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Quantitative Research – Methods, Types and Analysis

Table of Contents

What is Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a type of research that collects and analyzes numerical data to test hypotheses and answer research questions . This research typically involves a large sample size and uses statistical analysis to make inferences about a population based on the data collected. It often involves the use of surveys, experiments, or other structured data collection methods to gather quantitative data.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative Research Methods are as follows:

Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used to describe the characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. This research method is used to answer the questions of what, where, when, and how. Descriptive research designs use a variety of methods such as observation, case studies, and surveys to collect data. The data is then analyzed using statistical tools to identify patterns and relationships.

Correlational Research Design

Correlational research design is used to investigate the relationship between two or more variables. Researchers use correlational research to determine whether a relationship exists between variables and to what extent they are related. This research method involves collecting data from a sample and analyzing it using statistical tools such as correlation coefficients.

Quasi-experimental Research Design

Quasi-experimental research design is used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. This research method is similar to experimental research design, but it lacks full control over the independent variable. Researchers use quasi-experimental research designs when it is not feasible or ethical to manipulate the independent variable.

Experimental Research Design

Experimental research design is used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. This research method involves manipulating the independent variable and observing the effects on the dependent variable. Researchers use experimental research designs to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Survey Research

Survey research involves collecting data from a sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire. This research method is used to gather information on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of individuals. Researchers use survey research to collect data quickly and efficiently from a large sample size. Survey research can be conducted through various methods such as online, phone, mail, or in-person interviews.

Quantitative Research Analysis Methods

Here are some commonly used quantitative research analysis methods:

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis is the most common quantitative research analysis method. It involves using statistical tools and techniques to analyze the numerical data collected during the research process. Statistical analysis can be used to identify patterns, trends, and relationships between variables, and to test hypotheses and theories.

Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is a statistical technique used to analyze the relationship between one dependent variable and one or more independent variables. Researchers use regression analysis to identify and quantify the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis is a statistical technique used to identify underlying factors that explain the correlations among a set of variables. Researchers use factor analysis to reduce a large number of variables to a smaller set of factors that capture the most important information.

Structural Equation Modeling

Structural equation modeling is a statistical technique used to test complex relationships between variables. It involves specifying a model that includes both observed and unobserved variables, and then using statistical methods to test the fit of the model to the data.

Time Series Analysis

Time series analysis is a statistical technique used to analyze data that is collected over time. It involves identifying patterns and trends in the data, as well as any seasonal or cyclical variations.

Multilevel Modeling

Multilevel modeling is a statistical technique used to analyze data that is nested within multiple levels. For example, researchers might use multilevel modeling to analyze data that is collected from individuals who are nested within groups, such as students nested within schools.

Applications of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research has many applications across a wide range of fields. Here are some common examples:

  • Market Research : Quantitative research is used extensively in market research to understand consumer behavior, preferences, and trends. Researchers use surveys, experiments, and other quantitative methods to collect data that can inform marketing strategies, product development, and pricing decisions.
  • Health Research: Quantitative research is used in health research to study the effectiveness of medical treatments, identify risk factors for diseases, and track health outcomes over time. Researchers use statistical methods to analyze data from clinical trials, surveys, and other sources to inform medical practice and policy.
  • Social Science Research: Quantitative research is used in social science research to study human behavior, attitudes, and social structures. Researchers use surveys, experiments, and other quantitative methods to collect data that can inform social policies, educational programs, and community interventions.
  • Education Research: Quantitative research is used in education research to study the effectiveness of teaching methods, assess student learning outcomes, and identify factors that influence student success. Researchers use experimental and quasi-experimental designs, as well as surveys and other quantitative methods, to collect and analyze data.
  • Environmental Research: Quantitative research is used in environmental research to study the impact of human activities on the environment, assess the effectiveness of conservation strategies, and identify ways to reduce environmental risks. Researchers use statistical methods to analyze data from field studies, experiments, and other sources.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Here are some key characteristics of quantitative research:

  • Numerical data : Quantitative research involves collecting numerical data through standardized methods such as surveys, experiments, and observational studies. This data is analyzed using statistical methods to identify patterns and relationships.
  • Large sample size: Quantitative research often involves collecting data from a large sample of individuals or groups in order to increase the reliability and generalizability of the findings.
  • Objective approach: Quantitative research aims to be objective and impartial in its approach, focusing on the collection and analysis of data rather than personal beliefs, opinions, or experiences.
  • Control over variables: Quantitative research often involves manipulating variables to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships. Researchers aim to control for extraneous variables that may impact the results.
  • Replicable : Quantitative research aims to be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to conduct similar studies and obtain similar results using the same methods.
  • Statistical analysis: Quantitative research involves using statistical tools and techniques to analyze the numerical data collected during the research process. Statistical analysis allows researchers to identify patterns, trends, and relationships between variables, and to test hypotheses and theories.
  • Generalizability: Quantitative research aims to produce findings that can be generalized to larger populations beyond the specific sample studied. This is achieved through the use of random sampling methods and statistical inference.

Examples of Quantitative Research

Here are some examples of quantitative research in different fields:

  • Market Research: A company conducts a survey of 1000 consumers to determine their brand awareness and preferences. The data is analyzed using statistical methods to identify trends and patterns that can inform marketing strategies.
  • Health Research : A researcher conducts a randomized controlled trial to test the effectiveness of a new drug for treating a particular medical condition. The study involves collecting data from a large sample of patients and analyzing the results using statistical methods.
  • Social Science Research : A sociologist conducts a survey of 500 people to study attitudes toward immigration in a particular country. The data is analyzed using statistical methods to identify factors that influence these attitudes.
  • Education Research: A researcher conducts an experiment to compare the effectiveness of two different teaching methods for improving student learning outcomes. The study involves randomly assigning students to different groups and collecting data on their performance on standardized tests.
  • Environmental Research : A team of researchers conduct a study to investigate the impact of climate change on the distribution and abundance of a particular species of plant or animal. The study involves collecting data on environmental factors and population sizes over time and analyzing the results using statistical methods.
  • Psychology : A researcher conducts a survey of 500 college students to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health. The data is analyzed using statistical methods to identify correlations and potential causal relationships.
  • Political Science: A team of researchers conducts a study to investigate voter behavior during an election. They use survey methods to collect data on voting patterns, demographics, and political attitudes, and analyze the results using statistical methods.

How to Conduct Quantitative Research

Here is a general overview of how to conduct quantitative research:

  • Develop a research question: The first step in conducting quantitative research is to develop a clear and specific research question. This question should be based on a gap in existing knowledge, and should be answerable using quantitative methods.
  • Develop a research design: Once you have a research question, you will need to develop a research design. This involves deciding on the appropriate methods to collect data, such as surveys, experiments, or observational studies. You will also need to determine the appropriate sample size, data collection instruments, and data analysis techniques.
  • Collect data: The next step is to collect data. This may involve administering surveys or questionnaires, conducting experiments, or gathering data from existing sources. It is important to use standardized methods to ensure that the data is reliable and valid.
  • Analyze data : Once the data has been collected, it is time to analyze it. This involves using statistical methods to identify patterns, trends, and relationships between variables. Common statistical techniques include correlation analysis, regression analysis, and hypothesis testing.
  • Interpret results: After analyzing the data, you will need to interpret the results. This involves identifying the key findings, determining their significance, and drawing conclusions based on the data.
  • Communicate findings: Finally, you will need to communicate your findings. This may involve writing a research report, presenting at a conference, or publishing in a peer-reviewed journal. It is important to clearly communicate the research question, methods, results, and conclusions to ensure that others can understand and replicate your research.

When to use Quantitative Research

Here are some situations when quantitative research can be appropriate:

  • To test a hypothesis: Quantitative research is often used to test a hypothesis or a theory. It involves collecting numerical data and using statistical analysis to determine if the data supports or refutes the hypothesis.
  • To generalize findings: If you want to generalize the findings of your study to a larger population, quantitative research can be useful. This is because it allows you to collect numerical data from a representative sample of the population and use statistical analysis to make inferences about the population as a whole.
  • To measure relationships between variables: If you want to measure the relationship between two or more variables, such as the relationship between age and income, or between education level and job satisfaction, quantitative research can be useful. It allows you to collect numerical data on both variables and use statistical analysis to determine the strength and direction of the relationship.
  • To identify patterns or trends: Quantitative research can be useful for identifying patterns or trends in data. For example, you can use quantitative research to identify trends in consumer behavior or to identify patterns in stock market data.
  • To quantify attitudes or opinions : If you want to measure attitudes or opinions on a particular topic, quantitative research can be useful. It allows you to collect numerical data using surveys or questionnaires and analyze the data using statistical methods to determine the prevalence of certain attitudes or opinions.

Purpose of Quantitative Research

The purpose of quantitative research is to systematically investigate and measure the relationships between variables or phenomena using numerical data and statistical analysis. The main objectives of quantitative research include:

  • Description : To provide a detailed and accurate description of a particular phenomenon or population.
  • Explanation : To explain the reasons for the occurrence of a particular phenomenon, such as identifying the factors that influence a behavior or attitude.
  • Prediction : To predict future trends or behaviors based on past patterns and relationships between variables.
  • Control : To identify the best strategies for controlling or influencing a particular outcome or behavior.

Quantitative research is used in many different fields, including social sciences, business, engineering, and health sciences. It can be used to investigate a wide range of phenomena, from human behavior and attitudes to physical and biological processes. The purpose of quantitative research is to provide reliable and valid data that can be used to inform decision-making and improve understanding of the world around us.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

There are several advantages of quantitative research, including:

  • Objectivity : Quantitative research is based on objective data and statistical analysis, which reduces the potential for bias or subjectivity in the research process.
  • Reproducibility : Because quantitative research involves standardized methods and measurements, it is more likely to be reproducible and reliable.
  • Generalizability : Quantitative research allows for generalizations to be made about a population based on a representative sample, which can inform decision-making and policy development.
  • Precision : Quantitative research allows for precise measurement and analysis of data, which can provide a more accurate understanding of phenomena and relationships between variables.
  • Efficiency : Quantitative research can be conducted relatively quickly and efficiently, especially when compared to qualitative research, which may involve lengthy data collection and analysis.
  • Large sample sizes : Quantitative research can accommodate large sample sizes, which can increase the representativeness and generalizability of the results.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

There are several limitations of quantitative research, including:

  • Limited understanding of context: Quantitative research typically focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, which may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the context or underlying factors that influence a phenomenon.
  • Simplification of complex phenomena: Quantitative research often involves simplifying complex phenomena into measurable variables, which may not capture the full complexity of the phenomenon being studied.
  • Potential for researcher bias: Although quantitative research aims to be objective, there is still the potential for researcher bias in areas such as sampling, data collection, and data analysis.
  • Limited ability to explore new ideas: Quantitative research is often based on pre-determined research questions and hypotheses, which may limit the ability to explore new ideas or unexpected findings.
  • Limited ability to capture subjective experiences : Quantitative research is typically focused on objective data and may not capture the subjective experiences of individuals or groups being studied.
  • Ethical concerns : Quantitative research may raise ethical concerns, such as invasion of privacy or the potential for harm to participants.

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Grad Coach

Quantitative Data Analysis 101

The lingo, methods and techniques, explained simply.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA)  and Kerryn Warren (PhD) | December 2020

Quantitative data analysis is one of those things that often strikes fear in students. It’s totally understandable – quantitative analysis is a complex topic, full of daunting lingo , like medians, modes, correlation and regression. Suddenly we’re all wishing we’d paid a little more attention in math class…

The good news is that while quantitative data analysis is a mammoth topic, gaining a working understanding of the basics isn’t that hard , even for those of us who avoid numbers and math . In this post, we’ll break quantitative analysis down into simple , bite-sized chunks so you can approach your research with confidence.

Quantitative data analysis methods and techniques 101

Overview: Quantitative Data Analysis 101

  • What (exactly) is quantitative data analysis?
  • When to use quantitative analysis
  • How quantitative analysis works

The two “branches” of quantitative analysis

  • Descriptive statistics 101
  • Inferential statistics 101
  • How to choose the right quantitative methods
  • Recap & summary

What is quantitative data analysis?

Despite being a mouthful, quantitative data analysis simply means analysing data that is numbers-based – or data that can be easily “converted” into numbers without losing any meaning.

For example, category-based variables like gender, ethnicity, or native language could all be “converted” into numbers without losing meaning – for example, English could equal 1, French 2, etc.

This contrasts against qualitative data analysis, where the focus is on words, phrases and expressions that can’t be reduced to numbers. If you’re interested in learning about qualitative analysis, check out our post and video here .

What is quantitative analysis used for?

Quantitative analysis is generally used for three purposes.

  • Firstly, it’s used to measure differences between groups . For example, the popularity of different clothing colours or brands.
  • Secondly, it’s used to assess relationships between variables . For example, the relationship between weather temperature and voter turnout.
  • And third, it’s used to test hypotheses in a scientifically rigorous way. For example, a hypothesis about the impact of a certain vaccine.

Again, this contrasts with qualitative analysis , which can be used to analyse people’s perceptions and feelings about an event or situation. In other words, things that can’t be reduced to numbers.

How does quantitative analysis work?

Well, since quantitative data analysis is all about analysing numbers , it’s no surprise that it involves statistics . Statistical analysis methods form the engine that powers quantitative analysis, and these methods can vary from pretty basic calculations (for example, averages and medians) to more sophisticated analyses (for example, correlations and regressions).

Sounds like gibberish? Don’t worry. We’ll explain all of that in this post. Importantly, you don’t need to be a statistician or math wiz to pull off a good quantitative analysis. We’ll break down all the technical mumbo jumbo in this post.

