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Picker supports Help for Heroes to reinforce their mission with an evidence-driven strategy

Help for heroes partners with picker to understand the extent to which their services support the needs of their beneficiaries and for policy development and campaigning..

Help for Heroes is a charity that provides support for veterans whose everyday lives have been impacted by physical or psychological injury whilst serving in the British Armed Forces. Much has evolved since the charity’s inception in 2007, and the needs of veterans continue to change. Help for Heroes sought help from Picker to further understand the needs of veterans to help inform their future strategy. Help for Heroes was particularly eager to understand the current challenges of veterans, including how existing needs are changing as well as identifying and anticipating future and emerging needs. This was important for understanding the extent to which their services support beneficiaries, and for policy development and campaigning.

To understand veterans’ current and emerging needs, Picker reviewed over 100 recently published articles via Google Scholar using search terms agreed with Help for Heroes. This was supplemented with information on veteran and military-related websites and support charities. Evidence from the review suggested that not all veterans seek help when needed.

The main barriers identified included:

• Stigma, which may prevent veterans from accessing support for mental health difficulties and/or for loneliness and social isolation, although there is some evidence that the level of stigma is declining with service users seeking help more quickly.
• Lack of awareness of symptoms of a mental health problem.
• Perceiving services as ineffective with a call for civilian services to better understand veterans’ unique experiences and needs.
• Challenges navigating services in terms of information on the services and types of support available, in addition to how and when they should be accessed.

By understanding some of the barriers to asking for or accessing support, Help for Heroes can ensure that their services are as accessible as possible to the UK veteran population.

The key emerging needs for veterans highlighted in the review were:

• An increase in the proportion of veterans experiencing mental health problems.
• Increasing numbers of female veterans with reported gender-specific barriers to accessing support.
• A need for further understanding of social isolation/loneliness in veterans.
• Links between physical and mental health issues necessitating the need for integrated and holistic care.
• Wider issues such as those relating to unemployment.

Certain groups were highlighted as likely to benefit from more focused attention after leaving the service: early service leavers, younger veterans, women, and those with pre-existing vulnerabilities.

A report was generated that outlined the findings from the evidence review, which was shared in full with staff at Help for Heroes. The findings from the report were drawn on, together with other inputs to develop a new Theory of Change and refreshed 10-year strategy , with Help for Heroes changing its mission, vision, and purpose statement to align with this. Internal workshops were held to communicate the changes and facilitate cultural change.

Externally, the key cohorts within the armed forces who had been identified as particularly high-risk or vulnerable were given greater attention. A philanthropic event was held for women in business to learn more about the experiences of ex-servicewomen, for instance, and a Westminster engagement event was held to focus on veterans’ mental health support needs.

Internally at Help for Heroes, the desired cultural shift is beginning to happen, with increased conversations around shared objectives to support members of the armed forces community who face challenges. Externally, Help for Heroes has seen an increase in the number of people coming forward to seek help following the reduction of previously-identified barriers to support, such as providing proof as a first step.

What’s next

Help for Heroes would like to further consider the support needs of veterans’ partners and families, who were not a point of focus in the initial evidence review. The Picker Principles will be incorporated further as Help for Heroes develop its service provision, ensuring individual involvement in decisions and support for self-care

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A New Impact-Led Theory of Change for Help For Heroes

“Changing to becoming beneficiary-led, evidence-led and impact-led is quite a big cultural shift, rather than developing organically based on experience and instinct, which is probably where we’ve come from.” – Beth Miles, Help for Heroes’ Marketing, Communications and Public Affairs Director

Help for Heroes, the charity that supports the armed forces community, began working with Trust Impact in May 2021. Through rigorous and honest self-reflection, inspired and guided by Trust Impact, the charity has become more impact focused, uniting its different departments behind a clear, simple vision and purpose.

The charity has developed a new Theory of Change and impact measurement framework and is now piloting a live impact dashboard fed by simplified impact measures. Help for Heroes has undergone a big cultural shift, making it more focused and telling a far clearer and more compelling story about its impact.

The beginning

Since 2007, Help for Heroes has been there for more than 25,000 current and former Armed Forces personnel (and their families) to offer physical, psychological, financial and welfare support. Over time, that support has diversified organically into many different areas to respond to need, ranging from lobbying for policy change, to sports and social activities, mental health, grants, research and much more.

With this growth to almost 250 staff and many different methods of support, a gradual drift in alignment of purpose and methodology across the charity was perhaps inevitable. That’s where Trust Impact came in.

Focus on purpose

Trust Impact began a series of workshops and interviews with staff of all levels of seniority at Help for Heroes, as well as speaking directly to beneficiaries, supporters, partners, the community and the wider sector.

“What we discovered was that we were all broadly in the same space, but weren’t as aligned as we could be,” says Beth.

“We all interpreted our purpose, roles and impact slightly differently and there was a need to bring us all together so we were working towards the same vision.

“The needs of the community we support had changed over time and it was right at this point to ask ourselves, what impact do we really want to have? Trust Impact guided our journey for answers.”

The Trust Impact team worked collaboratively to refine the charity’s statements of need, vision, and purpose, ensuring these are clear about the scope and target impact of their work.

Eventually, their purpose was distilled down to the following definition: We champion the Armed Forces Community and help them live well after service

Theory of Change

Help for Heroes previously had a Theory of Change but it had become less relevant as the charity grew and diversified. Their newly-defined purpose formed the basis of a new Theory of Change. It became a simple, visual translation of how that purpose is enacted, enabling everyone at the charity to understand its impact, measure its effectiveness and to inform everyday decision making.

As Beth explains: “The new Theory of Change quickly became the basis to talk about what we want to achieve and how we were going to do it, in a simple way that brought everyone together.

“The process was very inclusive with lots of inputs over four three-hour workshops. It was quite a lot of work, but once you get there, you look at it and think, ‘That’s so simple!’

“Trust Impact facilitated and guided us really well and continually pushed us to keep things as simple and specific as possible,” adds Beth.

The Help for Heroes team agreed four key outcomes which all of their services should help achieve:

• Adapted to and managing condition​
• Equipped for life after service​
• Access to support​
• Valued and recognised

Beth gives an example of how the Theory of Change has helped bring clarity to their ways of working:

“We have a recovery team which is split into seven services. They would all operate, measure their impact and deliver their services separately. Our new Theory of Change helps us think about the individuals we support first and how all of those different activities might work together to deliver impact, rather than thinking about the impact each of those services might make individually. That has been a big shift.”

Disentangling the data

Multiple services all working separately had led to density and complexity in how Help for Heroes recorded their impact data.

They had more than 10 different types of databases, ranging from powerful technologies to excel spreadsheets. In some cases, the same outcomes were being achieved through the delivery of different services to the same individual. Different data collection formats were being used, each set up differently to meet specific requirements, resulting in a huge volume of outcome information that was being collected in different ways, and sometimes at multiple times, in relation to the same individual.

We helped the charity lift its gaze from this web of information and work towards a simple, accessible and visual way to tell their collective impact story.

‘Measure What Matters’

The next stage was to develop and implement an impact framework. The framework is streamlining existing data-collecting process so the data offers more insight into the impact they’re having on beneficiaries.

“We collected lots of data across our seven services, but we were not focused enough on what it was telling us,” explains Beth. “We need to be more insight-driven than data-driven,

“Changing to becoming beneficiary-led, evidence-led and impact-led is quite a big cultural shift, rather than doing what we think are the right things based on experience and instinct, which is probably where we’ve come from.

“We focused on measuring what matters to reach an impact framework which is simple, accessible, and understood by everybody in the organisation.

“Trust Impact made the process very inclusive, so although our new framework will mean a change in the way people work, everyone is willing to go on that journey because they have been involved in the development of the strategy and understand the principles behind it. It isn’t as hard as it could potentially have been.”

Trust Impact is now working to launch a pilot of Help for Heroes’ new live impact dashboard which brings together impact data from across the organisation. This will inform our learning as Help for Heroes start to embed the new impact framework over a transitional period of up to 18 months. The pilot will provide rich learning about how to implement the new impact framework and help to shape internal reporting.

The framework marks the shift to a beneficiary-led and evidence-led approach . Rather than the multiple ways the charity previously recorded their beneficiaries’ data, depending on which service they were engaging with, the new systems will collect data from each individual service user and use it to inform all of their services. The priority is for impact reporting to be timely, simple, accessible and above all, useful for impact-led decision making.

Help for Heroes launches its new ‘Live Well Strategy’ in October which will be built around the Theory of Change and impact framework. That will form the basis of future data visualisation which will help them understand what is working well and making the biggest difference to beneficiaries. It will also offer insight into where there are opportunities to broaden reach or deepen impact. In addition, it will support impact-led decision making, helping them to inspire the continuing support of millions of people across Britain.

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Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

Big Ideas Articles & More

What makes a hero, we all have an inner hero, argues philip zimbardo . here's how to find it..

This month, Greater Good features videos of a presentation by Philip Zimbardo, the world-renowned psychologist perhaps best known for his infamous Stanford Prison Experiment. In his talk, Zimbardo discusses the psychology of evil and of heroism, exploring why good people sometimes turn bad and how we can encourage more people to perform heroic acts. In this excerpt from his talk, he zeroes in on his research and educational program designed to foster the “heroic imagination.”

More on Heroism

Watch the video of Philip Zimbardo's Greater Good talk on heroism.

Read his essay on " The Banality of Heroism ," which further explores the conditions that can promote heroism vs. evil.

Read this Greater Good essay on the "psychology of the bystander."

Learn more about Zimbardo's Heroic Imagination Project.

What makes us good? What makes us evil?

Research has uncovered many answers to the second question: Evil can be fostered by dehumanization, diffusion of responsibility, obedience to authority, unjust systems, group pressure, moral disengagement, and anonymity, to name a few.

But when we ask why people become heroic, research doesn’t yet have an answer. It could be that heroes have more compassion or empathy; maybe there’s a hero gene; maybe it’s because of their levels of oxytocin—research by neuroeconomist Paul Zak has shown that this “love hormone” in the brain increases the likelihood you’ll demonstrate altruism. We don’t know for sure.

I believe that heroism is different than altruism and compassion. For the last five years, my colleagues and I have been exploring the nature and roots of heroism, studying exemplary cases of heroism and surveying thousands of people about their choices to act (or not act) heroically. In that time, we’ve come to define heroism as an activity with several parts.

