seed, which begins to grow once it is in soil and the conditions are right for germination. After the seed has germinated into a plant, it can collect additional nutrients through its roots. Growth Rates The growth rates of plants and animals also vary. Plants have what is called indeterminate growth, meaning there is nearly no limit to how much they can grow. The extent to which a plant can grow is largely determined by its environment. Consequently, plants do not have a size or age that is deemed normal or mature. The growth rate of mammals, such as humans, is also influenced by environmental factors, like nutrition, but animals cease growing once they have reached adulthood. Asexual Reproduction As noted earlier, many plants reproduce asexually. There are a variety of ways plants can reproduce without a partner. For example, some nonflowering plants, such as moss and algae, reproduce by spore formation. These plants form several spores , which break off and grow into separate organisms. Other plants, such as strawberries, are able to reproduce asexually through vegetative propagation , either naturally or artificially. This process involves using a vegetative part of a plant, such as a root or stem, to produce a new plant. Alternative artificial methods, such as grafting , involve combining two plants into one by attaching the top part of a plant, called a scion , to the lower part of a plant, called a rootstock .

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Importance of Plants & Animals in Human Life

What Weapons Were Used During Colonial Days of North Carolina?

Plants and animals have played an important role in human life for as long as they've all existed. In fact, without the plants and animals that humans have used for food, labor, tools and companionship over countless generations, society could not have advanced to the point it has today.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

Humans have used plants and animals as food, labor, tools and companions. People would not have survived without the help of several species of plants and animals.

Plants and Animals as Food

Human beings hunted animals and gathered plants for food long before the formation of permanent settlements. Some of the earliest animals used for food by humans were insects, fish, wild pigs, and deer or antelope. Plants used for food included berries, mushrooms, and various seeds and nuts. Before the invention of agriculture or farming, gathering and eating plants was just as dangerous, in a sense, as hunting animals for meat. Many plants are toxic to humans, and simply picking the wrong berries or mushrooms for a meal could seriously injure or kill that person.

As mankind progressed and agriculture increased, plants like wheat and rice began to make up the backbone of the human diet. A person's location dictated what sort of fruits, vegetables and grains one was able to grow. As humans began to travel the seas and explore new continents, different cultures borrowed agricultural techniques from one another and brought back plants and seeds. New plant hybrids began to develop, yielding larger, more reliable crops.

Humans also domesticated a variety of animals for use as food. Pigs, cattle, goats and sheep were raised by people and diminished and eventually eliminated the need for constant hunting. Today, these same animals are used for meat, milk and cheese.

Plants and Animals Put to Work

Plants and animals have been used by people to help with a variety of tasks for millennia. Plants were used to create clothing, such as straw hats and woven cotton textiles. Clothing helped to shield human skin from the sun and to help regulate body temperature. Animal fur and pelts were also used to create clothing that allowed people to safely hunt, work and live outdoors, especially in colder climates.

Animals played an important part in all sorts of labor-intensive tasks up until the development of advanced technology. Horses provided fast transportation before the development of cars. They could pull trees from the ground, pull plows to till fields and carry building materials long distances, allowing people to build tougher homes and barns in a wider variety of places. Dogs assisted people in hunting. Certain breeds were developed to hunt in different ways, from terriers that dug up rodents and other small pests from the ground to pointers that helped hunters locate birds or deer in tall brush. In some cases, dogs could even be trained to chase, kill and retrieve animals at a hunter's command, making in unnecessary for humans to risk injury in order to obtain meat.

In parts of the world where the latest technology is unavailable, animals are still used to perform tasks that would otherwise be difficult or impossible.

Plants and Animals Used as Tools

Animal bone could be carved into knives, spears and other useful instruments. Animal bladders were sometimes used to create bags, while hollowed-out horns from animals like rams could be used to transmit sounds over long distances. Wood from trees was used to build everything from the bodies of spears to hunting bows. Later on in human history, wood was used in the creation of the first guns. Bird feathers were often used to balance arrows, or to add warmth to clothing, especially moccasins.

Early hunters usually tried to use every part of an animal's body, if possible, to maximize its usefulness. If an animal such as a buffalo was killed, the buffalo's own horns and skull fragments might be used to remove fur from the hide so that the hide could be tanned.

Plants and Animals Welcomed as Companions

Human beings are social creatures that crave companionship. In addition to providing us with food, labor and tools, plants and animals have given us their company over generations, helping to comfort us and make us more productive.

Recent research from the University of Queensland has shown that adding a plant to one's workspace can increase productivity up to 15 percent. Watching fish swim in tanks has long been shown to lower blood pressure. Tending plants in a garden can lead to a sense of fulfillment, while placing them indoors can lead to less overall stress.

Of all domesticated animals, dogs and cats have offered mankind by far the most companionship over generations. Dogs were originally domesticated to help humans hunt, but quickly became like members of the family for their owners. Cats were domesticated to kill mice, rats and other pests. But soon their companionship led humans to keep cats inside their homes, even if there was no need for the animals to hunt. This newfound domesticated animal companionship was good news for mankind, since scientists have now shown that pet owners, especially dog owners, live longer than those who do not keep animals as companions.

Humans still use plants and animals for food, labor, tools and companionship nowadays, though in different capacities. Without these partnerships, the world would be vastly different.

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About the Author

Maria Cook is a freelance and fiction writer from Indianapolis, Indiana. She holds an MFA in Creative Writing from Butler University in Indianapolis. She has written about science as it relates to eco-friendly practices, conservation and the environment for Green Matters.

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Understanding Conservation
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Wildlife Guide

Wildlife conservation is the preservation and protection of animals, plants, and their habitats. By conserving wildlife, we're ensuring that future generations can enjoy our natural world and the incredible species that live within it. To help protect wildlife, it's important to understand how species interact within their ecosystems, and how they're affected by environmental and human influences.

Plants and animals have life events that seemingly occur like clockwork every year. Birds can migrate, mammals may hibernate, flowers bloom, and leaves change colors. The study of how the biological world times these natural events is called phenology. Scientists now understand that plants and animals take their cues from their local climate (long-term weather patterns). Climate is impacted by non-biological factors—temperature, precipitation, and available sunlight. Species use the predictable yearly changes in the climate to determine when they start natural events such as breeding or flowering.

Climate change is slowly increasing average annual temperatures. One of the most noticeable ways that climate change is impacting wildlife is by disrupting the timing of natural events. With warmer temperatures, flowering plants are blooming earlier in the year and migratory birds are returning from their wintering grounds earlier in the spring. Phenology is an important subject for conservationists to study because it helps us understand the patterns of specific species and overall ecosystem health. Every species has an impact on those in its food chain and community, and the timing of one species' phenological events can be very important to the survival of another species.

Food Webs and Bioaccumulation

The energy we receive from food can be traced back to the sun. As the sun shines, it radiates light energy. Plants absorb the light energy, convert it to sugars (photosynthesis), and produce energy for other wildlife. The energy from the sun moves its way through ecosystems by predators eating their prey. A food web breaks down how all the producers, consumers, and decomposers interact in an ecosystem and how energy is transferred between species.

When animals eat their prey, they consume more than just energy. They also absorb all the chemicals and nutrients inside the prey. Sometimes animals ingest pollutants that can become stored in their fat and tissues. Human-caused pollution has added heavy metals, oil, and industrial and pharmaceutical chemicals to the environment. Plants, fish, and other species absorb these toxins, and as they are eaten by predators, the toxins are then absorbed into the predators’ tissues. As the chain of predator and prey continues up the food web, the toxins become more concentrated and move higher and higher up the food web. The process that causes the concentration of a substance to increase as it moves up the food web is called bioaccumulation. The pollutants can have a disastrous effect on the food web and potentially kill species.

Natural Disturbances

A natural disturbance is any event that causes a disruption to the current state of an ecosystem. Natural disturbances are caused by forces of nature, including weather, geology, and biological fluctuations. This may include fires, floods, earthquakes, diseases, and droughts. After a disturbance impacts an ecosystem, there can be devastation, but healthy ecosystems have an amazing ability to bounce back. Some ecosystems even depend on disturbances, such as the threatened longleaf pine ecosystem. Sometimes the ecosystem will go back to its former structure, with the same plant and animal species. Other times, the disturbance will create something new by allowing new species to populate the area.

Not all disturbances are natural. Human actions have contributed to many disturbances seen in ecosystems today. While natural disturbances happen on occasion, human disturbances are putting constant pressure on ecosystems and dramatically impacting species. Human disturbances, including clear-cutting, habitat fragmentation, and pollution, are continuously affecting ecosystems. The moment the ecosystem begins adjusting to one stress, another appears. Many ecosystems that we depend on are not given enough time to adapt to the new conditions. The natural cycle of disturbances—growth, dieback, and growth—cannot properly function because too many disturbances are putting pressure on the ecosystem at once.

Corridors and Flyways

Wild animals are always on the move. They move from place to place in search of food, mates, shelter, and water. Many animals do not have to move far in order to have all their needs met, but other animals—for example migratory birds, wolves , mountain lions , or butterflies —require much more space. Currently many species with large territories, including gray wolves, are threatened because habitat loss and fragmentation have limited their available space. Roads, fences, and buildings cut off habitat and force wildlife into smaller areas. Conservationists have to take into account the different spatial needs of wildlife when designing plans to protect them. They have to think about the territory size, different habitat types, and migration routes that wildlife need.

A wildlife corridor is a tract of land that connects different wildlife habitats (such as refuges, parks, or rivers) that might otherwise be separated by human development. Wildlife corridors provide many benefits to wildlife. With corridors, animals have a better opportunity of finding the basic necessities they need—food, water, shelter, and places to raise their young. Animals that require larger territories can access new habitats and maintain a healthy territory size. Wildlife corridors also promote genetic biodiversity . When more individuals of a species are interconnected, the gene pool becomes larger and more viable. Migratory wildlife benefit from corridors because they can move safely over long distances without having to come into contact with human developments or cars. Species are more likely to survive disturbances by having more undisturbed areas.

The National Wildlife Federation, in partnership with the Santa Monica Mountains Fund, is working to create a wildlife crossing for mountain lions in California. By linking protected habitat on either side of a freeway, mountain lions and other wildlife can the access to green space they need to survive. The Liberty Canyon Wildlife Crossing, when built, will be the largest such crossing in the world, and a model for urban wildlife conservation.

Unlike mammals, birds and butterflies travel from one place to another by flying, so they face different kinds of challenges. Not only do we have to protect their winter and summer habitat, but also key rest stops that migratory wildlife use along the way. Conservationists can help threatened bird and butterfly populations by protecting habitat along major migratory flyways—pathways used by migratory birds and insects. Birds tend to take predictable routes to get from the winter feeding grounds to the summer breeding grounds and back. Flyways usually occur along coastlines, major rivers, and near mountains. The United States has four main migratory flyways.

Pacific Flyway: Along the Pacific coast, west of the Rocky Mountains
Central Flyway: Over the Great Plains, east of the Rocky Mountains
Mississippi Flyway: Along the Mississippi River
Atlantic Flyway: Along the Atlantic coast

A great way to help birds and butterflies migrate is by building a Certified Wildlife Habitat® in your backyard or balcony. Learn how to provide a critical resting place and food source to help migratory birds reach their destination.

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Species diversity is only one part of biodiversity. We also have to recognize the genetic diversity that exists within species, as well as the diversity of entire habitats and ecosystems.

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The Endangered Species Act has lists of protected plant and animal species both nationally and worldwide.

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An ecosystem service is any positive benefit that wildlife or ecosystems provide to people. The benefits can be direct or indirect—small or large.

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Essay on Conservation of Plants and Animals for all Classes in 100 to 500 Words.

Conservation of Plants and Animals

Conservation of Plants and Animals means protecting them. The ecosystem of this world is full of diverse life forms, from big creatures like whales to the smallest insects; every living thing plays a very significant role in maintaining the balance of the world. But humans are disturbing this ecosystem in the name of so-called development. Deforestation, pollution, and other various harmful activities of humans are causing various important plants and animals to face extinction. Now it’s time for all of us to step forward and raise voice against it. If we don’t do that the balance of this ecosystem is going to be severely disturbed. We’ll explore some of the key issues surrounding plant and animal conservation efforts and discuss what we can do to help protect these vital parts of our environment.