Need a helping hand?

quantitative analysis and research

As I mentioned, quantitative analysis is powered by statistical analysis methods . There are two main “branches” of statistical methods that are used – descriptive statistics and inferential statistics . In your research, you might only use descriptive statistics, or you might use a mix of both , depending on what you’re trying to figure out. In other words, depending on your research questions, aims and objectives . I’ll explain how to choose your methods later.

So, what are descriptive and inferential statistics?

Well, before I can explain that, we need to take a quick detour to explain some lingo. To understand the difference between these two branches of statistics, you need to understand two important words. These words are population and sample .

First up, population . In statistics, the population is the entire group of people (or animals or organisations or whatever) that you’re interested in researching. For example, if you were interested in researching Tesla owners in the US, then the population would be all Tesla owners in the US.

However, it’s extremely unlikely that you’re going to be able to interview or survey every single Tesla owner in the US. Realistically, you’ll likely only get access to a few hundred, or maybe a few thousand owners using an online survey. This smaller group of accessible people whose data you actually collect is called your sample .

So, to recap – the population is the entire group of people you’re interested in, and the sample is the subset of the population that you can actually get access to. In other words, the population is the full chocolate cake , whereas the sample is a slice of that cake.

So, why is this sample-population thing important?

Well, descriptive statistics focus on describing the sample , while inferential statistics aim to make predictions about the population, based on the findings within the sample. In other words, we use one group of statistical methods – descriptive statistics – to investigate the slice of cake, and another group of methods – inferential statistics – to draw conclusions about the entire cake. There I go with the cake analogy again…

With that out the way, let’s take a closer look at each of these branches in more detail.

Descriptive statistics vs inferential statistics

Branch 1: Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics serve a simple but critically important role in your research – to describe your data set – hence the name. In other words, they help you understand the details of your sample . Unlike inferential statistics (which we’ll get to soon), descriptive statistics don’t aim to make inferences or predictions about the entire population – they’re purely interested in the details of your specific sample .

When you’re writing up your analysis, descriptive statistics are the first set of stats you’ll cover, before moving on to inferential statistics. But, that said, depending on your research objectives and research questions , they may be the only type of statistics you use. We’ll explore that a little later.

So, what kind of statistics are usually covered in this section?

Some common statistical tests used in this branch include the following:

  • Mean – this is simply the mathematical average of a range of numbers.
  • Median – this is the midpoint in a range of numbers when the numbers are arranged in numerical order. If the data set makes up an odd number, then the median is the number right in the middle of the set. If the data set makes up an even number, then the median is the midpoint between the two middle numbers.
  • Mode – this is simply the most commonly occurring number in the data set.
  • In cases where most of the numbers are quite close to the average, the standard deviation will be relatively low.
  • Conversely, in cases where the numbers are scattered all over the place, the standard deviation will be relatively high.
  • Skewness . As the name suggests, skewness indicates how symmetrical a range of numbers is. In other words, do they tend to cluster into a smooth bell curve shape in the middle of the graph, or do they skew to the left or right?

Feeling a bit confused? Let’s look at a practical example using a small data set.

Descriptive statistics example data

On the left-hand side is the data set. This details the bodyweight of a sample of 10 people. On the right-hand side, we have the descriptive statistics. Let’s take a look at each of them.

First, we can see that the mean weight is 72.4 kilograms. In other words, the average weight across the sample is 72.4 kilograms. Straightforward.

Next, we can see that the median is very similar to the mean (the average). This suggests that this data set has a reasonably symmetrical distribution (in other words, a relatively smooth, centred distribution of weights, clustered towards the centre).

In terms of the mode , there is no mode in this data set. This is because each number is present only once and so there cannot be a “most common number”. If there were two people who were both 65 kilograms, for example, then the mode would be 65.

Next up is the standard deviation . 10.6 indicates that there’s quite a wide spread of numbers. We can see this quite easily by looking at the numbers themselves, which range from 55 to 90, which is quite a stretch from the mean of 72.4.

And lastly, the skewness of -0.2 tells us that the data is very slightly negatively skewed. This makes sense since the mean and the median are slightly different.

As you can see, these descriptive statistics give us some useful insight into the data set. Of course, this is a very small data set (only 10 records), so we can’t read into these statistics too much. Also, keep in mind that this is not a list of all possible descriptive statistics – just the most common ones.

But why do all of these numbers matter?

While these descriptive statistics are all fairly basic, they’re important for a few reasons:

  • Firstly, they help you get both a macro and micro-level view of your data. In other words, they help you understand both the big picture and the finer details.
  • Secondly, they help you spot potential errors in the data – for example, if an average is way higher than you’d expect, or responses to a question are highly varied, this can act as a warning sign that you need to double-check the data.
  • And lastly, these descriptive statistics help inform which inferential statistical techniques you can use, as those techniques depend on the skewness (in other words, the symmetry and normality) of the data.

Simply put, descriptive statistics are really important , even though the statistical techniques used are fairly basic. All too often at Grad Coach, we see students skimming over the descriptives in their eagerness to get to the more exciting inferential methods, and then landing up with some very flawed results.

Don’t be a sucker – give your descriptive statistics the love and attention they deserve!

Examples of descriptive statistics

Branch 2: Inferential Statistics

As I mentioned, while descriptive statistics are all about the details of your specific data set – your sample – inferential statistics aim to make inferences about the population . In other words, you’ll use inferential statistics to make predictions about what you’d expect to find in the full population.

What kind of predictions, you ask? Well, there are two common types of predictions that researchers try to make using inferential stats:

  • Firstly, predictions about differences between groups – for example, height differences between children grouped by their favourite meal or gender.
  • And secondly, relationships between variables – for example, the relationship between body weight and the number of hours a week a person does yoga.

In other words, inferential statistics (when done correctly), allow you to connect the dots and make predictions about what you expect to see in the real world population, based on what you observe in your sample data. For this reason, inferential statistics are used for hypothesis testing – in other words, to test hypotheses that predict changes or differences.

Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about what you’d expect to find in the full population, based on the sample.

Of course, when you’re working with inferential statistics, the composition of your sample is really important. In other words, if your sample doesn’t accurately represent the population you’re researching, then your findings won’t necessarily be very useful.

For example, if your population of interest is a mix of 50% male and 50% female , but your sample is 80% male , you can’t make inferences about the population based on your sample, since it’s not representative. This area of statistics is called sampling, but we won’t go down that rabbit hole here (it’s a deep one!) – we’ll save that for another post .

What statistics are usually used in this branch?

There are many, many different statistical analysis methods within the inferential branch and it’d be impossible for us to discuss them all here. So we’ll just take a look at some of the most common inferential statistical methods so that you have a solid starting point.

First up are T-Tests . T-tests compare the means (the averages) of two groups of data to assess whether they’re statistically significantly different. In other words, do they have significantly different means, standard deviations and skewness.

This type of testing is very useful for understanding just how similar or different two groups of data are. For example, you might want to compare the mean blood pressure between two groups of people – one that has taken a new medication and one that hasn’t – to assess whether they are significantly different.

Kicking things up a level, we have ANOVA, which stands for “analysis of variance”. This test is similar to a T-test in that it compares the means of various groups, but ANOVA allows you to analyse multiple groups , not just two groups So it’s basically a t-test on steroids…

Next, we have correlation analysis . This type of analysis assesses the relationship between two variables. In other words, if one variable increases, does the other variable also increase, decrease or stay the same. For example, if the average temperature goes up, do average ice creams sales increase too? We’d expect some sort of relationship between these two variables intuitively , but correlation analysis allows us to measure that relationship scientifically .

Lastly, we have regression analysis – this is quite similar to correlation in that it assesses the relationship between variables, but it goes a step further to understand cause and effect between variables, not just whether they move together. In other words, does the one variable actually cause the other one to move, or do they just happen to move together naturally thanks to another force? Just because two variables correlate doesn’t necessarily mean that one causes the other.

Stats overload…

I hear you. To make this all a little more tangible, let’s take a look at an example of a correlation in action.

Here’s a scatter plot demonstrating the correlation (relationship) between weight and height. Intuitively, we’d expect there to be some relationship between these two variables, which is what we see in this scatter plot. In other words, the results tend to cluster together in a diagonal line from bottom left to top right.

Sample correlation

As I mentioned, these are are just a handful of inferential techniques – there are many, many more. Importantly, each statistical method has its own assumptions and limitations.

For example, some methods only work with normally distributed (parametric) data, while other methods are designed specifically for non-parametric data. And that’s exactly why descriptive statistics are so important – they’re the first step to knowing which inferential techniques you can and can’t use.

Remember that every statistical method has its own assumptions and limitations,  so you need to be aware of these.

How to choose the right analysis method

To choose the right statistical methods, you need to think about two important factors :

  • The type of quantitative data you have (specifically, level of measurement and the shape of the data). And,
  • Your research questions and hypotheses

Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

Factor 1 – Data type

The first thing you need to consider is the type of data you’ve collected (or the type of data you will collect). By data types, I’m referring to the four levels of measurement – namely, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. If you’re not familiar with this lingo, check out the video below.

Why does this matter?

Well, because different statistical methods and techniques require different types of data. This is one of the “assumptions” I mentioned earlier – every method has its assumptions regarding the type of data.

For example, some techniques work with categorical data (for example, yes/no type questions, or gender or ethnicity), while others work with continuous numerical data (for example, age, weight or income) – and, of course, some work with multiple data types.

If you try to use a statistical method that doesn’t support the data type you have, your results will be largely meaningless . So, make sure that you have a clear understanding of what types of data you’ve collected (or will collect). Once you have this, you can then check which statistical methods would support your data types here .

If you haven’t collected your data yet, you can work in reverse and look at which statistical method would give you the most useful insights, and then design your data collection strategy to collect the correct data types.

Another important factor to consider is the shape of your data . Specifically, does it have a normal distribution (in other words, is it a bell-shaped curve, centred in the middle) or is it very skewed to the left or the right? Again, different statistical techniques work for different shapes of data – some are designed for symmetrical data while others are designed for skewed data.

This is another reminder of why descriptive statistics are so important – they tell you all about the shape of your data.

Factor 2: Your research questions

The next thing you need to consider is your specific research questions, as well as your hypotheses (if you have some). The nature of your research questions and research hypotheses will heavily influence which statistical methods and techniques you should use.

If you’re just interested in understanding the attributes of your sample (as opposed to the entire population), then descriptive statistics are probably all you need. For example, if you just want to assess the means (averages) and medians (centre points) of variables in a group of people.

On the other hand, if you aim to understand differences between groups or relationships between variables and to infer or predict outcomes in the population, then you’ll likely need both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

So, it’s really important to get very clear about your research aims and research questions, as well your hypotheses – before you start looking at which statistical techniques to use.

Never shoehorn a specific statistical technique into your research just because you like it or have some experience with it. Your choice of methods must align with all the factors we’ve covered here.

Time to recap…

You’re still with me? That’s impressive. We’ve covered a lot of ground here, so let’s recap on the key points:

  • Quantitative data analysis is all about  analysing number-based data  (which includes categorical and numerical data) using various statistical techniques.
  • The two main  branches  of statistics are  descriptive statistics  and  inferential statistics . Descriptives describe your sample, whereas inferentials make predictions about what you’ll find in the population.
  • Common  descriptive statistical methods include  mean  (average),  median , standard  deviation  and  skewness .
  • Common  inferential statistical methods include  t-tests ,  ANOVA ,  correlation  and  regression  analysis.
  • To choose the right statistical methods and techniques, you need to consider the  type of data you’re working with , as well as your  research questions  and hypotheses.

quantitative analysis and research

Psst… there’s more (for free)

This post is part of our dissertation mini-course, which covers everything you need to get started with your dissertation, thesis or research project. 

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73 Comments

Oddy Labs

Hi, I have read your article. Such a brilliant post you have created.

Derek Jansen

Thank you for the feedback. Good luck with your quantitative analysis.

Abdullahi Ramat

Thank you so much.

Obi Eric Onyedikachi

Thank you so much. I learnt much well. I love your summaries of the concepts. I had love you to explain how to input data using SPSS

Lumbuka Kaunda

Amazing and simple way of breaking down quantitative methods.

Charles Lwanga

This is beautiful….especially for non-statisticians. I have skimmed through but I wish to read again. and please include me in other articles of the same nature when you do post. I am interested. I am sure, I could easily learn from you and get off the fear that I have had in the past. Thank you sincerely.

Essau Sefolo

Send me every new information you might have.

fatime

i need every new information

Dr Peter

Thank you for the blog. It is quite informative. Dr Peter Nemaenzhe PhD

Mvogo Mvogo Ephrem

It is wonderful. l’ve understood some of the concepts in a more compréhensive manner

Maya

Your article is so good! However, I am still a bit lost. I am doing a secondary research on Gun control in the US and increase in crime rates and I am not sure which analysis method I should use?

Joy

Based on the given learning points, this is inferential analysis, thus, use ‘t-tests, ANOVA, correlation and regression analysis’

Peter

Well explained notes. Am an MPH student and currently working on my thesis proposal, this has really helped me understand some of the things I didn’t know.

Jejamaije Mujoro

I like your page..helpful

prashant pandey

wonderful i got my concept crystal clear. thankyou!!

Dailess Banda

This is really helpful , thank you

Lulu

Thank you so much this helped

wossen

Wonderfully explained

Niamatullah zaheer

thank u so much, it was so informative

mona

THANKYOU, this was very informative and very helpful

Thaddeus Ogwoka

This is great GRADACOACH I am not a statistician but I require more of this in my thesis

Include me in your posts.

Alem Teshome

This is so great and fully useful. I would like to thank you again and again.

Mrinal

Glad to read this article. I’ve read lot of articles but this article is clear on all concepts. Thanks for sharing.

Emiola Adesina

Thank you so much. This is a very good foundation and intro into quantitative data analysis. Appreciate!

Josyl Hey Aquilam

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So I am writing exams and would like to know how do establish which method of data analysis to use from the below research questions: I am a bit lost as to how I determine the data analysis method from the research questions.