First, it’s performed in service to others in need—whether that’s a person, group, or community—or in defense of certain ideals. Second, it’s engaged in voluntarily, even in military contexts, as heroism remains an act that goes beyond something required by military duty. Third, a heroic act is one performed with recognition of possible risks and costs, be they to one’s physical health or personal reputation, in which the actor is willing to accept anticipated sacrifice. Finally, it is performed without external gain anticipated at the time of the act.

Simply put, then, the key to heroism is a concern for other people in need—a concern to defend a moral cause, knowing there is a personal risk, done without expectation of reward.

By that definition, then, altruism is heroism light—it doesn’t always involve a serious risk. Compassion is a virtue that may lead to heroism, but we don’t know that it does. We’re just now starting to scientifically distinguish heroism from these other concepts and zero in on what makes a hero.

My work on heroism follows 35 years of research in which I studied the psychology of evil, including my work on the infamous Stanford Prison Experiment . The two lines of research aren’t as different as they might seem; they’re actually two sides of the same coin.

A key insight from research on heroism so far is that the very same situations that inflame the hostile imagination in some people, making them villains, can also instill the heroic imagination in other people, prompting them to perform heroic deeds.

Take the Holocaust. Christians who helped Jews were in the same situation as other civilians who helped imprison or kill Jews, or ignored their suffering. The situation provided the impetus to act heroically or malevolently. Why did some people choose one path or the other?

Another key insight from my research has been that there’s no clear line between good and evil. Instead, the line is permeable; people can cross back and forth between it.

This is an idea wonderfully represented in an illusion by M. C. Escher, at left. When you squint and focus on the white as the figures and the black as the background, you see a world full of angels and tutus dancing around happily. But now focus on the black as the figures and the white as the background: Now it’s a world full of demons.

What Escher’s telling us is that the world is filled with angels and devils, goodness and badness, and these dark and light aspects of human nature are our basic yin and yang. That is, we all are born with the capacity to be anything. Because of our incredible brains, anything that is imaginable becomes possible, anything that becomes possible can get transformed into action, for better or for worse. 

Some people argue humans are born good or born bad; I think that’s nonsense. We are all born with this tremendous capacity to be anything, and we get shaped by our circumstances—by the family or the culture or the time period in which we happen to grow up, which are accidents of birth; whether we grow up in a war zone versus peace; if we grow up in poverty rather than prosperity.

George Bernard Shaw captured this point in the preface to his great play “Major Barbara”: “Every reasonable man and woman is a potential scoundrel and a potential good citizen. What a man is depends upon his character what’s inside. What he does and what we think of what he does depends on upon his circumstances.”

So each of us may possess the capacity to do terrible things. But we also posses an inner hero; if stirred to action, that inner hero is capable of performing tremendous goodness for others.

Another conclusion from my research is that few people do evil and fewer act heroically. Between these extremes in the bell curve of humanity are the masses—the general population who do nothing, who I call the “reluctant heroes”—those who refuse the call to action and, by doing nothing, often implicitly support the perpetrators of evil.

So on this bell curve of humanity, villains and heroes are the outliers. The reluctant heroes are the rest. What we need to discover is how to give a call to service to this general population. How do we make them aware of the evil that exists? How do we prevent them from getting seduced to the dark side?

We don’t yet have a recipe for creating heroes, but we have some clues, based on the stories of some inspiring heroes.

I love the story of a wonderful nine-year-old Chinese boy, who I call a dutiful hero. In 2008, there was a massive earthquake in China’s Szechuan province. The ceiling fell down on a school, killing almost all the kids in it. This kid escaped, and as he was running away he noticed two other kids struggling to get out. He ran back and saved them. He was later asked, “Why did you do that?” He replied, “I was the hall monitor! It was my duty, it was my job to look after my classmates!”

This perfectly illustrates what I call the “heroic imagination,” a focus on one’s duty to help and protect others. For him, it was cultivated by being assigned this role of hall monitor.

Another story: Irena Sendler was a Polish hero, a Catholic woman who saved at least 2,500 Jewish kids who were holed up in the Warsaw ghetto that the Nazis had erected. She was able to convince the parents of these kids to allow her to smuggle them out of the ghetto to safety. To do this, she organized a network.

That is a key principle of heroism: Heroes are most effective not alone but in a network. It’s through forming a network that people have the resources to bring their heroic impulses to life.

What these stories suggest is that every one of us can be a hero. Through my work on heroism, I’ve become even more convinced that acts of heroism don’t just arrive from truly exceptional people but from people placed in the right circumstance, given the necessary tools to transform compassion into heroic action.

Building on these insights, I have helped to start a program designed to learn more of heroism and to create the heroes of tomorrow.

The Heroic Imagination Project (HIP) is amplifying the voice of the world’s quiet heroes, using research and education networks to promote a heroic imagination in everyone, and then empower ordinary people of all ages and nations to engage in extraordinary acts of heroism. We want to democratize the notion of heroism, to emphasize that most heroes are ordinary people; it’s the act that’s extraordinary.

There are already a lot of great heroes projects out there, such as the Giraffe Heroes Project . The HIP is unique in that it’s the only one encouraging research into heroism, because there’s very little.

Here are a few key insights from research we’ve done surveying 4,000 Americans from across the country. Each of these statements is valid after controlling for all demographic variables, such as education and socioeconomic status.

Heroes surround us. One in five—20 percent—qualify as heroes, based on the definition of heroism I provide above. Seventy-two percent report helping another person in a dangerous emergency. Sixteen percent report whistle blowing on an injustice. Six percent report sacrificing for a non-relative or stranger. Fifteen percent report defying an unjust authority. And not one of these people has been formally recognized as a hero.

Opportunity matters. Most acts of heroism occur in urban areas, where there are more people and more people in need. You’re not going to be a hero if you live in the suburbs. No shit happens in the suburbs!

Education matters. The more educated you are, the more likely you are to be a hero, I think because you are more aware of situations.

Volunteering matters. One third of all the sample who were heroes also had volunteered significantly, up to 59 hours a week.

Gender matters. Males reported performing acts of heroism more than females. I think this is because women tend not to regard a lot of their heroic actions as heroic. It’s just what they think they’re supposed to do for their family or a friend.

Race matters. Blacks were eight times more likely than whites to qualify as heroes. We think that’s in part due to the rate of opportunity. (In our next survey, we’re going to track responses by area code to see if in fact these heroes are coming from inner cities.

Personal history matters. Having survived a disaster or personal trauma makes you three times more likely to be a hero and a volunteer.

Based on these insights into heroism, we’ve put together a toolkit for potential heroes, especially young heroes in training, who already have opportunities to act heroically when they’re kids, such as by opposing bullying.

A first step is to take the “hero pledge,” a public declaration on our website that says you’re willing to be a hero in waiting. It’s a pledge “to act when confronted with a situation where I feel something is wrong,” “to develop my heroic abilities,” and “to believe in the heroic capacities within myself and others, so I can build and refine them.”

You can also take our four-week “Hero Challenge” mini-course online to help you develop your heroic muscles. The challenge may not require you to do anything heroic, but it’s training you to be heroic. And we offer more rigorous, research-based education and training programs for middle and high schools, corporations, and the millitary that make people aware of the social factors that produce passivity, inspire them to take positive civic action, and encourage the skills needed to consistently translate heroic impulses into action.

We’re also in the process of creating an Encyclopedia of Heroes, a collection of hero stories from all over the world. Not just all the classic ones and fictional ones, but ones that people from around the world are going to send in, so they can nominate ordinary heroes with a picture and a story. It will be searchable, so you can find heroes by age, gender, city and country. These are the unsung, quiet heroes—they do their own thing, put themselves in danger, defend a moral cause, help someone in need. And we want to highlight them. We want them to be inspirational to other people just like them.

Essentially, we’re trying to build the social habits of heroes, to build a focus on the other, shifting away from the “me” and toward the “we.” As the poet John Donne wrote: “No man [or woman] is an island entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main; … any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind. And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.”

So every person is part of humanity. Each person’s pulse is part of humanity’s heartbeat. Heroes circulate the life force of goodness in our veins. And what the world needs now is more heroes—you. It’s time to take action against evil.

About the Author

Philip Zimbardo

Philip Zimbardo, Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of psychology at Stanford University, a professor at Palo Alto University, a two-time past president of the Western Psychological Association, and a past president of the American Psychological Association. He is also the author of the best-selling book The Lucifer Effect and the president of the Heroic Imagination Project .

You May Also Enjoy

Very nice information. In this world this is the very difficult question that what makes people good or evil. This post has helped a lot to understand the difference. Actually in my point of it depends upon the individual that what he/she thinks. If he/she thinks negative all the time them they became evil and thinking vice versa makes them good.

Andrew | 2:31 am, January 19, 2011 | Link

I really like reading this article because there are many individuals in the world that are heroes but are not recognized.  Heroes that have help humanity progress and prosper have fought with the greatest weapons which are love, respect, sincerity, and peace.  The governments that have had the greatest fear of seeing people free have always use war for colonization, genocide, and false treaties.  However, love is much stronger than war, and thanks to the modern forms of communication and exchange of information, more people are united for peace and do not support or participate in colonization or human genocide.  Since the start of humanity most people have use peace to progress, few have participated in war and few are participating. May peace prevail on earth!

Victor | 7:48 pm, January 29, 2011 | Link

A son raising up against an evil father. A brother standing up to a bully attacking his sibling. A stranger rallying to the side of a woman being assaulted in the street.

My sons are my strength. My reason to help others, that they may find the help they need in their lives.

pops | 9:39 am, February 3, 2011 | Link

Of course religion and eduction has a big impact on a child. But once a child is trying to live a good life (earning good karma or call it whatever you want) good things will happen to that child and he or she will recognize this.

So I think you can definitely change from evil to good.. maybe you _can be changed_ from good to evil.

Massud Hosseini | 7:28 am, September 17, 2011 | Link

Actually in my point of it depends upon the individual that what he/she thinks

asalah | 9:41 pm, September 24, 2011 | Link

“Research has uncovered many answers to the second question: Evil can be fostered by dehumanization, diffusion of responsibility, obedience to authority, unjust systems, group pressure, moral disengagement, and anonymity, to name a few.”  <—What I find amazing about this statement is that anything is being branded “evil” at all.  Well, maybe not.  Relativism seems to be something that’s employed when convenient, disregarded when it’s not.

