research paper common grammar mistakes

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Avoid These Common Grammar Mistakes!

Cartoonist Doug Larson once observed: "If the English language made any sense, a catastrophe would be an apostrophe with fur" [ The Quotations Page ]. Because the English language has complicated grammar and usage rules and most of those rules have multiple exceptions in how they are applied, there are many online sites that discuss how to avoid mistakes in grammar and word usage. Here are a few that may be particularly helpful:

• English Grammar
• Lingua Franca Column , Chronicle of Higher Education
• Plain Language.gov

Listed below are the most common mistakes that are made by writers and, thus, the ones you should focus on locating, correcting, and/or removing while proofreading your research paper.

• Affect / effect -- welcome to what I consider to be the most confusing aspect in the English language. "Effect" is most often a noun and generally means “a result.” However, "effect" can be used as a verb that essentially means "to bring about," or "to accomplish." The word "affect" is almost always a verb and generally means "to influence." However, affect can be used as a noun when you're talking about the mood that someone appears to have. [Ugh!]
• Apostrophes -- the position of an apostrophe depends upon whether the noun is singular or plural. For singular words, add an "s" to the end, even if the final letter is an "s." For contractions, replace missing letters with an apostrophe; but remember that it is where the letters no longer are, which is not always where the words are joined [e.g., "is not" and "isn't"]. Note that contractions are rarely used in scholarly writing.
• Capitalization -- a person’s title is capitalized when it precedes the name and, thus, is seen as part of the name [e.g., President Zachary Taylor]; once the title occurs, further references to the person holding the title appear in lowercase [e.g., the president]. For groups or organizations, the name is capitalized when it is the full name [e.g., the United States Department of Justice]; further references should be written in lowercase [e.g., the department]. In general, the use of capital letters should be minimized as much as possible.
• Colorless verbs and bland adjectives –- passive voice, use of the to be verb, is a lost opportunity to use a more interesting and accurate verb when you can. Adjectives can also be used very specifically to add to the sentence. Try to avoid generic or bland adjectives and be specific. Use adjectives that add to the meaning of the sentence.
• Comma splices -- a comma splice is the incorrect use of a comma to connect two independent clauses (an independent clause is a phrase that is grammatically and conceptually complete: that is, it can stand on its own as a sentence). To correct the comma splice, you can: replace the comma with a period, forming two sentences; replace the comma with a semicolon; or, join the two clauses with a conjunction such as "and," "because," "but," etc.
• Compared with vs. compared to -- compare to is to point out or imply resemblances between objects regarded as essentially of a different order; compare with is mainly to point out differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order [e.g., life has been compared to a journey; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament].
• Confusing singular possessive and plural nouns –- singular possessive nouns always take an apostrophe, with few exceptions, and plural nouns never take an apostrophe. Omitting an apostrophe or adding one where it does not belong makes the sentence unclear.
• Coordinating conjunctions -- words, such as "but," "and," "yet," join grammatically similar elements [i.e., two nouns, two verbs, two modifiers, two independent clauses]. Be sure that the elements they join are equal in importance and in structure.
• Dangling participial -- a participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject of the sentence.
• Dropped commas around clauses –-place commas around words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt a sentence. Do not use commas around restrictive clauses, which provide essential information about the subject of the sentence.
• The Existential "this" -- always include a referent with "this," such as "this theory..." or "this approach to understanding the...." With no referent, "this" can confuse the reader.
• The Existential "it" -- the "existential it" gives no reference for what "it" is. Be specific!
• Its / it's --"its" is the possessive form of "it." "It's" is the contraction of "it is" or "it has." They are not interchangeable and the latter should be avoided in scholarly writing.
• Fewer / Less -- if you can count it, then use the word fewer; if you cannot count it, use the word less.
• Interrupting clause –- this clause or phrase interrupts a sentence, such as, "however." Place a comma on either side of the interrupting clause. An interrupting clause should generally be avoided in academic writing.
• Know your non-restrictive clauses –- this clause or phrase modifies the subject of the sentence, but it is not essential to understanding the sentence. The word “which” is the relative pronoun usually used to introduce the nonrestrictive clause.
• Know your restrictive clauses –- this clause limits the meaning of the nouns it modifies. The restrictive clause introduces information that is essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence. The word “that” is the relative pronoun normally used to introduce this clause. Without this clause or phrase, the meaning of the sentence changes.
• Literally -- this word means that exactly what you say is true, no metaphors or analogies. Be aware of this if you are using "literally" to describe something. The term literally should never be applied to subjective expressions [i.e., "literally the most comfortable meeting"] or to imprecise measurements [i.e., "literally dozens of protesters"].
• Lonely quotes –- unlike in journalistic writing, quotes in scholarly writing cannot stand on their own as a sentence. Integrate them into a paragraph.
• Misuse and abuse of semicolons –- semicolons are used to separate two related independent clauses or to separate items in a list that contains commas. Do not abuse semicolons by using them often; they are best used sparingly.
• Overuse of unspecific determinates -- words such as "super" [as in super strong] or "very" [as in very strong], are unspecific determinates. How many/much is "very"? How incredibly awesome is super? If you ask ten people how cold, "very cold" is, you would get ten different answers. Academic writing should be precise, so eliminate as many unspecific determinants as possible.
• Semicolon usage -- a semicolon is most often used to separate two complete but closely related clauses. Consider the semicolon as marking a shorter pause than a period but a longer pause than a comma (this is easy to remember since a semicolon is the combination of a period and a comma). In the same way, semicolons are also used to separate complicated lists of three or more items.
• Sentence fragments –- these occur when a dependent clause is punctuated as a complete sentence. Dependent clauses must be used together with an independent clause.
• Singular words that sound plural -- when using words like "each," "every," "everybody," "nobody," or "anybody" in a sentence, we're likely thinking about more than one person or thing. But all these words are grammatically singular: they refer to just one person or thing at a time. And unfortunately, if you change the verb to correct the grammar, you create a pedantic phrase like "he or she" or "his or her."
• Split Infinitive -- an infinitive is the form of a verb that begins with "to." Splitting an infinitive means placing another word or words between the "to" and the infinitive verb. This is considered incorrect by purists, but nowadays it is considered a matter of style rather than poor grammar. Nevertheless, in academic writing, it's best to avoid split infinitives.
• Subject/pronoun disagreement –- there are two types of subject/pronoun disagreements. Shifts in number refer to the shifting between singular and plural in the same sentence. Be consistent. Shifts in person occurs when the person shifts within the sentence from first to second person, from second to third person, etc.
• That vs. which -- that clauses (called restrictive) are essential to the meaning of the sentence; which clauses (called nonrestrictive) merely add additional information. In general, most nonrestrictive clauses in academic writing are incorrect or superfluous. While proofreading, go on a "which" hunt and turn most of them into restrictive clauses. Also, "that" never follows a comma but "which" does.
• Verb Tense Agreement -- this refers to keeping the same tense [past, present, future] throughout a clause. Do not shift from one tense to another if the time for each action or event is the same. Note that, when referring to separate actions or events, the tenses may be different.
• Who / whom -- who is used as the subject of the clause it introduces; whom is used as the object of a preposition, as a direct object, or as an indirect object. A key to remembering which word to use is to simply substitute who or whom with a pronoun. If you can substitute he, she, we, or they in the clause, and it still sounds okay, then you know that who is the correct word to use. If, however, him, her, us, or them sounds more appropriate, then whom is the correct choice for the sentence.