Do female employees report higher job satisfaction than male employees with similar job descriptions across the South African telecommunications sector? – I though that maybe Chi Square could be used here. – Is there a gender difference in talented employees’ actual turnover decisions across the South African telecommunications sector? T-tests or Correlation in this one. – Is there a gender difference in the cost of actual turnover decisions across the South African telecommunications sector? T-tests or Correlation in this one. – What practical recommendations can be made to the management of South African telecommunications companies on leveraging gender to mitigate employee turnover decisions?

Your assistance will be appreciated if I could get a response as early as possible tomorrow

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  • v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

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Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

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EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

  • EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
  • - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
  • “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
  • RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
  • EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
  • - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
  • “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
  • Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
  • EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
  • - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
  • “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
  • RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
  • STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
  • EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
  • - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
  • “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
  • EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
  • - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
  • “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

  • EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
  • - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
  • “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
  • “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
  • EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
  • - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
  • “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
  • “Conclusion
  • Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
  • EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
  • “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
  • Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
  • EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
  • - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
  • “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
  • “Statistical Analysis
  • ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

  • EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
  • “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
  • “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
  • “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
  • EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
  • “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
  • “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
  • EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
  • “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
  • “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
  • “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

  • Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
  • Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
  • Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
  • Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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  • What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition & Methods

What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition & Methods

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analysing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalise results to wider populations.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research , which involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g. text, video, or audio).

Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

  • What is the demographic makeup of Singapore in 2020?
  • How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?
  • Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees?
  • Does working from home increase productivity for people with long commutes?

Table of contents

Quantitative research methods, quantitative data analysis, advantages of quantitative research, disadvantages of quantitative research, frequently asked questions about quantitative research.

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental research.

  • In descriptive research , you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
  • In correlational research , you investigate relationships between your study variables.
  • In experimental research , you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses , or predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalised to broader populations based on the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

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Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analysed. For example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions .

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualise your data and check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics , you can make predictions or generalisations based on your data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter .

You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to indicate how consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you wanted them to.

Quantitative research is often used to standardise data collection and generalise findings . Strengths of this approach include:

  • Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardised data collection protocols and tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

  • Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.

  • Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analysed using reliable and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.

  • Hypothesis testing

Using formalised and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex research topics. Its limitations include:

  • Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

  • Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant observations.

  • Structural bias

Despite standardised procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing data , imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.

  • Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

Operationalisation means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalise the variables that you want to measure.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

  • Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
  • Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research , you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

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Quantitative Methods

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Quantitative analysis ; Quantitative research methods ; Study design

Quantitative method is the collection and analysis of numerical data to answer scientific research questions. Quantitative method is used to summarize, average, find patterns, make predictions, and test causal associations as well as generalizing results to wider populations. It allows us to quantify effect sizes, determine the strength of associations, rank priorities, and weigh the strength of evidence of effectiveness.

Introduction

This entry aims to introduce the most common ways to use numbers and statistics to describe variables, establish relationships among variables, and build numerical understanding of a topic. In general, the quantitative research process uses a deductive approach (Neuman 2014 ; Leavy 2017 ), extrapolating from a particular case to the general situation (Babones 2016 ).

In practical ways, quantitative methods are an approach to studying a research topic. In research, the...

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Babones S (2016) Interpretive quantitative methods for the social sciences. Sociology. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038515583637

Balnaves M, Caputi P (2001) Introduction to quantitative research methods: an investigative approach. Sage, London

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Brenner PS (2020) Understanding survey methodology: sociological theory and applications. Springer, Boston

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Creswell JW (2014) Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage, London

Leavy P (2017) Research design. The Gilford Press, New York

Mertens W, Pugliese A, Recker J (2018) Quantitative data analysis, research methods: information, systems, and contexts: second edition. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102220-7.00018-2

Neuman LW (2014) Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh

Treiman DJ (2009) Quantitative data analysis: doing social research to test ideas. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco

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Department of Public Health, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

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Rana, J., Gutierrez, P.L., Oldroyd, J.C. (2021). Quantitative Methods. In: Farazmand, A. (eds) Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_460-1

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Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques . Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS . 2nd edition. London: SAGE Publications, 2010.

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Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.

Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].

Its main characteristics are :

  • The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
  • The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
  • The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
  • Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
  • All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
  • Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
  • Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.
  • Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

  Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantitative methods :

  • Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this section.
  • Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
  • Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
  • Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure ; provide a rationale for its use and a reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
  • Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were not violated.
  • When using inferential statistics , provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
  • Avoid inferring causality , particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further experimentation.
  • Use tables to provide exact values ; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
  • Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures .

NOTE:   When using pre-existing statistical data gathered and made available by anyone other than yourself [e.g., government agency], you still must report on the methods that were used to gather the data and describe any missing data that exists and, if there is any, provide a clear explanation why the missing data does not undermine the validity of your final analysis.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Quantitative Research Methods. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Basic Research Design for Quantitative Studies

Before designing a quantitative research study, you must decide whether it will be descriptive or experimental because this will dictate how you gather, analyze, and interpret the results. A descriptive study is governed by the following rules: subjects are generally measured once; the intention is to only establish associations between variables; and, the study may include a sample population of hundreds or thousands of subjects to ensure that a valid estimate of a generalized relationship between variables has been obtained. An experimental design includes subjects measured before and after a particular treatment, the sample population may be very small and purposefully chosen, and it is intended to establish causality between variables. Introduction The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present tense and from the third person point of view. It covers the following information:

  • Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state clearly and concisely the research problem being investigated.
  • Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes and, if necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and analysis. Note where key gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or clarifies existing knowledge.
  • Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or hypothesis underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex terms, concepts, or ideas and provide the appropriate background information to place the research problem in proper context [e.g., historical, cultural, economic, etc.].

Methodology The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study will be achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed assessment of the methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem. The methods section should be presented in the past tense.

  • Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust is it; note where gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for their selection;
  • Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify the variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data; and, note if the data was pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself. If you gathered it yourself, describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no data set is perfect--describe any limitations in methods of gathering data.
  • Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If appropriate, describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research objective, including mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used to manipulate the data.

Results The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format. In quantitative studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual elements to help the reader understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not stand in isolation from the text but are being used to supplement the overall description of the results and to help clarify key points being made. Further information about how to effectively present data using charts and graphs can be found here .

  • Statistical analysis -- how did you analyze the data? What were the key findings from the data? The findings should be present in a logical, sequential order. Describe but do not interpret these trends or negative results; save that for the discussion section. The results should be presented in the past tense.

Discussion Discussions should be analytic, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld together your findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed within the context of the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion should be presented in the present tense.

  • Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and compare and contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study. Did they affirm predicted outcomes or did the data refute it?
  • Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables -- describe any trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated and statistical insignificant findings.
  • Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key findings based on the overall results and note findings that you believe are important. How have the results helped fill gaps in understanding the research problem?
  • Limitations -- describe any limitations or unavoidable bias in your study and, if necessary, note why these limitations did not inhibit effective interpretation of the results.

Conclusion End your study by to summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the study.

  • Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not report any statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings and describe what was learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
  • Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings with policy recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.
  • Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s limitations or to any remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your study.

Black, Thomas R. Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement and Statistics . London: Sage, 1999; Gay,L. R. and Peter Airasain. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications . 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril Prentice Hall, 2003; Hector, Anestine. An Overview of Quantitative Research in Composition and TESOL . Department of English, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Hopkins, Will G. “Quantitative Research Design.” Sportscience 4, 1 (2000); "A Strategy for Writing Up Research Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper." Department of Biology. Bates College; Nenty, H. Johnson. "Writing a Quantitative Research Thesis." International Journal of Educational Science 1 (2009): 19-32; Ouyang, Ronghua (John). Basic Inquiry of Quantitative Research . Kennesaw State University.

Strengths of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative researchers try to recognize and isolate specific variables contained within the study framework, seek correlation, relationships and causality, and attempt to control the environment in which the data is collected to avoid the risk of variables, other than the one being studied, accounting for the relationships identified.

Among the specific strengths of using quantitative methods to study social science research problems:

  • Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of the results;
  • Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods are designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative research usually involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure validity and reliability;
  • Applying well established standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analyzed and compared with similar studies;
  • You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and over time; and,
  • Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and using accepted computational techniques .

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Limitations of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research problems, where data is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the causes of behavior. As a consequence, the results of quantitative research may be statistically significant but are often humanly insignificant.

Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study research problems in the social sciences include:

  • Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail;
  • Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;
  • The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead of the participating subject;
  • Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
  • Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset;
  • Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
  • The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to "real world results"; and,
  • Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in some cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

Research Tip

Finding Examples of How to Apply Different Types of Research Methods

SAGE publications is a major publisher of studies about how to design and conduct research in the social and behavioral sciences. Their SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases database includes contents from books, articles, encyclopedias, handbooks, and videos covering social science research design and methods including the complete Little Green Book Series of Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences and the Little Blue Book Series of Qualitative Research techniques. The database also includes case studies outlining the research methods used in real research projects. This is an excellent source for finding definitions of key terms and descriptions of research design and practice, techniques of data gathering, analysis, and reporting, and information about theories of research [e.g., grounded theory]. The database covers both qualitative and quantitative research methods as well as mixed methods approaches to conducting research.

SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

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Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis.

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded.

RESEARCH THEMATICANALYSISMETHOD

Key Features

  • Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
  • Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
  • The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
  • The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
  • The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

  • Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
  • The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
  • Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
  • The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

  • Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
  • Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
  • Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
  • Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

  • Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
  • The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
  • The design of the study is determined before it begins.
  • For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
  • Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

  • Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
  • Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
  • Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
  • Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

  • Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
  • Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
  • Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
  • Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
  • Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

  • Designing qualitative research
  • Methods of data collection and analysis
  • Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
  • Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
  • Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
  • Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
  • Using the framework method for the analysis of
  • Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
  • Content Analysis
  • Grounded Theory
  • Thematic Analysis

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Quantitative Research

What is quantitative research.

Quantitative research is the methodology which researchers use to test theories about people’s attitudes and behaviors based on numerical and statistical evidence. Researchers sample a large number of users (e.g., through surveys) to indirectly obtain measurable, bias-free data about users in relevant situations.

“Quantification clarifies issues which qualitative analysis leaves fuzzy. It is more readily contestable and likely to be contested. It sharpens scholarly discussion, sparks off rival hypotheses, and contributes to the dynamics of the research process.” — Angus Maddison, Notable scholar of quantitative macro-economic history
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See how quantitative research helps reveal cold, hard facts about users which you can interpret and use to improve your designs.

Use Quantitative Research to Find Mathematical Facts about Users

Quantitative research is a subset of user experience (UX) research . Unlike its softer, more individual-oriented “counterpart”, qualitative research , quantitative research means you collect statistical/numerical data to draw generalized conclusions about users’ attitudes and behaviors . Compare and contrast quantitative with qualitative research, below:

Quantitative research is often best done from early on in projects since it helps teams to optimally direct product development and avoid costly design mistakes later. As you typically get user data from a distance—i.e., without close physical contact with users—also applying qualitative research will help you investigate why users think and feel the ways they do. Indeed, in an iterative design process quantitative research helps you test the assumptions you and your design team develop from your qualitative research. Regardless of the method you use, with proper care you can gather objective and unbiased data – information which you can complement with qualitative approaches to build a fuller understanding of your target users. From there, you can work towards firmer conclusions and drive your design process towards a more realistic picture of how target users will ultimately receive your product.

quantitative analysis and research

Quantitative analysis helps you test your assumptions and establish clearer views of your users in their various contexts.

Quantitative Research Methods You Can Use to Guide Optimal Designs

There are many quantitative research methods, and they help uncover different types of information on users. Some methods, such as A/B testing, are typically done on finished products, while others such as surveys could be done throughout a project’s design process. Here are some of the most helpful methods:

A/B testing – You test two or more versions of your design on users to find the most effective. Each variation differs by just one feature and may or may not affect how users respond. A/B testing is especially valuable for testing assumptions you’ve drawn from qualitative research. The only potential concerns here are scale—in that you’ll typically need to conduct it on thousands of users—and arguably more complexity in terms of considering the statistical significance involved.

Analytics – With tools such as Google Analytics, you measure metrics (e.g., page views, click-through rates) to build a picture (e.g., “How many users take how long to complete a task?”).

Desirability Studies – You measure an aspect of your product (e.g., aesthetic appeal) by typically showing it to participants and asking them to select from a menu of descriptive words. Their responses can reveal powerful insights (e.g., 78% associate the product/brand with “fashionable”).

Surveys and Questionnaires – When you ask for many users’ opinions, you will gain massive amounts of information. Keep in mind that you’ll have data about what users say they do, as opposed to insights into what they do . You can get more reliable results if you incentivize your participants well and use the right format.

Tree Testing – You remove the user interface so users must navigate the site and complete tasks using links alone. This helps you see if an issue is related to the user interface or information architecture.

Another powerful benefit of conducting quantitative research is that you can keep your stakeholders’ support with hard facts and statistics about your design’s performance—which can show what works well and what needs improvement—and prove a good return on investment. You can also produce reports to check statistics against different versions of your product and your competitors’ products.

Most quantitative research methods are relatively cheap. Since no single research method can help you answer all your questions, it’s vital to judge which method suits your project at the time/stage. Remember, it’s best to spend appropriately on a combination of quantitative and qualitative research from early on in development. Design improvements can be costly, and so you can estimate the value of implementing changes when you get the statistics to suggest that these changes will improve usability. Overall, you want to gather measurements objectively, where your personality, presence and theories won’t create bias.

Learn More about Quantitative Research

Take our User Research course to see how to get the most from quantitative research.

See how quantitative research methods fit into your design research landscape .

This insightful piece shows the value of pairing quantitative with qualitative research .

Find helpful tips on combining quantitative research methods in mixed methods research .