Kukri | 6:58 pm, November 6, 2011 | Link

This is a very comprehensive discussion on heroism. Victor makes a great point in his comment about how most heroes go unnoticed by the vast majority of people. I think that lack of notoriety is part of what it means to be a hero: doing that which is unexpected without the need for a pat on the back. quotes for facebook status

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When a sniper’s bullet hits one soldier and misses the person next to him, that alone does not make the wounded soldier more heroic.

brokesteves | 6:10 am, April 24, 2012 | Link

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Lay perspectives on the social and psychological functions of heroes

Elaine l. kinsella.

1 Department of Psychology and Centre for Social Issues Research, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Timothy D. Ritchie

2 Department of Psychology, Saint Xavier University, Chicago, IL, USA

Eric R. Igou

3 Department of Psychology, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Declaring and thinking about heroes are common human preoccupations but surprisingly aspects of heroism that reinforce these behaviors are not well-understood. In four thematically consistent studies, we attempt to identify lay perspectives about the psychological functions served by heroes. In Study 1, participants ( n = 189) freely generated open-ended descriptions of hero functions, which were then sorted by independent coders into 14 categories (e.g., instill hope, guide others). In Study 2, in an attempt to identify the most important functions associated with heroes, participants ( n = 249) rated how each function corresponded with their personal views about heroes. Results from a confirmatory factor analysis suggested that a three-factor model of hero functions fit the data well: participants thought that heroes enhanced the lives of others, promoted morals, and protected individuals from threats. In Study 3 ( n = 242), participants rated heroes as more likely to fulfill a protecting function than either leaders or role models. In Studies 4A ( n = 38) and 4B ( n = 102), participants indicated that thinking about a hero (relative to a leader or an acquaintance) during psychological threat fulfilled personal enhancement, moral modeling, and protection needs. In all, these findings provide an empirical basis to spur additional research about the social and psychological functions that heroes offer.

INTRODUCTION

Heroes have played an important role in society for centuries ( Campbell, 1949 ) and their influence remains evident and prevalent in modern life ( Zimbardo, 2007 ; Sullivan and Venter, 2010 ; Allison and Goethals, 2011 , 2013a ; Franco et al., 2011 ; Kinsella et al., 2015 ). Survey data from one recent sample revealed that 66% of the participants reported having a personal hero ( Kinsella et al., 2010 ). This underscores the fact that heroism is a pervasive and everyday phenomenon. Unsurprisingly, it has been posited that heroes exert psychological influence on others ( Sullivan and Venter, 2005 ). The variety of heroes that exist—whistle-blowers, martyrs, civil heroes, political heroes, and humanitarians ( Zimbardo, 2007 )—suggests the far-reaching utility of heroes. Yet, heroism has received relatively little attention in psychology ( Becker and Eagly, 2004 ; Sullivan and Venter, 2005 ). Related topics such as generativity (e.g., Mansfield and McAdams, 1996 ), prosocial behavior (e.g., Hart and Fegley, 1995 ), whistleblowing (e.g., Lewis et al., 2014 ), and moral exemplars (e.g., Matsuba and Walker, 2005 ; Walker and Frimer, 2007 ; Frimer et al., 2011 , 2012 , 2013 ) are present in the literature and offer insights into persons who display some prototypical hero features. Few researchers, however, have considered why individuals have or want heroes ( Goethals and Allison, 2012 ).

Empirical endeavors to understand heroes are gaining momentum (e.g., Allison and Goethals, 2011 , 2013a ; Franco et al., 2011 ; Goethals and Allison, 2012 ; Kinsella et al., 2015 ; Allison et al., unpublished). So far, many of these endeavors have progressed our understanding of what constitutes a hero in modern times; however, researchers have not yet explicitly theorized and empirically substantiated the array of social and psychological functions heroes might fulfill for individuals. A person who shows the prototypical hero features of bravery, sacrifice, conviction, risk-taking, and moral integrity for an honorable purpose (see Kinsella et al., 2015 ) is likely to provide psychological and social functions for individuals who encounter (or cogitate about) them. The focus of the present article is to systematically examine lay perspectives about the psychological and social functions provided by heroes. We believe that studying the psychological influence of heroes on individuals is a fascinating and worthy topic of study, especially given that heroes are often spatio-temporally distant (e.g., sometimes dead or remote). Focusing on understanding hero functions is likely to offer insights into the processes by which heroes influence individuals and help to discern ways to effectively harness the positive influence of heroes in education, healthcare, communities, or organizations. Examining possible functions fulfilled by heroes may provide another source of evidence about prototypical hero features (e.g., a hero described as providing an inspiring or uplifting function is likely to be characterized as inspirational), thus informing our understanding of the concept.

Understanding how people comprehend the social world can be enlightened by the ways people think about and infer meaning from what occurs around them ( Heider, 1958 ). Increasingly, in health care settings, the lay conceptions explanatory model ( Kleinman et al., 1976 ), is increasingly applied by medical professionals to gain critical insights into what is most important to the individual, what they believe about their health, and what they think will influence them psychologically. As research on attitudes, attitude and behavior, person perception (e.g., stereotyping), self-regulation, and metacognition has shown, people’s beliefs shape their reality and behavior ( Heider, 1958 ; Kruglanski, 1975 ; Snyder, 1984 ; Dweck and Leggett, 1988 ; Igou, 2004 ; Fiske and Taylor, 2008 ). We adopt this perspective for investigating the topic of heroism. In order to understand how heroes are used in everyday life, it is important to examine how heroes are perceived, what qualifies as a hero, and how people think they can use them. Systematically identifying lay perspectives about a topic can be useful in helping to formulate common views that dominate thinking about a given psychological construct. Importantly, examining lay conceptions can be helpful for contributing to a conceptual framework for the development of explicit theories ( Sternberg, 1985 ). In essence, our research makes an important first step toward understanding the social and psychological functions that heroes provide.

Existing literature typically focuses on one aspect of heroic influence, such as social control ( Klapp, 1954 ), rescue from physical harm ( Becker and Eagly, 2004 ), or symbolic immortality ( Becker, 1973 ). In all, the result is a fragmented and diverse interpretation of the many possible functions that heroes may serve for groups and for individuals. This makes it difficult to develop a psychological theory of heroic influence. Before detailing four new empirical studies, we offer a synthesis of existing literary accounts of functions provided by heroes into three broad themes: enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting, which are briefly summarized below.

First, heroes are described in the literature as uplifting and enhancing the lives of others. Heroes may arouse positive emotions such as awe, gratitude, or admiration ( Algoe and Haidt, 2009 ). People may experience positivity as result of being associated with their hero’s exceptional accomplishments ( Allison and Goethals, 2011 ); this process is termed basking in reflected glory ( Cialdini, 2007 ). Heroes may motivate individuals toward being a better person by raising awareness of ought or ideal selves ( Klapp, 1969 ). Also, heroes have been described as directing our own ambitions away from “narrow, self-centered concerns” ( Singer, 1991 , p. 249). These type of encounters may trigger a period of world-focused savoring and social connectedness ( world focus ; Bryant and Veroff, 2007 ), evoking a sense of positive communion with nature and with others. Applying these ideas, The Heroic Imagination Project 1 was set up to offer information about heroism that individuals may use to transform negative situations. Also, the Hero Construction Company 2 uses inspiring narratives about heroes to promote heroic (rather than condemning bullying behavior) in schools. These projects use accounts of heroes such as Nelson Mandela, Rosa Parks, Daniel Ellsberg, and Irena Sendler to educate and inspire others toward create positive change.

Second, heroes are described as modeling morals and values. Heroes uphold the values of society ( Carlyle, 1840 ), act as comparison targets for the masses ( Pretzinger, 1976 ), and model virtues ( Cohen, 1993 ). Also, heroes may help people to understand the norms and values within society ( Erikson, 1977 ; Cohen, 1993 ). Heroes have been described as displaying moral integrity ( Kinsella et al., 2015 ), doing the right thing ( Schwartz and Schwartz, 2010 ), and showing a noble purpose without selfishness ( Singer, 1991 ). Heroes prompt people to do what they can for those who need help, endorsing other-regard ( Flescher, 2003 ). In fact, most heroes meet Colby and Damon’s (1992) criteria for serving as moral exemplars. It may not be realistic to emulate heroes that show moral fortitude, but the encounter may evoke a period of introspection which helps individuals to avoid moral complacency ( Flescher, 2003 ).

Third, the etymology of the word heroes (from Greek heros ) suggests that heroes protect others ( Harper, 2010 ). Some philosophers and psychologists have alluded to the idea that heroes protect against threats to perceptions about one’s own meaning or purpose in life. For example, Hobbs (2010) suggested that heroes offer resources to adults who feel disillusioned. Heroes who uphold cultural values and norms may also serve as a resource for dealing with threats to uncertainty, meaning, or other existential dilemmas ( Becker, 1973 ). Similarly, individuals often strive to create a meaningful life ( Duckworth et al., 2005 ) based on society’s values, often modeled by heroes. Through such means, people create a lasting impact and achieve symbolic immortality ( Goethals and Allison, 2012 ).

Based on our literature review, three broad categories of hero functions are accounted for: enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting. To reach consensus about the types of social and psychological functions that heroes provide, we suggest that examining lay conceptions about hero functions is a useful precursor to developing a theory of hero functions. As such, we first attempted to distill the range of functions that people associate with heroes, and then synthesized this information into meaningful categories (Studies 1 and 2). Second, we illustrated the extent to which individuals perceived that heroes influenced others in a similar or distinct ways to other persons of influence (Study 3). Third, we examined the extent to which people perceived benefits from thinking about heroes, leaders (Study 4A), or acquaintances (Study 4B) during times of threat or unfulfilled needs (e.g., low self-esteem, social isolation, uncertainty) as predicted by Klapp (1969) and Becker (1973) . Thus, the present article responds to the call for further research on heroes ( Zimbardo, 2007 ; Franco et al., 2011 ) and particularly to the call for further research on what good that heroes might do for people ( Allison and Goethals, 2011 ).