Attending to Grammar. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; Avoiding Common Grammar Mistakes. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Carter, Ronald. Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide: Spoken and Written English Grammar and Usage . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006; Conrad, Jordan. Confusing Words. WritingExplained.org; Grammar. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Danesi, Marcel. Basic Grammar and Usage: An ESL/EFL Handbook . Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series, 2006; Grammar and Mechanics. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Grammar and Punctuation. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Taylor, Dena and Margaret Procter. Hit Parade Of Errors. In Grammar, Punctuation, And Style . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Peters, Mark. Grammar and Style . New York: Alpha, Pnquin Group, 2014.

Writing Tip

Grammar and Spell Check Programs Are Not Infallible

A basic proofreading strategy is to use the spelling and grammar check tools available from your word processing programs. This can be a quick way to catch misspelled words, unintentionally repeated words [e.g., "the the"], different spellings of proper nouns, or identify incorrect grammar and sentence construction. These tools, however, are not perfect. Always proofread what has been “corrected” after running a spell or grammar program for the following reasons:

Spell Checkers : There are several limitations to be aware of. Research has shown that “spell checkers alone cannot eliminate the written expression deficits of many students with learning disabilities” [Montgomery, 2001: 28]. Examples of this can include identifying contextual errors, such as, writing “then” for "than" or misusing homophones, such as, “to,” “too,” or “two.” If you have a learning disability, be extra aware of these issues when running a spell checker. Also, the level of a mismatch between a misspelled word and the target word provided in the list of suggested words determines whether the target word is available to choose from [or whether there are no suggestions]. In these cases, correct the word as best you can and rerun the spell checker to see if the target word appears or use a different word with the same meaning. Finally, if computer-assisted spell checking identifies two or more spellings of a proper noun in your paper [e.g.,  Allison, Alison ], then you will need to independently confirm the correct spelling. This is particularly important for proper nouns of people, places, or things derived from languages other than English if that is your first language.

Grammar Checkers : Beyond correcting obvious errors, these tools will suggest how to rearrange text based on the preferred way of writing a sentence. This, however, does not necessarily mean the sentence was grammatically incorrect to begin with; the program's algorithm may have been tagged it as “awkward.” The word structure of English can be arranged in different ways while retaining the meaning of a sentence. Therefore, if you accept a grammar checker’s changes, review the new sentence and determine if the auto corrected text still reflects the context of what you want to say and how you want to say it. Also, check the narrative flow of the paragraph. Does the preceding and following sentences around the new text still retain the narrative flow that you originally intended [i.e., the author's voice]? If not, you may need to further edit the paragraph.

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Top 20 Errors in Undergraduate Writing

Main navigation.

The Top Twenty: A Quick Guide to Troubleshooting Your Writing

Readers judge your writing by your control of certain conventions, which may change depending on your audience, purpose, and writing situation.  For example, your instructor may or may not mark errors in your paper if he’s more concerned with its argument or structure than he is with sentence-level correctness; he could also decide an error is not serious.  Some instructors may even see the errors listed below as stylistic options. However, a large-scale study by Andrea Lunsford and Karen Lunsford (2008) found that these errors are the most likely to attract readers’ negative attention.  Before handing in your papers, proofread them carefully for these errors, which are illustrated below in the sentences in italics.  

THE TOP TWENTY

1. wrong word.

Wrong word errors take a number of forms. They may convey a slightly different meaning than you intend ( compose instead of comprise ) or a completely wrong meaning ( prevaricate  instead of procrastinate ). They may also be as simple as a wrong preposition or other type of wrong word in an idiom.

Use your thesaurus and spell checker with care. If you select a word from a thesaurus without knowing its precise meaning or allow a spell checker to correct spelling automatically, you may make wrong-word errors. If prepositions and idioms are tricky for you, look up the standard usage.

Here are a couple of wrong word examples:

Did you catch my illusion to the Bible?

Illusion means “an erroneous perception of reality.” In the context of this sentence,  allusion was needed because it means "reference.”

Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene is a magnificent sixteenth-century allergy.

A spell checker replaced allegory with allergy.

2. Missing Comma after an Introductory Element

Use a comma after every introductory element—whether word, phrase or clause—to clarify where it ends and the rest of the sentence begins. When the introductory element is very short, you can skip the comma, but including it is never wrong.

Without a comma after the introductory element, it’s hard to see the location of the subject (“they”) in this sentence:

Determined to make their flight on time they rose at dawn.

3. Incomplete or Missing Documentation

Documentation practices vary from discipline to discipline.  But in academic and research writing, it’s a good idea to always cite your sources: omitting documentation can result in charges of plagiarism.

The examples below follow MLA style.  In this example, the page number of the print source for this quotation must be included.

The Social Media Bible defines social media as the “activities, practices, and behaviors among communities of people who gather online to share information, knowledge, and opinions using conversational media.”

And here, the source mentioned should be identified because it makes a specific, arguable claim:

According to one source, it costs almost twice an employee’s salary to recruit and train a replacement. 

Cite each source you refer to in the text, following the guidelines of the documentation style you are using. 

4. Vague Pronoun Reference

A pronoun (e.g., he, this, it) should refer clearly to the noun it replaces (called the antecedent).  If more than one word could be the antecedent, or if no specific antecedent is present, edit to make the meaning clear.

In this sentence, it possibly refers to more than one word:

If you put this handout in your binder, it may remind you of important tutoring strategies .

In some pronoun usage, the reference is implied but not stated.  Here, for example, you might wonder what which refers to:

The authoritarian school changed its cell phone policy, which many students resisted.

To improve this sentence, the writer needs to make explicit what students resisted.

5. Spelling

Even though technology now reviews much of our spelling for us, one of the top 20 most common errors is a spelling error.  That’s because spell checkers cannot identify many misspellings, and are most likely to miss homonyms (e.g., presence/presents), compound words incorrectly spelled as separate words, and proper nouns, particularly names. After you run the spell checker, proofread carefully for errors such as these:

Vladmir Putin is the controversial leader of Russia.