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The Importance of Conservation of Plants and Animals

As the population done by humans is increasing at a rapid rate which is worrisome. So keeping some factors in mind, we must conserve our resources and shouldn’t be wasting them. It is necessary for the survival of humans and nature. If we keep depleting our forest reserves, water reserves, and other useful natural resources a lot of animals and plants will go extinct which will lead to a huge scarcity of natural resources.

Importance of Conservation of Plants and Animals edumantra.net

Why Conservation is Important

Conservation of plants and animals is no doubt necessary for a number of reasons, including:

Biodiversity: Plants and animals are essential components of the Earth’s biodiversity. Conservation efforts ensure the protection of the diverse range of species that exist on our planet.
Ecological Balance: Plants and animals are vital to maintaining ecological balance. For example, animals play an important role in pollination, which helps plants to reproduce and plants provide shelter and food for animals. The loss of one species can have a devastating effect on the entire ecosystem.
Human Survival: Plants and animals provide humans with food, medicine, and other essential resources. Conserving them helps ensure that these resources remain available for future generations.
Economic Benefits: Plants and animals are essential for various industries such as agriculture, forestry, and tourism. Conservation efforts can help protect these industries by ensuring the long-term sustainability of these resources.
Aesthetic Value: Many plants and animals are culturally significant and provide aesthetic value. Conservation efforts can help preserve these species for their cultural and aesthetic significance.

Some more specific reasons for why Conservation is Important-

Conserving the different types of plants and animal species helps us to have more resources. The fewer the species are the fewer the resources will be. If we don’t preserve it and save it all we may face huge shortages of food and resources in the future which will be nothing less than a nightmare turning into reality.
Moreover, a lot of species of animals and plants help in maintaining the quality of water by filtering pollutants out of the water supply. If we do not conserve these animals, our water could become polluted and unsafe to drink.
Conservation will ensure safety from climatic changes as plants and animals play a very important role in maintaining and regulating the environment.

Methods of Conservation

There are so many ways to conserve plants and animals. Here are some common methods of conservation-

Habitat Conservation – This includes the conservation of natural habitats like forests, wetlands, and grasslands. This will make sure that animals and plants have a place to live without the worries of being cut or hunted which will promote their growth too.
Species Conservation – This includes the conserving of those plants and animal species that are on the brink of extinction. This can be achieved through re-introduction programs, managing hunting and fishing quotas, and captive breeding programs.
Land Conservation – This includes conserving land to provide shelter and other resources for habitat conservation or other purposes such as recreation or agriculture. This can be done by buying or selling the land for conservation or changing the way land is used ( for example changing farming to organic farming).
Water conservation – T his involves conserving the water to ensure that it is returned to its natural state and being used more effectively. It can be done through reforestation, greywater systems, and rainwater harvesting.
Resource Conservation – This involves conserving natural resources such as trees, minerals, and soil so that they can be used sustainably. This can be done by, using recycled materials, recycling the resources, and using renewable resources instead of non-renewable resources.

If we go in deep there are these two major conservation methods which are described further below –

In-situ Conservation

So first of all let’s understand what is In-situ Conservation-

This conservation is the conservation of an endangered species in its natural habitat which can be achieved by creating national parks, nature reserves, and other protected areas. In-situ conservation is often considered the most effective way of conserving biodiversity. The main advantage of this conservation is that it enables the species to adapt to the variating environment. If any species is facing extinction due to climate change, in-situ conservation will enable them to adapt to the new conditions of their changing environment. Moreover, in-situ conservation protects against habitat loss and fragmentation. Although this strategy of conservation isn’t perfect and has some problems too, let’s discuss what these challenges are –

The difficulty of establishing protected areas in countries where there are high levels of poverty and political instability.
Moreover, species in the protected areas can face genetic problems as they will be isolated from the other areas.

Ex-situ Conservation

Now let’s see what is Ex-situ Conservation-

To protect species they are moved to a more controlled habitat from their natural habitat and this is what we call ex-situ Conservation. This can be done through captive breeding, tissue culture, cryopreservation, and other methods.

The reason why ex-situ conservation is necessary is described below –

In situations where a species is threatened by habitat loss or degradation, over-exploitation, introduced predators or diseases, or climate change. In that case, taking individuals out of the wild and into captivity will help to ensure their survival and their safe return to the wild later on.

Although there are many disadvantages to this strategy though –

It is often expensive.
It is difficult to recreate those natural conditions in captivity.
Captive animals may become less genetically diverse over time.
Moreover, there is always a chance that captive animals could escape from there and establish themselves in the wild and may even prey on native species or compete with them.

Overall ex-situ conservation should be seen just as a tool that is to be used alongside other strategies

Conservation of plants and animals should be of the utmost priority as we can see how much environmental damage is being caused due to the imbalance in the ecosystem. Through conservation, we must ensure that there is a proper balance in the ecosystem. We all need to put efforts at the individual, and community levels. It needs the government’s support and assistance too to protect the environment and ensure the safety of all endangered species. It is also important to protect the habitats of animal species so they can live safely in their natural environment. By working together, we can create a more sustainable future for us, our planet, and wildlife.

1. Can anyone give me an essay on cruelty to animals? Answer – With the rise in human population and advancement in technology, there has been an increase in unethical treatment of animals. Cruelty against animals can come in various forms such as physical abuse, neglect, exploitation for entertainment purposes, animal testing for commercial gain etc. It is important to understand that cruelty against animals is completely unnecessary and immoral and we need to take action against this issue if we want to ensure the safety of animal species and maintain the integrity of the ecosystem. We must create awareness about animal rights and promote strict laws to protect them from such cruelties. Additionally, setting up recovery centers and rescue shelters across the country will give these deprived animals a chance at life and hope that things will get better for them someday.

2. What is the importance of the conservation of plants and animals? Answer – C onservation of plants and animals is of paramount importance as it provides balance to the environment and helps preserve natural resources for future generations. Conservation helps maintain biodiversity, protect habitats from destruction, protect endangered species, and ensure the sustainability of the ecosystem. Without conservation efforts, many plant and animal species would become extinct, which would disrupt the balance nature needs to continue its ecological cycles. Additionally, conservation helps improve air quality, contribute to flood reduction, reduce soil erosion and water pollution by preserving healthy ecosystems. It is therefore important to secure a sustainable world for future generations.

3. In what ways can private citizens help in the conservation of plants and animals? Answer – Private citizens can play a crucial role in the conservation of plants and animals. Here are some ways individuals can contribute to conservation efforts:

Reduce the Environmental Footprint: Private Citizens can reduce their impact on the environment by consuming less energy, reducing waste, and making sustainable choices in their daily lives. For example, individuals can use public transportation or they can go for carpool, reduce water consumption, and recycle.
Support conservation organizations: There are many non-profit organizations dedicated to conservation efforts. Private citizens can support these organizations through donations or even spread awareness about their work.
Practice sustainable agriculture: Individuals can support sustainable agriculture practices, such as buying locally sourced produce and support organic farming, and avoid products that contribute to deforestation, such as palm oil etc.
Report illegal activities: Private Citizens can report illegal activities, such as poaching or habitat destruction, to the relevant authorities.
Educate others: Private citizens can educate others about the importance of conservation and inspire them to take action.

4. Which NGOs are working for conservation of plants and animals in NCR? Answer – There are several NGOs working for the conservation of plants and animals in the National Capital Region (NCR) of India. Here are some examples:

Wildlife Trust of India (WTI)
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
Centre for Wildlife Studies (CWS)
Indian Wildlife Conservation Trust (IWCT)

5. Why is it important to protect endangered species? Answer – Endangered species are facing extinction due to several reasons. A few reasons include habitat destruction, climate change, over exploitation and other threats. It is important to protect these species as they play an important role in maintaining the balance of nature. Protecting endangered species helps preserve our planet’s biodiversity and ecosystems, which are essential for human survival. By preserving rare and unique species, we can also maintain genetic diversity which is very critical for developing new medicines, treatments, and crops. In addition, protecting endangered species provides us with enjoyment and spiritual enrichment by preserving nature’s beauty for future generations.

6. Do plants have a higher conservation value than animals? Answer – Both plants and animals have high conservation value, and it is difficult to say which has a higher conservation value. Both are basic components of ecosystems and play critical roles in maintaining ecological balance.

Plants provide a variety of ecosystem services, including oxygen production, carbon sequestration, soil stabilization, and nutrient cycling. They also provide food and habitat for a wide range of animals. Additionally, many plants have cultural and medicinal importance, and their loss can have significant impacts on human communities
Animals also provide a variety of ecosystem services, including pollination, seed dispersal, and pest control. They also have cultural and aesthetic value, and their loss can have significant impacts on human societies. Additionally, animals are often important indicators of ecosystem health and can serve as flagship species for conservation efforts.

7. How do I control my urge to torture animals? Answer – Controlling your urge to torture animals is an important step in promoting the conservation of plants and animals. We should remind ourselves that animals suffer the same emotions as human beings and therefore we should never mistreat them for any reason. Instead, we should focus on finding positive ways to interact with them, like going to animal shelters or joining organizations that help protect them. We can also educate ourselves on humane alternatives to animal testing and advocate against cruel practices. Ultimately, respect for life is essential in our journey towards conserving plants and animals.

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Essay On Plants

Plants are an incredibly important kingdom of organisms and one of the most important components of the earth. They help in the sustainability of life on this planet. Most plants are photosynthetic in nature. Photosynthesis is a process by which phototrophs convert light energy into chemical energy and this energy is later used to fuel cellular activities. Plants provide the foundation of many food webs and aid the survival of the animal kingdom. Here are a few sample essays on “Plants''.

100 Words Essay On Plants

A plant is a living thing which grows in the crust of the earth (soil), in water or on other plants; and usually has leaves, a long thin green central part called the stem, flowers, seeds and roots. A plant can be a young tree, vine, shrub, or herb. Plants belong to the kingdom “Plantae” of multicellular eukaryotic, mostly photosynthetic. Plants lack locomotive movement, and nervous or sensory systems and possess cellulose cell walls. Plants are classified by a system called taxonomy, which is based on their genetic and evolutionary relationship. Plant taxonomy is a branch of science that gets updated as new species are found almost daily.

200 Words Essay On Plants

Plants are multicellular organisms which can be distinguished by various features like they make their food. The study of plants falls under the subject of Botany. Botany has identified about 3,50,000 species of plants such as bryophytes, seed plants and fern allies. Green plants, also known as viridiplantae, prepare their own food in the presence of sunlight through a process called photosynthesis.

Source Of Food | Plants benefit us in a number of ways by providing seeds such as wheat, rice, corn etc that we eat in our daily life. Plants provide us with tasty fruits that give us minerals and vitamins. Apart from fruits and other food, plants also provide us with oxygen, shelter, fruits, food, timber, wood, fuel and medicine.

Preserve Ecosystem | Plants play an essential role in preserving the fauna and maintaining ecological balance. Without plants, human life would become miserable as we all are very much dependent on them. The absence of plants on earth will lead to desolation and deserts all around us.

Need To Protect | Thousands of plants are being cut down daily to make furniture and paper. All humans need to grow more trees and plants and protect the existing ones. Trees should be grown on bare cultivated land and forestry should cover a larger area.

500 Words Essay On Plants

Plants are incredible species which can use up abiotic components from the environment to make their own food and also give oxygen to the atmosphere, which is one of the basic factors for the sustainability of life on earth. The classification of plants is basically done on their evolutionary and genetic relationship.

Classification Of Plants

Plants can be classified on the following criteria:-

Vascular And Non-Vascular Plants

Plants can be classified as vascular or non-vascular:-

Vascular – the group of plants which possess the vascular systems to conduct food and water throughout the plant. They own true stems, leaves and roots.

Non-vascular – the plants which do not possess vascular systems. They have a stem and leaf-like structures and rhizoids instead of true structures.