The study of the impact of persons’ lay theories on their social understanding has a long history in personality and social psychology (e.g., Hong et al., 2001 ). Following in that tradition, Study 1 aimed to systematically analyze lay persons’ responses to the question: “In your view, what functions do heroes serve?” The term functions was adopted in order to facilitate participants’ inclusion of both positive and negative assessments of heroic actors. The resulting exemplars were analyzed systematically, in accordance with prototype methods ( Hassebrauck, 1997 ). We expected that the most representative functions provided by heroes would be those that our participants expressed most frequently.

Participants

One-hundred and eighty-nine participants (116 women, 73 men, M age 29.98 years, SD age = 11.88, age range: 18–73 years) were recruited via Facebook TM and snowball sampling via email ( n = 164), and in the local city center ( n = 25). Participants originated from North America ( n = 90), Europe ( n = 89), and Australasia or Africa ( n = 10). Gender frequencies by geographical location were as follows American (59% female), European (65% female), and Australasian or African (56% female). The mean ages of participants in each geographical location was as follows: American ( M = 28, SD = 11.10), European ( M = 32, SD = 12.89), and Australasian or African ( M = 32, SD = 8.80).

Materials and procedure

Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Limerick’s Research Ethics Committee (Studies 1–4). Informed consent was obtained from all participants (Studies 1–4). Participants completed standardized materials either on paper or online. Those who completed the questionnaire online did not receive any compensation for their participation. Those who filled out the questionnaire in the city center received a coffee as a token of appreciation. Participants were asked: “In your view, what functions do heroes serve?” Participants were informed that “There are no correct or incorrect answers, and this is not a psychological test.” Responses were not timed. Participants were then thanked and debriefed (Studies 1–4).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A verbatim list of exemplars ( n = 344) was compiled. An exemplar is defined as one item from a list, or one unit of meaning ( Joffe and Yardley, 2004 ) from responses that contained multiple connected descriptions of hero functions.

During Phase 1 of coding, two research assistants sorted the original exemplars into superordinate thematic categories without prior knowledge about our predictions. This was achieved by grouping (a) identical exemplars, (b) semantically related exemplars (e.g., “give people hope” and “instill hope”), and (c) meaning-related exemplars into categories (e.g., “keep people safe” and “protect people from evil”) in accordance with the approach taken by previous research ( Hepper et al., 2011 ). In the first round, the first coder identified 13 categories and the second coder identified 14 categories. To reach full agreement it was necessary to create a new category. The first coder’s category, to inspire and motivate , was split into two categories (i.e., to inspire , to motivate) , resulting in 14 function categories.

During Phase 2 of coding, the third and fourth coders independently matched each original exemplar (e.g., “helping somebody to pave the way toward a personal goal”) with the 14 categories (e.g., to help) identified by the first and second coders. There was 76% consistency between the third coder’s ratings and the original coding. There was 67% consistency between the fourth coder’s ratings and the original coding. Most of the inconsistencies arose where coders placed exemplars such as “builders of self-esteem,” “punish the bad,” and “they epitomize what we should be” in multiple categories. If we take semantic units that were multiply classifiable as confirmation of reliability, the figures rise to 83 and 87% which are comparable with other published articles (e.g., Gregg et al., 2008 ).

Categories of hero functions

The independent coders identified 14 categories of functions provided by heroes from the original 344 exemplars (see Table ​ Table1 1 ). The categories of functions that were identified are as follows: to help, to inspire, to motivate, to save, to be a role model, to protect, to instill hope, to improve morale and camaraderie, to make the world a better place, to do what no one else will, to remind people about the good in the world, to guide, to show morals and values, and to act against evil or danger. On average, participants described two exemplars ( M = 2.05, SD = 1.30) 3 .

Fourteen hero functions and relatedness ratings in Study 2.

Linguistic analysis of hero functions

To provide additional information about the exemplars, all responses were subjected to analysis using the textual analysis software, Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Version 2007 for Windows (LIWC; Pennebaker et al., 2007 ). LIWC compares each word from every participant’s response against an internal dictionary that contains English words, and then, reports a percentage of words that represent a psychological theme. For example, one participant wrote that heroes “remind us of the human potential,” and LIWC flagged the word human as belonging to the social theme. On average, participants’ descriptions consisted of 26% social (e.g., people, others), 20% affect (e.g., happy, positive), 19% positive emotion (e.g., love), 17% cognitive mechanism (e.g., ought, know), and 8% achievement (e.g., earn, win) themes. This is consistent with the view that heroic benefits are described in positive ways, in particular, relating to social topics, emotions, attitude formation, and taking action to pursue goals.

Some heroes were described as enhancing positive feelings about the self and others (to inspire, to motivate, increase morale) and modeling morals (to provide morals and values, to remind people of the good in the world). Other heroes were described as protecting people, either physically (e.g., “saving lives”) or emotionally (e.g., “to help people in a situation where they are in distress or despair and they are almost ready to give up”). These findings present empirical support to some ideas about why people need heroes presented by Allison and Goethals (2013b) . For instance, those authors suggested that heroes give people hope and offer nurturance (enhancing); educate people about right and wrong, and validate our moral worldviews (moral modeling); and, save us when we are in trouble, pick us up when we are down, and deliver justice (protecting). Each are consistent with the three themes that we identified in the literature.

Participants were invited to rate the relatedness of each heroic function (identified in Study 1) to their own view of heroes. Researchers have used similar methods to identify exemplar representativeness of a prototype (e.g., Hepper et al., 2011 ). Based on the themes that emerged from the literature and from an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 4 , we expected that the ratings of some functions would cluster together into three categories, with each factor a latent construct representing hero functions: enhancing , moral modeling, and protecting . We tested the extent to which a three-factor model fit the data via a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

Factor loadings from factor analysis based on ratings in Study 2.

Two-hundred and forty-nine participants were recruited for this study in a local city center, on the University of Limerick campus, and via the psychological research website, http://psych.hanover.edu/ (120 women, 129 men, M age = 32.64 years, SD age = 12.48, age range: 18–67 years).

We offered the participants who we recruited on campus or in the local city center chocolate for their participation in the study. Participants recruited online were not compensated. Participants rated how closely each of the 14 functions of heroes related to their personal view of heroes. After each function category, some common exemplars were provided in brackets: “Inspiration (make you dream, show people what is possible, remind us of the human potential)” and “Shows morals and values (give us a set of values, conserve morals, and values).” All ratings were indicated on a Likert scale that ranged from 1 (not at all related) to 8 (extremely related). Readability statistics for the functions of heroes and associated exemplars include the Flesch Reading Ease = 67.6% and Flesch–Kincaid Grade Level 8.

Descriptive statistics

The ratings for hero functions ranged from 5.65 (to remind people about the good in the world) to 6.48 (to make the world better), on an 8-point Likert scale (see Table ​ Table1 1 ). These results support the idea that these 14 functions represent some of the most important functions provided by heroes.

Confirmatory factor analysis

A CFA tested the three-factor structure that was predicted from our analysis of the literature and from our preliminary results that emerged from an EFA. The analyses were conducted with LISREL 8.8.

In the CFA model, to save, to protect, to help, to do what no one else will, and to act against evil or danger were each specified as the latent factor protecting . To motivate, to role model, to inspire, to instill hope, to provide morale, and to guide were specified as the latent factor enhancing . Finally, to remind people about the good in the world, to show morals and values, and to make the world better were specified as the latent variable moral modeling . Results confirm that this three-factor model fit acceptably with the data, χ 2 (74, n = 248) = 232.82, p < 0.05, goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.89, the non-normed fit index (NNFI) = 0.92, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.94, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.08, and standardized root mean residual (SRMR) = 0.08. Bentler and Bonett (1980) recommended that measurement models have GFI, NNFI, and CFI of at least 0.90. According to Browne and Cudeck (1993) , RMSEA between 0.05 and 0.08 represents a reasonably close fit, and, RMSEA > 0.10 represents an unacceptable model. Also, Hu and Bentler (1998) suggested that SRMR larger than 0.08 represents an unacceptable model fit.

In accordance with the variety of our participants’ responses, the data suggest that heroes provide more than a single, overarching psychosocial function. Indeed, a one-factor model fit the data inadequately, χ 2 (77, n = 248) = 584.73, p < 0.05, GFI = 0.70, NNFI = 0.81, CFI = 0.19, RMSEA = 0.19, and SRMR = 0.11. None of the fit statistics for the one-factor model reached 0.90 and the RMSEA was well above 0.10. We predicted three categories of heroic influence based on a review of the literature and our EFA results; indeed, the data suggest that this model fit the data well.

Leaders are typically described as persons who are responsible for organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal. More specifically, transformational leaders have been described as those who inspire others and create a future vision ( Bass, 1990 ). Previous research suggests that transformational leaders may provide psychological functions to their followers ( Ilies et al., 2005 ). Leaders are sometimes considered heroic. Allison and Goethals (2011 , 2013a ) draw attention to the number of leaders who are represented on their lists of popular heroes. Some hero functions could also describe the influence of leaders. We wondered if lay theories about hero functions would be measurably distinct from those of leaders.

Next, role models have been described as influential people who are often geographically close, similar in age, and share comparable experiences to their supporter ( Brownhill, 2010 ). In 1991, Singer explained that role models who are closer to their follower are observed carefully and mimicked. Role models have previously been found to engage followers in prosocial behavior ( Bryan and Test, 1967 ) and inspire others ( Lockwood and Kunda, 1997 ). The words hero and role model are often used interchangeably. Thus, we wondered if lay theories about hero functions are measurably distinct from those of role models.

Given the etymology of the word hero (meaning ‘protector’), we expect that heroes would be the best protectors of psychological and physical well-being. Hence, Study 3 examines whether participants would rate the 14 functions (generated in Studies 1–2) equally for heroes, leaders, and role models.

Two-hundred and forty-two post-graduate students (136 females, 106 males, M age = 30.60 years, SD age = 10.64, age range: 18–66 years) were recruited for this online study via the University of Limerick intranet.

The study employed a between-groups design. Participants completed an online questionnaire that prompted them to bring to mind either a leader ( n = 73), a role model ( n = 95), or a heroic individual ( n = 74). Persons were randomly distributed across conditions. Participants rated how closely each of the 14 functions of heroes (described in Studies 1 and 2) related to their personal view of heroes. After each function category, some common exemplars were provided in brackets: “Inspiration (make you dream, show people what is possible, remind us of the human potential)” and “Shows morals and values (give us a set of values, conserve morals and values).” All ratings were indicated on a Likert scale that ranged from 1 (not at all related) to 8 (extremely related).

