how to write a research proposal for systematic review

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How to Write a Systematic Review: A Narrative Review

Ali hasanpour dehkordi.

Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran

Elaheh Mazaheri

1 Health Information Technology Research Center, Student Research Committee, Department of Medical Library and Information Sciences, School of Management and Medical Information Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran

Hanan A. Ibrahim

2 Department of International Relations, College of Law, Bayan University, Erbil, Kurdistan, Iraq

Sahar Dalvand

3 MSc in Biostatistics, Health Promotion Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Reza Ghanei Gheshlagh

4 Spiritual Health Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran

In recent years, published systematic reviews in the world and in Iran have been increasing. These studies are an important resource to answer evidence-based clinical questions and assist health policy-makers and students who want to identify evidence gaps in published research. Systematic review studies, with or without meta-analysis, synthesize all available evidence from studies focused on the same research question. In this study, the steps for a systematic review such as research question design and identification, the search for qualified published studies, the extraction and synthesis of information that pertain to the research question, and interpretation of the results are presented in details. This will be helpful to all interested researchers.

A systematic review, as its name suggests, is a systematic way of collecting, evaluating, integrating, and presenting findings from several studies on a specific question or topic.[ 1 ] A systematic review is a research that, by identifying and combining evidence, is tailored to and answers the research question, based on an assessment of all relevant studies.[ 2 , 3 ] To identify assess and interpret available research, identify effective and ineffective health-care interventions, provide integrated documentation to help decision-making, and identify the gap between studies is one of the most important reasons for conducting systematic review studies.[ 4 ]

In the review studies, the latest scientific information about a particular topic is criticized. In these studies, the terms of review, systematic review, and meta-analysis are used instead. A systematic review is done in one of two methods, quantitative (meta-analysis) and qualitative. In a meta-analysis, the results of two or more studies for the evaluation of say health interventions are combined to measure the effect of treatment, while in the qualitative method, the findings of other studies are combined without using statistical methods.[ 5 ]

Since 1999, various guidelines, including the QUORUM, the MOOSE, the STROBE, the CONSORT, and the QUADAS, have been introduced for reporting meta-analyses. But recently the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) statement has gained widespread popularity.[ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ] The systematic review process based on the PRISMA statement includes four steps of how to formulate research questions, define the eligibility criteria, identify all relevant studies, extract and synthesize data, and deduce and present results (answers to research questions).[ 2 ]

Systematic Review Protocol

Systematic reviews start with a protocol. The protocol is a researcher road map that outlines the goals, methodology, and outcomes of the research. Many journals advise writers to use the PRISMA statement to write the protocol.[ 10 ] The PRISMA checklist includes 27 items related to the content of a systematic review and meta-analysis and includes abstracts, methods, results, discussions, and financial resources.[ 11 ] PRISMA helps writers improve their systematic review and meta-analysis report. Reviewers and editors of medical journals acknowledge that while PRISMA may not be used as a tool to assess the methodological quality, it does help them to publish a better study article [ Figure 1 ].[ 12 ]

Screening process and articles selection according to the PRISMA guidelines

The main step in designing the protocol is to define the main objectives of the study and provide some background information. Before starting a systematic review, it is important to assess that your study is not a duplicate; therefore, in search of published research, it is necessary to review PREOSPERO and the Cochrane Database of Systematic. Sometimes it is better to search, in four databases, related systematic reviews that have already been published (PubMed, Web of Sciences, Scopus, Cochrane), published systematic review protocols (PubMed, Web of Sciences, Scopus, Cochrane), systematic review protocols that have already been registered but have not been published (PROSPERO, Cochrane), and finally related published articles (PubMed, Web of Sciences, Scopus, Cochrane). The goal is to reduce duplicate research and keep up-to-date systematic reviews.[ 13 ]

Research questions

Writing a research question is the first step in systematic review that summarizes the main goal of the study.[ 14 ] The research question determines which types of studies should be included in the analysis (quantitative, qualitative, methodic mix, review overviews, or other studies). Sometimes a research question may be broken down into several more detailed questions.[ 15 ] The vague questions (such as: is walking helpful?) makes the researcher fail to be well focused on the collected studies or analyze them appropriately.[ 16 ] On the other hand, if the research question is rigid and restrictive (e.g., walking for 43 min and 3 times a week is better than walking for 38 min and 4 times a week?), there may not be enough studies in this area to answer this question and hence the generalizability of the findings to other populations will be reduced.[ 16 , 17 ] A good question in systematic review should include components that are PICOS style which include population (P), intervention (I), comparison (C), outcome (O), and setting (S).[ 18 ] Regarding the purpose of the study, control in clinical trials or pre-poststudies can replace C.[ 19 ]

Search and identify eligible texts

After clarifying the research question and before searching the databases, it is necessary to specify searching methods, articles screening, studies eligibility check, check of the references in eligible studies, data extraction, and data analysis. This helps researchers ensure that potential biases in the selection of potential studies are minimized.[ 14 , 17 ] It should also look at details such as which published and unpublished literature have been searched, how they were searched, by which mechanism they were searched, and what are the inclusion and exclusion criteria.[ 4 ] First, all studies are searched and collected according to predefined keywords; then the title, abstract, and the entire text are screened for relevance by the authors.[ 13 ] By screening articles based on their titles, researchers can quickly decide on whether to retain or remove an article. If more information is needed, the abstracts of the articles will also be reviewed. In the next step, the full text of the articles will be reviewed to identify the relevant articles, and the reason for the removal of excluded articles is reported.[ 20 ] Finally, it is recommended that the process of searching, selecting, and screening articles be reported as a flowchart.[ 21 ] By increasing research, finding up-to-date and relevant information has become more difficult.[ 22 ]

Currently, there is no specific guideline as to which databases should be searched, which database is the best, and how many should be searched; but overall, it is advisable to search broadly. Because no database covers all health topics, it is recommended to use several databases to search.[ 23 ] According to the A MeaSurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews scale (AMSTAR) at least two databases should be searched in systematic and meta-analysis, although more comprehensive and accurate results can be obtained by increasing the number of searched databases.[ 24 ] The type of database to be searched depends on the systematic review question. For example, in a clinical trial study, it is recommended that Cochrane, multi-regional clinical trial (mRCTs), and International Clinical Trials Registry Platform be searched.[ 25 ]