Plants are also classified based on their life cycles:-

Annuals | These are the plants which live for only one season, that is they complete their entire life cycle in a single season. They are mostly herbaceous. Examples are wheat, rice, pulses, etc.

Biennials | These are the plants which complete their life cycle in two years. They are also herbaceous and examples are cabbage, carrot, beetroot and onions.

Perennials | These are plants having a long lifespan. They generally live for more than two years. They are either woody or herbaceous. Examples of perennial plants are lavender, dianthus and lilies.

Based on taxonomy, plants can be classified as below:-

Coniferophyta (Gymnosperms) | This group of plants is primarily evergreen and is found in the temperate zone. 700 species of gymnosperms are known to date. They are vascular, meaning that they do not flower. They do not bear fruits or flowers but produce seeds. Examples of gymnosperms are cycads, pines and cedars.

Anthophyta (Angiosperms) | This group of plants can grow into herbs, shrubs, bushes and big trees. 2,50,000 species of angiosperms are known to date. The trees we see around us are mostly under this category. Angiosperms are characterised by their seeds, fully enclosed in fruits. Examples are roses, mango trees, etc. They are further divided into -

Monocotyledonous – These plants are called monocot plants. These are flowering plants which have seeds that contain only one cotyledon. The leaves of these plants have a venation pattern, and it is a parallel vein. Examples are rice, sugarcane and corn. Over 50,000 species of monocot plants are known.

Dicotyledonous – These dicot plants are flowering plants, and they grow as herbs, shrubs, and trees. The seeds have two cotyledons. It has a net-like vein pattern, and the leaves radiate outwards from the main central vein. Examples of dicotyledonous plants are eucalyptus and figs.

Plant kingdom can be broken down into further divisions like:-

Thallophyta | This is the division which includes various kinds of microorganisms like fungi and algae. These algae can be further divided into green, brown and red algae.

Bryophyta | These plants are found in water and land, examples are mosses, liverworts and hornworts.

Pteridophyta | This group of plants do not have any flowers or seeds like ferns and club mosses. Ferns have true roots, stems and leaves, produced by spores. The life cycle of these plants depends on spores rather than seeds and preceded seed-forming reproductive processes.

Gymnosperm | This group have uncoated seeds that are exposed for reproduction. and the seeds are often born in cones that are not visible until maturation.

Angiosperm | These are also called flowering plants and their seeds are protected in an ovary. Fruits are born from the flower of the plant, which is formed from the seeds (ovules) in the ovary which is often enclosed in a flower, and in turn, contains seeds for reproduction.

My Fondness For Plants

I am a person who loves gardening. My love for plants is increasing day by day as I get to see these growing. These plants not only give us food but also add to the aesthetics of one's house. When I see those flowers or fruits on the plants, it makes me feel like I’ve forgotten all my worries. Thus I believe, plants have the ability to uplift one’s emotional strength too.

As a child, I went to nurseries with my mother and saw how well taken care of the plants were. It was such a fascinating thing for me that I gradually developed an interest towards plants. Also, being a passionate home cook I love using various kinds of herbs that add a different dimension to the food and also make it prettier.

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Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive.

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Geotechnical engineer

The role of geotechnical engineer starts with reviewing the projects needed to define the required material properties. The work responsibilities are followed by a site investigation of rock, soil, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest. The investigation is aimed to improve the ground engineering design and determine their engineering properties that include how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction.

The role of geotechnical engineer in mining includes designing and determining the type of foundations, earthworks, and or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be made. Geotechnical engineering jobs are involved in earthen and concrete dam construction projects, working under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions.

Cartographer

How fascinating it is to represent the whole world on just a piece of paper or a sphere. With the help of maps, we are able to represent the real world on a much smaller scale. Individuals who opt for a career as a cartographer are those who make maps. But, cartography is not just limited to maps, it is about a mixture of art , science , and technology. As a cartographer, not only you will create maps but use various geodetic surveys and remote sensing systems to measure, analyse, and create different maps for political, cultural or educational purposes.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Product Manager

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Operations manager.

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Bank Probationary Officer (PO)

Investment director.

An investment director is a person who helps corporations and individuals manage their finances. They can help them develop a strategy to achieve their goals, including paying off debts and investing in the future. In addition, he or she can help individuals make informed decisions.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues.

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

An expert in plumbing is aware of building regulations and safety standards and works to make sure these standards are upheld. Testing pipes for leakage using air pressure and other gauges, and also the ability to construct new pipe systems by cutting, fitting, measuring and threading pipes are some of the other more involved aspects of plumbing. Individuals in the plumber career path are self-employed or work for a small business employing less than ten people, though some might find working for larger entities or the government more desirable.

Construction Manager

Individuals who opt for a career as construction managers have a senior-level management role offered in construction firms. Responsibilities in the construction management career path are assigning tasks to workers, inspecting their work, and coordinating with other professionals including architects, subcontractors, and building services engineers.

Urban Planner

Urban Planning careers revolve around the idea of developing a plan to use the land optimally, without affecting the environment. Urban planning jobs are offered to those candidates who are skilled in making the right use of land to distribute the growing population, to create various communities.

Urban planning careers come with the opportunity to make changes to the existing cities and towns. They identify various community needs and make short and long-term plans accordingly.

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description: A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems.

Naval Architect

A Naval Architect is a professional who designs, produces and repairs safe and sea-worthy surfaces or underwater structures. A Naval Architect stays involved in creating and designing ships, ferries, submarines and yachts with implementation of various principles such as gravity, ideal hull form, buoyancy and stability.

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

Pathologist.

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth.

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

Hospital Administrator

The hospital Administrator is in charge of organising and supervising the daily operations of medical services and facilities. This organising includes managing of organisation’s staff and its members in service, budgets, service reports, departmental reporting and taking reminders of patient care and services.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs.

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Videographer

Multimedia specialist.

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion.

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article.

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Linguistic meaning is related to language or Linguistics which is the study of languages. A career as a linguistic meaning, a profession that is based on the scientific study of language, and it's a very broad field with many specialities. Famous linguists work in academia, researching and teaching different areas of language, such as phonetics (sounds), syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning).

Other researchers focus on specialities like computational linguistics, which seeks to better match human and computer language capacities, or applied linguistics, which is concerned with improving language education. Still, others work as language experts for the government, advertising companies, dictionary publishers and various other private enterprises. Some might work from home as freelance linguists. Philologist, phonologist, and dialectician are some of Linguist synonym. Linguists can study French , German , Italian .

Public Relation Executive

Travel journalist.

The career of a travel journalist is full of passion, excitement and responsibility. Journalism as a career could be challenging at times, but if you're someone who has been genuinely enthusiastic about all this, then it is the best decision for you. Travel journalism jobs are all about insightful, artfully written, informative narratives designed to cover the travel industry. Travel Journalist is someone who explores, gathers and presents information as a news article.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product.

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

Merchandiser.

A QA Lead is in charge of the QA Team. The role of QA Lead comes with the responsibility of assessing services and products in order to determine that he or she meets the quality standards. He or she develops, implements and manages test plans.

Metallurgical Engineer

A metallurgical engineer is a professional who studies and produces materials that bring power to our world. He or she extracts metals from ores and rocks and transforms them into alloys, high-purity metals and other materials used in developing infrastructure, transportation and healthcare equipment.

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems.

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party.

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

ITSM Manager

Information security manager.

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack

Business Intelligence Developer

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Among Animals and Plants

By Andrei Platonov

ARKADY SHAIKHET “EXPRESS” NAILYA ALEXANDER GALLERY

In the gloom of nature, a man with a hunting rifle was walking through sparse forest. The hunter’s face was a little pockmarked, but he was handsome and, for the time being, still young. At this time of year, a whiff of mist hung in the forest—from the warmth and moisture of the air, the breath of developing plants, and the decay of leaves that had perished long ago. It was difficult to see anything, but it was good to walk alone, to think without meaning, or to do the opposite—to stop thinking altogether and just droop. The forest grew on the slope of a low hill; large boulders lay between the small thin birches, and the soil was infertile and poor—clay here, gray earth there—but the trees and grass had got used to these conditions, and they lived in this land as best they could.

Sometimes the hunter would stop for a moment; then he would hear the many-voiced drone of the life of midges, small birds, worms, and ants, and the rustle of the lumps of earth that this population harried and shifted about, so as to feed itself and stay active. The forest was like a crowded city—not that the hunter had ever been to a city, but he had been trying to imagine one for a long time. Once, he had passed through Petrozavodsk, but even that had been only in passing. Screeches, squeaks, and a faint muttering filled the forest, perhaps indicating bliss and satisfaction, perhaps indicating that someone had perished. Moist birch leaves shone in the mist with the green inner light of their lives; invisible insects were rocking them in the steamy damp rising from the earth. Some far-off small animal began to whimper meekly in its hiding place; no one was doing it any harm there, but it was trembling from the fear of its own existence, not daring to surrender to its own heart’s joy in the loveliness of the world, afraid to make use of the rare and brief chance of inadvertent life, because it might be discovered and eaten. But then the animal should not really even have been whimpering: predators might notice and devour it.

The whistle of a locomotive, thin, distant, shredded by the whirlwind of speed, sounded through the forest and the mist, like the plaintive voice of an exhausted running man. “The Polar Arrow!” the hunter said to himself. “What a distance it runs! There’s music playing in the coaches. Clever people are travelling in them. They drink pink water from bottles, and they talk in conversations.”

The hunter began to feel bored in the forest. He sat down beside a tree stump and held his rifle between his legs, ready to hand; he wanted to kill some animal or bird, whatever appeared. It enraged him that he didn’t know science, that he didn’t travel in trains with electricity, that he hadn’t seen Lenin’s mausoleum and had only once smelled a whiff of perfume, from a bottle that belonged to the wife of his boss, the director of Section 10. It was his lot to wander about in a misty forest, among insects, plants, and a general absence of culture, while luxurious trains hurtled into the distance. “Animal or bird—whatever shows up, I’ll kill it!” the hunter resolved. But, as before, there was nothing around—only the rustle and hum of petty, frail creatures that weren’t worth a battle. Beneath the hunter crawled diligent ants, burdened like respectable little people with heavy loads for their households. They are vile creatures, he thought, with the character of kulaks. They spend all their lives dragging goods into their kingdom; they exploit every solitary animal, big and small, that they can dominate; they know nothing of the universal common interest and live only for their own greedy, concentrated well-being. Once, the hunter had happened to see two ants dragging an iron filing from the railway line: it seems that ants even need iron. The hunter stamped on some of the nearest ants, then moved away, so as not to enrage himself further. He was like his father: his father also got angry whenever he went out hunting, waging war on the birds and the beasts as if they were ferocious enemies, expending every last bit of malice in his heart while he was in the forest, and then returning home a kind, sensitive family man. Other hunters weren’t like this at all; they wandered tenderheartedly through the grass, killing animals with love and caressing flowers and trees with trembling pleasure, while at home, among people, they lived lives of irritation, longing to be back in nature, where they could feel that they were the ones in charge, thanks to their rifles.

“A man hunts, Ivan Alekseyevich, either out of stupidity or out of poverty!” his father would say to him. (When Fyodorov reached the age of eighteen, his father had begun to call him by his name and patronymic.) “You know—a man sits by a lake with a rod, all on his own. The bastard hooks a worm onto a line and deceives some mindless creature that lives in the water, while another man takes his rifle and goes off into the forest. ‘I don’t need anyone,’ he says. ‘You carry on without me—I’ll fend for myself. I’m all right on my own, thank you very much.’ That man’s friend is his dog, not you or me.”

Fyodorov picked up his rifle. Something had stirred in the short grass nearby. He walked a little way in that direction and found a small hare—still a baby. He was sitting there almost humanly, rapidly chewing a blade of grass and using his tiny front paws to steady it. Then he wiped his face and began to take quick breaths of the clean, healthy air. Most likely, he was exhausted from having to find nourishment for himself; probably his parents were dead and he was living alone, an orphan. The hare did not notice the hunter, or did not understand his significance. He urinated, leaped up, and disappeared. Fyodorov didn’t kill him; the hare was too small, almost useless as food, and it would have been a shame, because the hare was only a child, yet already a true worker. Let him go on breathing.