Every where she walked, she was reminded of him.

6. Mechanical Error with a Quotation

When we quote other writers, we bring their voices into our arguments.  Quotation marks crucially show where their words end and our own begin. 

Quotation marks come in pairs; don’t forget to open and close your quotations.  In most documentation styles (e.g., MLA Style), block quotations do not need quotations marks.  Consult your professor’s preferred style manual to learn how to present block quotations. 

Follow conventions when using quotation marks with other punctuation. Here, the comma should be placed inside the quotation marks:

"A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction", Virginia Woolf argues.

7. Unnecessary Comma

We often have a choice about whether or not to use a comma.  But if we add them to our sentences when and where they are not needed, then we may obscure rather than clarify our meaning.

Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements that are necessary to the meaning of the words they modify.  Here, for example, no comma is needed to set off the restrictive phrase  of working parents , which is necessary to indicate which parents the sentence is talking about.

Many children, of working parents, walk home from school by themselves.

Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) when the conjunction does not join parts of a compound sentence.  In this example, no comma is needed before the word  and  because it joins two phrases that modify the same verb, applies.

  This social scourge can be seen in urban centers, and in rural outposts.

Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series.

The students asked their TAs to review, the assignment rubric, a sample paper and their comments, before the end of the quarter.

Do not use a comma between a subject and verb.

Happily, the waiters, sat down during a break.

Do not use a comma between a verb and its object or complement.

On her way home from work, she bought, a book at the bookstore.

Do not use a comma between a preposition and its object.

On her way home from work, she bought a book at, the bookstore.

8. Unnecessary or Missing Capitalization

Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives, the first words of sentences, and important words in titles, along with certain words indicating directions and family relationships. Do not capitalize most other words. When in doubt, check a dictionary.

Financial Aid is a pressing concern for many University Students.

9. Missing Word

If you read your work outloud before submittingit, you are more likely to notice omitted words.  Be particularly careful not to omit words from quotations.

Soccer fans the globe rejoiced when the striker scored the second goal.

10. Faulty Sentence Structure

If a sentence starts out with one kind of structure and then changes to another kind, it will confuse readers.

The information that families have access to is what financial aid is available and thinking about the classes available, and how to register.

Maintain the grammatical pattern within a sentence.  Each sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the subjects and predicates must make sense together.  In the example above, thinking about the classes available does not help the reader understand the information families have access to.  Parallel structures can help your reader see the relationships among your ideas.  Here’s the sentence revised:

Families have access to information about financial aid, class availability, and registration.

11. Missing Comma with a Nonrestrictive Element

A nonrestrictive phrase or clause provides additional information that is not essential to the basic meaning of the sentence.  Use commas to set off a nonrestrictive element.

David who loved to read history was the first to head to the British Library.

The clause  who loved to read history does not affect the basic meaning of the sentence.  The clause could be taken out and the reader would still understand that David was the first to head to the British Library.  

12. Unnecessary Shift in Verb Tense

Verbs that shift from one tense to another with no clear reason can confuse readers.

Martin searched for a great horned owl.  He takes photographs of all the birds he sights.

13. Missing Comma in a Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.  When the clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), use a comma before the conjunction to indicate a pause between the two thoughts.

Miranda drove her brother and her mother waited at home.

Without the comma, a reader may think at first that Miranda drove both her brother and her mother.

14. Unnecessary or Missing Apostrophe (including its/it's)

To make a noun possessive, add either an apostrophe and an s (Ed's phone) or an apostrophe alone (the girls’ bathroom). Do not use an apostrophe in the possessive pronouns ours, yours, and hers. Use its to mean belong to it; use it's only when you mean it is or it has.

Repeated viral infections compromise doctors immune systems.

The chef lifted the skillet off it’s hook.  Its a fourteen-inch, copper skillet.

15. Fused (run-on) Sentence

A fused sentence (also called a run-on) joins clauses that could each stand alone as a sentence with no punctuation or words to link them. Fused sentences must be either divided into separate sentences or joined by adding words or punctuation.

The house was flooded with light, the moon rose above the horizon.

He wondered what the decision meant he thought about it all night.

16. Comma Splice

A comma splice occurs when only a comma separates clauses that could each stand alone as a sentence. To correct a comma splice, you can insert a semicolon or period, connect the clauses with a word such as and/or/because, or restructure the sentence.

The students rushed the field, they tore down the goalposts. 

17. Lack of pronoun/antecedent agreement

Pronouns typically must agree with their antecedents in gender (male or female, if appropriate) and in number (singular or plural). Many indefinite pronouns, such as everyone and each, are always singular.  However,  they can be used to agree with a singular antecedent in order to use inclusive or gender-neutral language.  When antecedents are joined by or or nor, the pronoun must agree with the closer antecedent. A collection noun such as team can be either singular or plural, depending on whether the members are seen as a group or individuals.

Every guest left their shoes at the door.

18. Poorly Integrated Quotation

Quotations should be logically and smoothly integrated with the writing around them, the grammar of the quotation complementing the grammar of the neighboring prose.  They usually need to be introduced (with a signal phrase) rather than dropped abruptly into the writing.

An award-winning 2009 study of friendship "understanding social networks allows us to understand how indeed, in the case of humans, the whole comes to be greater than the sum of its parts" (Christakis and Fowler 26).

"Social networks are intricate things of beauty" (Christakis and Fowler xiii). Maintaining close friendships is good for your health.

19. Missing or Unnecessary Hyphen

A compound adjective requires a hyphen when it modifies a noun that follows it.

This article describes eighteenth century theater.

A two-word verb should not be hyphenated. 

The dealers want to buy-back the computers and refurbish them.

20. Sentence Fragment

A sentence fragment is part of a sentence that is presented as if it were a complete sentence.  The following illustrate the ways sentence fragments can be created:

Without a subject

The American colonists resisted British taxation.  And started the American Revolution.

No complete verb

The pink geranium blooming in its pot.

Beginning with a subordinating word

We visited the park. Where we threw the Frisbee.

These 20 most common errors can be avoided in your writing if you reserve time to proofread your final draft before submission.

Works Cited

Lunsford, Andrea A. and Karen J. Lunsford.  “Mistakes are a Fact of Life: A National Comparative Study.”   CCC 59 (2008) 781-806.

Organizing Academic Research Papers: Common Grammar Mistakes

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

Avoid These Common Grammar Mistakes!