For example, MEDLINE, a product of the National Library of Medicine in the United States of America, focuses on peer-reviewed articles in biomedical and health issues, while Embase covers the broad field of pharmacology and summaries of conferences. CINAHL is a great resource for nursing and health research and PsycINFO is a great database for psychology, psychiatry, counseling, addiction, and behavioral problems. Also, national and regional databases can be used to search related articles.[ 26 , 27 ] In addition, the search for conferences and gray literature helps to resolve the file-drawn problem (negative studies that may not be published yet).[ 26 ] If a systematic review is carried out on articles in a particular country or region, the databases in that region or country should also be investigated. For example, Iranian researchers can use national databases such as Scientific Information Database and MagIran. Comprehensive search to identify the maximum number of existing studies leads to a minimization of the selection bias. In the search process, the available databases should be used as much as possible, since many databases are overlapping.[ 17 ] Searching 12 databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE, GHL, VHL, Cochrane, Google Scholar, Clinical trials.gov, mRCTs, POPLINE, and SIGLE) covers all articles published in the field of medicine and health.[ 25 ] Some have suggested that references management software be used to search for more easy identification and removal of duplicate articles from several different databases.[ 20 ] At least one search strategy is presented in the article.[ 21 ]

Quality assessment

The methodological quality assessment of articles is a key step in systematic review that helps identify systemic errors (bias) in results and interpretations. In systematic review studies, unlike other review studies, qualitative assessment or risk of bias is required. There are currently several tools available to review the quality of the articles. The overall score of these tools may not provide sufficient information on the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.[ 28 ] At least two reviewers should independently evaluate the quality of the articles, and if there is any objection, the third author should be asked to examine the article or the two researchers agree on the discussion. Some believe that the study of the quality of studies should be done by removing the name of the journal, title, authors, and institutions in a Blinded fashion.[ 29 ]

There are several ways for quality assessment, such as Sack's quality assessment (1988),[ 30 ] overview quality assessment questionnaire (1991),[ 31 ] CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Program),[ 32 ] and AMSTAR (2007),[ 33 ] Besides, CASP,[ 34 ] the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence,[ 35 ] and the Joanna Briggs Institute System for the Unified Management, Assessment and Review of Information checklists.[ 30 , 36 ] However, it is worth mentioning that there is no single tool for assessing the quality of all types of reviews, but each is more applicable to some types of reviews. Often, the STROBE tool is used to check the quality of articles. It reviews the title and abstract (item 1), introduction (items 2 and 3), implementation method (items 4–12), findings (items 13–17), discussion (Items 18–21), and funding (item 22). Eighteen items are used to review all articles, but four items (6, 12, 14, and 15) apply in certain situations.[ 9 ] The quality of interventional articles is often evaluated by the JADAD tool, which consists of three sections of randomization (2 scores), blinding (2 scores), and patient count (1 scores).[ 29 ]

Data extraction

At this stage, the researchers extract the necessary information in the selected articles. Elamin believes that reviewing the titles and abstracts and data extraction is a key step in the review process, which is often carried out by two of the research team independently, and ultimately, the results are compared.[ 37 ] This step aimed to prevent selection bias and it is recommended that the chance of agreement between the two researchers (Kappa coefficient) be reported at the end.[ 26 ] Although data collection forms may differ in systematic reviews, they all have information such as first author, year of publication, sample size, target community, region, and outcome. The purpose of data synthesis is to collect the findings of eligible studies, evaluate the strengths of the findings of the studies, and summarize the results. In data synthesis, we can use different analysis frameworks such as meta-ethnography, meta-analysis, or thematic synthesis.[ 38 ] Finally, after quality assessment, data analysis is conducted. The first step in this section is to provide a descriptive evaluation of each study and present the findings in a tabular form. Reviewing this table can determine how to combine and analyze various studies.[ 28 ] The data synthesis approach depends on the nature of the research question and the nature of the initial research studies.[ 39 ] After reviewing the bias and the abstract of the data, it is decided that the synthesis is carried out quantitatively or qualitatively. In case of conceptual heterogeneity (systematic differences in the study design, population, and interventions), the generalizability of the findings will be reduced and the study will not be meta-analysis. The meta-analysis study allows the estimation of the effect size, which is reported as the odds ratio, relative risk, hazard ratio, prevalence, correlation, sensitivity, specificity, and incidence with a confidence interval.[ 26 ]

Estimation of the effect size in systematic review and meta-analysis studies varies according to the type of studies entered into the analysis. Unlike the mean, prevalence, or incidence index, in odds ratio, relative risk, and hazard ratio, it is necessary to combine logarithm and logarithmic standard error of these statistics [ Table 1 ].

Effect size in systematic review and meta-analysis

OR=Odds ratio; RR=Relative risk; RCT= Randomized controlled trial; PPV: positive predictive value; NPV: negative predictive value; PLR: positive likelihood ratio; NLR: negative likelihood ratio; DOR: diagnostic odds ratio

Interpreting and presenting results (answers to research questions)

A systematic review ends with the interpretation of results. At this stage, the results of the study are summarized and the conclusions are presented to improve clinical and therapeutic decision-making. A systematic review with or without meta-analysis provides the best evidence available in the hierarchy of evidence-based practice.[ 14 ] Using meta-analysis can provide explicit conclusions. Conceptually, meta-analysis is used to combine the results of two or more studies that are similar to the specific intervention and the similar outcomes. In meta-analysis, instead of the simple average of the results of various studies, the weighted average of studies is reported, meaning studies with larger sample sizes account for more weight. To combine the results of various studies, we can use two models of fixed and random effects. In the fixed-effect model, it is assumed that the parameters studied are constant in all studies, and in the random-effect model, the measured parameter is assumed to be distributed between the studies and each study has measured some of it. This model offers a more conservative estimate.[ 40 ]

Three types of homogeneity tests can be used: (1) forest plot, (2) Cochrane's Q test (Chi-squared), and (3) Higgins I 2 statistics. In the forest plot, more overlap between confidence intervals indicates more homogeneity. In the Q statistic, when the P value is less than 0.1, it indicates heterogeneity exists and a random-effect model should be used.[ 41 ] Various tests such as the I 2 index are used to determine heterogeneity, values between 0 and 100; the values below 25%, between 25% and 50%, and above 75% indicate low, moderate, and high levels of heterogeneity, respectively.[ 26 , 42 ] The results of the meta-analyzing study are presented graphically using the forest plot, which shows the statistical weight of each study with a 95% confidence interval and a standard error of the mean.[ 40 ]

The importance of meta-analyses and systematic reviews in providing evidence useful in making clinical and policy decisions is ever-increasing. Nevertheless, they are prone to publication bias that occurs when positive or significant results are preferred for publication.[ 43 ] Song maintains that studies reporting a certain direction of results or powerful correlations may be more likely to be published than the studies which do not.[ 44 ] In addition, when searching for meta-analyses, gray literature (e.g., dissertations, conference abstracts, or book chapters) and unpublished studies may be missed. Moreover, meta-analyses only based on published studies may exaggerate the estimates of effect sizes; as a result, patients may be exposed to harmful or ineffective treatment methods.[ 44 , 45 ] However, there are some tests that can help in detecting negative expected results that are not included in a review due to publication bias.[ 46 ] In addition, publication bias can be reduced through searching for data that are not published.