Soon afterward, Fyodorov came out into a clearing. The same chubby little baby hare was burrowing in the earth with his paws, trying to dig up some rootlets or a cabbage leaf that had been dropped on the ground last year. The hare’s concern for his own life was inexhaustible, and his desire for food was constant. After eating whatever was there in the ground, the hare defecated a little and played with his tail. He then began to bat one of his paws with the other three; after that he played with the remains of some dead bark, with bits of his own droppings, and even with empty air, trying to catch it between his front paws. Finding a puddle, the hare had a good drink, looked all around with moist, conscious eyes, then lay down in a little pit to one side, curled up into the warmth of his own body, and dozed off. He had already tasted all the delights of life: he had eaten, drunk, breathed, inspected the locality, felt pleasure, played a bit, and fallen asleep. Sleep was good, too: animals nearly always have happy dreams. Fyodorov still remembered the surprise he had felt when, as a child, he had cautiously watched sleeping dogs, cats, and chickens. They had made chewing motions with their mouths and produced blissful sounds, sometimes half opening eyes blind with sleep and then closing them again, stirring a little, and moaning because of the sweetness of their own existence.

The hunter approached the little hare, picked him up, and tucked him against his chest. The hare let out a squeak but did not wake; he just curled up tighter and pressed himself against the man’s body for warmth, even though he was hot and damp already.

On Lobskaya Hill, like a constellation of impoverished stars, stood a hamlet of four little huts. The huts were small, poor, and unpainted, but they were cozy to live in, and so they seemed adequate, even spacious. The hunter went into the poorest, humblest hut. Its wooden roof had rotted and was covered with ancient moss. The lowest logs were now buried in the earth, as if returning to their birthplace, and from these logs, from the very lowest part of the hut, were growing two new weak branches, which would one day turn into mighty oaks and eat with their roots the dust of this dwelling that had been exhausted by the wind, the rain, and the human race. The hut stood on its own patch of land, which was walled off by stakes, stones brought from the shore of Lake Onega and piled up haphazardly, and rusty sheets of roof iron, probably carried here from some distant town by a gale. But this wall no longer held; the stones were falling down and the stakes had keeled over. One might have thought that this was the home of a struggling widow with small children, but, no, not at all—a complete and healthy family lived here. Were they slovenly, then, or always quarrelling? Far from it: the oldest man in the house, Aleksey Kirillovich, Fyodorov’s father, was making a career for himself at the sawmill and hoping to build a new home soon; then he would leave the hut to be consumed by the roots of the young oak. The old man was counting on life’s taking a turn for the better; he had resolved to say a fond farewell to the past and forget it.

Inside, the whole family was sitting together. The old father was putting the radio into action—a single-valve wireless he had won about a month before. In actual fact, he was buying it from the trade-union committee, paying for it in installments, but at home, for the sake of his wife, he’d said that it had been given to him as a prize. The old man worked as a guard at the mill, yet even he wanted honor from his family and dreamed of becoming renowned throughout the nation. But his old woman soon discovered just how honorably her husband had been awarded his radio—how can you keep the truth from an experienced wife?

Fyodorov put the little hare down by the stove and took his ten-month-old daughter in his arms. She could already stand up and was learning to move around on her own feet: in fifteen years’ time she would be ready to marry and would get down to having children herself—but for now let her just rest and grow in her parents’ arms.

“One little hare—is that all you’ve brought?” Fyodorov’s young wife asked. “You’ve got a family—you need to think a little when you’re out and about. There are squirrels in the forest now, there’s grouse, there’s blackcock—and what do you bring back for us? A baby hare for us to play with! Pah! Wasting cartridges when you could be buying something we need!”

“Women have loved prosperity since time immemorial,” Fyodorov’s father observed. “They want everything, and lots of it—squirrels, grouse, and trunks full of cloth. Today they’d be called Socialists.”

And he turned on the wireless straightaway, so as to hear that other world that lay beyond them, where universal history was happening and you could listen to the voices of the movers of fate.

First, an old man spoke, then a young man. Then a band played a mysterious song; a pipe from the steppe sang out; a bell was ringing. Next, a choir of young girls began a song about heroic Socialism, about happy people, about interesting life. The girls were singing far away, but the sense of the music remained clear: people should live in bliss, not in need and torment. Fyodorov caressed his little daughter, stroking her head, her chest, and her tummy, where one day her own children would be conceived and do their growing. They would be higher people, although he himself—their grandfather—was a nobody, just a switchman on a section of double track in a forest. The child was also listening to the music, but his wife, laboring at the stove, was drawing economic and cultural conclusions: “The life people live—you can hear it even from here! They buy new clothes, and they build houses, and they eat sweetly and well, and they go to theatres. They dance and sing and study science, and they swim in the Black Sea—while here we’ve got nothing but work and worry.”

“All too true!” the old woman said. “Other men do a bit of this, a bit of that, and, before you know it, there’s another kopek in the house. But you two don’t know the meaning of work. You get back home and what do you do? You just sit about. Go and float logs! Ask in the barracks—there are new stoves to be made, tree stumps to be dug up, and they always need someone to skivvy in the kitchens. If you don’t do something soon, it’ll be the end of us!” By now, the old woman had hit her stride, her whole body shaking with rage in the middle of the hut. “But you two just sprawl about! Or you take your rifles and it’s off into the forest! What for? What good does it do, wandering about under oak trees? Are there hens and piglets out there? Are the branches hung with cloth? Pah! And as for your tiny hares and baby grouse—if you brought them back by the cartload, well and good, but what’s the use of just one or two? Not even a mouthful for an old woman like me! And don’t you listen there to that trumpet of yours when I’m speaking—make it shut up!”

The old man turned off the wireless, and went on listening affectionately to his wife. He couldn’t be bothered to argue with her; it was best to let her run out of steam on her own. Then she’d turn kinder again.

But the old woman went into action. She grabbed the hare baby, who was huddling against the oven fork beneath the stove, and began dragging him across the floor with her left hand as she beat him with her right, first on the behind and then on the ribs—it hurt more there, so venting her rage was all the sweeter. The hare trailed along the floor, suffering this calamity in silence, until the old woman came to the end of her dark strength. Then she picked the hare up and flung him outside—he was no use to them, and she did not want him soiling the hut. The hare hid in the grass, lamented a little in his own way, then tidied his fur, crept through a gap in the fence, and disappeared into the forest, putting aside his recent grief for the sake of future life.

Fyodorov’s wife took the little girl from him—it was time to feed her. She was already dozing. She had watched the hare long enough.

“Comrade Kaganovich is in charge of transport. Yes—Lazar Moiseevich,” the old woman said. “I listen to the radio and I know everything. You know how people live these days? People everywhere are living with pleasure. But look at you—just look at the two of you!” she went on, turning toward her husband and son. “Sitting there with faces like plucked chickens!”

The old man and his son felt their faces, which were indeed a bit pockmarked. Not that this would cost them anything: they didn’t lack people who loved them. Should Aleksey Kirillovich die, there would be at the very least two people weeping for him: his wife and his son. And that was enough.

“Turn on the wireless,” the old woman ordered her husband. “I need to listen—otherwise I’ll miss something and I’ll carry on living in darkness, and all the benefit will go flying by.”

The head of the family turned on his machine. First, the wireless came out with a moral admonition, then tender music began to play. The old woman put her right hand to her cheek and looked wistful; then she began to smile. She would have liked to be kind all the time, but that was not possible—everything would get eaten up, drunk, or worn out, the men would stop working, and the whole family would die of want. The hut and its land would be taken over by forest, and the hare would come out of the bushes and soil what had once been a dwelling of the human race.

It was night, and Ivan Alekseyevich Fyodorov was beginning his day’s work. Section 10 was in the middle of nowhere, and there was little to be done in the way of loading or unloading. Fyodorov examined and cleaned his switches and inspected the crossovers with his lantern. He was always afraid for them—the locomotives gave them quite a pounding, and one day the metal might crack. If Fyodorov could have become an engineer, he would have invented some better kind of switch—a switch that a train would pass over smoothly. He knelt down and crawled from the switch rails to the frog of the crossover, sliding his hand along the running surface and the head of the rail and feeling for possible corrugations or dents, or burrs shaved off by the wheels of the locomotives. He could find no damage—one small indentation, but nothing dangerous.

Fyodorov cleaned off the old grease and applied generous quantities of new grease to all the areas of friction, the thicker the better. He had noticed that, when a heavy train passes over, a well-greased switch rail has some play, as if swimming in the grease. Let it play, then—play protects! If something isn’t stressed, it won’t be tormented and it won’t break.

When he first began to work on the railway, Fyodorov had treated metal and machines as he treated animals and plants—with caution and foresight, trying not only to get to know them but also to outwit them. Then he had realized that such a relationship was insufficient. Being with metal and machines required a great deal more sensitivity than being with wild animals or with plants and trees. You can outwit something living and it will yield to you; you can wound it and, being alive, it will heal. But machines and rails don’t yield to cunning—they can be won over only by pure goodness—and you can’t afford to wound them, because they don’t heal. A break is mortal. And so Fyodorov behaved sensitively and carefully at work; he even avoided slamming the door of his little cabin, closing it silently and delicately, so as not to disturb the iron hinges or loosen their screws.

The railwayman on duty phoned the cabin: Fyodorov was to check the switches and signal “Line clear” so that the express could pass. Fyodorov knew the time of the train, anyway. He was already looking into the forest, along the dark cut where the track lay. There was no moon, and the stars were high and faint, but the rails shone clear and far, as if they were gathering, out of the poverty of darkness, the light that had been scattered in the gloom. Fyodorov lay down with his ear to the rail and heard the metal’s eternal song—its response to the flow of the air and to the noise of leaves and branches. The rails were singing in tune—the whole stretch was intact and healthy. But gradually this steady wavelike hum was joined by a vague extraneous mutter. Then this mutter grew more distinct and insistent; it was almost articulating words. This language was being sung by a young voice, and there were no false notes, no sounds of jangling irritation—proof that there were no cracks in the rails and that the metal had not been worn away at the joints. The switchman lifted his head from the rail, blew his nose, brushed the dirt off his clothes, and adopted a serious, dignified expression. Bound for Murmansk, an express was hurrying through from the south. The locomotive’s calm light rose up from the horizon, chasing the darkness forward through the forest, lighting up deep-blue living trees, bushes, mysterious objects invisible during the day, and the figure of a switchman, watching over the track in darkness and solitude. Fyodorov played a long welcoming note on his horn to signal that the section was ready for the train to enter, and respectfully held his lantern out toward the engineer, his unknown friend, the only person who was aware of him at that moment, and who would be pleased that all was as it should be.

He’s really tearing along, Fyodorov thought. I won’t hear any music. He’s four minutes late and he’s going full steam ahead, the devil! If the Polar Arrow or some other fast train went by slowly, Fyodorov could sometimes make out the sound of the radio or a portable gramophone. For a few seconds, he’d listen intently to the melody, oblivious of all other noise. If there was no music playing, he was happy just to catch sight of some strange or handsome face looking out the window at the region’s unfamiliar forests. It was all the same to the switchman whether the face belonged to a man, a woman, or a child; nor did it matter where the person was going—just as long as the face was interesting and incomprehensible. Occasionally, after a train had passed, Fyodorov would discover some object on the track and try at length to fathom its significance. Then he would try to imagine the person it had belonged to, and he would feel at peace only when he had formed in his imagination a clear picture of the unknown passenger who had hurtled by. Once, he’d found a lady’s handkerchief; it had had a pleasant smell, and there was fresh blood in the middle of it. He’d touched the damp cloth with his tongue; the moisture was salty—probably tears. Then he’d had to rack his brain for a long time in order to imagine fully for himself the mysterious, pretty woman who had dropped this handkerchief from the back of the coach, crying and yearning for the man she loved, coughing blood into the handkerchief because of the consumption that burned in her chest. Afterward, Fyodorov had dreamed of this woman. Her little daughter had bitten her tongue and made it bleed; the girl had started to cry and the mother had wiped away her tears and blotted up the blood with the handkerchief, looked out through the open window of the carriage, thrown the handkerchief outside, and smiled at the switchman. “Wind up your gramophone!” Fyodorov had called to the woman. “On the way back!” the passenger had answered. “All right,” the switchman had agreed. “But make it nice and loud!”