Questions related to Quantitative Research

Qualitative and quantitative research differ primarily in the data they produce. Quantitative research yields numerical data to test hypotheses and quantify patterns. It's precise and generalizable. Qualitative research, on the other hand, generates non-numerical data and explores meanings, interpretations, and deeper insights. Watch our video featuring Professor Alan Dix on different types of research methods.

This video elucidates the nuances and applications of both research types in the design field.

In quantitative research, determining a good sample size is crucial for the reliability of the results. William Hudson, CEO of Syntagm, emphasizes the importance of statistical significance with an example in our video. 

He illustrates that even with varying results between design choices, we need to discern whether the differences are statistically significant or products of chance. This ensures the validity of the results, allowing for more accurate interpretations. Statistical tools like chi-square tests can aid in analyzing the results effectively. To delve deeper into these concepts, take William Hudson’s Data-Driven Design: Quantitative UX Research Course . 

Quantitative research is crucial as it provides precise, numerical data that allows for high levels of statistical inference. Our video from William Hudson, CEO of Syntagm, highlights the importance of analytics in examining existing solutions. 

Quantitative methods, like analytics and A/B testing, are pivotal for identifying areas for improvement, understanding user behaviors, and optimizing user experiences based on solid, empirical evidence. This empirical nature ensures that the insights derived are reliable, allowing for practical improvements and innovations. Perhaps most importantly, numerical data is useful to secure stakeholder buy-in and defend design decisions and proposals. Explore this approach in our Data-Driven Design: Quantitative Research for UX Research course and learn from William Hudson’s detailed explanations of when and why to use analytics in the research process.

After establishing initial requirements, statistical data is crucial for informed decisions through quantitative research. William Hudson, CEO of Syntagm, sheds light on the role of quantitative research throughout a typical project lifecycle in this video:

 During the analysis and design phases, quantitative research helps validate user requirements and understand user behaviors. Surveys and analytics are standard tools, offering insights into user preferences and design efficacy. Quantitative research can also be used in early design testing, allowing for optimal design modifications based on user interactions and feedback, and it’s fundamental for A/B and multivariate testing once live solutions are available.

To write a compelling quantitative research question:

Create clear, concise, and unambiguous questions that address one aspect at a time.

Use common, short terms and provide explanations for unusual words.

Avoid leading, compound, and overlapping queries and ensure that questions are not vague or broad.

According to our video by William Hudson, CEO of Syntagm, quality and respondent understanding are vital in forming good questions. 

He emphasizes the importance of addressing specific aspects and avoiding intimidating and confusing elements, such as extensive question grids or ranking questions, to ensure participant engagement and accurate responses. For more insights, see the article Writing Good Questions for Surveys .

Survey research is typically quantitative, collecting numerical data and statistical analysis to make generalizable conclusions. However, it can also have qualitative elements, mainly when it includes open-ended questions, allowing for expressive responses. Our video featuring the CEO of Syntagm, William Hudson, provides in-depth insights into when and how to effectively utilize surveys in the product or service lifecycle, focusing on user satisfaction and potential improvements.

He emphasizes the importance of surveys in triangulating data to back up qualitative research findings, ensuring we have a complete understanding of the user's requirements and preferences.

Descriptive research focuses on describing the subject being studied and getting answers to questions like what, where, when, and who of the research question. However, it doesn’t include the answers to the underlying reasons, or the “why” behind the answers obtained from the research. We can use both f qualitative and quantitative methods to conduct descriptive research. Descriptive research does not describe the methods, but rather the data gathered through the research (regardless of the methods used).

When we use quantitative research and gather numerical data, we can use statistical analysis to understand relationships between different variables. Here’s William Hudson, CEO of Syntagm with more on correlation and how we can apply tests such as Pearson’s r and Spearman Rank Coefficient to our data.

This helps interpret phenomena such as user experience by analyzing session lengths and conversion values, revealing whether variables like time spent on a page affect checkout values, for example.

Random Sampling: Each individual in the population has an equitable opportunity to be chosen, which minimizes biases and simplifies analysis.

Systematic Sampling: Selecting every k-th item from a list after a random start. It's simpler and faster than random sampling when dealing with large populations.

Stratified Sampling: Segregate the population into subgroups or strata according to comparable characteristics. Then, samples are taken randomly from each stratum.

Cluster Sampling: Divide the population into clusters and choose a random sample.

Multistage Sampling: Various sampling techniques are used at different stages to collect detailed information from diverse populations.

Convenience Sampling: The researcher selects the sample based on availability and willingness to participate, which may only represent part of the population.

Quota Sampling: Segment the population into subgroups, and samples are non-randomly selected to fulfill a predetermined quota from each subset.

These are just a few techniques, and choosing the right one depends on your research question, discipline, resource availability, and the level of accuracy required. In quantitative research, there isn't a one-size-fits-all sampling technique; choosing a method that aligns with your research goals and population is critical. However, a well-planned strategy is essential to avoid wasting resources and time, as highlighted in our video featuring William Hudson, CEO of Syntagm.

He emphasizes the importance of recruiting participants meticulously, ensuring their engagement and the quality of their responses. Accurate and thoughtful participant responses are crucial for obtaining reliable results. William also sheds light on dealing with failing participants and scrutinizing response quality to refine the outcomes.

The 4 types of quantitative research are Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research. Descriptive research aims to depict ‘what exists’ clearly and precisely. Correlational research examines relationships between variables. Causal-comparative research investigates the cause-effect relationship between variables. Experimental research explores causal relationships by manipulating independent variables. To gain deeper insights into quantitative research methods in UX, consider enrolling in our Data-Driven Design: Quantitative Research for UX course.

The strength of quantitative research is its ability to provide precise numerical data for analyzing target variables.This allows for generalized conclusions and predictions about future occurrences, proving invaluable in various fields, including user experience. William Hudson, CEO of Syntagm, discusses the role of surveys, analytics, and testing in providing objective insights in our video on quantitative research methods, highlighting the significance of structured methodologies in eliciting reliable results.

To master quantitative research methods, enroll in our comprehensive course, Data-Driven Design: Quantitative Research for UX . 

This course empowers you to leverage quantitative data to make informed design decisions, providing a deep dive into methods like surveys and analytics. Whether you’re a novice or a seasoned professional, this course at Interaction Design Foundation offers valuable insights and practical knowledge, ensuring you acquire the skills necessary to excel in user experience research. Explore our diverse topics to elevate your understanding of quantitative research methods.

Literature on Quantitative Research

Here’s the entire UX literature on Quantitative Research by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Quantitative Research

Take a deep dive into Quantitative Research with our course User Research – Methods and Best Practices .

How do you plan to design a product or service that your users will love , if you don't know what they want in the first place? As a user experience designer, you shouldn't leave it to chance to design something outstanding; you should make the effort to understand your users and build on that knowledge from the outset. User research is the way to do this, and it can therefore be thought of as the largest part of user experience design .

In fact, user research is often the first step of a UX design process—after all, you cannot begin to design a product or service without first understanding what your users want! As you gain the skills required, and learn about the best practices in user research, you’ll get first-hand knowledge of your users and be able to design the optimal product—one that’s truly relevant for your users and, subsequently, outperforms your competitors’ .

This course will give you insights into the most essential qualitative research methods around and will teach you how to put them into practice in your design work. You’ll also have the opportunity to embark on three practical projects where you can apply what you’ve learned to carry out user research in the real world . You’ll learn details about how to plan user research projects and fit them into your own work processes in a way that maximizes the impact your research can have on your designs. On top of that, you’ll gain practice with different methods that will help you analyze the results of your research and communicate your findings to your clients and stakeholders—workshops, user journeys and personas, just to name a few!

By the end of the course, you’ll have not only a Course Certificate but also three case studies to add to your portfolio. And remember, a portfolio with engaging case studies is invaluable if you are looking to break into a career in UX design or user research!

We believe you should learn from the best, so we’ve gathered a team of experts to help teach this course alongside our own course instructors. That means you’ll meet a new instructor in each of the lessons on research methods who is an expert in their field—we hope you enjoy what they have in store for you!

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What is Quantitative Research? Definition, Examples, Key Advantages, Methods and Best Practices

By Nick Jain

Published on: May 17, 2023

What is Quantitative Research

Table of Contents

What is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research examples, quantitative research: key advantages, quantitative research methodology, 7 best practices to conduct quantitative research.

Quantitative research stands as a powerful research methodology dedicated to the systematic collection and analysis of measurable data. Through rigorous statistical and mathematical techniques, this method extracts insights from structured surveys, controlled experiments, or other defined data-gathering methods.

The primary objective of quantitative research is to measure and quantify variables, relationships, and patterns within the dataset. By testing hypotheses, making predictions, and drawing generalizable conclusions, it plays a crucial role in fields such as psychology, sociology, economics, and education. This approach often involves significant sample sizes, ensuring robust results.

Explore the depth of quantitative research with this comprehensive guide, offering practical examples and applications to demonstrate its real-world impact. Stay updated with the latest trends and developments in quantitative research as we continually refine our insights to provide you with the most relevant and cutting-edge information.

Quantitative Research: Key Characteristics

Below are the key characteristics of quantitative research:

  • Objectivity: Quantitative research is grounded in the principles of objectivity and empiricism, which means that the research is focused on observable and measurable phenomena, rather than personal opinions or experiences.
  • Structured approach: Quantitative research follows a structured and systematic approach to data collection and analysis, using clearly defined variables, hypotheses, and research questions.
  • Numeric data: Quantitative research uses numerical data to describe and analyze the phenomena under study, such as statistical analysis, surveys, and experiments.
  • Large sample size: Quantitative research often involves large sample sizes to ensure statistical significance and to generalize findings to a larger population.
  • Standardized data collection: Quantitative research typically involves standardized data collection methods, such as surveys or experiments, to minimize potential sources of bias and increase reliability.
  • Deductive reasoning: Quantitative research uses deductive reasoning, where the researcher tests a specific hypothesis based on prior knowledge and theory.
  • Replication: Quantitative research emphasizes the importance of replication, where other researchers can reproduce the study’s methods and obtain similar results.
  • Statistical analysis: Quantitative research involves statistical analysis to analyze the data and test the research hypotheses, often using software programs to assist with data analysis.
  • Precision: Quantitative research aims to be precise in its measurement and analysis of data. It seeks to quantify and measure the specific aspects of a phenomenon being studied.
  • Generalizability: Quantitative research aims to generalize findings from a sample to a larger population. It seeks to draw conclusions that apply to a broader group beyond the specific sample being studied.

Below are 3 examples of quantitative research:

A study investigating the effectiveness of a new training program for employees in a company. The study uses a quasi-experimental design, where one group of employees receives the new training program, and another group does not. The researchers measure the employees’ job performance before and after the training program and compare the results between the two groups using statistical analysis.

A study examining the relationship between physical exercise and mental health. The study collects data from a sample of individuals, asking them to report their frequency and duration of exercise, as well as their level of mental health. The researchers then use statistical analysis to determine if there is a significant correlation between exercise and mental health, controlling for other variables such as age and gender.

A study investigating the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes. The study uses a quasi-experimental design, where one group of students receives the new teaching method, and another group receives the traditional teaching method. The researchers collect pre-test and post-test data on the student’s learning outcomes and analyze the results using statistical methods to determine if there is a significant difference between the two groups.

Learn more: What is Quantitative Market Research?

Quantitative Research: Key Advantages

The advantages of quantitative research make it a valuable research method in a variety of fields, particularly in fields that require precise measurement and testing of hypotheses.

  • Precision: Quantitative research aims to be precise in its measurement and analysis of data. This can increase the accuracy of the results and enable researchers to make more precise predictions.
  • Test hypotheses: Quantitative research is well-suited for testing specific hypotheses or research questions, allowing researchers to draw clear conclusions and make predictions based on the data.
  • Quantify relationships: Quantitative research enables researchers to quantify and measure relationships between variables, allowing for more precise and quantitative comparisons.
  • Efficiency: Quantitative research often involves the use of standardized procedures and data collection methods, which can make the research process more efficient and reduce the amount of time and resources required.
  • Easy to compare: Quantitative research often involves the use of standardized measures and scales, which makes it easier to compare results across different studies or populations.
  • Ability to detect small effects: Quantitative research is often able to detect small effects that may not be observable through qualitative research methods, due to the use of statistical analysis and large sample sizes.

Quantitative research is a type of research that focuses on collecting and analyzing numerical data to answer research questions. There are two main methods used to conduct quantitative research:

1. Primary Method

There are several methods of primary quantitative research, each with its own strengths and limitations.

Surveys: Surveys are a common method of quantitative research and involve collecting data from a sample of individuals using standardized questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be conducted in various ways, such as online, by mail, by phone, or in person. Surveys can be used to study attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and demographics.

One of the main advantages of surveys is that they can be conducted on a large scale, making it possible to obtain representative data from a population. However, surveys can suffer from issues such as response bias, where participants may not provide accurate or truthful answers, and nonresponse bias, where certain groups may be less likely to participate in the survey.

Experiments: Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to determine their effects on an outcome of interest. Experiments can be carried out in controlled laboratory settings or in real-world field environments. Experiments can be used to test causal relationships between variables and to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

One of the main advantages of experiments is that they provide a high level of control over the variables being studied, which can increase the internal validity of the study. However, experiments can suffer from issues such as artificiality, where the experimental setting may not accurately reflect real-world situations, and demand characteristics, where participants may change their behavior due to the experimental setting.

Observational studies: Observational studies involve observing and recording data without manipulating any variables. Observational studies can be conducted in various settings, such as naturalistic environments or controlled laboratory settings. Observational studies can be used to study behaviors, interactions, and phenomena that cannot be manipulated experimentally.

One of the main advantages of observational studies is that they can provide rich and detailed data about real-world phenomena. However, observational studies can suffer from issues such as observer bias, where the observer may interpret the data in a subjective manner, and reactivity, where the presence of the observer may change the behavior being observed.