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have certain advantages; some of the most important ones are as follows: examining differences in the findings of different studies, summarizing results from various studies, increased accuracy of estimating effects, increased statistical power, overcoming problems related to small sample sizes, resolving controversies from disagreeing studies, increased generalizability of results, determining the possible need for new studies, overcoming the limitations of narrative reviews, and making new hypotheses for further research.[ 47 , 48 ]

Despite the importance of systematic reviews, the author may face numerous problems in searching, screening, and synthesizing data during this process. A systematic review requires extensive access to databases and journals that can be costly for nonacademic researchers.[ 13 ] Also, in reviewing the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the inevitable mindsets of browsers may be involved and the criteria are interpreted differently from each other.[ 49 ] Lee refers to some disadvantages of these studies, the most significant ones are as follows: a research field cannot be summarized by one number, publication bias, heterogeneity, combining unrelated things, being vulnerable to subjectivity, failing to account for all confounders, comparing variables that are not comparable, just focusing on main effects, and possible inconsistency with results of randomized trials.[ 47 ] Different types of programs are available to perform meta-analysis. Some of the most commonly used statistical programs are general statistical packages, including SAS, SPSS, R, and Stata. Using flexible commands in these programs, meta-analyses can be easily run and the results can be readily plotted out. However, these statistical programs are often expensive. An alternative to using statistical packages is to use programs designed for meta-analysis, including Metawin, RevMan, and Comprehensive Meta-analysis. However, these programs may have limitations, including that they can accept few data formats and do not provide much opportunity to set the graphical display of findings. Another alternative is to use Microsoft Excel. Although it is not a free software, it is usually found in many computers.[ 20 , 50 ]

A systematic review study is a powerful and valuable tool for answering research questions, generating new hypotheses, and identifying areas where there is a lack of tangible knowledge. A systematic review study provides an excellent opportunity for researchers to improve critical assessment and evidence synthesis skills.

Authors' contributions

All authors contributed equally to this work.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Research Guides

Systematic reviews and related evidence syntheses: proposal.

• Standards & Guidelines

Getting started with proposal of review

The proposal stage is the most important step of a review project as it determines the feasibility of the review and its rationale.

The steps are: 

1. Determining review question and review type. 

• Right Review : free tool to assist in selecting best review type for a given question
• Trying to choose between a scoping or a systematic review? try this article- Munn, Z., Peters, M.D.J., Stern, C.  et al.   Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol   18 , 143 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x
• This article provides 10 different types of questions that systematic reviews can answer- Munn, Z., Stern, C., Aromataris, E. et al.  What kind of systematic review should I conduct?  A proposed typology and guidance for systematic reviewers in the medical and health sciences. BMC Med Res Methodol 18, 5 (2018).  
• For scoping reviews, the framework is: Population, Concept, Context (see JBI Scoping Review guide )

2. Search for related reviews to proposed question. Places to search include:

• Prospero : database of protocols for systematic reviews, umbrella reviews, and rapid reviews with human health outcomes
• Open Science Framework : open access registry for any type of research, including scoping reviews and more
• Cochrane Collaboration Handbook : systematic reviews of clinical interventions
• Campbell Collaboration : accepts many types reviews across many disciplines: Business and Management, Crime and Justice, Disability, Education, International Development, Knowledge Translation and Implementation, Methods, Nutrition, and Social Welfare

Collaboration for Environmental Evidence : reviews in environmental research

Systematic Reviews for Animals & Food (SYREAF) : protocols and reviews on animals and food science related to animals

Also, consider searching subject related databases, adding a search concept "review"

3. Evaluate previous reviews for quality, as well as comparing their scope to the proposed review. The following tools can be used to 

• ROBIS (Risk of Bias in Systematic reviews)

AMSTAR : Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews, for meta-analysis

• CASP Checklist : Critical Appraisal Skills Programme

4. Further refine question by defining the eligibility criteria

• Eligibility criteria are the characteristics of the studies/research to be collected. Inclusion criteria are those characteristics a study must have to be include. Exclusion criteria are exceptions to the inclusion criteria.

5. Develop a preliminary search and find a few studies that match the eligibility criteria

• Consider working with a librarian to develop a search. The purpose is to estimate the number of citations to be sorted (giving some idea of the amount time it will take complete the review) and to find at least a few studies that match the criteria.

6. Summarize proposal : A written proposal helps in framing the project and getting feedback. It should include:

• A descriptive title of project, which includes the type of review
• A brief introduction
• A description of previous reviews and the rationale for the proposed review
• An appropriate framed question for the review
• The eligibility criteria
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• Published: 19 April 2021

How to properly use the PRISMA Statement

• Rafael Sarkis-Onofre 1 ,
• Ferrán Catalá-López 2 , 3 ,
• Edoardo Aromataris 4 &
• Craig Lockwood 4  

Systematic Reviews volume  10 , Article number:  117 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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A Research to this article was published on 29 March 2021

It has been more than a decade since the original publication of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement [ 1 ], and it has become one of the most cited reporting guidelines in biomedical literature [ 2 , 3 ]. Since its publication, multiple extensions of the PRISMA Statement have been published concomitant with the advancement of knowledge synthesis methods [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. The PRISMA2020 statement, an updated version has recently been published [ 8 ], and other extensions are currently in development [ 9 ].

The number of systematic reviews (SRs) has increased substantially over the past 20 years [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. However, many SRs continue to be poorly conducted and reported [ 10 , 11 ], and it is still common to see articles that use the PRISMA Statement and other reporting guidelines inappropriately, as was highlighted recently [ 13 ].

The PRISMA Statement and its extensions are an evidence-based, minimum set of recommendations designed primarily to encourage transparent and complete reporting of SRs. This growing set of guidelines have been developed to aid authors with appropriate reporting of different knowledge synthesis methods (such as SRs, scoping reviews, and review protocols) and to ensure that all aspects of this type of research are accurately and transparently reported. In other words, the PRISMA Statement is a road map to help authors best describe what was done, what was found, and in the case of a review protocol, what are they are planning to do.

Despite this clear and well-articulated intention [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ], it is common for Systematic Reviews to receive manuscripts detailing the inappropriate use of the PRISMA Statement and its extensions. Most frequently, improper use appears with authors attempting to use the PRISMA statement as a methodological guideline for the design and conduct reviews, or identifying the PRISMA statement as a tool to assess the methodological quality of reviews, as seen in the following examples:

“This scoping review will be conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Statement.”

“This protocol was designed based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) Statement.”