Rating heroes, leaders, and role models on 14 hero functions

A multivariate General Linear Model evidenced a significant association between type of influential person and associated functions, Wilk’s Lambda F (28,452) = 2.48, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.13. Univariate tests shows significant relationships between type of individual and ratings for the following (see Table ​ Table3 3 ): to help, to save, to motivate, to make the world better, to guide, and to do what no one else will do. Participants rated heroes as more likely to help, to save, to protect, to make the world better, and to do what no one else will. They rated leaders as more likely to motivate and to guide.

Mean (SD) and inferential statistics tests that evidenced significant differences between type of influential person and the participants’ ratings of each in Study 3.

Rating heroes, leaders, and role models on categories of hero functions

Each heroic function was coded as belonging to one of the three categories from Study 2: protecting, enhancing, and moral modeling. A multivariate General Linear Model revealed an association between the type of influential person and the categories of hero functions, Wilk’s Lambda F (6,494) = 3.07, p < 0.01, η p 2 = 0.04. Univariate tests indicated that there were significant relationships between type of individual and ratings for protecting. For instance, heroes were rated as more likely to save, to help, and to do what no one else will do.

There was a significant difference between ratings of protecting for heroes, leaders, and role models, F (2,249) = 4.07, p = 0.02, η p 2 = 0.32. The pairwise comparison revealed mean differences between heroes ( M = 6.09, SD = 1.46) and role models ( M = 5.60, SD = 1.56), t (175) = 2.17, p = 0.03, d = 0.68. Further, the mean differences between heroes ( M = 6.09, SD = 1.46) and leaders ( M = 5.40. SD = 1.50) was significant, t (151) = 2.77, p = 0.01, d = 0.33.

The data highlight some important conceptual distinctions between persons of influence. Heroes, role models, and leaders have potential to serve both enhancing and moral modeling functions. Heroes may provide a protecting function beyond that of role models or leaders. Overall, heroes are more likely to help, save, protect, make the world better, and do what no-one else will than leaders or role models.

The findings illustrate that leaders were rated as more likely to guide and motivate than heroes or role models. This is probably not surprising given that political leaders such as Mandela and Mahatma Gandhi are considered heroic by millions of people and are famous for their ability to guide and motivate others. Leaders who display prototypical features of heroism may influence people in different ways than other leaders. For example, transformational leaders are defined as leaders who raise followers to higher levels of effort by appealing to their morals and values ( Chmiel, 2000 ). Also, Allison and Goethals (2013a) helpfully point out that the distinction between indirect and direct leaders (e.g., Gardner, 1995 ) may help us to further understand the overlap between the concepts of hero and leader.

Participants in Study 3 most likely brought to mind direct leaders (e.g., Barack Obama, Angela Merkel), rather than indirect leaders (e.g., Helen Keller, Wesley Autrey). Thus, this study is most likely comparing heroes with direct leaders. Conceptual clarification is needed in order to tease apart the possible functions of direct and indirect leaders, and the overlap with heroic actors.

Role models, due to their accessibility to their follower, are often scrutinized in detail and mimicked ( Singer, 1991 ). Whereas, heroes tend to be distant figures who have endured tremendous suffering and sacrifice for purposes of great nobility, whom we would not wish to emulate ( Singer, 1991 ). These ideas are reflected in recent research that suggests that role models are generally physically close, from the same generation, and have comparable experiences to the follower ( Brownhill, 2010 ).

Previous research has found that lay persons tend to think of role models as more talented, honest, personable, exceptional , and humble than heroes or leaders ( Kinsella et al., 2015 ). Researchers have found that altruistic role models increase the likelihood that those around them engage in prosocial behavior ( Bryan and Test, 1967 ). This is consistent with the findings here that role models provide a moral modeling function. Also, Lockwood and Kunda (1997) described the enhancing function of role models which is consistent with the present research. Of course, negative or ‘bad’ role models are unlikely to be a positive influence on others.

STUDIES 4A AND 4B

In Studies 4A and 4B we examined the extent to which participants indicate that heroes, leaders and acquaintances fulfill enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions when experiencing social or psychological threats. We hypothesized that participants would consistently indicate that heroes fulfill the enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions to a greater extent than a leader or an acquaintance.

In a pilot study conducted on the University of Limerick campus, we asked participants ( n = 42) to state whether they believed Nelson Mandela (former President of South Africa), Enda Kenny (Taoiseach, Leader of Fine Gael in Ireland) and Michael O’Leary (Chief Executive of RyanAir airlines) to be either a hero or a leader. Sixty-seven percent of our participants believed that Mandela is a hero rather than a leader or neither (i.e., non-hero/non-leader), in comparison with 64% who believed that Enda Kenny is a leader, and 67% who indicated that Michael O’Leary is a leader. In a study that we conducted in Kinsella et al. (2010) , we found that Mandela was one of the most frequent heroes mentioned. Therefore, in Study 4A we used these target persons to examine perceived functions fulfilled by heroes and leaders in an Irish sample.

Participants and design

In Study 4A (within-subjects design), 38 participants (18 men, 20 women, M age = 22.53, SD age = 2.02) were asked to rate three persons of influence in three different scenarios (enhancing, moral modeling and protecting conditions). In Study 4B (mixed design), 102 participants (55 men, 47 women, M age = 26.34, SD age = 11.58) were randomly assigned to the enhancing, moral modeling, protecting, or control conditions, and then asked to rate both target persons (hero, acquaintance). Participants were recruited in the local city center and did not receive any compensation.

Procedure and materials

In Study 4A, participants were asked to read three statements representing the enhancing, moral modeling and protecting functions of heroes. For enhancing, participants read “If I felt negative about myself and others, thinking about (see person below) would increase my positive feelings about myself and other people, and motivate me to further develop my potential.” For moral modeling, participants read “If I felt disconnected from others and unmotivated to act for the good of the group, thinking about (see person below) would remind me of morals, values and ethics, and encourage me to behave in ways that benefit others.” For protecting, participants read “If I felt threatened in some way or worried about the future, thinking about (see person below) would increase my feeling of protection and safety, and help me to cope with uncertainty.” Participants were then requested to indicate how much they agreed with these three statements, in relation to three named targets (i.e., Nelson Mandela, Enda Kenny, and Michael O’Leary) on the rating scale provided (1 = strongly disagree , 7 = strongly agree ).

In Study 4B, participants were assigned to one of four conditions: enhancing, moral modeling, protecting, and control. To rule out the possibility of a valence effect, we included a control condition that refers to more mundane social interactions (i.e., talking about the weather). This condition was included to control for the potential effect that heroes, positively represented targets, are generally rated more positively than others (i.e., valence effect), or whether heroes are rated more positively only on hero functions. Participants rated self-generated heroes and acquaintances. Specifically, participants were asked to write the name or initials of either a person in their life who they know slightly, but who is not a friend (i.e., an acquaintance), read a statement relating to one of the four conditions, and rate their responses on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree , 7 = strongly agree ). On a separate page, participants were asked to write the names or initials of their personal hero, read a statement and rate their responses on the 7-point Likert scale. In Study 4B, the acquaintance (i.e., non-hero) is the main reference point. Crucially, we predicted that heroes would be viewed more positively than acquaintances at providing enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions; further, we expected no differences between targets in the control condition.

Participants in both studies rated specific targets, rather than abstract ideas, of heroes, leaders, and acquaintances. The enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting statements used in Study 4B were identical to those used in Study 4A. A control condition was included in Study 4B to reduce the possibility that heroes received higher ratings across all dependent social measures. As such, the control condition stated “If you think about the weather and how strongly you feel about it, can you see yourself having the wish to talk about it with __.” Discussing the weather in social settings is a prevalent norm in Ireland which forms the basis of relatively mundane social interactions. We use this control condition to examine whether heroes receive inflated ratings across all positive conditions.

Enhancing condition

In Study 4A, for enhancing, there were statistically significant differences between the mean ratings for Mandela ( M = 5.51, SD = 1.21), O’Leary ( M = 3.24, SD = 1.53) and Kenny ( M = 2.89, SD = 1.58), Wilk’s Lambda = 0.478, F (2,35) = 25.59, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.59. Paired samples t-tests were used to compare ratings for each of the target persons. There was a significant difference between mean ratings for Mandela and O’Leary, t (36) = 6.02, p < 0.001, d = 2.01 and for Mandela and Kenny, t (36) = 7.00, p < 0.001, d = 2.33 but not for the leaders, O’Leary and Kenny, t (36) = 1.17, p = 0.09, d = 0.39. Finally, in Study 4B, in the enhancing condition ( n = 25), there was a statistically significant difference on ratings for acquaintance ( M = 3.84, SD = 1.78) and for hero ( M = 4.92, SD = 1.63), t (24) = –2.52, p = 0.02, d = 1.03.

Moral modeling condition

In Study 4A, for moral modeling, there were statistically significant differences between ratings for Mandela ( M = 5.6, SD = 1.36), O’Leary ( M = 2.68, SD = 1.75) and Kenny ( M = 2.51, SD = 1.43), Wilk’s Lambda = 0.221, F (2,35) = 61.78, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.78. There was a significant difference between mean ratings for Mandela and O’Leary, t (36) = 8.50, p < 0.001, d = 2.83, and for Mandela and Kenny, t (36) = 11.25, p < 0.001, d = 3.75. However, there was no significant difference for ratings between the leaders, O’Leary and Kenny, t (36) = –0.67, p = 0.51, d = 0.22. Finally, in Study 4B, in the moral modeling condition ( n = 27), there was a statistically significant difference between acquaintance ( M = 3.59, SD = 1.87) and for hero ( M = 5.74, SD = 1.70), t (26) = –4.45, p < 0.001, d = 1.75.

Protecting condition

In Study 4A, for protecting, there were statistically significant differences between ratings for Mandela ( M = 4.70, SD = 1.83), O’Leary ( M = 2.62, SD = 1.53) and Kenny ( M = 2.65, SD = 1.57), Wilk’s Lambda = 4.78, F (2,35) = 19.12, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.52. There were significant differences between mean ratings for Mandela and O’Leary, t (36) = 6.27, p < 0.001, d = 2.09, and for Mandela and Kenny, t (36) = 5.19, p < 0.001, d = 1.73. However, there was no statistically significant difference on ratings for the leaders, O’Leary and Kenny, t (36) = –0.13, p = 0.90, d = 0.04. Next, in Study 4B, in the Protect condition ( n = 26), there was a significance difference between acquaintance ( M = 3.08, SD = 1.50) and hero ( M = 5.38, SD = 1.86), t (25) = –5.34, p < 0.001.