Content analysis: Content analysis involves analyzing media or communication content, such as text, images, or videos, to identify patterns or trends. Content analysis can be used to study media representations of social issues or to identify patterns in social media data.

One of the main advantages of content analysis is that it can provide insights into the cultural and social values reflected in media content. However, content analysis can suffer from issues such as the subjectivity of the coding process and the potential for errors or bias in the data collection process.

Psychometrics: Psychometrics involves the development and validation of standardized tests or measures, such as personality tests or intelligence tests. Psychometrics can be used to study individual differences in psychological traits and to assess the validity and reliability of psychological measures.

One of the main advantages of psychometrics is that it can provide a standardized and objective way to measure psychological constructs. However, psychometrics can suffer from issues such as the cultural specificity of the measures and the potential for response bias in self-report measures.

2. Secondary Method

Secondary quantitative research methods involve analyzing existing data that was collected for other purposes. This can include data from government records, public opinion polls, or market research studies. Secondary research is often quicker and less expensive than primary research, but it may not provide data that is as specific to the research question.

One of the main advantages of secondary data analysis is that it can be a cost-effective way to obtain large amounts of data. However, secondary data analysis can suffer from issues such as the quality and relevance of the data, and the potential for missing or incomplete data.

Learn more: What is Quantitative Observation?

7 Best Practices to Conduct Quantitative Research

Here are the key best practices that should be followed when conducting quantitative research:

1. Clearly define the research question: The research question should be specific, measurable, and focused on a clear problem or issue.

2. Use a well-designed research design: The research design should be appropriate for the research question, and should include a clear sampling strategy, data collection methods, and statistical analysis plan.

3. Use validated and reliable instruments: The instruments used to collect data should be validated and reliable to ensure that the data collected is accurate and consistent.

4. Ensure informed consent: Participants should be fully informed about the purpose of the research, their rights, and how their data will be used. Informed consent should be obtained before data collection begins.

5. Minimize bias: Researchers should take steps to minimize bias in all stages of the research process, including study design, data collection, and data analysis.

6. Ensure data security and confidentiality: Data should be kept secure and confidential to protect the privacy of participants and prevent unauthorized access.

7. Use appropriate statistical analysis: Statistical analysis should be appropriate for the research question and the data collected. Accurate and clear reporting of results is imperative in quantitative research.

Learn more: What is Qualitative Research?

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Quantitative Analysis: Definition, Importance + Types

Quantitative analysis (QA) is a way to determine how people act using mathematical and statistical models, measurements, and research.

Quantitative data is what we talk about when we ask questions like “How many?” or “How often?” or “How much?” Mathematical approaches can be utilized to check and evaluate the accuracy of this information in a time-efficient manner. Quantitative analysis analyzes and interprets quantitative data using numerical and statistical methods. This analysis seeks to identify data patterns, trends, and linkages to inform decisions and predictions.

Quantitative data analysis uses statistics and math to solve problems in business, finance, and risk management problems. It is an important technique that helps financial analysts, scientists, and researchers understand challenging ideas and issues.

This blog discusses quantitative analysis, its types, and techniques used in business.

What is quantitative analysis?

Quantitative analysis is a way to figure out how good an investment or asset is by using numbers and statistics. It involves using mathematical and statistical models to look at data and make decisions about investments, business operations, or other complex systems. 

Quantitative analysis aims to make better informed and more logical decisions by using data and objective analysis instead of relying on subjective judgment or intuition.

Quantitative analysts, also called “quants,” use tools and methods like statistical analysis , econometric modeling, machine learning, and computer programming to look at large amounts of data.

They could use this analysis to help them make financial decisions, like which trading strategies to use, how to handle risks, and how to divide up their assets. Quantitative analysis can be used in many fields, such as finance, economics, marketing, and political science.

Quantitative analysis can be used to answer some of the following types of questions:

  • How does the performance of an investment or portfolio compare to a benchmark or another benchmark?
  • How does a certain asset or security price change when the market or other things change?
  • How likely is it that a certain event will happen, and how might it affect how well an investment or business operation does?

This analysis uses data and objective analysis to make more informed and logical decisions rather than relying on subjective judgment or intuition.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

Importance of quantitative analysis

Quantitative analysis plays a crucial role in various fields because it provides objective, numerical insights and supports informed decision-making. Here are some key reasons why quantitative analysis is important:

  • Objective Decision-Making

Quantitative analysis relies on data and mathematical/statistical methods, which help minimize subjectivity and bias in decision-making. This objectivity is particularly valuable when dealing with complex issues that require evidence-based conclusions.

  • Data-driven Insights

It allows researchers and analysts to extract meaningful insights from large datasets. Patterns, trends, relationships, and anomalies that might not be apparent through qualitative methods can be uncovered using quantitative research techniques. 

  • Comparison and Benchmarking

Quantitative analysis deals with the comparison of different variables, scenarios, or strategies in a systematic and measurable way. This aids in identifying the most effective or efficient approach among options.

  • Risk Assessment and Management

It assesses and quantifies risks in various contexts, from financial markets to engineering projects. This helps understand the potential impact of different risk factors and make informed decisions to mitigate them.

  • Predictive Modeling

Many quantitative techniques, such as regression analysis and time series analysis, are used to build predictive models. These models help forecast future outcomes, allowing businesses and organizations to plan ahead and make proactive decisions.

  • Resource Allocation

Quantitative analysis assists in optimizing the allocation of resources, whether it’s allocating budgets, manpower, or time. Organizations can make efficient use of their resources by understanding the relationships between variables.

  • Performance Evaluation

Evaluating the performance of investments, projects, or products in fields like business and finance is crucial. It provides a structured way to assess whether goals and targets are being met.

  • Evidence in Research

Quantitative analysis provides empirical evidence to support or refute hypotheses in scientific research. It helps establish causation and correlation relationships by analyzing data objectively.

  • Quality Control and Assurance

Quantitative methods are often used to monitor and control quality in manufacturing and production processes. Statistical process control helps detect deviations from expected norms and ensures consistent product quality.

  • Policy Formulation

Quantitative models inform policy decisions by providing data-driven insights into the potential impact of different policy options. This is essential in areas such as economics, public health, and social sciences.

  • Market Research and Consumer Behavior

In marketing, quantitative analysis helps understand consumer behavior, preferences, and trends. It assists businesses in tailoring their products and marketing strategies to target audiences effectively.

  • Validation and Verification

In engineering and computer science fields, quantitative analysis is used to validate and verify designs, simulations, and software systems. This ensures that products and systems meet predefined specifications and standards.

LEARN ABOUT: Data Asset Management

Types of quantitative analysis

Despite the fact that quantitative analysis involves numbers, there are various approaches to this type of analysis. This analysis comes in a variety of types, including:

1. Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is a typical form used by statisticians, economists, company owners, and other professionals. It entails making predictions or estimating the effects of one variable on another using statistical equations.

For example, it can reveal how interest rates impact customers’ asset investment decisions. Establishing the impact of education and work experience on employees’ annual salaries is another essential use of regression analysis.

Business owners can use regression analysis to ascertain how advertising costs affect revenue. This method allows a business owner to determine whether there is a positive or negative correlation between two factors.

2. Linear programming

Most businesses occasionally have a scarcity of resources, including office space, equipment for production, and manpower. Company managers must devise strategies to deploy resources wisely in such circumstances.

A quantitative research approach that specifies how to arrive at such an ideal solution is linear programming. It is also used to assess, under a set of limitations, such as labor, how a business may maximize earnings and cut expenditures.

3. Data Mining

Data mining combines statistical techniques with computer programming knowledge. As the variety and size of available data sets increase, data mining’s popularity also rises.

Many data are analyzed using mining techniques to look for hidden patterns or relationships.

LEARN ABOUT:  Data Mining Techniques

Difference between quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis?

The choice between quantitative and qualitative analysis depends on the research question, objectives, available data, and desired insights. The key differences between qualitative and quantitative analysis:

Quantitative analysis is figuring out how well a business is doing using math and statistics. Before this analysis was invented, many company directors made decisions based on their experience and gut feelings. 

Business owners can now use quantitative analysis techniques to predict trends, decide how to use resources, and manage projects. Quantitative analysis types and methods are also used to evaluate investments. This way, organizations can determine which assets to invest in and when to do it.

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If you want to see a demo or find out more, you can get a free trial from QuestionPro.

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  • Enter the “Quants"

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Analysis

Data, data everywhere, identifying patterns to reduce risk, example of quantitative analysis, the benefits of quant trading, what are the risks, the bottom line.

  • Quantitative Analysis

A Simple Overview of Quantitative Analysis

Gordon Scott has been an active investor and technical analyst or 20+ years. He is a Chartered Market Technician (CMT).

quantitative analysis and research

Quantitative analysis (QA) in finance is an approach that emphasizes mathematical and statistical analysis to help determine the value of a financial asset, such as a stock or option. Quantitative trading analysts (also known as " quants ") use a variety of data—including historical investment and stock market data—to develop trading algorithms and computer models.

The information generated by these computer models helps investors analyze investment opportunities and develop what they believe will be a successful trading strategy . Typically, this trading strategy will include very specific information about entry and exit points , the expected risk of the trade, and the expected return.

The ultimate goal of financial quantitative analysis is to use quantifiable statistics and metrics to assist investors in making profitable investment decisions. In this article, we review the history of quantitative investing, compare it to qualitative analysis , and provide an example of a quant-based strategy in action.

Key Takeaways

  • Quantitative analysis emerged from the rise of the computer era, which made it easier than ever before to analyze huge amounts of data in short amounts of time.
  • Quantitative trading analysts (quants) identify trading patterns, build models to assess those patterns, and use the information to make predictions about the price and direction of securities.
  • Once the models are built and the information is gathered, quants use the data to set up automated trades of securities.
  • Quantitative analysis is different from qualitative analysis, which looks at factors such as how companies are structured, the makeup of their management teams, and what their strengths and weaknesses are.

Enter the “Quants"

Nobel Prize-winning economist Harry Markowitz is generally credited with beginning the quantitative investment movement when he published “Portfolio Selection” in the Journal of Finance in March 1952.   Markowitz introduced modern portfolio theory (MPT), which showed investors how to construct a diversified portfolio of assets capable of maximizing returns for various risk levels. Markowitz used math to quantify diversification and is cited as an early adopter of the concept that mathematical models could be applied to investing.

Robert Merton, a pioneer in modern financial theory, won a Nobel Prize for his research into mathematical methods for pricing derivatives .   The work of Markowitz and Merton laid the foundation for the quantitative (quant) approach to investing.

Unlike traditional qualitative investment analysts , quants don’t visit companies, meet the management teams, or research the products the firms sell to identify a competitive edge. They often don’t know or care about the qualitative aspects of the companies they invest in or the products or services these companies provide. Instead, they rely purely on math to make investment decisions.

Quants—who frequently have a scientific background and a degree in statistics or math—will use their knowledge of computers and programming languages to build customized trading systems that automate the trading process. The inputs to their programs might range from key financial ratios (such as the price-to-earnings ratio ) to more complex calculations, such as discounted cash flow (DCF) valuations.

Hedge fund managers embraced the methodology. Advances in computing technology further advanced the field, as complex algorithms could be calculated in the blink of an eye, thus creating automated trading strategies. The field flourished during the dotcom boom and bust .

Quant strategies stumbled in the Great Recession as they failed to account for the impact mortgage-backed securities had on the market and economy as a whole. However, quant strategies remain in use today and have gained notable attention for their role in high-frequency trading (HFT) that relies on math to make trading decisions.

Quantitative investing is also widely practiced both as a stand-alone discipline and in conjunction with traditional qualitative analysis for both return enhancement and risk mitigation.

Quants are very different from qualitative analysts, in that they make decisions based primarily on mathematical equations and models.

The rise of the computer era made it possible to crunch enormous volumes of data in extraordinarily short periods of time. This has led to increasingly complex quantitative trading strategies, as traders seek to identify consistent patterns, model those patterns, and use them to predict price movements in securities.

The quants implement their strategies using publicly available data. The identification of patterns enables them to set up automatic triggers to buy or sell securities.

For example, a trading strategy based on trading volume patterns may have identified a correlation between trading volume and prices. So if the trading volume on a particular stock rises when the stock’s price hits $25 per share and drops when the price hits $30, a quant might set up an automatic buy at $25.50 and an automatic sell at $29.50.

Similar strategies can be based on earnings, earnings forecasts , earnings surprises, and a host of other factors. In each case, pure quant traders don’t care about the company’s sales prospects, management team, product quality, or any other aspect of its business. They are placing their orders to buy and sell based strictly on the numbers accounted for in the patterns they have identified.

Quantitative analysis can be used to mitigate risk by creating computer models that identify the investment that provides the best level of return relative to the preferred level of risk.

Quantitative analysis can be used to identify patterns that may lend themselves to profitable security trades, but that isn’t its only value. While making money is a goal every investor can understand, quantitative analysis can also be used to reduce risk.

The pursuit of so-called “risk-adjusted returns” involves comparing risk measures such as alpha, beta, r-squared, standard deviation, and the Sharpe ratio to identify the investment that will deliver the highest level of return for the given level of risk. The idea is that investors should take no more risk than is necessary to achieve their targeted level of return.

So if the data reveals that two investments are likely to generate similar returns, but that one will be significantly more volatile in terms of up and down price swings, the quants (and common sense) would recommend the less risky investment. Again, the quants do not care about who manages the investment, what its balance sheet looks like, what product helps it earn money, or any other qualitative factor. They focus entirely on the numbers and choose the investment that (mathematically speaking) offers the lowest level of risk.

Risk-parity portfolios are an example of quant-based strategies in action. The basic concept involves making asset allocation decisions based on market volatility . When volatility declines, the level of risk-taking in the portfolio goes up. When volatility increases, the level of risk-taking in the portfolio goes down .