“The methodological quality of the included systematic reviews will be assessed with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement.”

Some organizations (such as Cochrane and JBI) have developed methodological guidelines that can help authors to design or conduct diverse types of knowledge synthesis rigorously [ 14 , 15 ]. While the PRISMA statement is presented to predominantly guide reporting of a systematic review of interventions with meta-analyses, its detailed criteria can readily be applied to the majority of review types [ 13 ]. Differences between the role of the PRISMA Statement to guide reporting versus guidelines detailing methodological conduct is readily illustrated with the following example: the PRISMA Statement recommends that authors report their complete search strategies for all databases, registers, and websites (including any filters and limits used), but it does not include recommendations for designing and conducting literature searches [ 8 ]. If authors are interested in understanding how to create search strategies or which databases to include, they should refer to the methodological guidelines [ 12 , 13 ]. Thus, the following examples can illustrate the appropriate use of the PRISMA Statement in research reporting:

“The reporting of this systematic review was guided by the standards of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) Statement.”

“This scoping review was reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR).”

“The protocol is being reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) Statement.”

Systematic Reviews supports the complete and transparent reporting of research. The Editors require the submission of a populated checklist from the relevant reporting guidelines, including the PRISMA checklist or the most appropriate PRISMA extension. Using the PRISMA statement and its extensions to write protocols or the completed review report, and completing the PRISMA checklists are likely to let reviewers and readers know what authors did and found, but also to optimize the quality of reporting and make the peer review process more efficient.

Transparent and complete reporting is an essential component of “good research”; it allows readers to judge key issues regarding the conduct of research and its trustworthiness and is also critical to establish a study’s replicability.

With the release of a major update to PRISMA in 2021, the appropriate use of the updated PRISMA Statement (and its extensions as those updates progress) will be an essential requirement for review based submissions, and we encourage authors, peer reviewers, and readers of Systematic Reviews to use and disseminate that initiative.

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We do not have any additional data or materials to share.

Abbreviations

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols

Systematic reviews

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Acknowledgements

RSO is funded in part by Meridional Foundation. FCL is funded in part by the Institute of Health Carlos III/CIBERSAM.

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Graduate Program in Dentistry, Meridional Faculty, IMED, Passo Fundo, Brazil

Rafael Sarkis-Onofre

Department of Health Planning and Economics, National School of Public Health, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain

Ferrán Catalá-López

Department of Medicine, University of Valencia/INCLIVA Health Research Institute and CIBERSAM, Valencia, Spain

JBI, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia

Edoardo Aromataris & Craig Lockwood

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RSO drafted the initial version. FCL, EA, and CL made substantial additions to the first and subsequent drafts. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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CL is Editor-in-Chief of Systematic Reviews, FCL is Protocol Editor of Systematic Reviews, and RSO is Associate Editor of Systematic Reviews.

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Sarkis-Onofre, R., Catalá-López, F., Aromataris, E. et al. How to properly use the PRISMA Statement. Syst Rev 10 , 117 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-021-01671-z

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What is a Systematic Review?

Types of systematic reviews, the prisma checklist and diagram, the systematic review process, structuring a systematic review article, finding the right journal for publication.

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PRISMA Documents

• PRISMA Checklist
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Formulating a Research Question using PICO(T)

P=Population or problem or patient

• What are the characteristics of the patient or population? What is the condition?

I=Intervention or issue of interest

• What do you want to do with/for the patient or population?

C=Comparison

• What is the alternative to the intervention?
• What are the relevant outcomes?

A systematic review is a scientific study of all available evidence on a certain topic. It requires the most exhaustive literature search possible, not only in published literature, but also in gray literature. It may also require searches in disciplines outside the researchers primary area of study.

• Qualitative:  In this type of systematic review, the results of relevant studies are summarized but not statistically combined.
• Quantitative:  This type of systematic review uses statistical methods to combine the results of two or more studies.
• Meta-analysis:  A meta-analysis uses statistical methods to integrate estimates of effect from relevant studies that are independent but similar and summarize them.

Anybody writing a systematic literature review should be familiar with the  PRISMA statement . The PRISMA Statement is a document that consists of a 27-item  checklist  and a  flow diagram . It is designed to guide authors on how to develop a systematic review and what to include when writing the review.

A protocol will include:

• Databases to be searched and additional sources (particularly for grey literature)
• Keywords to be used in the search strategy
• Limits applied to the search.
• Screening process
• Data to be extracted
• Summary of data to be reported

The essence of a systematic review lies in being systematic. A systematic review involves detailed scrutiny and analysis of a huge mass of literature. To ensure that your work is efficient and effective, you should follow a  clear process :

1.  Develop a research question

2.  Define inclusion and exclusion criteria

3.  Locate studies 

4.  Select studies

5.  Assess study quality

6.  Extract data

7.  Analyze and present results

8.  Interpret results

9.  Update the review as needed

It is helpful to make notes at each stage. This will make it easier for you to write the review article.

A systematic review article follows the same structure as that of an original research article. It typically includes a title, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, and references.  

Title:  The title should accurately reflect the topic under review. Typically, the words “a systematic review” are a part of the title to make the nature of the study clear.

Abstract:  A systematic review usually has a structured Abstract, with a short paragraph devoted to each of the following: background, methods, results, and conclusion. 

Introduction : The Introduction summarizes the topic and explains why the systematic review was conducted. There might have been gaps in the existing knowledge or a disagreement in the literature that necessitated a review. The introduction should also state the purpose and aims of the review.

Methods:  The Methods section is the most crucial part of a systematic review article. The methodology followed should be explained clearly and logically. The following components should be discussed in detail:

• Inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Identification of studies
• Study selection
• Data extraction
• Quality assessment
• Data analysis

Results:  The Results section should also be explained logically. You can begin by describing the search results, and then move on to the study range and characteristics, study quality, and finally discuss the effect of the intervention on the outcome.

Discussion:  The Discussion should summarize the main findings from the review and then move on to discuss the limitations of the study and the reliability of the results. Finally, the strengths and weaknesses of the review should be discussed, and implications for current practice suggested.

References:  The References section of a systematic review article usually contains an extensive number of references. You have to be very careful and ensure that you do not miss out on a single one. You can consider using reference management software to help you tackle the references effectively. 

Enter your manuscript's title and abstract and other requested information and these systems will identify journals that are best suited for publishing.  Each resource provides journal information and additional information such as impact factors, publishing model, time to publication, etc.

These tools search the journals of the individual publisher.  