Control condition

In Study 4B, as predicted, there were no reliable differences between heroes ( M = 4.67, SD = 2.12) and acquaintances ( M = 4.21, SD = 1.87) in the control condition, t (23) = 1.14, p = 0.27.

Interaction analyses for Study 4B

The findings from Studies 4A and 4B supported the hypotheses that participants reported that heroes (to a greater extent than leaders or non-hero targets) provide enhancing, moral modeling and protecting functions if a particular need is threatened or unfulfilled. To further examine this data, we created a heroic function variable comprising of an aggregate of the enhancing, moral modeling and protecting conditions. The non-heroic function variable represents the control condition.

Overall, heroes ( M = 5.36, SD = 1.74) were rated by participants as more likely to provide a heroic function than acquaintances ( M = 3.50, SD = 1.73). A mixed ANOVA was conducted for target person (hero and acquaintance) and functions (hero functions or non-heroic function), with repeated measures on the target person variable. There was a significant interaction between type of function provided and the target person associated with that function, F (1,100) = 7.10, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.07. Participants who thought about a personal hero while imagining social psychological stress expressed greater fulfillment for hero functions than thinking of an acquaintance. Participants who thought about a personal hero while imagining a need to talk socially about the weather (control condition), showed no significant effect. There was a significant main effect for target person, Wilk’s Lambda = 0.84, F (1,100) = 19.42, p < 0.001, η p 2 = 0.16. There was no significant main effect for functions, F (1,100) = 0.98, p = 0.98, η p 2 = 0.

In Study 4, two studies elucidated lay beliefs about the functions of heroes and in particular, how individuals may use heroes as a resource if a given need is threatened or unfulfilled. Participants rated heroes as more likely to fulfill enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting functions than other targets, offering support to our hypotheses. Study 4B illustrated that participants did not rate heroes higher across all positive social functions. Study 4B replicates and extends the findings from Study 4A. We think that participants were discerning in their beliefs that heroes serve enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting needs, but not necessarily other social or emotional needs (e.g., daily social pleasantries). In sum, we demonstrated that participants view heroes as a resource for coping when psychological or social needs are threatened or unfulfilled.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

A primary goal of this research was to clarify lay perspectives about hero functions and to ascertain the extent to which such functions are similar to or different from each other, and to the themes that we identified in the exiting literature. This review led us to the assertion that the subjective functions provided by heroes can be represented in three categories: enhancing, moral modeling, and protecting.

Independent coder analyses of lay conceptions (Study 1) revealed 14 perceived functions provided by heroes, for example, to inspire, to protect, to guide, to instill hope, and to motivate. Another sample rated each of the 14 function categories in terms of importance (Study 2). CFA established that our predicted three-factor model, including the factors protecting, enhancing, and moral modeling, fit the data well in comparison to a poorly fitting one-factor model. In Study 3 we asked participants to rate heroes, role models, or leaders across all 14 hero functions. The results illustrated that heroes were perceived as more likely to help, to save, to protect, to make the world better, and to do what no one else will. Heroes were perceived by participants as protecting others more than both leaders and role models. In Studies 4A and 4B the results evidenced that participants viewed heroes as a resource for experiencing enhancement, moral modeling, and protection when psychological or social needs were threatened or unfulfilled. The present studies suggest that lay theories can provide a useful assessment in the study of heroism. We use the information from the literature and lay conceptions of heroes to form a conceptual framework, the Hero Functions Framework, which is integrative and can serve as a basis for future research. We describe this framework below.

THE HERO FUNCTIONS FRAMEWORK

Enhancing function.

According to lay conceptions, heroes motivate, act as a role model, inspire, instill hope, improve morale and camaraderie, and guide others. Participants described feeling positive affect when thinking of heroes, “making them feel happy” and “helping people to live a happy life.” Heroes were frequently described by participants as making people “feel better about the world,” “more positive about humanity,” and reminding people of “the good in the world.” To us, this makes sense, because when a person feels good about the self they are more positive and less misanthropic toward other people too (e.g., Ybarra, 1999 ). One person described heroes as “builders of self-esteem.” Heroes were portrayed as elevating and motivating people, for example, “[they] elevate the rest of us to a place of courage” or “elevate the consciousness of others.” The enhancing function is linked to previous writings about heroes who instigate periods of transcendence ( Klapp, 1969 ), induce a perspective shift ( Allison and Goethals, 2011 ), increase the positive emotions experienced by others ( Algoe and Haidt, 2009 ), and increase social connectedness ( Smith, 1976 ). Future research will help to clarify the apparent role of heroes in helping individuals to cope with or transcend difficult situations.

Upward social comparisons with role models ( Lockwood and Kunda, 1997 ) and do-gooders ( Minson and Monin, 2012 ) can sometimes result in perceived self-threats and self-deflation. Individuals do, however, sometimes actively seek out upward social comparisons in order to gain an accurate self-assessment and to self-enhance ( Collins, 1996 ). In fact, a person can consciously prevent upward comparisons from influencing their self-evaluations and choose to use that information to inspire, motivate, and promote positive affect instead ( Taylor and Lobel, 1989 ).

When experiencing the threat of uncertainty (e.g., during major life transitions), superior others and role models can be perceived as inspiring if the more established person has successfully overcome similar adjustment difficulties and their behaviors are perceived as attainable ( Lockwood et al., 2012 ). The mystery behind heroes is that, although their exceptional behavior is normally out of reach of regular people and even though they are single exemplars which are particularly likely to induce judgmental contract effects, heroes still appear to produce motivational assimilation effects. We suspect this is because heroes, though individuals, embody abstract values. We believe that people typically process information about heroes at an abstract level and use the information as a source of motivation for their goals. Future research on heroes could draw from construal level theory ( Trope and Liberman, 2010 ) to investigate the role of psychological distance on the social comparison interpretations of heroic influence.

Alternatively, the positive (and non-threatening) influence of heroes could be interpreted from a recent theory of inspiration. For instance, Thrash et al. (2010) note that people first appreciate the exceptional efforts of the inspirational target (resulting in feelings of transcendence and meaning) which in turn is translated into a personal desire to perform at a higher level in one’s own life (evoking feelings of self-responsibility and volitional control). In all, theories of social comparison and inspiration both help to generate specific hypotheses about heroes. Taken together, these ideas pave the foundation for future research into the psychological processes associated with the enhancing influence of heroes.

Moral modeling function

Some hero functions are abstract and symbolic, for example, reminding people about the good in the world, showing morals and values, and making the world a better place. Research about moral exemplars may elucidate the moral modeling function of heroes ( Colby and Damon, 1992 ; Matsuba and Walker, 2005 ; Walker and Frimer, 2007 ; Frimer et al., 2011 , 2012 ). In our studies, lay persons described heroes as “increasing positive feelings about humanity” and promoting “confidence that there is good in the world.” When a person feels good about their own self they are more receptive to negative information about themselves ( Trope and Neter, 1994 ). Given this, it is no coincidence that heroes boost our feelings of happiness and simultaneously reveal our missing qualities.

Fascinatingly, participants described heroes as “moral symbols to protect everyday innocent people,” “providing moral goals for society,” and that they “personify the things we cannot articulate.” In our studies it was clear that some heroes were perceived by participants to act as agents of social justice, striving to improve the situations of the disadvantaged. This is consistent with Sorel (1912) who argued that social movements require a narrative with sufficient moral and emotional force to give clarity and inspiration to an account of events. Indeed, heroic individuals can give meaning to collective action and promote group solidarity. Narrative psychology offers a useful lens through which researchers and individuals can seek to understand the role of heroes in moral narratives.

Lay conceptions refer to heroes that make them “aware of the rest of humanity,” perhaps shifting their focus away from individual concerns and redirecting toward a world-focus perspective ( Bryant and Veroff, 2007 ). This is consistent with previous research that suggests that moral exemplars typically integrate both agentic and communal motives ( Frimer et al., 2011 , 2012 ). In our research, one participant described how heroes teach us that it is possible to be altruistic in an egocentric world [similar to scholarly points made by Flescher (2003) ], regulating the self toward more noble purposes ( Singer, 1991 ), even when those decisions may require courage, conviction, and integrity. The extent that heroes influence moral willpower and moral decision-making, perhaps via a process of self-regulation, has not yet been investigated.

Protecting function

Lay conceptions suggest that heroes provide a protecting function: they save, help, guide, protect, act against evil or danger, and do what no one else will do. Heroes may help people to restore positive feeling about others and buffer negative feelings about themselves. For instance, one participant described a hero who helped her in a car crash. Another participant wrote about a hero who assisted her “to get through the tough times,” offering additional coping resources (suggested by Hobbs, 2010 ).

Heroes were frequently depicted as representing the “fight for good against evil” or “stopping the bad in humanity.” Those who believe that heroes are proactively taking action to combat evil or danger may feel safeguarded (e.g., “a hero’s job is making citizens feel safe”) and more certain about the future (e.g., “tomorrow we will be safe”). Other scholarly work indicates that persons use metaphors, myths, or symbols to give coherence to their lives ( Campbell, 1988 ; Lakoff and Johnson, 2003 ). Perhaps heroes, similar to powerful myths and metaphors, are used as tools for dealing with uncertainty ( Van den Bos, 2009 ). Both leaders and heroes were described as offering guidance and leadership through the complexity of daily life. This is interesting given that many heroes do not occupy formal leadership positions. Formal and informal leadership theory ( Gardner, 1995 ) may help to elucidate the influence of heroes who occupy direct or indirect leadership positions ( Allison and Goethals, 2013a ). Traditionally, direct leaders pull a group toward a tangible goal, whereas indirect leaders (and heroes) guide a new way of thinking, being, or doing within a particular group, sometimes without tangible outcomes. This point underscores the value of current efforts to unveil the complexity of lay perspectives about the psychosocial functions fulfilled by heroes.