To make the example a little more realistic, consider a portfolio that divides its assets between cash and an S&P 500 index fund . Using the Chicago Board Options Exchange Volatility Index ( VIX ) as a proxy for stock market volatility, when volatility rises, our hypothetical portfolio would shift its assets toward cash.

When volatility declines, our portfolio would shift assets to the S&P 500 index fund. Models can be significantly more complex than the one we reference here, perhaps including stocks, bonds, commodities, currencies, and other investments, but the concept remains the same.

Quant trading is a dispassionate decision-making process. The patterns and numbers are all that matter. It is an effective buy-sell discipline, as it can be executed consistently, unhindered by the emotion that is often associated with financial decisions.

It is also a cost-effective strategy. Since computers do the work, firms that rely on quant strategies do not need to hire large, expensive teams of analysts and portfolio managers . Nor do they need to travel around the country or the world inspecting companies and meeting with management to assess potential investments. They use computers to analyze the data and execute the trades.

“Lies, damn lies, and statistics” is a quote often used to describe the myriad of ways in which data can be manipulated. While quantitative analysts seek to identify patterns, the process is by no means fool-proof. The analysis involves culling through vast amounts of data. Choosing the right data is by no means a guarantee, just as trading patterns that appear to suggest certain outcomes may work perfectly until they don’t. Even when a pattern appears to work, validating the patterns can be a challenge. As every investor knows, there are no sure bets.

Inflection points , such as the stock market downturn of 2008-09, can be tough on these strategies, as patterns can change suddenly. It’s also important to remember that data doesn’t always tell the whole story. Humans can see a scandal or management change as it is developing, while a purely mathematical approach cannot necessarily do so. Also, a strategy becomes less effective as an increasing number of investors attempt to employ it. Patterns that work will become less effective as more and more investors try to profit from them.

Many investment strategies use a blend of both quantitative and qualitative strategies. They use quant strategies to identify potential investments and then use qualitative analysis to take their research efforts to the next level in identifying the final investment.

They may also use qualitative insight to select investments and quant data for risk management . While both quantitative and qualitative investment strategies have their proponents and their critics, the strategies do not need to be mutually exclusive.

Cowles Foundation for Research in Economics at Yale University. " Portfolio Selection, Efficient Diversification of Investments ."

CFA Institute Research Foundation. " Robert C. Merton and the Science of Finance ," Page 1.

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  • Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research | Differences, Examples & Methods

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research | Differences, Examples & Methods

Published on April 12, 2019 by Raimo Streefkerk . Revised on June 22, 2023.

When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.

Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.

Quantitative research is at risk for research biases including information bias , omitted variable bias , sampling bias , or selection bias . Qualitative research Qualitative research is expressed in words . It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.

Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.

Table of contents

The differences between quantitative and qualitative research, data collection methods, when to use qualitative vs. quantitative research, how to analyze qualitative and quantitative data, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative and quantitative research.

Quantitative and qualitative research use different research methods to collect and analyze data, and they allow you to answer different kinds of research questions.

Qualitative vs. quantitative research

Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).

Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys, observational studies or case studies , your data can be represented as numbers (e.g., using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g., with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).

However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.

Quantitative data collection methods

  • Surveys :  List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
  • Experiments : Situation in which different types of variables are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Observations : Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.

Qualitative data collection methods

  • Interviews : Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
  • Focus groups : Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research.
  • Ethnography : Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
  • Literature review : Survey of published works by other authors.

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:

  • Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis )
  • Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)

For most research topics you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach . Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach ; your research question(s) ; whether you’re doing experimental , correlational , or descriptive research ; and practical considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.

Quantitative research approach

You survey 300 students at your university and ask them questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5, how satisfied are your with your professors?”

You can perform statistical analysis on the data and draw conclusions such as: “on average students rated their professors 4.4”.

Qualitative research approach

You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask them open-ended questions such as: “How satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the most positive aspect of your study program?” and “What can be done to improve the study program?”

Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up questions to clarify things. You transcribe all interviews using transcription software and try to find commonalities and patterns.

Mixed methods approach

You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied students are with their studies. Through open-ended questions you learn things you never thought about before and gain new insights. Later, you use a survey to test these insights on a larger scale.

It’s also possible to start with a survey to find out the overall trends, followed by interviews to better understand the reasons behind the trends.

Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs for each type of data.

Analyzing quantitative data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables.

Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

  • Average scores ( means )
  • The number of times a particular answer was given
  • The correlation or causation between two or more variables
  • The reliability and validity of the results

Analyzing qualitative data

Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images or videos instead of numbers.

Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:

  • Qualitative content analysis : Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of words or phrases
  • Thematic analysis : Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and patterns
  • Discourse analysis : Studying how communication works in social contexts

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Chi square goodness of fit test
  • Degrees of freedom
  • Null hypothesis
  • Discourse analysis
  • Control groups
  • Mixed methods research
  • Non-probability sampling
  • Quantitative research
  • Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

  • Rosenthal effect
  • Implicit bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Selection bias
  • Negativity bias
  • Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

  • If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
  • If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
  • If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

  • Prepare and organize your data.
  • Review and explore your data.
  • Develop a data coding system.
  • Assign codes to the data.
  • Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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Graduate students need more quantitative methods support

  • Andrea L. Howard   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9843-9577 1  

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Graduate students in psychology need hands-on support to conduct research using quantitative techniques that exceed their curricular training. If supervisors are not willing or able to provide this support, student-led projects must be redesigned to leverage basic statistical skills learned in the classroom.

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Accurate quantitative analysis of information loss from digital metasurfaces caused by mutual coupling

by Science China Press

Accurate quantitative analysis on information loss of digital metasurface caused by mutual coupling

Research by Dr. Ruiwen Shao and Prof. Junwei Wu (Institute of Electromagnetic Space, Southeast University, Nanjing, China) teaches us about how digital metasurfaces lose information.

Singular value decomposition (SVD) was performed on the scattered waves of digital metasurfaces by Ruiwen Shao. He noticed that the number of non-zero singular values is not equal to the number of meta-atoms but approximates it. "This is a very unusual result, which is contrary to the previous modeling method of metasurfaces," Shao says.

Ruiwen Shao and Junwei Wu, together with lab director Tiejun Cui, sought to determine what causes the redundant singular value. The team regards the digital coding metasurface as a microwave network consisting of two networks, including passive structures and tunable devices. The composition successfully separates the impact of the coding states on the scattered waves.

"The expression obtained by microwave network cascade formula still contains matrix inversion term, so we naturally wonder whether power series expansion will have an effect on the simplification," Wu says.

The team found that after a series of derivations and approximations, the scattered waves of the digital coding metasurface can be expressed as a second-order polynomial of the coding states, including constant term, first-order terms, and second-order terms of adjacent codes.

Accurate quantitative analysis on information loss of digital metasurface caused by mutual coupling

"The introduction of the zero-order term and the second-order terms doubles the rank of the equation, which is consistent with the number of non-zero singular values. These terms can be considered to be caused by the mutual coupling of adjacent meta-atoms," Shao says.

The researchers extracted these current patterns through full-wave simulations. Based on the patterns, they accurately predict the scattered EM waves of the metasurface in any coding state.

"A high-precision semi-analytical expression provides a powerful tool for us to study the statistical characteristics of metasurfaces theoretically. With the help of the macroscopic model, the mutual coupling of elements is transformed into current covariance."

"Therefore, we finally found that the probability distribution of current on the metasurface is a set of dependent normal distributions. We compare the differential entropy of dependent distributed currents with that of independent and identically ones, and the difference between them indicates the information loss of converting digital signals into electromagnetic waves ," Wu says.

How to evaluate the capability of the metasurface to transmit information is an urgent problem to be solved in the application of metasurface communication systems. In this study, the researchers provided a novel method of quantifying information loss caused by mutual coupling. Consistent with the common cognition, the information loss increases as the element period decreases.

The paper is published in the journal National Science Review .

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  • Published: 21 February 2024

Value-based healthcare implementation in the Netherlands: a quantitative analysis of multidisciplinary team performance

  • Henrike J. Westerink 1 , 2 ,
  • Gijs Steinmann 3 ,
  • Maarten Koomans 4 ,
  • Michèle H. van der Kemp 5 &
  • Paul B. van der Nat 1 , 2  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  224 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Many hospitals worldwide have set up multidisciplinary Value Improvement (VI) teams that use the Value-Based Health Care (VBHC) theory to improve patient value. However, it remains unclear what the level of VBHC implementation is within these teams. We therefore studied the current level of VBHC implementation in VI teams.

A questionnaire was developed based on the strategic agenda for value transformation and real-world experiences with VBHC implementation. The questionnaire consisted of 21 questions, mapped to seven domains, and was sent out to 25 multidisciplinary VI teams. Median scores for individual questions (scale = 1–5) and average scores per domain were calculated.

One hundred forty VI team members completed the questionnaire. The overall average score is 3.49. The ‘culture and responsibility’ domain obtained the highest average score (µ = 4.11). The domain ‘measure and improve outcomes’ and the domain ‘multidisciplinary team’ obtained average scores that are slightly higher than the overall average (µ = 3.78 and µ = 3.76 respectively), and the domains ‘strategy and organizational policy,’ ‘collaboration and sharing,’ and ‘IT and data’ scored a little below the overall average (µ = 3.41, µ = 3.32, and µ = 3.29 respectively). The domain ‘costs and reimbursement’ obtained the lowest average score (µ = 2.42) of all domains, indicating that the implementation of this particular aspect of VBHC remains lagging behind.

Conclusions

Our results indicate activity in each of the questionnaire domains. To bring VBHC implementation to the next level, more attention should be given to the financial aspects. Our questionnaire can be used in future studies to identify improvements or differences within VI teams.

Peer Review reports

Worldwide, healthcare systems are faced with the challenge of rising healthcare costs and significant disparities in quality of care [ 1 ]. To address this challenge, Value-Based Health Care (VBHC) has been introduced with the overarching goal for healthcare systems to improve value for patients, where value is defined as the health outcomes that matter to patients divided by the costs needed to achieve them [ 2 ]. Since its introduction, VBHC has received significant attention across different countries and healthcare providers, with some scholars going as far as labelling it a “global megatrend” [ 3 ].

In 2013, Porter and Lee proposed a six-point strategic agenda for healthcare providers to guide VBHC implementation. Their “value agenda” proposes to: reorganize care into Integrated Practice Units (IPUs) around medical conditions; systematically measure outcomes and costs at the level of medical conditions; implement bundled payments for care cycles; integrate care delivery across separate facilities; expand the reach of high-value services; and build a supporting information technology platform [ 4 ]. In 2022, van der Nat identified that the strategic agenda had several shortcomings when it comes to guiding actual VBHC implementation, and thus suggested four complementary items; ‘set up value-based quality improvement; integrate value in patient communication; invest in a culture of value delivery; and build learning platforms for healthcare professionals’ [ 5 ]. Yet, despite the (extended) strategic agenda, recent reviews of the literature continue to reveal multiple studies that highlight challenging, complex, and often fragmented implementation processes [ 6 , 7 ].

One of the main challenges regarding VBHC implementation concerns the transition towards IPUs. While Porter and colleagues advocate IPUs as the ultimate organizational structure for VBHC implementation in their value agenda [ 2 , 4 , 8 ], many hospitals maintain their traditional structures (with specialty-based budgets and lines of authority) and set up multidisciplinary Value Improvement (VI) teams around medical conditions between specialty units [ 9 , 10 ]. These multidisciplinary VI teams are examples of a more incremental VBHC implementation strategy [ 9 ], which is used by different healthcare providers across multiple countries [ 6 ].

Although VBHC has received significant attention in terms of academic literature [ 6 ], a particular focus on the level of teams has thus far been lacking. Indeed, while many hospitals tend to implement VBHC at the level of medical conditions via multidisciplinary VI teams [ 6 , 9 ], the majority of literature on VBHC implementation describes implementation at the organizational level [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Therefore, it remains unclear what the progress of VBHC implementation is at the level of VI teams and whether these teams are successful in the implementation of the different aspects of VBHC. Insight into VBHC implementation within VI teams is important to identify main challenges that lie ahead in the path towards more value for patients. In this paper, we therefore aim to provide insight into the progress of VBHC implementation at the level of VI teams, by surveying Dutch VI team members on their performance.

Questionnaire development

In order to measure the self-reported performance of multidisciplinary VI teams, a questionnaire was developed by a workgroup of the Linnean initiative. The Linnean initiative is a Dutch network that focusses on the acceleration of implementation of VBHC within the Dutch healthcare system [ 16 ] and has multiple workgroups, one of which focuses on IPUs. The 24 members of this IPU workgroup are experts in VBHC implementation and have hands-on experience with the transition towards organizing care around medical conditions [ 17 ]. A first draft of the questionnaire was developed by one of the co-authors and members of the IPU workgroup (MvdK). This draft was complemented with questions based on the Health Outcomes Management Evaluation model [ 14 ] and on what is known as the (extended) strategic agenda for value transformation [ 4 , 5 ]. Consequently, the first draft was discussed with the members of the workgroup and refined based on their experiences and core literature on VBHC. Consensus on the questionnaire was reached after nine meetings, of which four meetings were held with a small group of delegates from the workgroup. In between these sessions, the questionnaire was piloted in a few VI teams. A few alterations were made after this pilot-testing, particularly regarding the answer options and length of text.

The developed questionnaire comprised 21 questions mapped to seven domains, i.e. ‘multidisciplinary teams’, ‘measure and improve outcomes’, ‘costs and reimbursements’, ‘collaboration and sharing’, ‘IT and data’, ‘culture and responsibility’, and ‘strategy and organizational policy’. Each domain consisted of three questions. Respondents received each question with two outer statements, ranging from low to high VBHC implementation, and were asked to rate their team within the two outer statements on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Examples of questions are:

‘To what extent are all relevant medical and support staff sufficiently represented in your team?’