Sucking up all the air behind it, the train gave the switch a merciless working over.

“Aha! Kaganovich really has given you a fright. Four minutes late out of the forest—and only three at the switch!” Fyodorov calculated. “Dramatic stuff!”

But there was no chance now of hearing music from the train or being able to make out a human being. Formerly, the water from the toilets had flowed out in a stream, but now it was thin vapor—the speed of the train tore it into prickly spray.

The thought of not hearing music made Fyodorov sad for the rest of the night. His section of track had no theatre and no library; there was only the track inspector’s accordion, and the track inspector seldom visited this section and when he did he often forgot to bring his accordion, even though he had given a written promise to the local trade-union committee to take it with him wherever he went and to go to all the Red Corners and play the new repertoire, omitting the chaos that had been condemned in the Moscow newspapers. One summer, a member of the Writers Union had come and given a talk about the current state of creative dialogue among writers. Fyodorov had asked sixteen questions and had been given “The Travels of Marco Polo” as a present; the writer had then left. The book was extremely interesting; Fyodorov had at once begun reading, from page 26. At the start of a book, a writer is just thinking, and that makes it dull; the most interesting part is the middle, or the end, which was why Fyodorov preferred to choose pages at random—now page 50, now page 214. And although every book is interesting, reading this way makes it even better, and still more interesting, because you have to imagine for yourself everything you have skipped, and you have to compose anew passages that don’t make sense or are badly written, just as if you, too, were an author, a member of the Soviet Union’s Writers Union. Fyodorov had been so carried away by one book—“Lime,” or was it “Stone”?—that he had read it from the end all the way to the beginning and had realized that it was a good book but that if you began at the beginning it would be false and ideologically suspect.

For three hours that night, there were no trains; somewhere there had been a delay or an accident. The switchman examined the switch again, checking that the express had done no damage, then went into his cabin, pulled the door to, and played a few notes on his signal horn. But this was unsatisfying. Fyodorov wanted to hear a melody in an orchestra and to watch a spectacle in a theatre, so as to have some understanding in his soul about the truth of life and to see the universal horizon.

In the morning, his wife, Katerina Vasilievna, came out to him. “Let me clean the switch for you!” she said. “Maybe someone will notice. Nowadays, these things do get noticed. You must try your hardest.”

“There’s no need,” Fyodorov said. “The relief will be here soon. He doesn’t need a soubrette!”

“What do you mean, soubrette?” his wife exclaimed furiously. “Who taught you that word? You didn’t know it yesterday. Have you been seeing someone here during the night?”

Fyodorov felt a little frightened. “I read it a year ago in a book. There was this king’s daughter—”

“I know, I know about you and your king’s daughter. And who was it getting friendly with junior switchwoman Fedotova the other day—right here at the switch? Along comes lover boy, and he sits down on the counterweight and takes her in his arms!”

“It wasn’t me!” Fyodorov said. “How could it have been? I was on duty.”

“I know it wasn’t you!” Fyodorov’s wife informed him. “As if I’d let you carry on like that and cause a disruption to transport!”

Katerina Vasilievna took a broom and began to sweep the track around the switch. Then she cleaned every speck of dirt off the switch itself and wiped the crossover and the two blades. The switch looked spick-and-span now, like a pot or a pan belonging to a fastidious old woman.

“I’m going to make an application. I want to be transferred to Bear Hill,” Fyodorov informed his wife. “There’s a big station there. There’s a theatre, a club, and a cinema. A man can develop himself there.”

“That’s all I need! You’ll develop yourself there—and then what’ll I do? Nowadays, there are fine clothes in the shops; the young girls look beautiful. You’ll leave me—you’ll leave me and the family here in Lobskaya Hill.”

Fyodorov reached out to his wife and carefully stroked her gleaming, pretty hair, so that she wouldn’t grieve in advance.

“Don’t,” she said, gently taking his hand away. “You might be seen by a supervisor on a flatcar. He’ll say you’re careless and negligent. There’s nothing to stop you stroking my hair at home—but you never remember.”

The switchman carried on trying to talk his wife round: “People have merry lives in Bear Hill. One can get oneself educated there, and it’s easier to be noticed.”

In her mind, his wife calculated all the mysteries, losses, and gains, trying to imagine how everything would turn out. “Could you become a renowned transport worker?” she asked.

“Yes,” Fyodorov answered obediently.

“All right, then,” she agreed. “Only I’m frightened you’ll stop loving me. What will become of me and our little girl then? I’m getting on now—I’m twenty-four.” She fingered a button on her husband’s shirt.

In answer, Fyodorov touched his wife on the shoulder. “I won’t stop loving you,” he said. “I’ve got a small heart. It hasn’t got room for anyone except you. And then you can start studying—you’ll like it. You’ll become a famous woman.”

“But it’s a long way to Bear Hill,” his wife said. “You’ll wear yourself out!”

“I’ll manage,” Fyodorov said.

His wife sat down on the rail and thought everything over once more.

“All right,” she agreed. “Write an application. And get them to give you a raise. And don’t go spilling ink on the paper again—if they think you’re illiterate, they’ll subtract your raise.”

Fyodorov looked at his wife and wondered, Is she beautiful or not? Her hair’s still black, she’s young. She’s not so bad.

The section director did not try too hard to hold Fyodorov back: Let the man go to a big station, let him develop himself. You can deny a man an extra ruble or one of life’s comforts, but you can’t deny him what he needs for his soul. You’ll end up with nothing—no man and no worker.

The switchman began travelling to Bear Hill. He would be away from his family for two or three days at a time—he would stay on after his shift to watch a show, or he would go to the library and read books in the hall of culture, glancing admiringly now and then at the portraits of great writers and their various hangers-on. He would begin a book in the middle or at the end; he would read every other page or every third page, taking pleasure in the lofty thoughts of others and his own supplementary imagination. If his mind tired, he would go outside to air his head—but somewhere or other music would always be playing, either an accordion in a workers’ hostel or a gramophone in the window of a room belonging to a prosperous office worker. And Fyodorov would stand there for a long time, or perhaps sit down on some nearby rock, and hear the music through to the end; he would feel happy and ready for heroic deeds. But sometimes the music or what he was reading would all of a sudden cease to act on him—or, worse, he would fall into despair or irritation, no longer able to see the bright horizon promised to him by music, by reading, by the art of imagination and the excitement of a sensitive heart. It was as if he had become stupid and his soul had stopped caring about anything. Then, after reading a book on dialectical materialism, Fyodorov understood that a contradiction was at work inside him, and this was why he was sometimes gripped by a dark, alien sadness. But, insofar as that was the truth, how sad that there was no way out from the truth.

Eventually, having worked, read books, and listened to music to his heart’s content, Fyodorov would go home to Lobskaya Hill, to the hut that was turning into the roots of an oak. Katerina Vasilievna would meet him, filled with anguish and zealous fury: it was clear that her husband loved another woman, a better woman, a beautiful stranger of a wicked woman. The switchman tried to explain to his wife that a wicked woman was still a woman—and therefore not so very different from a wife.

“All the same,” his wife began, and Fyodorov was unable to guess just what was going to be the same as what. “Maybe there is pleasure in Bear Hill,” she went on angrily, “but just look at the state of your switch! It’s filthy. And when are you going to make your mark in the world? When’s life going to get easier for us? I’d rather you’d stayed in Section 10 for the rest of your life—at least I could keep an eye on you here.”

Aleksey Kirillovich, after listening to scenes like this between his son and his daughter-in-law, would usually suggest to his son that they go out hunting, to be with animals and plants. A child is always precious, even when he’s no longer young. And sometimes women are a real burden on your soul—they make you want to give up. But who knows? Perhaps that’s how things have to be: after all, women are the ones who give birth to people. They’re in charge of humanity; they know best.

“You should find some disaster to prevent, Ivan Alekseyevich,” the old man once said to his son. “Heroism’s quite the thing these days.”

“Blockhead!” the old woman said. “Do you want our boy to die?”

“It’s not yet time for him to die,” the old man said. “And it could be a small disaster, nothing too serious.”

The old woman sighed and said, “When I look at you, old man, I wonder what on earth can have got into me when I was a girl and I chose you for my husband!”

“Find someone else, then!” the old man advised her.

“I may have to!” she agreed. “But first I need to plump up a bit. I had a fine figure once. I had curves. I was quite a woman. I only had to go out onto the street and stamp my foot and you men would all be filled with longing. I’ve wasted my life—I wish I could have it over again. Then you’d see me living it up! Still, why sit and moan? It’s not too late—I can have the life of a young woman now! Isn’t that what Soviet power’s all about?”

At Bear Hill, Fyodorov worked even more conscientiously and thoughtfully than he had done on Section 10. Here life had more culture and there was more supervising authority, so Fyodorov’s sense of himself was modest and shy—and this shyness increased his diligence. Constantly seeing powerful locomotives and precise signalling mechanisms, listening to the roar from the engines of heavy freight trains, the switchman felt that his reason had triumphed, as if he, too, were to blame for all this universal technological power and its charm. Secretly and hazily, he perceived the correspondence or kinship between music, books, and locomotives; machines and music seemed to him to have been invented by one and the same heart, a heart like his own.

The stationmaster had known his new switchman for a long time, ever since Fyodorov was a boy and used to go hunting with him. He kept him back awhile, then promoted him to senior switchman. Fyodorov was now in charge of a number of switches and the junior switchmen who operated them. Not knowing how to be in command of others, he began by doing all their work for them; he cleaned and greased the switches himself and went out to meet every train, even though the train was already being met by a junior switchman. The junior switchmen lived in bewilderment. “What is it, Ivan Alekseyevich? Aren’t we working-class enough for you? Why are you greasing the switches yourself? We haven’t been put here for nothing, you know.”

“But can you do everything the way I do?” Fyodorov asked.

“The way you do?” one elderly junior switchman said. “Not likely. We’ll do things better.”

“That’s as may be,” Fyodorov said gloomily. “You do a job. I work by feeling.”

Fyodorov spent some time checking the work of his juniors and realized that they did things well, but not better than he did. They had no idea that machines and mechanisms are orphans and that you need to keep them constantly close to your heart. Otherwise, you won’t notice when they’re ill and shivering—and then before you can do anything you’ll hear the sound of a crack in the switch and death.

After long hours of listening to the single-valve radio, Fyodorov’s mother ceased to hope for anything from her husband or her son. She had been feeling envious for a long time of the higher life of the state, where there was now heroism, renown, and vigor, and where the youth and strength of an old woman, vainly expended in deprivation and horror in the old days, were in demand again. With the diligence and reason she’d acquired through the hard task of managing a poor-peasant homestead, the switchman’s mother began work of state importance at the small tarworks five kilometres away. She sensed at once that it was not so very difficult to make tar, and her careful labor really did help the tarworks. It began to overfulfill its plan a little, and that autumn Fyodorov’s mother received a prize: a gramophone, along with twenty records, and a jacket. (The management promised to give her a skirt later, when their quota of woollen cloth was delivered.)

Aleksey Kirillovich fell into melancholy when his old woman was given a gramophone and a jacket. He tested his muscles, stroked his head thoughtfully, and felt the rest of his body: did he still have the strength for some powerful fame- and prize-winning action? Not that his old woman had been bragging, but he could hear her unspoken reproach: “Yes, there are important things going on in the world today. And you never take anything seriously!”

The old man sighed, picked up his rifle, and went off to the forest to shoot something.

“Where are you going?” his wife called out. “Off through the bushes again, getting your clothes torn? You’d do better to join a club and learn something or other. I suppose you’ll be back with a squirrel or a baby hare. A fine feast that’ll be!”