• Elsevier Journal Finder
• IEEE Publication Recommender
• Journal/Author Name Estimator (JANE) - PubMed
• Sage Journal Selector
• SpringerNature Journal Suggester
• Taylor & Francis Journal Suggestor
• Web of Science Manuscript Matcher You will need to create a free account to access Match.
• Wiley Journal Finder (Beta)
• A young researcher's guide to a systematic review
• Steps in Conducting Systematic Review: It is Simple but Not That Easy. Tungpunkom, P. (2015). Editorial: Steps in Conducting Systematic Review: It is Simple but Not That Easy. Pacific Rim International Journal of Nursing Research, 19(1), 1–3.
• The Systematic Review of Health Care Evidence: Methods, Issues, and Trends Bath-Hextall, F. (2014). The Systematic Review of Health Care Evidence: Methods, Issues, and Trends. Nursing Clinics of North America, 49(4), 461–473. https://doi-org.dax.lib.unf.edu/10.1016/j.cnur.2014.08.002

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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on 30 October 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on 13 June 2023.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organised and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, frequently asked questions.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

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Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: ‘A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management’
• Example research proposal #2: ‘ Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use’

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesise prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasise again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement.

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. & George, T. (2023, June 13). How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved 15 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/the-research-process/research-proposal-explained/

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A Guide to Writing a Qualitative Systematic Review Protocol to Enhance Evidence-Based Practice in Nursing and Health Care

Affiliations.

• 1 PhD candidate, School of Nursing and Midwifey, Monash University, and Clinical Nurse Specialist, Adult and Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Monash Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
• 2 Lecturer, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
• 3 Senior Lecturer, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
• PMID: 26790142
• DOI: 10.1111/wvn.12134

Background: The qualitative systematic review is a rapidly developing area of nursing research. In order to present trustworthy, high-quality recommendations, such reviews should be based on a review protocol to minimize bias and enhance transparency and reproducibility. Although there are a number of resources available to guide researchers in developing a quantitative review protocol, very few resources exist for qualitative reviews.

Aims: To guide researchers through the process of developing a qualitative systematic review protocol, using an example review question.

Methodology: The key elements required in a systematic review protocol are discussed, with a focus on application to qualitative reviews: Development of a research question; formulation of key search terms and strategies; designing a multistage review process; critical appraisal of qualitative literature; development of data extraction techniques; and data synthesis. The paper highlights important considerations during the protocol development process, and uses a previously developed review question as a working example.

Implications for research: This paper will assist novice researchers in developing a qualitative systematic review protocol. By providing a worked example of a protocol, the paper encourages the development of review protocols, enhancing the trustworthiness and value of the completed qualitative systematic review findings.

Linking evidence to action: Qualitative systematic reviews should be based on well planned, peer reviewed protocols to enhance the trustworthiness of results and thus their usefulness in clinical practice. Protocols should outline, in detail, the processes which will be used to undertake the review, including key search terms, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the methods used for critical appraisal, data extraction and data analysis to facilitate transparency of the review process. Additionally, journals should encourage and support the publication of review protocols, and should require reference to a protocol prior to publication of the review results.

Keywords: guidelines; meta synthesis; qualitative; systematic review protocol.

© 2016 Sigma Theta Tau International.

• Evidence-Based Practice / standards*
• Information Seeking Behavior
• Nursing / methods
• Qualitative Research*
• Research Design / standards*
• Systematic Reviews as Topic*
• Writing / standards*

How to Write a Systematic Review Dissertation: With Examples

Writing a systematic review dissertation isn’t easy because you must follow a thorough and accurate scientific process. You must be an expert in research methodology to synthesise studies. In this article, I will provide a step-by-step approach to writing a top-notch systematic review dissertation.

Table of Contents

However, for students who may find this process challenging and seek professional assistance, I recommend exploring SystematicReviewPro —a reliable systematic review writing service. By signing up and placing a free inquiry and engaging with the admin team at any time, students can avail themselves of an exclusive offer of up to 50% off on their systematic review order. Additionally, there is already a 30% discount running on the website, making it an excellent opportunity to ease your dissertation journey.

As an Undergraduate or Master’s student, you’re are allowed to pick a systematic review for your dissertation. As a PhD student, you can use a systematic review methodology in the second chapter (literature review) of your dissertation. A systematic review is considered the highest level of empirical evidence, especially in clinical sciences like nursing and medicine. When developing new practice guidelines, new services, or new products, systematic reviews are searched and synthesised first on that topic or idea.

Factors to Consider When Writing a Systematic Review Dissertation

The nature of your research topic or research question.

Some research topics or questions strictly conform to qualitative or quantitative methods. For example, if you’re exploring the lived experiences, attitudes, perceptions, and meaning-making in a given population, you’ll need qualitative methods. However, you will require quantitative methods if looking into quantifiable variables like happiness, depression, academic performance, sleep, etc. That said, the nature of your research question should guide you. If your topic is qualitative, you’ll need qualitative studies only. If your topic is quantitative, you’ll need quantitative studies only. Systematic reviews of qualitative studies are less intricate than of quantitative studies. Still, they require a thoughtful approach in synthesizing findings from various qualitative studies.

If you choose to review quantitative studies, you might need to conduct a meta-analysis in your systematic review. A meta-analysis refers to statistical techniques used in pooling findings from various independent studies to compute a summary statistic. For example, in your dissertation, you may aim to investigate the effect of a student well-being programme embedded in university classes on the happiness of university students. Various studies that have investigated the same or a related intervention and quantitively measured happiness among university students must be synthesised together using a statistical technique. The ultimate outcome of that meta-analysis is to provide an overview of the overall trend of the effect of the intervention on university student’s happiness. For more information about how to formulate a research question for a systematic review with a meta-analysis, visit this link.

An example meta-analysis showing the statistical combination of findings from various studies to indicate the overall effect of a psychological intervention on the psychological well-being of university students.

Availability of primary studies

Finding primary studies for your systematic review is the hardest thing you can encounter with this approach. You can choose your topic and plan your journey so well. Upon reaching the point you need primary studies to answer your research question, you get stuck. Retrieving primary studies is challenging because it requires advanced search strategies on various online databases. Doing an advanced search strategy can be an uphill task for someone who has never done a systematic review. This is because, more often than not, depending on the topic, primary studies are not readily available on the Internet. Remember, secondary studies, like systematic reviews and literature reviews, are not eligible for systematic reviews.

Supervisor’s recommendation

Always confirm with your supervisor if you can do a systematic review dissertation. Some supervisors may feel it better for you to do a primary study. So, always confirm with your supervisor before doing much.

Your confidence

Always ensure you’re confident that you can do a systematic review on your own. Writing a systematic review isn’t easy. You need to be aware that doing a systematic review may even be harder than doing interviews or surveys in primary research. Why? A systematic review involves combining many primary studies together in a scientific manner. That means you must have expertise in various research methodologies to know the best way to integrate or synthesise the various studies.