Where respondents were asked to rate their team within these two statements on a scale from 1 to 5:

1= The team is mono-disciplinary and/or mono-professional

5= The team consists of all relevant medical staff, support staff, and management of all organizations in the full care cycle (this could be transmural)

Or: “To what extent a re the costs and reimbursements for the medical condition known?”

Where respondents were asked to rate their team within these two statements on a scale from 1 to 5:

1= The costs and reimbursements for the medical condition are not known within the team

5= The actual costs (in EUR) and reimbursements are known

The workgroup drafted the questions and the two outer statements to be in line with the current state and focus of VBHC implementation within the Netherlands. See Additional file 1 for the full version of the questionnaire.

Data collection

Between September and October 2021, we approached 35 project leaders and managers from multidisciplinary VI teams via the network of the co-authors by way of purposeful sampling aimed at obtaining data from a balanced variety of teams in terms of patient characteristics (e.g. type of medical condition), types of organization (e.g. general hospital, academic hospital, independent treatment center), and location within the Netherlands. In addition, teams were selected that have at least one year experience with VBHC, that are a representative team for the organisation, and consist of at least 5 team members, providing us with some assurance of the multidisciplinary character of the teams. Questionnaires were sent to project leaders and managers of VI teams via Google Forms, with the request to distribute the questionnaire to all VI team members of eligible teams, both healthcare professionals as well as (managerial) support staff. Questionnaires where only distributed after the project leader or manager had indicated their agreement to participate in the study.

Descriptive statistics were used. Median scores and interquartile ranges were calculated for individual questions with Microsoft Excel. In addition, numbers and percentages of missing answers at the level of individual questions were calculated. To assess the performance of multidisciplinary VI teams in each of the seven domains, average scores were calculated at the domain level, combining the results of the three underlying questions per domain. Furthermore, we categorized the teams into high-, average-, and low-scoring teams to study differences in VBHC implementation between these three categories (Additional file 2 ).

Participants

Between September 2021 and November 2021 we surveyed 140 members out of 25 VI teams (Table  1 ). Ten of the approached teams were not included, mainly since these project leaders did not respond to our invitation. An average of 6 persons per team responded to the questionnaire, with a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 12 respondents per team.

Questionnaire results

The overall median score of all questions is four and the overall average score of all domains combined is 3.49. Table  2 shows the median scores and missing data for each of the subquestions. The majority of questions have an interquartile range of 1 or 2. Multiple questions from different domains have a high number of missing data, i.e. questions in the domains ‘costs and reimbursements’, ‘collaboration and sharing’, ‘IT and data’, and ‘strategy and organizational policy’. The missing scores are not related to specific teams. Average scores per domain are shown in Fig.  1 .

Domain 1: multidisciplinary team

Within the domain ‘multidisciplinary team’, median scores ranged between three and four. Respondents thus indicated that they perceive their VI teams to include close to all medical and supporting staff that are involved in their care cycle, and that their team has regular multidisciplinary meetings (Mdn = 4). The question on patient involvement, however, acquired a relatively lower score (Mdn = 3).

Domain 2: measure and improve outcomes

Within this domain, all questions acquired a median score of four. In general, respondents indicated that their team is (structurally) involved in outcome measurement; that their team incorporates outcome data in efforts to improve healthcare delivery; and that outcome measurements of individual patients are discussed with them by healthcare professionals.

Domain 3: costs and reimbursements

In this domain, median scores ranged between two and three. Generally, respondents indicated that they experienced relatively low financial responsibility and relatively low ability to steer on cost and revenue streams (Mdn = 2). The question on whether the costs and reimbursements for the medical condition are known, and the question regarding the presence and development of VBHC bundles both acquired a slightly higher score (Mdn = 3). Interestingly, for all three questions we found a relatively high number of missing data (ranging from n  = 27–49), with the question on bundled payment showing the largest number of missing answers of all questions across domains ( n  = 49).

Domain 4: collaboration and sharing

Questions in this domain acquired median scores between three and four. Respondents thus reported that they perceive their teams to share or compare outcome measurements with external parties (Mdn = 4). Both the question on the involvement of care chain relations and network partners in the team, as well as the question on external learning platforms, obtained somewhat lower scores (Mdn = 3). For all three questions in this domain, we found a relatively high number of missing data (ranging from n  = 27–28).

Domain 5: IT and data

Median scores within the ‘IT and data’ domain ranged between three and four. Respondents indicated that, in general, outcome data are real-time available (Mdn = 4). Regarding the question on sharing all outcome data, the respondents indicated a moderate level of sharing (Mdn = 3). The question on patients having insight into their outcome data via dashboards also obtained a median score of three. What stood out for this question, however, was the high variability of scores (IQR = 4). For all three questions in this domain, we found over 10% of missing answers (ranging from n  = 15–28).

Domain 6: culture and responsibility

All questions in this domain obtained a median score of four. Respondents thus indicated to experience (near) complete trust among their team members with regard to discussing outcomes; they also feel jointly responsible for quality of care that their team delivers. Moreover, respondents reported that their teams are (formally) held accountable for the quality of care of their care cycles.

Domain 7: strategy and organizational policy

Within this domain, median scores ranged between three and four. Respondents indicated that VBHC is a focal point within upper management decision-making (Mdn = 4), which includes a managerial push to improve outcomes (Mdn = 4). The managerial push on patient value obtained a slightly lower score when (next to outcomes) costs are also taken into account (Mdn = 3). Overall, we found a relatively high number of missing data for this domain, with all three questions missing well over 20% of responses (ranging from n  = 34–45).

figure 1

Radar diagram of average scores per domain of the questionnaire. Dotted line is the average plus or minus standard deviation

Comparison between domains

Taken together, the average score of all questions of all domains is 3.49. The ‘culture and responsibility’ domain obtained the highest average score (µ = 4.11). Respondents thus indicated that this aspect of VBHC implementation is progressing relatively well. Both the domain ‘measure and improve outcomes’ and the domain ‘multidisciplinary team’ obtained average scores that are slightly higher than the overall average (µ = 3.78 and µ = 3.76 respectively). The domains ‘strategy and organizational policy,’ ‘collaboration and sharing,’ and ‘IT and data’ scored a little below the overall average (µ = 3.41, µ = 3.32, and µ = 3.29 respectively). The domain ‘costs and reimbursement’ obtained the lowest average score (µ = 2.42) of all domains. With a score that is well below the overall average, respondents thus indicated that the implementation of this particular aspect of VBHC remains lagging behind within their teams.

When categorizing the teams into three categories, i.e. high-, medium-, or low-scoring teams, the data shows that high-scoring teams outscore the low-scoring teams on all domains, indicating that VI teams improve gradually in every domain, instead of excelling in one specific domain (Additional file 2 ).

This is the first study that provides an overview of the current level of VBHC implementation within multidisciplinary VI teams across multiple healthcare providers. To this end, we sent out a questionnaire that measures the self-reported performance of VI teams. Overall, our results show that VI teams are active in each of the questionnaire domains.

In the domain ‘multidisciplinary team’, respondents indicated that they have regular meetings with their VI team, involving close to all relevant medical and support staff. However, slightly lower scores were found for the question on patient participation within the VI teams. Yet, the importance of meaningful patient participation within VI teams had been pointed out by several studies, since patients can help to identify patient relevant outcomes and improvement initiatives [ 10 , 11 , 18 , 19 ]. There is, however, a lack of guidance concerning patient participation within VBHC implementation [ 10 ], which leaves many VI teams struggling with the incorporation of patient participation in their team, and may at least partially explain the lower score for this particular question in our results.

Within the domain ‘measuring and improving outcomes’, the teams scored relatively high on all questions. This might be due to the fact that ‘measuring outcomes’ is often mentioned as a starting point for VBHC implementation [ 11 ]. Interestingly, respondents scored the use of outcome data to support shared decision-making relatively high, while the concept of shared decision-making was not part of the primary literature on VBHC. Over the years, shared decision-making has been accepted and embraced to be an important application of outcome data in healthcare [ 20 , 21 ], and the high score in our study confirms this acknowledgement of shared decision-making being an integral part of VBHC in the Netherlands [ 22 ].

The domain ‘costs and reimbursements’ scored the lowest of all domains. This may well be due to the fact that VI teams – unlike Porter’s IPUs [ 2 , 8 ] – maintain their traditional lines of funding, which results in little to no formally shared responsibility for financial aspects and cost-efficiency among team members. Furthermore, the question on the development of bundled payment contracts had the highest number of missing data, indicating that this question might be difficult to answer for VI team members. Value-based payment models are increasingly being adopted in the United States [ 23 ], but in the Netherlands the focus of VBHC has mainly been on improving care, and the cost aspect is often not taken into account [ 11 ]. In 2021, a large project was initiated in the Netherlands to stimulate the implementation of value-based payment models [ 24 , 25 ]. At the team level, cost-driver indicators such as use of expensive medication are being utilized, but these only provide indirect insight into costs [ 9 ]. This little insight into the costs of care is striking, since rising healthcare costs is an often-mentioned reason for the implementation of VBHC.

Within the domain ‘collaboration and sharing’, respondents indicated that outcome data are shared externally, but that there is low involvement of chain and network partners in the teams. Furthermore, the questionnaire results imply an insufficiency when it comes to external learning platforms. Research has already shown that collaboration between different healthcare providers is a challenge in the current Dutch healthcare system, but that the development of a care chain with regional collaboration does improve both clinical and patient-reported outcomes [ 26 ]. Moreover, it is beneficial to collaborate with primary care partners, as they collect relevant outcome data that are part of VBHC standard outcome sets [ 27 ]. This suggests that VI teams should give more attention to collaboration with network partners over the full cycle of care to further improve value for patients.

Within the ‘IT and data’ domain, the question concerning real-time availability of outcome data had a high median score, which implies that outcome data are real-time available for healthcare professionals, and that PROMs are available in the personal health environment of the patient. Availability of outcome data towards the patient is an important aspect of patient empowerment and self-management, since this enables the patient to track their health status over time [ 28 ]. However, the lower score and high variability in scores of the question regarding availability and usage of dashboards to discuss outcome data with patients suggests that these data are not regularly being made visual, while this visualization of outcome data is an important step in order to use outcome data for shared decision-making [ 29 ].

Of the seven domains, the ‘culture and responsibility’ was the highest scoring one, indicating that there is trust among the team members to discuss outcomes, and that they feel and are being held accountable for the quality of care. The importance of formalized responsibility for outcome improvement has been stipulated in literature [ 13 ]. Interestingly, a previous study has shown that VI teams are often not fully responsible for quality and costs of care, since traditional responsibility lies at the level of departments [ 10 ]. The high scores within this domain suggest that steps have been made to further formalize responsibility for quality of care within VI teams, but the lower score of the question on financial responsibility (of domain 3) indicates that these steps have not yet been made for the financial aspects of VBHC. However, it is difficult to assign full financial responsibility to VI team members, since they often maintain traditional lines of responsibility and funding. Accordingly, improvements on this domain may well require a transition towards real IPUs, instead of multidisciplinary VI teams.

Lastly, questions within the domain ‘strategy and organizational policy’ had the lowest response rates, indicating that these questions were difficult to answer (perhaps respondents were not up-to-date on their organizational policy on VBHC). This could imply that there has mainly been a bottom-up approach for the set-up of VI teams. Meanwhile, the importance of strong leadership supportive of VBHC implementation has been highlighted several times in literature as shown by a literature review [ 30 ]. This suggests the need for improved organization-wide policies on VBHC and improved communication on these policies towards staff members [ 31 ].

Limitations

We acknowledge some limitations in this study. First, we did not define all answer options (scores 2–4 on the Likert-scale) which resulted in difficulties with drawing a conclusion on what participants meant with these scores and could have influenced the results when respondents were confused by the two statements. We therefore recommend that the next version of the questionnaire defines all answer options, or uses a more traditional Likert scale (e.g. ranging from totally disagree-totally agree). Secondly, high scores in this questionnaire do not imply that VBHC implementation of these aspects is finished. VBHC is evolving, and questions and answer options on VBHC implementation therefore evolve with it. The questions of our questionnaire are in line with the current level of implementation of VBHC in the Netherlands. This is also the reason why not all aspects of Porter’s strategic agenda are included in the questionnaire (e.g. expand geographic reach), since these aspects have received little attention (so far) in the Netherlands. We therefore decided to not validate the questionnaire, because this validation might not be applicable for the next version. Thirdly, there might be a bias in respondents, since project leaders and managers might be incentivized to only forward the questionnaire to high-functioning multidisciplinary VI teams. However, we believe that we have reached an inclusive sample in terms of maturity of multidisciplinary VI teams, based on the different types of hospitals and variations in scores. Fourthly, we are unable to calculate a response rate, since we are unsure to how many team members the questionnaire was forwarded to by the project leaders/managers. Fifthly, some questions had a high number of missing data, indicating that these questions were considered to be difficult to answer, either because the respondents do not know the answer to this question for their team, because they did not consider these aspects as relevant for their team, or because they did not understand these questions. The low response rates could therefore have skewed the results, where in reality scores could be lower for several questions or domains.

Overall, our results indicate activity in each of the VBHC implementation domains within multidisciplinary VI teams, with some variations between different domains. To bring VBHC implementation to the next level, more attention should be given to the financial aspects of VBHC, including financial responsibility. Furthermore, not only is there a need for more guidance on collaboration with patients in VI teams, there is also a need for increased collaboration with network partners over the full cycle of care. Future research should focus on these aspects of VBHC implementation, and what barriers and facilitators VI teams experience in these collaborations. Key inquiries include team awareness regarding these aspects as integral elements of VBHC, reasons for not initiating working on these aspects, and whether prioritizing to work on other aspects was an informed decision. Lastly, the results suggest that most VI teams are currently mainly set up via a bottom-up approach, and could benefit from improved organization-wide policies on VBHC. Future work should focus on these aspects in order to accelerate VBHC implementation. Our questionnaire can be used in these studies to identify improvements within these domains. Moreover, individual teams can use the questionnaire to measure their perceived level of VBHC implementation, and whether this differs between different team members.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all participating multidisciplinary team members and the members of the Linnean workgroup for their contributions.