Cartoonist Doug Larson once observed: "If the English language made any sense, a catastrophe would be an apostrophe with fur" [ The Quotations Page ]. Given the rules and the multiple exceptions to every rule that characterizes the English language, there are many sites on the web that discuss how to avoid mistakes in grammar and word usage. Listed below are the most common and, thus, the ones you should focus on locating and removing while proofreading your research paper.

• Affect / effect -- welcome to what I consider to be the most confusing aspect in the English language. "Effect" is most often a noun and generally means “a result.” However, "effect" can be used as a verb that essentially means "to bring about," or "to accomplish." "Affect" is almost always a verb and generally means "to influence." However, affect can be used as a noun when you're talking about the mood that someone appears to have. [Ugh!]
• Apostrophes -- the position of an apostrophe depends upon whether the noun is singular or plural. For singular words, add an "s" to the end, even if the final letter is an "s." For contractions, replace missing letters with an apostrophe; but remember that it is where the letters no longer are, which is not always where the words are joined [e.g., "is not" and "isn't"].
• Capitalization -- a person’s title is capitalized when it precedes the name and is, thus, seen as part of the name [e.g., President Zachary Taylor]; once the title occurs, further references to the person holding the title appear in lowercase [e.g., the president]. For groups or organizations, the name is capitalized when it is the full name [e.g., the Department of Justice]; further references should be written in lowercase [e.g., the department]. Note that, in general, the use of capital letters should be minimized as much as possible.
• Colorless verbs and bland adjectives –- passive voice, use of the to be verb, is a lost opportunity to use a more interesting and accurate verb when you can. Adjectives can also be used very specifically to add to the sentence. Try to avoid generic or bland adjectives and be specific. Use adjectives that add to the meaning of the sentence.
• Comma splices -- a comma splice is the incorrect use of a comma to connect two independent clauses (an independent clause is a phrase that is grammatically and conceptually complete: that is, it can stand on its own as a sentence). To correct the comma splice, you can: replace the comma with a period, forming two sentences; replace the comma with a semicolon; or, join the two clauses with a conjunction such as "and," "because," "but," etc.
• Compared with vs. compared to -- compare to is to point out or imply resemblance between objects regarded as essentially of a different order; compare with is mainly to point out differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order [e.g., life has been compared to a journey; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament].
• Confusing singular possessive and plural nouns –- singular possessive nouns always take an apostrophe, with few exceptions, and plural nouns never take an apostrophe. Omitting an apostrophe or adding one where it does not belong makes the sentence unclear.
• Coordinating conjunctions -- words, such as but, and, yet, join grammatically similar elements (i.e., two nouns, two verbs, two modifiers, two independent clauses). Be sure that the elements they join are equal in importance and in structure.
• Dangling participle -- a participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject of the sentence.
• Dropped commas around clauses –-place commas around words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt a sentence. Do not use commas around restrictive clauses, which provide essential information about the subject of the sentence.
• The Existential "this" -- always include a referent with "this," such as "this theory..." or "this approach to understanding the...." With no referent, "this" can confuse the reader.
• The Existential "it" -- the "existential it" gives no reference for what "it" is. Be specific!
• Its / it's --"its" is the possessive form of "it." "It's" is the contraction of "it is." They are not interchangeable.
• Fewer / Less -- if you can count it, then use the word fewer; if cannot count it, use the word less.
• Interrupting clause –- this clause or phrase interrupts a sentence, such as, "however." Place a comma on either side of the interrupting clause.
• Know your non-restrictive clauses –- this clause or phrase modifies the subject of the sentence but is not essential to understanding the sentence. The word “which” is the relative pronoun usually used to introduce the nonrestrictive clause.
• Know your restrictive clauses –- this clause limits the meaning of the nouns it modifies. The restrictive clause introduces information that is essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence. The word “that” is the relative pronoun normally used to introduce this clause. Without this clause or phrase, the meaning of the sentence changes.
• Literally -- this word means that exactly what you say is true, no metaphors or analogies. Be aware of this if you are using "literally" to describe something.
• Lonely quotes –- quotes cannot stand on their own as a sentence. Integrate them into a sentence.
• Misuse and abuse of semicolons –- semicolons are used to separate two related independent clauses or to separate items in a list that contains commas. Do not abuse semicolons by using them often. They are best used sparingly.
• Overuse of unspecific determinates -- words such as "super" [as in super strong] or "very" [as in very strong], are unspecific determinates. How many/much is "very"? How incredibly awesome is super? If you ask ten people how cold, "very cold" is, you would get ten different answers. Academic writing should be precise, so eliminate as many unspecific determinants as possible.
• Sentence fragments –- these occur when a dependent clause is punctuated as a complete sentence. Dependent clauses must be used together with an independent clause.
• Singular words that sound plural -- when using words like "each," "every," "everybody," "nobody," or "anybody" in a sentence, we're likely thinking about more than one person or thing. But all these words are grammatically singular: they refer to just one person or thing at a time. And unfortunately, if you change the verb to correct the grammar, you create a pedantic phrase like "he or she" or "his or her."
• Split Infinitive -- an infinitive is the form of a verb that begins with "to." Splitting an infinitive means placing another word or words between the "to" and the infinitive verb. This is considered incorrect by purists, but nowadays it is considered a matter of style rather than poor grammar.
• Subject/pronoun disagreement –- there are two types of subject/pronoun disagreement. Shifts in number refer to the shifting between singular and plural in the same sentence. Be consistent. Shifts in person occurs when the person shifts within the sentence from first to second person, from second to third person, etc.
• That vs. which -- that clauses (called restrictive) are essential to the meaning of the sentence; which clauses (called nonrestrictive) merely add additional information. In general, most nonrestrictive clauses in academic writing are incorrect or superfluous. While proofreading, go on a "which" hunt and turn most of them into restrictive clauses.
• Verb Tense Agreement -- do not switch verbs from present to past or from past to present without a good reason.
• Who / whom -- who is used as the subject of the clause it introduces; whom is used as the object of a preposition, as a direct object, or as an indirect object. A key to remembering which word to use is to simply substitute who or whom with a pronoun. If you can substitute he, she, we, or they in the clause, and it still sounds okay, then you know that who is the correct word to use. If, however, him, her, us, or them sounds more appropriate, then whom is the correct choice for the sentence.

Attending to Grammar. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; Avoiding Common Grammar Mistakes. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Grammar. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Grammar and Mechanics . The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Grammar and Punctuation. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Taylor, Dena and Margaret Procter. Hit Parade Of Errors In Grammar, Punctuation, And Style . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto.