Availability of time and resources

The main advantage of doing a systematic review dissertation is that it saves a lot of time. Conducting interviews or surveys can be time- and resource-consuming. However, with a systematic review, you do everything from your desk. It will save you a lot of time and resources. If you find that you meet many of the requirements of successfully conducting a systematic review, the next step is to engage in the actual process. The step-by-step approach used in writing systematic reviews is outlined below.

Step-by-Step Process in Writing a Systematic Review Dissertation

The following steps are iterative, meaning you can start over again and again until you meet your research objectives. The step-by-step guide on how to write a systematic review dissertation is summarized in the infographic shown below.

Step-by-step guide on how to write a systematic review dissertation

Step 1: Formulate the systematic review research question

The starting point of a systematic review is to formulate a research question. As stated above, the nature of your research question will help you make key decisions. For example, you will be able to know which design (quantitative versus qualitative) to consider in your inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Step 2: Do a preliminary search

The next step is to perform a preliminary search on the Internet to determine if another systematic review has been published. It is not acceptable to repeat what has already been done. Your research should be novel and contribute to a knowledge gap. However, if you find that another systematic review has already been published on your topic. You should consider the publication date.

In most cases, systematic reviews on given topics are outdated. They have not used recent studies published on that topic, thus missing important updates. That can be a good reason you’re conducting your study. Suppose there’s an updated systematic review on your topic. In that case, you should consider reformulating your research question to address a specific knowledge gap.

Step 3: Develop your systematic review inclusion and exclusion criteria

One unique thing about systematic reviews is that they must be based on a very specific population, intervention/exposure, and assess a specific outcome. Let’s say, for example, you write on Intervention A’s effectiveness in reducing depression symptoms in older frail people. In that case, you must retrieve studies that strictly assess the effectiveness of Intervention A, the outcome being depression symptoms and the population being older frail people.

Therefore, it will be against the principles of a systematic review to focus on Intervention B (different intervention/exposure) on anxiety (different outcomes) in younger people (different populations). Also, depending on your research question, you will need to determine the research design (qualitative versus quantitative) of the studies you will review. Other criteria to consider are the country of publication, the publication date, language, etc.

Step 4: Develop your systematic review search strategy

As said, the main challenge in writing a systematic review is to identify papers. Your literature search should be thorough so that you don’t leave out some relevant studies. Developing a literature search strategy isn’t easy because you must start identifying relevant keywords and search terms for your topic. You must start by knowing common terminologies used in your subject of interest.

Afterward, combine the keywords using Boolean connectors like “AND” & “OR.” For example, suppose my topic is the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy in treating anxiety in adolescents. In that regard, I can combine my keywords as follows: (Cognitive behavioural therapy OR CBT) AND (anxiety) AND (adolescents OR youth). If you use terminologies unknown in your discipline, you will likely not find relevant studies for review.

Step 5: Plan and perform systematic review database selection

At this stage, you identify the databases you’ll use to execute your search strategy. When writing a systematic review dissertation, you also need to report the databases that you searched. Commonly searched ones in the field of social and health sciences include PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane, PsycInfo, and many others. You need to know how each database works. Also, apart from Google Scholar and PubMed, most of these databases require paid or institutional access. Liaise with your supervisor or librarian to help in identifying good databases for subject and discipline.

Step 6: Perform systematic review screening using titles and abstracts

When you execute your search strategy on each database, results or search hits will be displayed. This is also another difficult step because of tedious work involved. You start by screening the titles. Then, eliminate results that contain irrelevant titles. You need to be careful at this point because sometimes people eliminate even relevant studies. The title doesn’t need to contain exactly your keywords. Some titles appear totally irrelevant but they actually contain useful data inside.

After screening titles, the next step is to screen abstracts. You may be surprised at this point that the titles you thought were irrelevant actually contain relevant information. For instance, some studies may indicate in the title that their study focused on depression as an outcome when you’re interested in anxiety. However, reading the abstract may surprise you that depression was only a primary outcome. The authors also measured secondary outcomes, among them anxiety. In such an article, you can decide to focus on anxiety results only because they are relevant to your study.

Step 7: Do a manual search to supplement database search

After screening articles identified using various databases, the next step is to augment the search strategy with a manual search. This will ensure you don’t miss relevant studies in your systematic review dissertation. The manual search involves identifying more studies in the bibliographies of the identified articles using a database search. It is also about contacting the authors and experts sourced from the found articles to give access to more articles that may not be found online. Finally, you can also identify key journals from the articles and perform a hand search. For example, suppose I identify the Journal of Cognitive Psychology. In that case, I will visit that journal’s website and perform a manual search there. A properly done manual search can help you identify more articles that you couldn’t have identified using databases only.

Step 8: Perform systematic review screening using the full-body texts

After having all your articles intact, the next step is to screen for full-text bodies. In most cases, the titles and abstracts may not contain enough information for screening purposes. You must read the full texts of the articles to determine their full eligibility. At this point, you screen articles identified through database search and manual search altogether. For example, sometimes you may be interested in healthy adolescents. In the abstract, the author of the articles may only report adolescents without providing any specifics about them. Upon reading the full text, you may discover that the authors included adolescents with mental issues that are not within your study’s scope. Therefore, always do a full-text screening before you move to the next step.

Step 9: Perform systematic review quality assessment using PRISMA, etc

Systematic review dissertations can be used to inform the formulation of practice guidelines and even inform policies. You must strive to review only studies with rigorous methodological quality. The quality assessment tool will depend on your study’s design. The commonly used ones for student dissertations include CASP Checklists and Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Checklists. You can consult with your supervisor before arriving at the final decision. Transparently report your quality assessment findings. For example, indicate the score of each study under each item of each tool and calculate the overall score in the form of a percentage. Also, always have a cut-off of 65%, and studies whose methodological rigour is below the cut-off are excluded.

Step 10: Perform systematic review data extraction

The next step is to extract relevant data from your studies. Your data extraction approach depends on the research design of the studies you used. If you use qualitative studies, your data extraction can focus on individual studies’ findings, particularly themes. You can also extract data that can aid in-depth analysis, such as country of study, population characteristics, etc. Using quantitative studies, you can collect quantitative data that will aid your analysis, such as means and standard deviations and other crucial information relevant to your analysis technique. Always chart your data in a tabular format to facilitate easy management and handling.

Step 11: Carry on with systematic review data analysis

The data analysis approach used in your systematic review dissertation will depend on the research design. Using qualitative studies, you will rely on qualitative approaches to analyse your data. For example, you can do a thematic analysis or a narrative synthesis. If you used quantitative studies, you might need to perform a meta-analysis or narrative synthesis. A meta-analysis is done when you have homogenous studies (such as population, outcome variables, measurement tools, etc.) that are experimental in nature. Particularly, meta-analysis is performed when reviewing controlled randomized trials or other interventional studies. In other words, meta-analysis is appropriately used when reviewing the effectiveness of interventions. However, if your quantitative studies are heterogenous, such as using different research designs, you must perform a narrative synthesis.