This work was funded by the National Health Care Institute of the Netherlands. The funder had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

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Gijs Steinmann

Working group ‘Integrated Practice Units’, Linnean, Zeist, the Netherlands

Maarten Koomans

Value-Based Healthcare Strategy & Tactics, VDKMP, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

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MK, MHvdK and PBvdN designed and initiated this study. HJW and GS performed the data analysis and were responsible for writing the first draft and editing of the manuscript based on feedback from MK, MHvdK and PBvdN. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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According to the Medical Research Involving Human Subjects act (WMO) [ 32 ] of the Dutch law (AVG) [ 33 ], no ethical approval from a medical-ethical board was needed for this study, since this study did not impose action or behaviour on the participants in the study and no personal data was collected. Participants gave informed consent to use their data for research. We affirm that this study adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki [ 34 ] and comparable ethical standards.

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Additional file 1..

 Questionnaire including response options.

Additional file 2.

 Radar diagram of average scores per domain of the questionnaire when teams are categorized in high-, average-, or low-scoring teams.

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Westerink, H.J., Steinmann, G., Koomans, M. et al. Value-based healthcare implementation in the Netherlands: a quantitative analysis of multidisciplinary team performance. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 224 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10712-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10712-x

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quantitative analysis and research

What is Qualitative research design?

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervening or introducing treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypotheses as well as further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much . It could be structured as a stand-alone study, purely relying on qualitative data or it could be part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites, and they are certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined that there is a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated together.

Research Paradigms 

  • Positivist versus Post-Positivist
  • Social Constructivist (this paradigm/ideology mostly birth qualitative studies)

Events Relating to the Qualitative Research and Community Engagement Workshops @ CMU Libraries

CMU Libraries is committed to helping members of our community become data experts. To that end, CMU is offering public facing workshops that discuss Qualitative Research, Coding, and Community Engagement best practices.

The following workshops are a part of a broader series on using data. Please follow the links to register for the events. 

Qualitative Coding

Using Community Data to improve Outcome (Grant Writing)

Survey Design  

Upcoming Event: March 21st, 2024 (12:00pm -1:00 pm)

Community Engagement and Collaboration Event 

Join us for an event to improve, build on and expand the connections between Carnegie Mellon University resources and the Pittsburgh community. CMU resources such as the Libraries and Sustainability Initiative can be leveraged by users not affiliated with the university, but barriers can prevent them from fully engaging.

The conversation features representatives from CMU departments and local organizations about the community engagement efforts currently underway at CMU and opportunities to improve upon them. Speakers will highlight current and ongoing projects and share resources to support future collaboration.

Event Moderators:

Taiwo Lasisi, CLIR Postdoctoral Fellow in Community Data Literacy,  Carnegie Mellon University Libraries

Emma Slayton, Data Curation, Visualization, & GIS Specialist,  Carnegie Mellon University Libraries

Nicky Agate , Associate Dean for Academic Engagement, Carnegie Mellon University Libraries

Chelsea Cohen , The University’s Executive fellow for community engagement, Carnegie Mellon University

Sarah Ceurvorst , Academic Pathways Manager, Program Director, LEAP (Leadership, Excellence, Access, Persistence) Carnegie Mellon University

Julia Poeppibg , Associate Director of Partnership Development, Information Systems, Carnegie Mellon University 

Scott Wolovich , Director of New Sun Rising, Pittsburgh 

Additional workshops and events will be forthcoming. Watch this space for updates. 

Workshop Organizer

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Qualitative Research Methods

What are Qualitative Research methods?

Qualitative research adopts numerous methods or techniques including interviews, focus groups, and observation. Interviews may be unstructured, with open-ended questions on a topic and the interviewer adapts to the responses. Structured interviews have a predetermined number of questions that every participant is asked. It is usually one-on-one and is appropriate for sensitive topics or topics needing an in-depth exploration. Focus groups are often held with 8-12 target participants and are used when group dynamics and collective views on a topic are desired. Researchers can be participant observers to share the experiences of the subject or non-participant or detached observers.

What constitutes a good research question? Does the question drive research design choices?

According to Doody and Bailey (2014);

 We can only develop a good research question by consulting relevant literature, colleagues, and supervisors experienced in the area of research. (inductive interactions).

Helps to have a directed research aim and objective.

Researchers should not be “ research trendy” and have enough evidence. This is why research objectives are important. It helps to take time, and resources into consideration.

Research questions can be developed from theoretical knowledge, previous research or experience, or a practical need at work (Parahoo 2014). They have numerous roles, such as identifying the importance of the research and providing clarity of purpose for the research, in terms of what the research intends to achieve in the end.

Qualitative Research Questions

What constitutes a good Qualitative research question?

A good qualitative question answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a stand-alone study, purely relying on qualitative data or it could be part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions and behavior.

Examples of good Qualitative Research Questions:

What are people's thoughts on the new library? 

How does it feel to be a first-generation student attending college?

Difference example (between Qualitative and Quantitative research questions):

How many college students signed up for the new semester? (Quan) 

How do college students feel about the new semester? What are their experiences so far? (Qual)

  • Qualitative Research Design Workshop Powerpoint

Foley G, Timonen V. Using Grounded Theory Method to Capture and Analyze Health Care Experiences. Health Serv Res. 2015 Aug;50(4):1195-210. [ PMC free article: PMC4545354 ] [ PubMed: 25523315 ]

Devers KJ. How will we know "good" qualitative research when we see it? Beginning the dialogue in health services research. Health Serv Res. 1999 Dec;34(5 Pt 2):1153-88. [ PMC free article: PMC1089058 ] [ PubMed: 10591278 ]

Huston P, Rowan M. Qualitative studies. Their role in medical research. Can Fam Physician. 1998 Nov;44:2453-8. [ PMC free article: PMC2277956 ] [ PubMed: 9839063 ]

Corner EJ, Murray EJ, Brett SJ. Qualitative, grounded theory exploration of patients' experience of early mobilisation, rehabilitation and recovery after critical illness. BMJ Open. 2019 Feb 24;9(2):e026348. [ PMC free article: PMC6443050 ] [ PubMed: 30804034 ]

Moser A, Korstjens I. Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: Sampling, data collection and analysis. Eur J Gen Pract. 2018 Dec;24(1):9-18. [ PMC free article: PMC5774281 ] [ PubMed: 29199486 ]

Houghton C, Murphy K, Meehan B, Thomas J, Brooker D, Casey D. From screening to synthesis: using nvivo to enhance transparency in qualitative evidence synthesis. J Clin Nurs. 2017 Mar;26(5-6):873-881. [ PubMed: 27324875 ]

Soratto J, Pires DEP, Friese S. Thematic content analysis using ATLAS.ti software: Potentialities for researchs in health. Rev Bras Enferm. 2020;73(3):e20190250. [ PubMed: 32321144 ]

Zamawe FC. The Implication of Using NVivo Software in Qualitative Data Analysis: Evidence-Based Reflections. Malawi Med J. 2015 Mar;27(1):13-5. [ PMC free article: PMC4478399 ] [ PubMed: 26137192 ]

Korstjens I, Moser A. Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 4: Trustworthiness and publishing. Eur J Gen Pract. 2018 Dec;24(1):120-124. [ PMC free article: PMC8816392 ] [ PubMed: 29202616 ]

Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. The coding manual for qualitative researchers, 1-440.

O'Brien BC, Harris IB, Beckman TJ, Reed DA, Cook DA. Standards for reporting qualitative research: a synthesis of recommendations. Acad Med. 2014 Sep;89(9):1245-51. [ PubMed: 24979285 ]

Palermo C, King O, Brock T, Brown T, Crampton P, Hall H, Macaulay J, Morphet J, Mundy M, Oliaro L, Paynter S, Williams B, Wright C, E Rees C. Setting priorities for health education research: A mixed methods study. Med Teach. 2019 Sep;41(9):1029-1038. [ PubMed: 31141390 ]

  • Last Updated: Feb 14, 2024 4:25 PM
  • URL: https://guides.library.cmu.edu/c.php?g=1346006

IMAGES

  1. Quantitative Analysis

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  2. Quantitative Research: What It Is, Practices & Methods

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COMMENTS

  1. Quantitative Research

    Quantitative research is a type of research that collects and analyzes numerical data to test hypotheses and answer research questions. This research typically involves a large sample size and uses statistical analysis to make inferences about a population based on the data collected.

  2. What Is Quantitative Research?

    Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

  3. What is Quantitative Research? Definition, Methods, Types, and Examples

    Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.

  4. Quantitative Data Analysis Methods & Techniques 101

    Recap & summary What is quantitative data analysis? Despite being a mouthful, quantitative data analysis simply means analysing data that is numbers-based - or data that can be easily "converted" into numbers without losing any meaning.

  5. A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research

    A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. ... In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables.15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) ...

  6. Quantitative research

    Quantitative research is a research strategy that focuses on quantifying the collection and analysis of data. [1] It is formed from a deductive approach where emphasis is placed on the testing of theory, shaped by empiricist and positivist philosophies. [1]

  7. Quantitative Analysis

    Quantitative analysis is the use of mathematical and statistical techniques to assess the performance of a business. Before the advent of quantitative analysis, many company directors based their decisions on experience and gut. Business owners can now use quantitative methods to predict trends, determine the allocation of resources, and manage ...

  8. The Beginner's Guide to Statistical Analysis

    Statistical analysis means investigating trends, patterns, and relationships using quantitative data. It is an important research tool used by scientists, governments, businesses, and other organizations. To draw valid conclusions, statistical analysis requires careful planning from the very start of the research process.

  9. What Is Quantitative Research?

    Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analysing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalise results to wider populations.

  10. Quantitative Methods

    Quantitative method is the collection and analysis of numerical data to answer scientific research questions. Quantitative method is used to summarize, average, find patterns, make predictions, and test causal associations as well as generalizing results to wider populations.

  11. Research Methods

    Quantitative analysis methods. Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments). You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either: During an experiment. Using probability sampling methods.

  12. Quantitative Methods

    Definition Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.

  13. Qualitative vs Quantitative Research: What's the Difference?

    Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

  14. Quantitative Analysis (QA): What It Is and How It's Used in Finance

    Quantitative analysis (QA) is a set of techniques that use mathematical and statistical modeling, measurement, and research to understand behavior. Quantitative analysis presents financial...

  15. What is Quantitative Research?

    Quantitative research is the methodology which researchers use to test theories about people's attitudes and behaviors based on numerical and statistical evidence. Researchers sample a large number of users (e.g., through surveys) to indirectly obtain measurable, bias-free data about users in relevant situations.

  16. Quantitative Data Analysis—In the Graduate Curriculum

    A quantitative research study collects numerical data that must be analyzed to help draw the study's conclusions. Teaching quantitative data analysis is not teaching number crunching, but teaching a way of critical thinking for how to analyze the data.

  17. (PDF) Quantitative Analysis: the guide for beginners

    Quantitative Analysis: the guide for beginners Authors: Julián Cárdenas University of Valencia Abstract and Figures The best way to increase our knowledge and get control of our lives is to do...

  18. A Really Simple Guide to Quantitative Data Analysis

    ... Data analysis is important as it paves way to drawing conclusions of a research study. Despite being a mouthful, quantitative data analysis simply means analyzing data that is...

  19. What is Quantitative Research? Definition, Examples, Key ...

    Quantitative Research: Key Advantages. The advantages of quantitative research make it a valuable research method in a variety of fields, particularly in fields that require precise measurement and testing of hypotheses. Precision: Quantitative research aims to be precise in its measurement and analysis of data.

  20. Quantitative Analysis: Definition, Importance + Types

    Quantitative analysis is a way to figure out how good an investment or asset is by using numbers and statistics. It involves using mathematical and statistical models to look at data and make decisions about investments, business operations, or other complex systems. Quantitative analysis aims to make better informed and more logical decisions ...

  21. A Simple Overview of Quantitative Analysis

    Quantitative analysis (QA) in finance is an approach that emphasizes mathematical and statistical analysis to help determine the value of a financial asset, such as a stock or option.

  22. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

    Quantitative and qualitative research use different research methods to collect and analyze data, and they allow you to answer different kinds of research questions. Data collection methods Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods.

  23. What Is Quantitative Analysis? Definition and Methods

    Definition and Methods. Quantitative analysis (QA) is collecting, evaluating and assessing data to understand patterns in the past, present and future. You can apply QA tools to investment opportunities, human research or chemistry to turn hard data into numerical values. Understanding more about quantitative analysis can help you better use ...

  24. Graduate students need more quantitative methods support

    Education. Psychology. Graduate students in psychology need hands-on support to conduct research using quantitative techniques that exceed their curricular training. If supervisors are not willing ...

  25. Accurate quantitative analysis of information loss from digital

    Research by Dr. Ruiwen Shao and Prof. Junwei Wu (Institute of Electromagnetic Space, Southeast University, Nanjing, China) teaches us about how digital metasurfaces lose information.

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    Between September and October 2021, we approached 35 project leaders and managers from multidisciplinary VI teams via the network of the co-authors by way of purposeful sampling aimed at obtaining data from a balanced variety of teams in terms of patient characteristics (e.g. type of medical condition), types of organization (e.g. general hospital, academic hospital, independent treatment ...

  27. Start

    Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc. While qualitative and quantitative ...

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    Research Article Quantitative structure-property relationship modelling on autoignition temperature: evaluation and comparative analysis J. Chen College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China View further author information