Other Resources

For more comprehensive guides to avoiding grammar and writing mistakes in your paper, consult these sites:

• English Grammar
• Guide to Grammar and Writing
• Plain Language.gov
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• Next: 11. Citing Sources >>
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Scientific Writing: Common Grammar Mistakes Explained

• Sections of a Paper

Common Grammar Mistakes Explained

• Citing Sources

Other Grammar Rules

Bad grammar might distract readers from an otherwise good paper in the same way that people on the internet use typos and poor grammar to discredit arguments. 

Poor grammar might also make your work more difficult to read. However, good writing may also make an otherwise bad paper appear better than it is. 

Here are some longer explanations for common mistakes in scientific writing: 

• Use hyphens with adjectives. My camera has a 24-mm lens, but the lens is 24 mm . 
• Remember to put a space between the number and unit if there isn't a hyphen.
• The not-so-simple instructions were not so helpful. 
• Here's more from Grammar Girl about hyphens.   
• Compound words can be open, closed, or hyphenated, and this can vary throughout time as English changes. 
• Compound words can be traced back to Old Norse and Old English kennings , which allowed speakers to expand their limited vocabulary by creating new words formed from two or more words. 
• As such, compound words might begin as open or hyphenated words and then grow into closed compound words like racehorse based on usage. 
• This is one of the joys of a living language and might require the use of a dictionary.  
• ​ Don't just place a comma based on where you think you would take a pause
• We're going to the cinema, and we're going to get popcorn.
• If you have three independent clauses, this is a run-on sentence, but you can use a period or semicolon to fix it. 
• We're going to the cinema, and we're going to get popcorn; but, we don't like butter. 
• Today, we went to the park.
• However, tacos are superb. 
• When I was following my friend home from work, she bought cotton candy. 
• No, I don't have glaucoma. 
• Jake, I need my coffee.
• Timmy has a tiny, yellow truck.
• Jack and Jill went up the hill to fetch a large, brown, cylindrical object.
• Titus Andronicus , one of Shakespeare's plays, occurs in Rome. 
• Titus,  directed by Julie Taymor, is a movie based on the play  Titus Andronicus.
• You might see someone write a similar phrase: Shakespeare's play,  Titus Andronicus.  However, this comma usage implies that Shakespeare only has one play and that play is  Titus Andronicus . 
• Here, the commas are used in the same way you might use parentheses. 
• Titus Andronicus ,  Hamlet , and  The Tempest  are all Shakespearean plays.
• Christopher Marlowe wrote  The Jew of Malta ,  Edward II and  Doctor Faustus.
• The first example uses an Oxford Comma, the comma before "and," but the second example does not. 
• The Oxford Comma was originally removed to save ink when publishing newspapers, though it can occasionally change the meaning of a sentence. More from Grammar Girl.  
• ​ "That" signals a restrictive clause, and "which" signals a non-restrictive clause.
• You should always use commas before and after a dependent clause starting with "which," and you should not use commas for a clause starting with "that."
• This means that we should use "that" before a clause that is necessary for the reader's understanding of the sentence and "which" before a clause that additional additional description or detail that is not necessarily important for the reader's understanding of the sentence.
• It isn't imperative to the sentence to know that onxadrolone is an anabolic steroid. We could remove the clause and "The doctor prescribed oxandrolone to the patient" would still make sense. 
• "The medication was oxandrolone" doesn't make sense because the we're missing why this matters. It's important that we know what the medication was because the doctor prescribed it to the patient.
• The drug that was prescribed to the patient was oxandrolone.
• The drug, which was prescribed to the patient, was oxandrolone.
• If the sentence before this one said "the patient had adverse side effects because of the drug," you could use either of the two sentences above. The first highlights the fact that the medication was prescribed. The second focuses on the name of the drug and presents the fact that it was prescribed to the patient as an additional description. You would make your choice based on the context and your message.  
• Usage of who is similar to usage of that; however, who is used when referring to people. 
• In the song "Warriors" by Imagine Dragons, they sing "we are the warriors that built this town," but they should actually sing "we are the warriors who built this town." 
• You may also separate a dependent close beginning with who using commas if the clause is not essential to your sentence. 
• Dean is a student at Duke who enjoys long walks on the beach.
• Dean, who enjoys long walks on the beach, is a student at Duke.
• Here's a longer explanation from Grammar Girl. 
• << Previous: Grammar/Language
• Next: Citing Sources >>
• Last Updated: Mar 20, 2024 2:34 PM
• URL: https://guides.mclibrary.duke.edu/scientificwriting
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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Finding Common Errors

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

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Proofreading is primarily about searching your writing for errors, both grammatical and typographical, before submitting your paper for an audience (a teacher, a publisher, etc.). Use this resource to help you find and fix common errors.

Here are some common proofreading issues that come up for many writers. For grammatical or spelling errors, try underlining or highlighting words that often trip you up. On a sentence level, take note of which errors you make frequently. Also make note of common sentence errors you have such as run-on sentences, comma splices, or sentence fragments—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future.

• Do not solely rely on your computer's spell-check—it will not get everything!
• Trace a pencil carefully under each line of text to see words individually.
• Be especially careful of words that have tricky letter combinations, like "ei/ie.”
• Take special care of homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're, as spell check will not recognize these as errors.

Left-out and doubled words

Read the paper slowly aloud to make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words. Also, try reading your paper one sentence at a time in reverse—this will enable you to focus on the individual sentences.

Sentence Fragments

Sentence fragments are sections of a sentence that are not grammatically whole sentences. For example, “Ate a sandwich” is a sentence fragment because it lacks a subject.

Make sure each sentence has a subject:

• “Looked at the OWL website.” is a sentence fragment without a subject.
• “The students looked at the OWL website.” Adding the subject “students” makes it a complete sentence.

Make sure each sentence has a complete verb.

• “They trying to improve their writing skills.” is an incomplete sentence because “trying” is an incomplete verb.
• “They were trying to improve their writing skills.” In this sentence, “were” is necessary to make “trying” a complete verb.

See that each sentence has an independent clause. Remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own. In the following examples, green highlighting indicates dependent clauses while yellow indicates independent clauses.

• “ Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully .” This is a dependent clause that needs an independent clause. As of right now, it is a sentence fragment.
• “ Students knew they were going to be tested on the handouts, which is why they read all of the handouts carefully .” The first part of the sentence, “Students knew they were going to be tested,” is an independent clause. Pairing it with a dependent clause makes this example a complete sentence.

Run-on Sentences

• Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
• If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation.
• Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into two separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.
• Run on: “ I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it. ” These are two independent clauses without any punctuation or conjunctions separating the two.
• Edited version: " I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it ." The two highlighted portions are independent clauses. They are connected by the appropriate conjunction “and,” and a comma.
• Another edited version: “ I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it .” In this case, these two independent clauses are separated into individual sentences separated by a period and capitalization.