“Let me at least have a breath of oxygen!” the old man replied. “I want to supplement my strength so there’ll be more work capacity.”

“What do you mean, oxygen?” the old woman exclaimed in surprise. “I’ve never breathed oxygen in all my life—and look at me now! You can’t keep up with me.”

“I’m a backward old man,” Aleksey Kirillovich said.

“Backward? Come home empty-handed and I’ll really make you backward! Out there in the forest you’ve got to keep one step ahead—or you’ll get yourself eaten!”

Just then the son, who had come home from Bear Hill, asked his mother to wind up the gramophone.

“The old ones do the work, the young ones give the orders!” the mother said. She wound up the gramophone and put on a record of some merry music. She already understood all about the workings of the mechanism.

Katerina Vasilievna gazed wistfully at her husband.

“What’s the matter with you?” Fyodorov asked.

“Nothing. Only that I’ve got a man who’s good for nothing.” His wife turned away and began to cry. Other people had gramophones and jackets and husbands who were supervisors, but what did she have? Just a hut—and shared with her mother-in-law at that.

She bent down over her baby daughter’s cradle and fell silent in the sorrow of her fate.

Fyodorov looked out the window, into the forest: maybe he should run away. He was certainly never going to become any kind of supervisor himself—to be a supervisor you have to think special thoughts. But then one day the forest would be cut down. And it was getting better and better, more and more enigmatic, to be a part of humanity. Great machines and prefabricated palaces for the people were being transported along the railway on flatcars; thick books lay on the shelves of the library; splendid people were travelling in trains.

During his next shift, Fyodorov read an order from the stationmaster: from now on, senior switchman comrade Fyodorov was to receive an additional fifty rubles a month, and he was temporarily being appointed a coupler—a responsible position that many aspired to.

On a quiet, brief day well into autumn, crossties were being loaded onto flatcars at a dead-end siding. A dozen men and women were carrying crossties up little plank ramps, stacking them on cars, then going back down to lift another load onto their shoulders. Thus continued the circulation of labor.

The line out from the dead-end siding climbed straight up a hill, at a steep gradient; to pull fully loaded cars out of the siding, an engineer needed to have the regulator wide open and to use the sandbox, so that the driving wheels wouldn’t slip. At the siding itself, a whole team—six men and women—were lying beneath some closed cars and dozing; this team had not yet been given any cars. They had nothing to do and did not want to fritter away their strength with empty living.

Fyodorov was doing what he could for them at the station. He got an engine to bring an empty flatcar to the top of the slope that ran down to the siding, and he ordered the driver to stop; from there the car would freewheel down, and at the bottom he would stop it by placing a wedge between the rails. To keep the car from running away, Fyodorov stuck an old abandoned crosstie, which happened to be lying beside the track, beneath one pair of wheels and started to unhook the coupling and free the locomotive. But the car had rolled away from the locomotive, and the coupling was taut. Fyodorov called out to the driver, “Move up a bit!” The locomotive moved up, the coupling slackened, and Fyodorov easily slipped it off the hook.

The car began to pull Fyodorov away from the engine and down the slope. He grabbed the coupling with both hands to stop the car, but the moving wheels had cracked the crosstie he had put beneath them and the iron of the coupling was starting to burn his hands; the car was now poised at the top of the slope—and at the bottom of the slope people were working. Fyodorov dug in his heels, bracing his feet against one of the working crossties. His hands didn’t matter: the skin would burn, but it would heal again afterward. His legs began to ache from the effort. He was being dragged after the car. He understood that it was no good and let go of the coupling.

Down below him, people were working—and the population of the country was small enough as it was. Who would be left to live, who would remain for him to be friends with, who would play music if the runaway car were to crush these people to death? Fyodorov knew that there were women down there, too, and that they might give birth to people who would know how to write books, or to people with good characters and fine hearts, who one day would sing an unknown song or imagine in their souls a pockmarked switchman from Bear Hill and say, “Long ago there lived in the world a poor man.” He had to stop the car or else there would be fewer people, less humanity. There were animals and plants aplenty, but animals and plants were boring.

The car was gathering speed, and Fyodorov was running along beside it. He picked up planks and stakes from beside the track and flung them under the front wheels, but the car was going so fast that it crushed the wood to nothing and sped up even more. The world will be awful without them, Fyodorov thought, as he imagined the fate of the workers below him. They’ll be buried in coffins with flowers. There’ll be music, terrible music! He grabbed an iron crowbar that was lying on the ballast and, with precise aim, thrust it between the spokes of one of the rapidly revolving front wheels. The crowbar swung up into the air and the free end knocked Fyodorov off his feet and out of his senses, then threw him into the second wheel and smashed his head against the axle box. During the second or third revolution of the wheel, the crowbar began to twist and bend; the free end had caught against the ballast and the crossties. After digging into the sand between the crossties, it jammed between two of the spokes, went blue from the heat and tension at the point of flexion, and brought the car to a stop.

Fyodorov was lying in the sand. He could hear the engineer saying, “Fyodorov’s had it.”

No, Fyodorov thought. That’s not true.

And he stood up to see what had happened.

“Are you alive—or what?” the engineer asked.

“What about you?” Fyodorov asked, and felt that his right arm was all cold, as if ice had been tied to it and, instead of melting, was sucking the warmth out of his body, reaching with its cold to the very center of his heart.

“Let’s get on the engine and go back!” the engineer said.

But Fyodorov wanted something to drink. He turned on the tap in the tender and water began to pour into his mouth, while the blood from his right arm poured into his mitten and down the inside of his jacket; it was even making its way down his leg, inside his trousers and down to his foot. He realized that he was bleeding horribly—soon he might be completely empty—and he told the fireman to lift his right arm up into the air, so that it would not all flow out onto the earth.

They brought a stretcher and Fyodorov was laid down on it. He realized that they were having trouble getting his boots off; the right boot was full of blood, and his foot cloths had swollen up. “It’ll go dry and stiff in the coffin and then it will squeeze my foot,” Fyodorov said to himself. And he fell asleep in order not to know his death.

His father, his mother, and his wife all went to the hospital and stood by Fyodorov, but he did not notice them gathered around him.

“Ivanushka, what have you gone and done to yourself?” his mother kept saying. “We could have carried on as we were. We’re all right—we don’t need anything.”

It was some time before Fyodorov woke up. It was quiet, he was in a big bed, and everything around him felt cultured and scientific. He did not know whether he had a right arm or not. He could see it lying beside him, but he didn’t know if it was part of him or if it was lying there separately. He decided to experiment with it, and he made a small movement with his fingers. The fingers were alive: that meant that he would keep his hand and arm, and that death had been and gone long ago.

Soon afterward, all kinds of people came to visit him—the stationmaster, the Party organizer, Katerina Vasilievna, a photographer, the engineer, and two of the women who had been loading crossties at the siding. One of them brought Fyodorov a bouquet of flowers and two little cakes.

“He gets more than enough to eat here!” Katerina Vasilievna said to the women. “Why waste your money and disturb a sick man?”

The women went off in embarrassment.

When Fyodorov left the hospital, his right hand and arm functioned only feebly and partially.

“You’ve crippled yourself!” his family said. “How will you work now?”

“I’ll learn with my head!” Fyodorov said.

But most of the time his wife and his mother treated him kindly. The village soviet and the railway authorities gave him a thousand rubles and granted him a pension for life.

The stationmaster came to Lobskaya Hill every three or four days to visit Fyodorov and help him to study for a new job as a station duty officer. One day, a car climbed up to Lobskaya Hill and six people all arrived together, bringing him a telegram from Moscow and congratulating him on the medal he was to be awarded.

Fyodorov was unable to sleep the next two nights because of a strong flow of thought. On the third day, the stationmaster once again made the sixteen-kilometre journey to him. But, instead of getting down to the science of efficient utilization of the railway network, he said, “Pack your things—we’re off to Moscow.” Fyodorov did not even have anything to eat; he just drank a glass of milk, kissed his wife and daughter outside the hut, and set off.

During the days that followed, Katerina Vasilievna felt very unhappy in Lobskaya Hill; she missed her husband terribly and often wept, hiding her grief from her parents-in-law. He’ll fall in love with a young parachutist! she thought. After all, they fly through the air, and I’ve heard they have such sweet little faces. Or maybe Comrade Kaganovich won’t want to let him go—and then what will become of me? Then she remembered that her husband’s right arm barely functioned and began to feel consoled: nobody would fall in love with a cripple; today’s young ladies weren’t stupid. But what about the medal? A medal was more important than an arm, and, anyway, her husband’s hand and arm were still whole! And Katerina Vasilievna once again forfeited her hope.

Fyodorov came back a month later. He was wearing a black flannel suit; he was all serene, like a stranger, and he was driven into the village in a car. His wife sat down in front of him and put her hands out to touch her husband and the cloth he was wearing.

“Was it good there?” she asked.

“Yes!” Fyodorov said. “I saw an American woman in the metro. She was brown.”

“Was she beautiful?” his wife asked.

“Nothing special,” the husband answered.

“So what are you now?” Katerina Vasilievna went on questioning. “A supervisor?”

“A senior switchman. Supervisors are learned people, and I’m not.”

He took out a medal in a box and showed it to his wife. Katerina Vasilievna took the medal and hid it in her trunk.

“I’m supposed to wear it. Why are you hiding it?” Fyodorov asked.

His wife gave him back the empty box.

“You can show people the box! Who do you want to go flaunting your medal to? We all know, anyway, and you don’t want to make people envious.”

His mother came out with his daughter. Fyodorov took the girl in his arms to caress her and to leave his mother free to weep a little from joy.

“Some man in Bear Hill has been given a medal, too,” his mother began, getting the better of her tears. “He brought back seven suits, two gramophones, and three watches. He had heaps of stuff with him—he needed a cart to get home from the station.”

“I was given five suits, too,” Fyodorov said.

“But he got seven!” the old woman repeated. “Anyway, where are these five suits of yours?”

“I only took one. You can’t wear five suits all at once—first you have to wear one of them out.”

His mother sat down on the floor, and his wife on the trunk.

“And how many gramophones were you given?” the old woman asked plaintively.

“I was given one, but I didn’t take it. We’ve got one already.”

“What about wristwatches?” his mother went on flatly.

“I was offered a wristwatch. But what do we want one for? Here at home we’ve got the pendulum clock, and at work I know the time from the trains—we’ve got a written timetable now!”

Mother and wife began to cry; Fyodorov wound up the gramophone, to entertain his little daughter with some music and because he wanted to have a listen himself.

“Where’s Father?” he asked.

“Wasting cartridges in the forest,” his mother answered without expression, through hot tears.

Fyodorov sat the child on his wife’s knees, took out a clean handkerchief, and wiped Katerina Vasilievna’s face. “Don’t cry,” he said. “I’ve brought you eight hundred grams of Moscow chocolates and a complete library for the beginner reader.”

Then Fyodorov left the house and went into the forest to look for his father among animals and plants. ♦

( Translated, from the Russian, by Robert and Elizabeth Chandler and Olga Meerson. )

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By Maxine Scates

By Marie Howe

By Fiona McFarlane

By Mohammed Naseehu Ali

A rainforest is an area of tall trees and a high amount of rainfall.

Biology, Ecology, Geography

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A rainforest is an area of tall, mostly evergreen trees and a high amount of rainfall .

Rainforests are Earth’s oldest living ecosystems , with some surviving in their present form for at least 70 million years. They are incredibly diverse and complex , home to more than half of the world’s plant and animal species—even though they cover just six percent of Earth’s surface. This makes rainforests astoundingly dense with flora and fauna ; a 10-square-kilometer (four-square-mile) patch can contain as many as 1,500 flowering plants, 750 species of trees, 400 species of birds and 150 species of butterflies.

Rainforests thrive on every continent except Antarctica. The largest rainforests on Earth surround the Amazon River in South America and the Congo River in Africa. The tropical islands of Southeast Asia and parts of Australia support dense rainforest habitats . Even the cool evergreen forests of North America’s Pacific Northwest and Northern Europe are a type of rainforest.