CONTRIBUTION AND LIMITATIONS

Writers have alluded to the psychological benefits derived from heroic encounters, yet this fragmented information has not been synthesized or empirically studied. Until this point, the functions of heroes have been dealt with in a relatively superficial and piecemeal manner. Thus, the present research aimed to narrow the gaps in our understanding of heroes by presenting four studies that elucidate lay perspectives about the social and psychological functions of heroes. Similarly, we synthesize ideas about heroes in the extant literature, in an attempt to offer a novel conceptual framework, the Hero Functions Framework. With this framework in place, researchers can systematically assess the influence of heroes while simultaneously taking into account the type of hero, individual differences, and situational influences. Our research is a starting point, an important step in understanding how heroes are used psychologically and socially.

Klapp (1969) suggested that the media capitalize on the desire for heroes and present heroes (and more often pseudo-heroes) in order to fulfill this need and “vainly do we make scores of artificial celebrities grow where nature planted only a single hero” ( Boorstin, 1992 , p. 76). Other authors similarly noted that “the need for heroes is so strong that the media will manufacture pseudo-heroes to meet it” ( Schwartz and Schwartz, 2010 , p. 32). The impact of pseudo-heroism, celebrity culture, and negative role models is of serious concern for parents, educators, governments, researchers, and many others. For instance, a great deal of debate exists about the over-sexualization of children and teenagers as a result of exposure to negative role models and the absence of real heroes who help others to move toward more noble purposes ( Singer, 1991 ). If people need external reference points for goals, standards, and ways to behave ( Schlenker et al., 2008 ), it is important to make salient heroes, role models, and leaders who serve as models for desirable conduct in a particular group. We study heroes empirically with the hope that this information will be used in responsible ways that benefit others, albeit not heroically but with good intensions. Unfortunately the great tyrants of history have been held up as heroes by the unsuspecting masses, skillfully manipulated through propaganda. Part of the value of this research may be in deterring inappropriate hero worship as much as encouraging appropriate hero worship.

So far, we have examined lay conceptions of heroes—perceivable and conceivable functions expressed by hundreds of mostly young adults—rather than actual or measurable functions that heroes fulfill. It is possible that lay persons overstate the psychosocial functions that heroes provide in their everyday lives, or that heroes provide functions which are outside of their conscious awareness. In view of the introspective illusion (e.g., Pronin, 2009 ), one might question whether and to what extent people, if they are not experts on their own mental processes, can provide valid reports about how heroes function psychologically. Although, lay theories about mental processes can be accurate (see Nisbett and Wilson, 1977 ), we acknowledge that the present research offers suggestive evidence only; it is part of a relatively new empirical story and impetus for further research.

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research needs to examine how lay perspectives relate to actual changes in the self and self-regulatory processes. The next phase of this research will be to demonstrate the effects of information about heroes on participants in lab settings. Specifically, there is a need to examine the protecting, enhancing, and moral modeling functions of heroes as dependent variables affected by exposure to heroes of heroic acts. This is a broader research question than we intended to study in the present article.

So far, the functions listed for ‘known’ versus ‘unknown’ heroes have not been independently assessed. People’s relationship with their heroes varies widely and as a result they may derive different benefits from encounters. For instance, it is likely that people who have a personal relationship with their heroic grandmother will derive different benefits than a person who has developed a parasocial relationship ( Horton and Wohl, 1956 ) with Nelson Mandela. The types of parasocial relationships people have with influential people, such as heroes, celebrities, or sports stars, are underexplored.

Heroes have been described as shaping and representing culture ( Hegel, 1975 ) and providing a source of social control ( Klapp, 1954 ). The heroes worshipped in a given group may reveal that a group’s most cherished values. In some cases, heroes represent minority values, speaking out against dominant cultural values, and as agents of change. In the present article, a full analysis of cultural differences in lay perceptions about heroes was not possible. The few participants from Africa, Australia, and Asia preclude us to make generalizations across countries or continents. Nonetheless, we think that studying the variety of cultural representations of heroes is a fruitful avenue for future research. For instance, research suggests that Japanese individuals tend to cherish the suffering of their heroes ( Benedict, 1946 ); whereas, in Western cultures, there is a tendency to savor heroic efforts that result in a happy outcome ( Heine et al., 1999 ). Such research looms on the horizon in our labs.

The present research studies potential social and psychological functions served by heroes using deductive and inductive methods. Our research offers a conceptual framework that facilitates the development of a psychological theory of heroism, as well as helping to pave the way for additional research on hero functions and the consideration of how gender and culture might each influence and be influenced by heroes. Given the assortment of physical, psychological, and social reward people associate with heroes, it is unsurprising that many individuals offer “homage, commemoration, celebration, and veneration” to their heroes in return ( Klapp, 1954 , p. 57).

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We thank A. Gregg, P. Ryan, and reviewers for comments on previous versions of this manuscript. We thank F. van Dongen, G. O’Malley, K. O’ Malley, and W. A. P. van Tilburg for their help with data collection.

1 http://heroicimagination.org/

2 http://www.theherocc.com/

3 There was no significant sex differences between the number of exemplars reported, t (187) = –1.01, p = 0.31. There was no relationship between age and number of exemplars reported ( r = 0.07, p = 0.36). There were no significant differences between USA and European participants regarding the number of exemplars provided, t < 1. There were no significant differences between community and online participants regarding the number of exemplars provided, t < 1.

The results of the EFA (see Table ​ Table2 2 ) suggested three factors that represent our respondents’ ratings of hero functions. The ratings that loaded onto Factor 1 included to save, to protect, to help, to do what no one else will, and to act against evil or danger. We termed this factor protecting . The items that loaded strongly onto Factor 2 were to motivate, to role model, to inspire, to instill hope, to provide morale, and to guide. We call this factor enhancing . The items that loaded onto Factor 3 were to remind people about the good in the world, to show morals and values, and to make the world better. We named this factor moral modeling .

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Oklahoma City Firefighter Chris Fields describes his experience with treatment in the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing.

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Hero research, hero registry: diverse representation matters.

The Healthcare Worker Exposure Response and Outcomes (HERO) Registry collects information about pandemic-related risk factors, perspectives, and challenges experienced by healthcare workers (HCWs) and those who support them. Since it launched in April 2020, over 55,000 people have joined the HERO Registry.

Registry participants come from different backgrounds, including HCWs, their families and members of their community. Most participants identify as White (75%), Black or African American (10%), Asian (6%), or Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (0.25%).

Why Does Diversity in Research Matter?

In the HERO Registry, as in all clinical research, it is important to include participants with diverse backgrounds. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently taken steps to increase participation of diverse people in clinical research programs.

Too few research participants from certain groups limits how results from research can be understood and generalized. In other words, ensuring meaningful representation makes the data more valuable for everyone.

For example, suppose all the people in a study are roughly the same age, live in the same city, and have similar levels of educational attainment. In this case, the study results may not apply to the broader population, as not everyone shares those characteristics.

Having a representative sample means that your smaller study group closely matches the larger group or population in which you are interested. This is especially important when studying what it is like for people to live and work during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Diversity in HERO

The HERO Registry team strives to build a community that reflects the diverse U.S. population and the different types of workers who support our healthcare system. HCWs and their communities have all been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Physicians, nurses, emergency responders, technicians, food service and environmental services workers have both common experiences and unique stories to share.

Your experience matters because it helps us understand the impact of policies and programs, like mandatory vaccination and masking. Because this information may lead to new or revised policies, it is important to hear from everyone across racial/ethnic groups, regions, and professional roles.

To enhance enrollment of racially, ethnically, and professionally diverse participants, HERO Registry team members partnered with the Registry’s HCW Subcommittee to understand their experiences and to review and provide feedback on the Registry products including surveys, the website, materials, and social media channels. Subcommittee members also took an active role in writing blogs and filming videos to share their experiences and insights on the importance of the Registry as well as what we are learning. In addition, two Community Engagement Studios (CES) were held to review the Registry, its purpose, and future direction, with representatives from the community to improve current strategies, and lessons learned.

This evaluation was done in collaboration with the Meharry-Vanderbilt Alliance .

With Gratitude

The HERO Registry team is grateful for the valuable contributions from all Registry members. In April 2020, the HERO Registry launched with a mission to understand the COVID-19 pandemic’s evolving effects on healthcare workers and public health. Over time, the HERO Registry expanded to include family and community members who support healthcare workers. Registry members were offered opportunities to participate in COVID-19 research studies and surveys about timely topics. Your contribution to these efforts has provided crucial insights into the challenges workers face and the impacts of COVID-19 on their health, wellbeing, community, and family members.

Enrollment in the HERO Registry will close on September 15, 2022; collection of survey data will continue through September 30. Please take the opportunity to provide your final survey contributions through that date. Please note, this closure only impacts the HERO Registry. If you are enrolled in HERO-TOGETHER, please continue with your planned study activities.

On behalf of the HERO Research team, we truly appreciate your participation in the Registry during this historic time. Please be on the lookout for future communications about potential COVID-19 research opportunities and events where we will share what we heard from you and other members of the HERO Registry.

If you have any questions about your participation in the HERO Registry, please contact the study team at [email protected] .

HERO Registry Members Weigh in on Experiences with Long-COVID

Some individuals who have been diagnosed with COVID-19 illness experience Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 infection (PASC), also known as ‘long-COVID.’ In a recent HEROES Research Hot Topics survey, we asked HERO Registry members about their health before the COVID-19 pandemic, and if it changed due to being infected with the virus.

What is PASC, or Long COVID?

Individuals with PASC continue to experience COVID-19 symptoms after their acute infection period. These can include loss of taste/smell, shortness of breath, persistent cough, anxiety, and many other potential lingering COVID-19 symptoms. Although more research is needed around PASC, it is commonly defined as the continuation of COVID-19 symptoms for four weeks or longer after initial diagnosis.

Hot Topics Survey Results

Of the approximately 1,180 Registry members that participated in this survey, 28% of those note infected said their health is worse now than in the first 3 months of 2020, before wide spread infection of the virus, regardless of whether they ever experienced a COVID-19 infection. This general decrease in overall health is still present, with 22% of participants saying their health is worse now compared to the months right before the survey was sent out in March 2022. In comparison, 46% of the population previously diagnosed with COVID-19 reported worse health now compared to before they were diagnosed, indicating that long-COVID may be contributing to feelings of poor health status even beyond the general decrease in perceived health in the overall population.