Comma Splices

• Look closely at sentences that have commas.
• See if the sentence contains two independent clauses. Independent clauses are complete sentences.
• If there are two independent clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction (and, but, for, or, so, yet, nor). Commas are not needed for some subordinating conjunctions (because, for, since, while, etc.) because these conjunctions are used to combine dependent and independent clauses.
• Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.
• Comma Splice: “ I would like to write my paper about basketball , it's a topic I can talk about at length .” The highlighted portions are independent clauses. A comma alone is not enough to connect them.
• Edited version: “ I would like to write my paper about basketball because it's a topic I can talk about at length .” Here, the yellow highlighted portion is an independent clause while the green highlighted portion is a dependent clause. The subordinating conjunction “because” connects these two clauses.
• Edited version, using a semicolon: “ I would like to write my paper about basketball ; it’s a topic I can talk about at length .” Here, a semicolon connects two similar independent clauses.

Subject/Verb Agreement

• Find the subject of each sentence.
• Find the verb that goes with the subject.
• The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well.
• An easy way to do this is to underline all subjects. Then, circle or highlight the verbs one at a time and see if they match.
• Incorrect subject verb agreement: “ Students at the university level usually is very busy.” Here, the subject “students” is plural, and the verb “is” is singular, so they don’t match.
• Edited version: “ Students at the university level usually are very busy.” “Are” is a plural verb that matches the plural noun, “students.”

Mixed Construction

Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.

• “ Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight .” Both green highlighted sections of the sentence are dependent clauses. Two dependent clauses do not make a complete sentence.
• Edited version: “ Since I have a lot of work to do , I can't go out tonight .” The green highlighted portion is a dependent clause while the yellow is an independent clause. Thus, this example is a complete sentence.

Parallelism

Look through your paper for series of items, usually separated by commas. Also, make sure these items are in parallel form, meaning they all use a similar form.

• Example: “Being a good friend involves listening , to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.” In this example, “listening” is in present tense, “to be” is in the infinitive form, and “that you know how to have fun” is a sentence fragment. These items in the series do not match up.
• Edited version: “Being a good friend involves listening , being considerate, and having fun.” In this example, “listening,” “being,” and “having” are all in the present continuous (-ing endings) tense. They are in parallel form.

Pronoun Reference/Agreement

• Skim your paper, searching for pronouns.
• Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
• If you can't find any nouns, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
• If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
• “ Sam had three waffles for breakfast. He wasn’t hungry again until lunch.” Here, it is clear that Sam is the “he” referred to in the second sentence. Thus, the singular third person pronoun, “he,” matches with Sam.
• “ Teresa and Ariel walked the dog. The dog bit her .” In this case, it is unclear who the dog bit because the pronoun, “her,” could refer to either Teresa or Ariel.
• “ Teresa and Ariel walked the dog. Later, it bit them .” Here, the third person plural pronoun, “them,” matches the nouns that precede it. It’s clear that the dog bit both people.
• “Teresa and Ariel walked the dog. Teresa unhooked the leash, and the dog bit her .” In these sentences, it is assumed that Teresa is the “her” in the second sentence because her name directly precedes the singular pronoun, “her.”

Apostrophes

• Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in “Mary's book.”
• Look over the contractions, like “you're” for “you are,” “it's” for “it is,” etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
• Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."
• “ It’s a good day for a walk.” This sentence is correct because “it’s” can be replaced with “it is.”
• “A bird nests on that tree. See its eggs?” In this case, “its” is a pronoun describing the noun, “bird.” Because it is a pronoun, no apostrophe is needed.
• “Classes are cancelled today” is a correct sentence whereas “Class’s are cancelled today” is incorrect because the plural form of class simply adds an “-es” to the end of the word.
• “ Sandra’s markers don’t work.” Here, Sandra needs an apostrophe because the noun is a possessive one. The apostrophe tells the reader that Sandra owns the markers.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Common Grammar Mistakes

• Purpose of Guide
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• The Research Problem/Question
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Is it Peer-Reviewed?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
• Annotated Bibliography
• Grading Someone Else's Paper

Avoid These Common Grammar Mistakes!

Cartoonist Doug Larson once observed: "If the English language made any sense, a catastrophe would be an apostrophe with fur" [ The Quotations Page ]. Because the English language has complicated grammar and usage rules and most of those rules have multiple exceptions in how they are applied, there are many online sites that discuss how to avoid mistakes in grammar and word usage. Here are a few that I have found particularly helpful:

• English Grammar
• Guide to Grammar and Writing
• Lingua Franca Column , Chronicle of Higher Education
• Online Course Lady Writing Laboratory Blog
• Plain Language.gov

Listed below are the most common mistakes that are made by writers and, thus, the ones you should focus on locating and removing while proofreading your research paper.