Rainforests’ rich biodiversity is incredibly important to our well-being and the well-being of our planet. Rainforests help regulate our climate and provide us with everyday products.

Unsustainable industrial and agricultural development , however, has severely degraded the health of the world’s rainforests. Citizens , governments , intergovernmental organizations, and conservation groups are working together to protect these invaluable but fragile ecosystems.

Rainforest Structure

Most rainforests are structured in four layers: emergent, canopy , understory , and forest floor . Each layer has unique characteristics based on differing levels of water, sunlight, and air circulation . While each layer is distinct , they exist in an interdependent system: processes and species in one layer influence those in another.

Emergent Layer

The top layer of the rainforest is the emergent layer. Here, trees as tall as 60 meters (200 feet) dominate the skyline. Foliage is often sparse on tree trunks, but spreads wide as the trees reach the sunny upper layer, where they photosynthesize the sun’s rays. Small, waxy leaves help trees in the emergent layer retain water during long droughts or dry seasons . Lightweight seeds are carried away from the parent plant by strong winds .

In the Amazon rainforest, the towering trees of the emergent layer include the Brazil nut tree ( Bertholletia excelsa ) and the kapok tree ( Ceiba pentandra ). The Brazil nut tree, a vulnerable species , can live up to 1,000 years in undisturbed rainforest habitats. Unlike many rainforest species, both the Brazil nut tree and the kapok tree are deciduous —they shed their leaves during the dry season.

Animals often maneuver through the emergent layer’s unstable topmost branches by flying or gliding. Animals that can’t fly or glide are usually quite small—they need to be light enough to be supported by a tree’s slender uppermost layers.

The animals living in the emergent layer of the Amazon rainforest include birds, bats, gliders, and butterflies. Large raptors , such as white-tailed hawks ( Geranoaetus albicaudatus ) and harpy eagles ( Harpia harpyja ), are its top predators .

In rainforests on the island of New Guinea, pygmy gliders populate the emergent layer. Pygmy gliders ( Acrobates pygmaeus ) are small rodents that get their name from the way flaps of skin between their legs allow them to glide from branch to branch.

Bats are the most diverse mammal species in most tropical rainforests, and they regularly fly throughout the emergent, canopy, and understory layers. For instance, one of the world’s largest species of bat, the Madagascan flying fox ( Pteropus rufus )—found on the African island of Madagascar—is an important pollinator that mainly feeds on juice from fruit, but will chew flowers for their nectar .

Canopy Layer

Beneath the emergent layer is the canopy, a deep layer of vegetation roughly six meters (20 feet) thick. The canopy’s dense network of leaves and branches forms a roof over the two remaining layers.

The canopy blocks winds, rainfall, and sunlight, creating a humid , still, and dark environment below. Trees have adapted to this damp environment by producing glossy leaves with pointed tips that repel water.

While trees in the emergent layer rely on wind to scatter their seeds, many canopy plants, lacking wind, encase their seeds in fruit. Sweet fruit entices animals, which eat the fruit and deposit seeds on the forest floor as droppings . Fig trees, common throughout most of the world’s tropical rainforests, may be the most familiar fruit tree in the canopy.

With so much food available, more animals live in the canopy than any other layer in the rainforest. The dense vegetation dulls sound, so many—but not all—canopy dwellers are notable for their shrill or frequent vocalizing. In the Amazon rainforest, canopy fruit is snatched up in the large beaks of screeching scarlet macaws ( Ara macao ) and keel-billed toucans ( Ramphastos sulfuratus ), and picked by barking spider monkeys and howler monkeys. The silent two-toed sloth chews on the leaves, shoots, and fruit in the canopy.

Thousands and thousands of insect species can also be found in the canopy, from bees to beetles, borers to butterflies. Many of these insects are the principal diet of the canopy’s reptiles, including the "flying" draco lizards of Southeast Asia.

Understory Layer

Located several meters below the canopy, the understory is an even darker, stiller, and more humid environment. Plants here, such as palms and philodendrons , are much shorter and have larger leaves than plants that dominate the canopy. Understory plants’ large leaves catch the minimal sunlight reaching beyond the dense canopy.

Understory plants often produce flowers that are large and easy to see, such as Heliconia , native to the Americas and the South Pacific. Others have a strong smell, such as orchids. These features attract pollinators even in the understory’s low-light conditions.

The fruit and seeds of many understory shrubs in temperate rainforests are edible . The temperate rainforests of North America, for example, bloom with berries.

Animals call the understory home for a variety of reasons. Many take advantage of the dimly lit environment for camouflage . The spots on a jaguar ( Panthera onca ), which are found in the rainforests of Central and South America, may be mistaken for leaves or flecks of sunlight, for instance. The green mamba, one of the deadliest snakes in the world, blends in with foliage as it slithers up branches in the Congo rainforest. Many bats, birds, and insects prefer the open airspace the understory offers. Amphibians, such as dazzlingly colored tree frogs, thrive in the humidity because it keeps their skin moist.

Central Africa’s tropical rainforest canopies and understories are home to some of the most endangered and familiar rainforest animals—such as forest elephants, pythons, antelopes, and gorillas. Gorillas, a critically endangered genus of primate , are crucial for seed dispersal . Gorillas are herbivores that move throughout the dark, dense rainforest as well as more sun-dappled swamps and jungles . Their droppings disperse seeds in these sunny areas where new trees and shrubs can take root. In this way, gorillas are keystone species in many African rainforest ecosystems.

Forest Floor Layer

The forest floor is the darkest of all rainforest layers, making it extremely difficult for plants to grow. Leaves that fall to the forest floor decay quickly.

Decomposers , such as termites, slugs, scorpions, worms, and fungi , thrive on the forest floor. Organic matter falls from trees and plants, and these organisms break down the decaying material into nutrients . The shallow roots of rainforest trees absorb these nutrients, and dozens of predators consume the decomposers!

Animals such as wild pigs ( Sus scrofa ), armadillos, and anteaters forage in the decomposing brush for these tasty insects, roots and tubers of the South American rainforest. Even larger predators, including leopards ( Panthera pardus ), skulk in the darkness to surprise their prey . Smaller rodents, such as rats and lowland pacas (a type of striped rodent indigenous to Central and South America), hide from predators beneath the shallow roots of trees that dominate the canopy and emergent layer.

Rivers that run through some tropical rainforests create unusual freshwater habitats on the forest floor. The Amazon River, for instance, is home to the boto ( Inia geoffrensis ), or pink river dolphin, one of the few freshwater dolphin species in the world. The Amazon is also home to black caimans ( Melanosuchus niger ), large reptiles related to alligators, while the Congo River is home to the caimans’ crocodilian cousin, the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus).

Types of Rainforests

Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests are mainly located between the latitudes of 23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5°S (the Tropic of Capricorn)—the tropics . Tropical rainforests are found in Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.

Sunlight strikes the tropics almost straight on, producing intense solar energy that keeps temperatures high, between 21° and 30°C (70° and 85°F). High temperatures keep the air warm and wet, with an average humidity of between 77 percent and 88 percent. Such humid air produces extreme and frequent rainfall, ranging between 200-1000 centimeters (80-400 inches) per year. Tropical rainforests are so warm and moist that they produce as much as 75 percent of their own rain through evaporation and transpiration .

Such ample sunlight and moisture are the essential building blocks for tropical rainforests’ diverse flora and fauna. Roughly half of the world’s species can be found here, with an estimated 40 to 100 or more different species of trees present in each hectare.

Tropical rainforests are the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystems in the world. The Amazon rainforest is the world’s largest tropical rainforest. It is home to around 40,000 plant species, nearly 1,300 bird species, 3,000 types of fish, 427 species of mammals, and 2.5 million different insects. Red-bellied piranhas ( Pygocentrus nattereri ) and pink river dolphins swim its waters. Jewel-toned parrots squawk and fly through its trees. Poison dart frogs warn off predators with their bright colors. Capuchin and spider monkeys swing and scamper through the branches of the rainforest’s estimated 400 billion trees. Millions of mushrooms and other fungi decompose dead and dying plant material, recycling nutrients to the soil and organisms in the understory. The Amazon rainforest is truly an ecological kaleidoscope , full of colorful sights and sounds.

Temperate Rainforests

Temperate rainforests are located in the mid-latitudes, where temperatures are much more mild than the tropics. Temperate rainforests are found mostly in coastal , mountainous areas. These geographic conditions help create areas of high rainfall. Temperate rainforests can be found on the coasts of the Pacific Northwest in North America, Chile, the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan, New Zealand, and southern Australia.

As their name implies, temperate rainforests are much cooler than their tropical cousins, averaging between 10° and 21°C (50° and 70°F). They are also much less sunny and rainy, receiving anywhere between 150-500 centimeters (60-200 inches) of rain per year. Rainfall in these forests is produced by warm, moist air coming in from the coast and being trapped by nearby mountains.

Temperate rainforests are not as biologically diverse as tropical rainforests. They are, however, home to an incredible amount of biological productivity, storing up to 500-2000 metric tons of leaves, wood, and other organic matter per hectare (202-809 metric tons per acre). Cooler temperatures and a more stable climate slow down decomposition, allowing more material to accumulate . The old-growth forests of the Pacific Northwest, for example, produce three times the biomass (living or once-living material) of tropical rainforests.

This productivity allows many plant species to grow for incredibly long periods of time. Temperate rainforest trees such as the coast redwood in the U.S. state of California and the alerce in Chile are among the oldest and largest tree species in the world.

The animals of the temperate rainforest are mostly made up of large mammals and small birds, insects, and reptiles. These species vary widely between rainforests in different world regions. Bobcats ( Lynx rufus ), mountain lions ( Puma concolor ), and black bears ( Ursus americanus ) are major predators in the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest. In Australia, ground dwellers such as wallabies, bandicoots, and potoroos (small marsupials that are among Australia’s most endangered animals) feast on the foods provided by the forest floor. Chile’s rainforests are home to a number of unique birds such as the Magellanic woodpecker and the Juan Fernández firecrown, a hummingbird species that has a crown of color-changing feathers.

People and the Rainforest

Rainforests have been home to thriving, complex communities for thousands of years. For instance, unique rainforest ecosystems have influenced the diet of cultures from Africa to the Pacific Northwest.

The Mbuti, a community indigenous to the Ituri rainforest in Central Africa, have traditionally been hunter-gatherers . Their diet consists of plants and animals from every layer of the rainforest.

From the forest floor, the Mbuti hunt fish and crabs from the Ituri River (a tributary of the Congo), as well as gather berries from low-lying shrubs. The giant forest hog, a species of wild boar, is also frequently targeted by Mbuti hunters, although this species is hunted for sale more often than food. From the understory, the Mbuti may gather honey from bee hives, or hunt monkeys. From the canopy and emergent layers, Mbuti hunters may set nets or traps for birds.

Although they are a historically nomadic society, agriculture has become a way of life for many Mbuti communities today as they trade and barter with neighboring agricultural groups such as the Bantu for crops such as manioc, nuts, rice, and plantains.

The Chimbu people live in the highland rainforest on the island of New Guinea. The Chimbu practice subsistence agriculture through shifting cultivation . This means they have gardens on arable land that has been cleared of vegetation. A portion of the plot may be left fallow for months or years. The plots are never abandoned and are passed on within the family.

Crops harvested in Chimbu garden plots include sweet potatoes, bananas, and beans. The Chimbu also maintain livestock , particularly pigs. In addition to their own diet, pigs are valuable economic commodities for trade and sale.

The temperate rainforest of the northwest coast of North America is the home of the Tlingit. The Tlingit enjoy a diverse diet, relying on both marine and freshwater species, as well as game from inland forests.

Due to bountiful Pacific inlets , rivers, and streams, the traditional Tlingit diet consists of a wide variety of aquatic life: crab, shrimp, clams, oysters, seals , and fish such as herring, halibut, and, crucially, salmon. Kelps and other seaweeds can be harvested and eaten in soups or dried. One familiar Tlingit saying is “When the tide is out, our table is set.”

In more inland areas, historic Tlingit hunters may have targeted deer, elk, rabbit, and mountain goats. Plants gathered or harvested include berries, nuts, and wild celery.