Step 12: Prepare the written report

The final step is to produce a written report of your systematic review dissertation. One of the ethical concerns in systematic reviews is transparency. You can improve the transparency of your reporting by using an established protocol like PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses).

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What is a Systematic Review?

• Definition of Systematic Review (Wikipedia)
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• Research Tips: What is a Systematic Review and how does it differ from a Literature Review?
• Systematic and Literature Reviews

How to do a Systematic Review

• Five steps to conducting a systematic review
• How to write a systematic literature review: a guide for medical students
• Systematic Reviews: Steps to Conduct a Systematic Review
• Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: a step-by-step guide
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• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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• Volume 24, Issue 2
• Five tips for developing useful literature summary tables for writing review articles
• Article Text
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0157-5319 Ahtisham Younas 1 , 2 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7839-8130 Parveen Ali 3 , 4
• 1 Memorial University of Newfoundland , St John's , Newfoundland , Canada
• 2 Swat College of Nursing , Pakistan
• 3 School of Nursing and Midwifery , University of Sheffield , Sheffield , South Yorkshire , UK
• 4 Sheffield University Interpersonal Violence Research Group , Sheffield University , Sheffield , UK
• Correspondence to Ahtisham Younas, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, NL A1C 5C4, Canada; ay6133{at}mun.ca

https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2021-103417

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Introduction

Literature reviews offer a critical synthesis of empirical and theoretical literature to assess the strength of evidence, develop guidelines for practice and policymaking, and identify areas for future research. 1 It is often essential and usually the first task in any research endeavour, particularly in masters or doctoral level education. For effective data extraction and rigorous synthesis in reviews, the use of literature summary tables is of utmost importance. A literature summary table provides a synopsis of an included article. It succinctly presents its purpose, methods, findings and other relevant information pertinent to the review. The aim of developing these literature summary tables is to provide the reader with the information at one glance. Since there are multiple types of reviews (eg, systematic, integrative, scoping, critical and mixed methods) with distinct purposes and techniques, 2 there could be various approaches for developing literature summary tables making it a complex task specialty for the novice researchers or reviewers. Here, we offer five tips for authors of the review articles, relevant to all types of reviews, for creating useful and relevant literature summary tables. We also provide examples from our published reviews to illustrate how useful literature summary tables can be developed and what sort of information should be provided.

Tip 1: provide detailed information about frameworks and methods

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Tabular literature summaries from a scoping review. Source: Rasheed et al . 3

The provision of information about conceptual and theoretical frameworks and methods is useful for several reasons. First, in quantitative (reviews synthesising the results of quantitative studies) and mixed reviews (reviews synthesising the results of both qualitative and quantitative studies to address a mixed review question), it allows the readers to assess the congruence of the core findings and methods with the adapted framework and tested assumptions. In qualitative reviews (reviews synthesising results of qualitative studies), this information is beneficial for readers to recognise the underlying philosophical and paradigmatic stance of the authors of the included articles. For example, imagine the authors of an article, included in a review, used phenomenological inquiry for their research. In that case, the review authors and the readers of the review need to know what kind of (transcendental or hermeneutic) philosophical stance guided the inquiry. Review authors should, therefore, include the philosophical stance in their literature summary for the particular article. Second, information about frameworks and methods enables review authors and readers to judge the quality of the research, which allows for discerning the strengths and limitations of the article. For example, if authors of an included article intended to develop a new scale and test its psychometric properties. To achieve this aim, they used a convenience sample of 150 participants and performed exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the same sample. Such an approach would indicate a flawed methodology because EFA and CFA should not be conducted on the same sample. The review authors must include this information in their summary table. Omitting this information from a summary could lead to the inclusion of a flawed article in the review, thereby jeopardising the review’s rigour.

Tip 2: include strengths and limitations for each article

Critical appraisal of individual articles included in a review is crucial for increasing the rigour of the review. Despite using various templates for critical appraisal, authors often do not provide detailed information about each reviewed article’s strengths and limitations. Merely noting the quality score based on standardised critical appraisal templates is not adequate because the readers should be able to identify the reasons for assigning a weak or moderate rating. Many recent critical appraisal checklists (eg, Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool) discourage review authors from assigning a quality score and recommend noting the main strengths and limitations of included studies. It is also vital that methodological and conceptual limitations and strengths of the articles included in the review are provided because not all review articles include empirical research papers. Rather some review synthesises the theoretical aspects of articles. Providing information about conceptual limitations is also important for readers to judge the quality of foundations of the research. For example, if you included a mixed-methods study in the review, reporting the methodological and conceptual limitations about ‘integration’ is critical for evaluating the study’s strength. Suppose the authors only collected qualitative and quantitative data and did not state the intent and timing of integration. In that case, the strength of the study is weak. Integration only occurred at the levels of data collection. However, integration may not have occurred at the analysis, interpretation and reporting levels.

Tip 3: write conceptual contribution of each reviewed article

While reading and evaluating review papers, we have observed that many review authors only provide core results of the article included in a review and do not explain the conceptual contribution offered by the included article. We refer to conceptual contribution as a description of how the article’s key results contribute towards the development of potential codes, themes or subthemes, or emerging patterns that are reported as the review findings. For example, the authors of a review article noted that one of the research articles included in their review demonstrated the usefulness of case studies and reflective logs as strategies for fostering compassion in nursing students. The conceptual contribution of this research article could be that experiential learning is one way to teach compassion to nursing students, as supported by case studies and reflective logs. This conceptual contribution of the article should be mentioned in the literature summary table. Delineating each reviewed article’s conceptual contribution is particularly beneficial in qualitative reviews, mixed-methods reviews, and critical reviews that often focus on developing models and describing or explaining various phenomena. Figure 2 offers an example of a literature summary table. 4

Tabular literature summaries from a critical review. Source: Younas and Maddigan. 4

Tip 4: compose potential themes from each article during summary writing

While developing literature summary tables, many authors use themes or subthemes reported in the given articles as the key results of their own review. Such an approach prevents the review authors from understanding the article’s conceptual contribution, developing rigorous synthesis and drawing reasonable interpretations of results from an individual article. Ultimately, it affects the generation of novel review findings. For example, one of the articles about women’s healthcare-seeking behaviours in developing countries reported a theme ‘social-cultural determinants of health as precursors of delays’. Instead of using this theme as one of the review findings, the reviewers should read and interpret beyond the given description in an article, compare and contrast themes, findings from one article with findings and themes from another article to find similarities and differences and to understand and explain bigger picture for their readers. Therefore, while developing literature summary tables, think twice before using the predeveloped themes. Including your themes in the summary tables (see figure 1 ) demonstrates to the readers that a robust method of data extraction and synthesis has been followed.