• Affect / effect -- welcome to what I consider to be the most confusing aspect in the English language. "Effect" is most often a noun and generally means “a result.” However, "effect" can be used as a verb that essentially means "to bring about," or "to accomplish." The word "affect" is almost always a verb and generally means "to influence." However, affect can be used as a noun when you're talking about the mood that someone appears to have. [Ugh!]
• Apostrophes -- the position of an apostrophe depends upon whether the noun is singular or plural. For singluar words, add an "s" to the end, even if the final letter is an "s." For contractions, replace missing letters with an apostrophe; but remember that it is where the letters no longer are, which is not always where the words are joined [e.g., "is not" and "isn't"]. Note that contractions are rarely used in scholarly writing.
• Capitalization -- a person’s title is capitalized when it precedes the name and, thus, is seen as part of the name [e.g., President Zachary Taylor]; once the title occurs, further references to the person holding the title appear in lowercase [e.g., the president]. For groups or organizations, the name is capitalized when it is the full name [e.g., the United States Department of Justice]; further references should be written in lowercase [e.g., the department]. In general, the use of capital letters should be minimized as much as possible.
• Colorless verbs and bland adjectives –- passive voice, use of the to be verb, is a lost opportunity to use a more interesting and accurate verb when you can. Adjectives can also be used very specifically to add to the sentence. Try to avoid generic or bland adjectives and be specific. Use adjectives that add to the meaning of the sentence.
• Comma splices -- a comma splice is the incorrect use of a comma to connect two independent clauses (an independent clause is a phrase that is grammatically and conceptually complete: that is, it can stand on its own as a sentence). To correct the comma splice, you can: replace the comma with a period, forming two sentences; replace the comma with a semicolon; or, join the two clauses with a conjunction such as "and," "because," "but," etc.
• Compared with vs. compared to -- compare to is to point out or imply resemblances between objects regarded as essentially of a different order; compare with is mainly to point out differences between objects regarded as essentially of the same order [e.g., life has been compared to a journey; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament].
• Confusing singular possessive and plural nouns –- singular possessive nouns always take an apostrophe, with few exceptions, and plural nouns never take an apostrophe. Omitting an apostrophe or adding one where it does not belong makes the sentence unclear.
• Coordinating conjunctions -- words, such as "but," "and," "yet," join grammatically similar elements [i.e., two nouns, two verbs, two modifiers, two independent clauses]. Be sure that the elements they join are equal in importance and in structure.
• Dangling participle -- a participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject of the sentence.
• Dropped commas around clauses –-place commas around words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt a sentence. Do not use commas around restrictive clauses, which provide essential information about the subject of the sentence.
• The Existential "this" -- always include a referent with "this," such as "this theory..." or "this approach to understanding the...." With no referent, "this" can confuse the reader.
• The Existential "it" -- the "existential it" gives no reference for what "it" is. Be specific!
• Its / it's --"its" is the possessive form of "it." "It's" is the contraction of "it is" or "it has." They are not interchangeable and the latter should be avoided in scholarly writing.
• Fewer / Less -- if you can count it, then use the word fewer; if you cannot count it, use the word less.
• Interrupting clause –- this clause or phrase interrupts a sentence, such as, "however." Place a comma on either side of the interrupting clause. An interrupting clause should generally be avoided in academic writing.
• Know your non-restrictive clauses –- this clause or phrase modifies the subject of the sentence, but it is not essential to understanding the sentence. The word “which” is the relative pronoun usually used to introduce the nonrestrictive clause.
• Know your restrictive clauses –- this clause limits the meaning of the nouns it modifies. The restrictive clause introduces information that is essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence. The word “that” is the relative pronoun normally used to introduce this clause. Without this clause or phrase, the meaning of the sentence changes.
• Literally -- this word means that exactly what you say is true, no metaphors or analogies. Be aware of this if you are using "literally" to describe something. The term literally should never be applied to subjective expressions [i.e., "literally the most comfortable meeting"] or to imprecise measuerments [i.e., "literally dozens of protesters"].
• Lonely quotes –- unlike in journalistic writing, quotes in scholarly writing cannot stand on their own as a sentence. Integrate them into a paragraph.
• Misuse and abuse of semicolons –- semicolons are used to separate two related independent clauses or to separate items in a list that contains commas. Do not abuse semicolons by using them often; they are best used sparingly.
• Overuse of unspecific determinates -- words such as "super" [as in super strong] or "very" [as in very strong], are unspecific determinates. How many/much is "very"? How incredibly awesome is super? If you ask ten people how cold, "very cold" is, you would get ten different answers. Academic writing should be precise, so eliminate as many unspecific determinants as possible.
• Semicolon usage -- a semicolon is most often used to separate two complete but closely related clauses. Consider the semicolon as marking a shorter pause than a period but a longer pause than a comma (this is easy to remember since a semicolon is the combination of a period and a comma). In the same way, semicolons are also used to separate complicated lists of three or more items.
• Sentence fragments –- these occur when a dependent clause is punctuated as a complete sentence. Dependent clauses must be used together with an independent clause.
• Singular words that sound plural -- when using words like "each," "every," "everybody," "nobody," or "anybody" in a sentence, we're likely thinking about more than one person or thing. But all these words are grammatically singular: they refer to just one person or thing at a time. And unfortunately, if you change the verb to correct the grammar, you create a pedantic phrase like "he or she" or "his or her."
• Split Infinitive -- an infinitive is the form of a verb that begins with "to." Splitting an infinitive means placing another word or words between the "to" and the infinitive verb. This is considered incorrect by purists, but nowadays it is considered a matter of style rather than poor grammar. Nevertheless, in academic writing, it's best to avoid split infinitives.
• Subject/pronoun disagreement –- there are two types of subject/pronoun disagreements. Shifts in number refer to the shifting between singular and plural in the same sentence. Be consistent. Shifts in person occurs when the person shifts within the sentence from first to second person, from second to third person, etc.
• That vs. which -- that clauses (called restrictive) are essential to the meaning of the sentence; which clauses (called nonrestrictive) merely add additional information. In general, most nonrestrictive clauses in academic writing are incorrect or superfluous. While proofreading, go on a "which" hunt and turn most of them into restrictive clauses. Also, "that" never follows a comma but "which" does.
• Verb Tense Agreement -- this refers to keeping the same tense [past, present, future] throughout a clause. Do not shift from one tense to another if the time for each action or event is the same. Note that, when referring to separate actions or events, the tenses may be different.
• Who / whom -- who is used as the subject of the clause it introduces; whom is used as the object of a preposition, as a direct object, or as an indirect object. A key to remembering which word to use is to simply substitute who or whom with a pronoun. If you can substitute he, she, we, or they in the clause, and it still sounds okay, then you know that who is the correct word to use. If, however, him, her, us, or them sounds more appropriate, then whom is the correct choice for the sentence.

Attending to Grammar . Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College; Avoiding Common Grammar Mistakes . Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Carter, Ronald. Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide: Spoken and Written English Grammar and Usage . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006; Conrad, Jordan. Confusing Words . WritingExplained.org; Grammar . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Danesi, Marcel. Basic Grammar and Usage: An ESL/EFL Handbook . Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series, 2006; Grammar and Mechanics . The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Grammar and Punctuation . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Taylor, Dena and Margaret Procter. Hit Parade Of Errors In Grammar, Punctuation, And Style . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Peters, Mark. Grammar and Style . New York: Alpha, Pnquin Group, 2014.

• << Previous: Proofreading Your Paper
• Next: Writing Concisely >>
• Last Updated: Sep 8, 2023 12:19 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.txstate.edu/socialscienceresearch

6 Common Mistakes Students Make With Research Papers — and How to Avoid Them

• Post author By Denis John
• Post date July 5, 2023

Image Source: Pexels

Embarking on a research paper can be an intimidating prospect for students, but steering clear of common mistakes will greatly enhance the process.

To get you up to speed, we’ll delve into six frequent errors and offer valuable tips on how to circumvent them, ensuring you produce a well-crafted and successful academic piece.

Mistake 1: Insufficient Research and the Art of Note-taking

A prevalent issue among research paper novices is inadequate preparation before diving into writing. Undertaking extensive research on your chosen topic and distilling critical information are vital steps that lay the groundwork for a well-rounded argument.

To avoid this mistake, dedicate sufficient time to explore diverse sources like books, articles, or online databases. Also, develop an effective note-taking system to clearly identify key points, themes, and evidence relevant to constructing your narrative later on. As you invest in researching properly upfront, you’ll save valuable time during the actual writing process.