The Yanomami are a people and culture native to the northern Amazon rainforest, spanning the border between Venezuela and Brazil. Like the Chimbu, the Yanomami practice both hunting and shifting-cultivation agriculture.

Game hunted by the Yanomami include deer, tapirs (an animal similar to a pig), monkeys, birds, and armadillos. The Yanomami have hunting dogs to help them search the understory and forest floor for game.

The Yanomami practice slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the land of vegetation prior to farming. Crops grown include cassava, banana, and corn. In addition to food crops , the Yanomami also cultivate cotton, which is used for hammocks, nets, and clothing.

Benefits of Rainforests

Ecological Well-Being

Rainforests are critically important to the well-being of our planet. Tropical rainforests encompass approximately 1.2 billion hectares (3 billion acres) of vegetation and are sometimes described as the Earth’s thermostat .

Rainforests produce about 20% of our oxygen and store a huge amount of carbon dioxide, drastically reducing the impact of greenhouse gas emissions. Massive amounts of solar radiation are absorbed, helping regulate temperatures around the globe. Taken together, these processes help to stabilize Earth’s climate.

Rainforests also help maintain the world’s water cycle . More than 50% of precipitation striking a rainforest is returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration , helping regulate healthy rainfall around the planet. Rainforests also store a considerable percentage of the world’s freshwater, with the Amazon Basin alone storing one-fifth.

Human Well-Being

Rainforests provide us with many products that we use every day. Tropical woods such as teak, balsa, rosewood, and mahogany are used in flooring, doors, windows, boatbuilding, and cabinetry. Fibers such as raffia, bamboo, kapok, and rattan are used to make furniture, baskets, insulation , and cord. Cinnamon, vanilla, nutmeg, and ginger are just a few spices of the rainforest. The ecosystem supports fruits including bananas, papayas, mangos, cocoa and coffee beans.

Rainforests also provide us with many medicinal products. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute, 70% of plants useful in the treatment of cancer are found only in rainforests. Rainforest plants are also used in the creation of muscle relaxants, steroids , and insecticides . They are used to treat asthma , arthritis , malaria , heart disease, and pneumonia . The importance of rainforest species in public health is even more incredible considering that less than one percent of rainforest species have been analyzed for their medicinal value.

Even rainforest fungi can contribute to humanity’s well-being. A mushroom discovered in the tropical rainforest of Ecuador, for example, is capable of consuming polyurethane —a hard, durable type of plastic used in everything from garden hoses to carpets to shoes. The fungi can even consume the plastic in an oxygen-free environment, leading many environmentalists and businesses to invest in research to investigate if the fungi can help reduce waste in urban landfills .

Threats to Rainforests

Rainforests are disappearing at an alarmingly fast pace, largely due to human development over the past few centuries. Once covering 14% of land on Earth, rainforests now make up only 6%. Since 1947, the total area of tropical rainforests has probably been reduced by more than half, to about 6.2 to 7.8 million square kilometers (3 million square miles).

Many biologists expect rainforests will lose 5-10% of their species each decade . Rampant deforestation could cause many important rainforest habitats to disappear completely within the next hundred years.

Such rapid habitat loss is due to the fact that 40 hectares (100 acres) of rainforest are cleared every minute for agricultural and industrial development. In the Pacific Northwest’s rainforests, logging companies cut down trees for timber while paper industries use the wood for pulp . In the Amazon rainforest, large-scale agricultural industries, such as cattle ranching , clear huge tracts of forests for arable land. In the Congo rainforest, roads and other infrastructure development have reduced habitat and cut off migration corridors for many rainforest species. Throughout both the Amazon and Congo, mining and logging operations clear-cut to build roads and dig mines. Some rainforests are threatened by massive hydroelectric power projects, where dams flood acres of land. Development is encroaching on rainforest habitats from all sides.

Economic inequalities fuel this rapid deforestation. Many rainforests are located in developing countries with economies based on natural resources . Wealthy nations drive demand for products, and economic development increases energy use. These demands encourage local governments to develop rainforest acreage at a fraction of its value. Impoverished people who live on or near these lands are also motivated to improve their lives by converting forests into subsistence farmland .

Rainforest Conservation

Many individuals, communities, governments, intergovernmental organizations, and conservation groups are taking innovative approaches to protect threatened rainforest habitats.

Many countries are supporting businesses and initiatives that promote the sustainable use of their rainforests. Costa Rica is a global pioneer in this field, investing in ecotourism projects that financially contribute to local economies and the forests they depend on. The country also signed an agreement with an American pharmaceutical company, Merck, which sets aside a portion of the proceeds from rainforest-derived pharmaceutical compounds to fund conservation projects.

Intergovernmental groups address rainforest conservation at a global scale. The United Nations’ REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) Program, for example, offers financial incentives for reducing carbon emissions created by deforestation to 58 member countries. The Democratic Republic of the Congo used REDD funds to create an online National Forest Monitoring System that tracks and maps data on logging concessions , deforestation in protected areas, and national forestry sector measures. REDD funds were also used to investigate best practices in solving land disputes in Cambodia, which lacks proper forest zoning and boundary enforcement .

Nonprofit organizations are tackling rainforest conservation through a variety of different approaches. The Rainforest Trust, for example, supports local conservation groups around the world in purchasing and managing critically important habitats. In Ecuador, the Rainforest Trust worked with the Fundación Jocotoco to acquire 495 more hectares (1,222 more acres) for the Río Canandé Reserve, considered to have one of the highest concentrations of endemic and threatened species in the world. Partnering with Burung Indonesia, the Trust created a 8,900-hectare (22,000-acre) reserve on Sangihe Island to protect the highest concentration of threatened bird species in Asia.

The Rainforest Alliance is a nonprofit organization that helps businesses and consumers know that their products conserve rather than degrade rainforests. Products that bear the Rainforest Alliance seal contain ingredients from farms or forests that follow strict guidelines designed to support the sustainable development of rainforests and local communities. The Alliance also allows tourism businesses use of their seal after they complete an education program on efficiency and sustainability. In turn, this seal allows tourists to make ecologically smart vacation plans.

Drip Tips Many plants in the humid rainforest canopy are pointed, so that rain can run off the tips of the leaves. These “drip tips” keep the leaves dry and free of mold.

Jungles and Rainforests Jungles and rainforests are very, very similar. The main difference is that rainforests have thick canopies and taller trees. Jungles have more light and denser vegetation in the understory.

Slow Rain Rainforests are so densely packed with vegetation that a drop of rain falling from the forest’s emergent layer can take 10 minutes to reach the forest floor.

Species-Rich, Soil-Poor The soil of most tropical rainforests contains few nutrients. The rich biodiversity in the canopy and quick decomposition from fungi and bacteria prevent the accumulation of nutrient-rich humus. Nutrients are confined to the rainforest’s thin layer of topsoil. For this reason, most of the towering trees in tropical rainforests have very shallow, widespread root systems called “buttress roots.”

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Difference Between Plant and Animal Cells

Plant and animal cells both are eukaryotic cells , meaning they have a defined nucleus and complex structures encased within membranes (organelles). Both cell types share common cellular machinery such as a nucleus, mitochondria , endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and the Golgi apparatus. However, they also exhibit distinct structural differences that define their functions and responses to their environment. Some of these differences include the presence of cell walls and chloroplasts in plant cells, and centrioles and lysosomes in animal cells. The following article delves deep into the nuanced differences between plant and animal cells.

Why Are Plant and Animal Cells Different?

Remembering the key differences between plant and animal cells is easier when you think about the roles these cells play.

Plant cells are rigid because the stacked cells act as their skeletal system and because they store water and nutrients both for energy and to maintain their structure. Plants are photosynthetic or autotrophs , so their cells contain the necessary organelles for photosynthesis. So, plant cells have a cell wall, a large central storage vacuole, and chloroplasts.

Animals, on the other hand, are motile (can move). Movement requires flexibility, so animal cells are not rigid. While they naturally assume a round shape, but allow for changes. Because they lack a cell wall that would give the cells a fixed shape, animal cells need help making certain the chromosomes and cell contents align perfectly for mitosis and meiosis . So, they have centrioles and centrosomes. Animals are heterotrophs, meaning they get their food by eating plants or other animals. So, they lack chloroplasts. Animal cells several smaller vacuoles. Lysosomes in animal cells break down debris. Although plant cells perform this function, they do it a bit differently.

Plant vs Animal Cells: Comparing the Differences

Plant and animals cells contain somewhat different organelles, plus there are distinctions between some that they share in common:

Plant cells are encased in a rigid cell wall composed mainly of cellulose. This wall not only provides structural support but also protects the cell from mechanical damage. It has a role in preventing excessive water uptake and gives shape to the cell. Animal cells lack this rigid structure; instead, they have a more flexible cell membrane which provides for diverse shapes and facilitates movement in some cells. (Plant cells also have a cell membrane.)

Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments form the cytoskeleton of many animal cells. For the most part, plant cells lack intermediate filaments because the cell wall and central vacuole keep cell contents in place. In plants cells with intermediate filaments, the structure and function differs from anima cells. In a way, plant cells have an exoskeleton, while animal cells have an endoskeleton.

Chloroplasts

One of the primary distinctions between plant and animal cells is the presence of chloroplasts and other plastids in plant cells. Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of glucose. Containing the pigment chlorophyll, these organelles enable plants to capture light energy. Animal cells do not possess chloroplasts and rely on the intake of organic compounds for energy.

Centrioles and Centrosomes

Animal cells often contain a centrosome, which includes a pair of centrioles located near the nucleus and cylinders of microtubules. These organelles play a crucial role in cell division by helping in the formation of the spindle fibers that separate chromosomes during mitosis . Although some plant cells have structures similar to centrioles, they generally lack these organelles and have alternative mechanisms for spindle formation during cell division .

While both plant and animal cells contain vacuoles, the size, function, and number can differ significantly. In plant cells, a central vacuole often occupies up to 90% of the cell’s volume. This vacuole stores nutrients, waste products, and helps in maintaining turgor pressure. Animal cells may have several smaller vacuoles that mainly function in storage, excretion, and intracellular digestion.

Predominantly found in animal cells, lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes. These enzymes are essential for breaking down waste materials and cellular debris. Plant cells, on the other hand, have similar structures called lytic vacuoles, which serve a similar function but are structurally different.

Both plant and animal cells have ribosomes, which are the site of protein synthesis. However, the ribosomes in chloroplasts of plant cells, which are responsible for synthesizing proteins needed for photosynthesis, are more similar to those found in prokaryotic cells than the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of either plant or animal cells.

Plasmodesmata vs. Gap Junctions

Plasmodesmata are tiny channels found in plant cells that allow for communication and transport between neighboring cells. Animal cells don’t have plasmodesmata; instead, they use structures called gap junctions to facilitate intercellular communication.

Glyoxysomes

Present in plant cells, especially in the germinating seeds, glyoxysomes play a pivotal role in lipid conversion to carbohydrates. These specialized peroxisomes are absent in animal cells.

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia and flagella aid in cell motility. Mainly animal cells have these structures (but not all animal cells). So do some plant cells, too, but they are absent in higher plants.

Summary of the Difference Between Plant and Animal Cells

In conclusion, while plant and animal cells share a foundational cellular structure and machinery, the differences in their organelles and structural components are adaptations to their unique roles in nature. These differences underscore the complexity and adaptability of life at the cellular level.

Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; et al. (2015). Molecular Biology of the Cell (6th ed.). Garland Science. ISBN 978-0815344322.
Blair, D.F.; Dutcher, S.K. (October 1992). “Flagella in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes”. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development . 2 (5): 756–767. doi: 10.1016/S0959-437X(05)80136-4
Campbell, N.A.; Williamson, B,; Heyden, R.J. (2006). Biology: Exploring Life . Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0132508827.
Raven, J.A. (1987). “The role of vacuoles”. New Phytologist . 106 (3): 357–422. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1987.tb00149.x
Raven, P.H.; Johnson, G.B. (2002). Biology . McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0071122610.

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