Tip 5: create your personalised template for literature summaries

Often templates are available for data extraction and development of literature summary tables. The available templates may be in the form of a table, chart or a structured framework that extracts some essential information about every article. The commonly used information may include authors, purpose, methods, key results and quality scores. While extracting all relevant information is important, such templates should be tailored to meet the needs of the individuals’ review. For example, for a review about the effectiveness of healthcare interventions, a literature summary table must include information about the intervention, its type, content timing, duration, setting, effectiveness, negative consequences, and receivers and implementers’ experiences of its usage. Similarly, literature summary tables for articles included in a meta-synthesis must include information about the participants’ characteristics, research context and conceptual contribution of each reviewed article so as to help the reader make an informed decision about the usefulness or lack of usefulness of the individual article in the review and the whole review.

In conclusion, narrative or systematic reviews are almost always conducted as a part of any educational project (thesis or dissertation) or academic or clinical research. Literature reviews are the foundation of research on a given topic. Robust and high-quality reviews play an instrumental role in guiding research, practice and policymaking. However, the quality of reviews is also contingent on rigorous data extraction and synthesis, which require developing literature summaries. We have outlined five tips that could enhance the quality of the data extraction and synthesis process by developing useful literature summaries.

• Aromataris E ,
• Rasheed SP ,

Twitter @Ahtisham04, @parveenazamali

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

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• How to Write a...

How to Write a Research Proposal: A Comprehensive Guide

• By angelie karin
• Apr 08, 2024

Writing a research proposal is a pivotal step for any researcher aiming to secure funding or approval for their project. 

A well-crafted proposal not only showcases the significance and feasibility of your study but also demonstrates your capability as a researcher to conduct the study. 

Below is a detailed exploration of the process, designed to guide you through each component of crafting a compelling research proposal.

Understanding the Fundamental Elements of a Research Proposal

The journey of your research proposal begins with the title – your first opportunity to make an impression. It should be both descriptive and concise, directly reflecting the essence of your research without any ambiguity. 

This is where you capture the attention of your readers, making them eager to delve into the details of your study.

Following the title, the abstract serves as a snapshot of your research proposal. Although brief, it must encapsulate the aims, methodology, and anticipated outcomes of your study. 

Succinctness and clarity are your allies here, aiding reviewers in quickly grasping the essence of your proposed research.

Introduction

The introduction lays down the foundation of your research proposal. It is here that you articulate your research question, setting the stage by providing background information and stating the rationale behind your study. 

This section should not only highlight the significance of your research but also build a compelling argument for why it is necessary.

Literature Review

A thorough literature review is the backbone of any research proposal . It demonstrates your deep understanding of the field by summarizing existing research and identifying gaps that your study aims to fill. 

This section should underscore the originality of your proposal, making a clear case for the contribution your research will make to the field. 

Integrating a variety of sources, from academic journals to books, you should weave a narrative that supports the premise of your study, emphasizing its necessity and potential impact.

Research Design and Methods

This section is where you detail how you plan to answer your research question. Transparently discuss your research design and methodology, whether it be qualitative, quantitative, or a mixture of both. 

Describe the data collection methods you intend to use, along with your analysis plan, giving special attention to the reproducibility and ethical considerations of your approach. 

Your goal is to convince the reviewers of the soundness of your research methodology and your competence in executing it.

Implications and Contribution to the Field

Explaining the significance of your research, this part of the proposal should articulate how your study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge. 

Discuss the potential implications of your findings for the field and how they might influence future research, policy, or practice. 

This is your argument for the relevance and necessity of your study, highlighting the unique insights it promises to offer.

Budget and Resources

As pragmatic as it is essential, the budget and resources section details the financial aspects of your proposed research. 

It is important to provide a comprehensive budget that justifies each expense, whether it’s for equipment, personnel, travel, or other costs. 

Be realistic and transparent, ensuring that your budget aligns with the scope of your project. Additionally, listing the resources you have and those you need demonstrates thorough planning and feasibility.

Timeline and Milestones

A well-structured timeline not only helps in organizing your research but also reassures funders of your project’s timeliness. 

Break down the research process into phases, assigning realistic deadlines to each. Including milestones allows for a clearer understanding of the project’s progress, making this section a crucial aspect of your proposal.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in research. This section of the proposal should address potential ethical issues and describe how they will be managed. 

If applicable, mention the process of obtaining Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval. A thoughtful discussion of ethics not only highlights the integrity of your research design but also builds trust with your reviewers.

Though not always necessary, appendices can be included to provide additional supporting information that is too detailed for the main body of the proposal. This might include charts, graphs, letters of support, or any other documents that strengthen your proposal.

Crafting a compelling research proposal is a meticulous process. Tailoring your proposal to echo the priorities of the funding agency can significantly increase your chances of success. 

Furthermore, ensuring that your writing is clear, jargon-free, and meticulously proofread can make your proposal more accessible and appealing. Remember, clarity and coherence are your best tools for conveying the value of your research.

What is the typical length of a research proposal?

While the length can vary depending on the requirements of the funding agency, a research proposal typically ranges from 10 to 15 pages.

How can I make my research proposal stand out to funders?

Emphasize the originality and significance of your research, clearly articulate your methodology, and ensure your proposal is well-organized and free of jargon. Tailoring the proposal to the funder’s priorities can also make a significant difference.

What are the most common reasons for research proposal rejection?

Common reasons include a lack of originality, unclear or flawed methodology, insufficient literature review, and unrealistic goals or budgets.

How detailed should the methodology section be in a research proposal?

It should be detailed enough to clearly explain how you will conduct your research, including your research design, data collection, and analysis methods, while being concise.

Is it necessary to include a literature review in my research proposal?

Yes, a literature review is crucial as it establishes the context of your research, demonstrates your knowledge of the field, and justifies the necessity of your proposed study.

In the conclusion, succinctly recap the key points of your proposal, reinforcing the significance and feasibility of your research. 

This final pitch should leave no doubt in the reviewers’ minds about the value and necessity of your study, encouraging their support for its execution. 

In crafting your research proposal, it’s essential to communicate not only the significance of your research but also your ability to carry it out successfully. 

By carefully addressing each component of the proposal and ensuring clarity and coherence throughout, you’ll significantly increase your chances of securing the necessary approval or funding. 

Remember, a compelling research proposal is your ticket to embarking on a meaningful research journey, contributing valuable insights to your field of study.

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