Mistake 2: Plagiarism Pitfalls – How to Properly Credit Sources

Plagiarism is a major academic offense that can result in severe consequences for students. To sidestep this trap , ensure you attribute credit where it’s due, whether quoting or paraphrasing someone else’s work. Familiarize yourself with proper citation styles like APA, MLA, or Chicago to accurately reference your sources.

Additionally, using plagiarism detection tools and double-checking your writing for originality will help guarantee the integrity of your research paper. By conscientiously acknowledging the scholarship and ideas of others in your field, you’ll build credibility while avoiding repercussions tied to plagiarized content.

Mistake 3: Not Fully Understanding the Guidelines

Misinterpreting or overlooking crucial guidelines can be detrimental to your research paper’s success, causing unnecessary setbacks in an already demanding task.

To write a research paper with academic writing standards , thoroughly read and internalize the criteria provided by your instructor, including format, citation style, length constraints, and deadline expectations. Seek clarification on any ambiguous points before you commence writing.

Adhering closely to these requirements ensures that you deliver precisely what educators expect while also demonstrating your diligence and mastery of academic conventions.

Mistake 4: Ineffective Thesis Statements and Crafting Your Argument

A clear, compelling thesis statement is the cornerstone of a solid research paper. It sets the stage for presenting your argument confidently and coherently throughout the piece. Weak or vague statements can hinder readers’ engagement, leaving them puzzled over your central claim’s purpose and relevance.

To improve upon this aspect, meticulously refine your thesis by focusing on brevity, precision, and significance to your research question. As you analyze evidence during the writing process, continually reassess whether it supports your assertion effectively or demands further revisions.

Mistake 5: Failure to Structure and Organize Your Paper Efficiently

A well-organized research paper is crucial for maintaining the reader’s interest and making your argument more accessible. Disjointed thoughts or insufficient transitions between sections can hinder the overall flow.

To avoid this pitfall, compose a detailed outline that breaks down each segment of your paper – including introduction, body paragraphs, sub-topics, and conclusion. Logical progression, smooth transitions, and concise headings will make it easier for readers to follow your train of thought while proving you’ve mastered critical thinking skills necessary in academic writing.

Mistake 6: Neglecting Proofreading, Editing, and Revision Techniques

Many students underestimate the significance of reviewing their research papers for mistakes or areas requiring improvements. To avoid this:

• Conduct multiple rounds of proofreading to eliminate errors in grammar, syntax, punctuation, and consistency.
• Edit your paper by trimming any wordiness or repetitiveness while enhancing clarity.
• Investing time in revisions and feedback from peers or professors

This will ultimately polish your research paper into a comprehensive piece that reflects competence and skillful writing.

Wrapping Up

The overarching misstep students make is underestimating the amount of time and effort they need to put into a research paper, so get this aspect right and the rest will fall into place.

Proofreading Techniques and Tips for Academic Writing

Most early career researchers are not aware of editing and proofreading techniques and even experienced researchers sometimes struggle with proofreading their papers. Most researchers do not have the time or resources to proofread their work thoroughly if they are working under tight deadlines. Many feel too fatigued to proofread having spent months and perhaps years writing, editing and revising their research paper. Others may be too involved in their research to be able to identify inadvertent errors or mistakes in their writing. Then there are those whose first language is not English and therefore they lack strong language skills or knowledge of grammar making it challenging for them to proofread.

There are many reasons why a researcher might not be able to proofread their piece of research, but this does not lessen the significance of it. Proofreading, editing and revising are all important aspects of your research writing process and each of them must be done seriously.  

Table of Contents

What is proofreading and why is it important, proofreading techniques.

Proofreading is the method that corrects grammar, spelling, typographical and punctuation errors in a draft manuscript. Proofreaders typically check for uniformity in formatting and referencing and highlight inconsistencies in terms or explanations used in the text. If done well, proofreading helps address errors like comma splices , run-on sentences, and sentence fragments. Proofreading also helps you catch and fix  minute errors that may have crept in as you focused on your research and writing.

It is essential to note here that proofreading is different from editing . Many researchers and doctoral students tend to view editing and proofreading in the writing process as one and the same. Remember that editing is done prior to proofreading and involves focusing on the overall clarity of the research paper by addressing grammar and spelling issues and keeping the readability in check.

While proofreading in academic writing can be challenging, there are some proofreading tips and techniques that can help you:

Pay attention to detail : This is perhaps the most important skill to master as you begin to proofread your research paper. It is important to keep distractions aside and concentrate only on proofreading, so that you are able to identify minor errors in grammar or inaccuracies in data.

Focus on one type of error at a time: Remember, proofreading in academic writing is not an easy task. Therefore, address one common type of error at a time as you read your manuscript. You might start by concentrating simply on the spelling, grammar, or even punctuation issues. Using this approach can ensure that you do not miss possible errors inadvertently.

Read the manuscript aloud: This important proofreading technique can help improve the quality of your final manuscript. As you read the sections of the research paper aloud, you will be able to mark and identify passages that may be vague or need further refinement. You will also be able to spot other errors that may not be obvious if the manuscript is read in the mind.

Request someone to read it: It is always a good idea to have someone else read your manuscript after you are done with the proofreading exercise. With the research paper under a fresh pair of eyes, missed errors can be highlighted.

Keep a checklist: Make a list to ensure that you have addressed all important aspects of the proofreading exercise like, punctuation, grammar, spelling, formatting requirements and references or citations. An organized checklist will help you keep track of the kind of errors you have to look for and the kind of errors you have already checked.

Read backwards: This proofreading technique is suggested by experts to help you focus on how well you have constructed your sentences in the paper. Reading backwards, one sentence at a time, can help your brain to identify errors in sentences that may otherwise go unnoticed.

We hope the above editing and proofreading techniques will be helpful when you proofread your next piece of research. As an alternative, you can also choose to use AI tools like Paperpal as a method of proofreading. AI tools like these can help you save time and effort by automating many of the tedious and time-consuming aspects of proofreading.

Paperpal is an AI writing assistant that help academics write better, faster with real-time suggestions for in-depth language and grammar correction. Trained on millions of research manuscripts enhanced by professional academic editors, Paperpal delivers human precision at machine speed. Try it for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime , which unlocks unlimited access to premium features like academic translation, paraphrasing, contextual synonyms, consistency checks, submission readiness and more. It’s like always having a professional academic editor by your side! Go beyond limitations and experience the future of academic writing.  Get Paperpal Prime now at just US$12 a month!

Related Reads:

• 5 Essential Research Paper Grammar Checks Every Author Must Do
• What are Synonyms and How Do You Use Synonyms in Academic Writing 
• Understanding the Difference Between To and Too
• 3 Easy Ways for Researchers to Improve Their Academic Vocabulary

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