HERO Registry Members and the Effects of PASC

HERO Registry members who previously had COVID-19 reported an average of three persistent COVID-19 symptoms. Common symptoms experienced by participants after 4 weeks include fatigue (50%), shortness of breath (32%), headache (28%), persistent cough (23%), joint pain (23%), and more. Of those reporting symptoms:

• 5% reported missing work due to symptoms
• 0% received care for these symptoms from a doctor or health professional
• 78% are still currently experiencing some or all of their reported symptoms

People who are experiencing PASC or long-COVID should consider visiting a medical provider to discuss treatment options for relief of persistent symptoms.

Share your Experiences

Anyone who works in a healthcare setting, their family members, and close community contacts are invited to join the  HERO Registry . Registry members can help identify priorities for research and possible solutions for people affected by the pandemic. The HERO Registry leverages PCORnet®, the National Patient-Centered Clinical Research Network, and is funded by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI).

Are you Boosted? HERO Members Weigh in on Receiving an Additional Vaccine Dose

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends a booster dose of the COVID-19 vaccine to increase immunity against SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19 illness. In a recent poll, the HEROES Research team asked Registry members if they received a COVID-19 booster shot, and their reasoning for receiving or not receiving an additional vaccine dose.

A total of 4,037 HERO Registry members responded, with 58% overall indicating receiving a booster as of January 2022 . Healthcare workers most likely to receive the booster were physicians (96%) and nurses (77%). About 32% of Registry members who are non-healthcare workers had received a booster dose.

The survey showed little variation by gender or age, however respondents in the South U.S were least likely to receive a booster, followed by those in the West (53% and 57% respectively). Black and Hispanic/Latinx respondents were least likely to have received a booster (35% and 40% respectively).

Reasons for Receiving a Booster – or Not

All groups cited a desire to protect friends, family, and self as the driving reason for receiving a booster.  Physicians were more likely than other groups to cite CDC or other public health authority as reason. Other members said they had concern over the Omicron and/or other COVID-19 variants emerging, so they wanted extra protection. For those who had not received a booster at the time of the survey, more than 50% said they intend to. Approximately, 20-40% of respondents indicated that they are not receiving a booster as they do not think it is necessary and/or have safety concerns of receiving an additional vaccine dose.

Currently, the CDC recommends those age 5 and up receive one vaccine booster after the primary series, and those age 50 and older and those with compromised immune systems receive two boosters spaced apart by at least four months.

Anyone who works in a healthcare setting, their family members, and close community contacts are invited to join the HERO Registry . Registry members can help identify priorities for research and possible solutions for people affected by the pandemic. The HERO Registry leverages PCORnet®, the National Patient-Centered Clinical Research Network, and is funded by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI).

Pfizer and BioNTech to Submit COVID-19 Vaccine For Emergency Use Authorization for Children Under Age 5

A recent announcement from vaccine makers Pfizer and BioNTech may mean that children under the age of five could be eligible to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. The vaccine manufacturers will submit their COVID-19 vaccine for emergency use authorization for this age group after clinical study results found a third dose of the vaccine is safe and effective at preventing COVID-19 infections in children 6 months to under 5 years of age. . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced they will meet in June to review the submission.

Pfizer and BioNTech conducted a study of over 1,600 children under the age of five to determine if a third dose of their COVID-19 vaccine is effective in reducing infections and severe illness. Previous testing of a two-dose vaccine regimen did not generate a level of protection in children ages 2 to 4. Results from this new study conducted during the Omicron variant surge showed a third dose of the vaccine creates a strong immune response and is 80.3% effective at preventing COVID-19 infections in children under five years of age. The dose is about one-tenth of the strength of an adult COVID-19 vaccine. Similar to adults, the first two doses are given 21 days apart, but the third dose is given at least two months after receipt of the second vaccine.

No COVID-19 vaccines are authorized for very young children. If authorization of this vaccine is approved, it may help build confidence in parents to vaccinate their young children. In February 2022, a HEROES Research poll found healthcare workers who have children under age 5 are twice as likely as other parents to vaccinate their children against COVID-19. As more vaccines become available for young children, parents may be more willing to vaccinate their children. Learn more about the findings of this Hot Topic survey.

Source: STAT News

HERO Hot Topic: HERO Registry Members and Masking

Wearing a well-fitted mask has been a critical public health tool along with vaccination, physical distancing, and self-testing recommended by officials to slow and stop the spread of the COVID-19 virus. Although most mandates have been lifted, with the continued rise of COVID cases and hospitalizations, some organizations and local governments may consider the return of mask recommendations.

A recent HEROES Research Hot Topic Survey asked HERO Registry members about the circumstances in which they wear masks.

A total of 3647 Registry participants took part in the survey. The majority of respondents indicated they wear masks in health care facilities (80%) followed by at work (62%) and indoor public places (54.8%). Overall, respondents were least likely to wear masks in outdoor spaces.

Responses to this survey varied by health care roles, age, gender, race, and geographical region. The highest proportion of respondents who said they do not wear masks in general were non-healthcare workers, making up 43% of the survey population. Many respondents in this category said that they do not believe masks do anything to protect against becoming ill with COVID-19. One respondent wrote, “I do not believe that the masks actually do anything except provide others with a sense of comfort.” The highest proportion of those who do not wear masks are among male respondents (14.6%), compared to 7.2% of female respondents. People age 65 years or older, which made up 3% of the survey population, were most likely to wear masks in any given setting. Overall, nurses, physicians, and other health care practitioners indicated they are most likely to wear masks all the time, regardless of local requirements.

Factors influencing respondents’ decisions to wear masks include the number of people attending an event, the ventilation of the space, and the vaccination status of the people at the event.

Regionally, the highest proportion of those who do not wear masks were in the Southern portion of the United States, which made up 45% of the total survey population. Participants of the survey who live in the Midwest were about 10% less likely to wear a mask “all the time, regardless of local requirements” than respondents living in other regions.

From survey responses, those who still consistently wear masks say they do it to protect others and because they are at higher risk for COVID-19 illness. One respondent wrote, “When I wear my mask, my intention is to have consideration for others.”  Another wrote, “Masks make me feel safer when I’m wearing one and when those around me are wearing one, too.”

Collaborative HERO Registry Study Gains Media Attention

A recent HERO Registry study on healthcare workers experiences with moral injury published in the Journal of General Internal Medicine is gaining national media coverage. This research — a collaboration between Duke University, Vanderbilt University, and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) — found that healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced high rates of potential moral injury, similar to combat veterans. Media outlets such as U.S. News & World Report , NBC News , HealthDay News , and Spectrum News covered how important this research is in understanding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare workers:

• – Amy Norton, HealthDay News , S. News & World Report
• – Erika Edwards, NBC News
• – Charles Duncan, Spectrum News

Read more about moral injury and the detailed findings of this research.

Read the full news release here .

Collaborative HEROES Research Study Finds High Rates of Moral Injury in Healthcare Workers

Results from a recent collaborative HEROES Research study with Duke University, Vanderbilt University, and the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) found that healthcare workers who have worked during the COVID-19 pandemic experienced high rates of potential moral injury similar to combat veterans.

Moral injuries are described as actions that may conflict with values and beliefs, leading to psychological harm. Initially, the term was used to describe what military service and combat veterans experience in wartime, but it began to be applied to healthcare workers even before the COVID-19 pandemic. You can learn more about moral injury by reading this HEROES Research blog .

The study, published in the Journal of General Internal Medicine , included information from a survey of over 2,000 healthcare workers part of the HERO Registry, and data from a separate study of over 600 post-9/11 combat veterans. Veterans were asked about moral experiences throughout their military service, while the healthcare workers were asked about their experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results showed that 46% of veterans and 51% of healthcare workers were troubled by others’ immoral behavior. Additionally, 24% of veterans and 18% of healthcare workers reported being troubled by violating their own morals and values.

Healthcare workers provided experiences that conflicted with their moral values and beliefs, such as the public’s disregard for preventing the transmission of COVID-19 and witnessing the death of people with COVID-19. Other reported experiences include severe staffing shortages, rationed care and personal protective equipment, and enforced policies that prevented families and loved ones from seeing dying patients.

“Health care workers have weathered a great deal of adversity during this pandemic and from many different directions,” said Emily O’Brien , Ph.D., associate professor in Duke’s Department of Population Health Sciences and the lead for the HERO registry arm of this study. “Burnout is often discussed, and it is real. For many, though, I suspect moral injury is a more accurate description of their experience, and that has implications for what we do now and in the future.”

News Roundup on COVID-19 Vaccines —Emergency Use Authorization for young children and a second round of booster shots was authorized for everyone over the age of 50

Earlier this week, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorized a second round of booster shots for everyone over the age of 50, a group at high risk of adverse COVID-19 outcomes. A next step is for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to provide instructions on how to implement the authorization. The decision on a second booster shot comes from data suggesting waning immunity in people who received their booster more than four months ago. Other countries including Israel, Chile and Sweden are now offering a fourth COVID-19 vaccine dose to older adults and other at-risk groups.

On Wednesday, March 24, Moderna announced they will soon ask the FDA for emergency use authorization of their COVID-19 vaccine for children aged 6 months to 6 years old. Currently, there is no authorized COVID-19 vaccine for this age group. Interim data from two clinical trials show the Moderna vaccine effectively generates immune responses against SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19 illness, in this age group. In addition, there were no severe cases throughout the study that led to hospitalizations or deaths. Moderna is hopeful that this data will encourage the FDA to approve their request to authorize their vaccine for this critical age group.

A recent HEROES Research Hot Topic poll asked healthcare workers in the HERO registry who have children under age 5 if they intend to vaccinate their child against COVID-19 once a vaccine is authorized. Results showed healthcare workers are twice as likely as non-healthcare workers to plan to vaccinate their children against COVID-19.

Read more: Healthcare Workers Twice as Likely to Vaccinate Children Under 5 Immediately

HERO Registry Data Finds Racial/Ethnic Disparities Among Healthcare Workers

A recent study published by The Lancet eClinicalMedicine using HERO Registry data found racial and ethnic disparities experienced by healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This observational cohort study, funded by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI), surveyed over 24,000 U.S. healthcare workers enrolled in the HERO Registry between April 2020 and June 2021. Study healthcare workers shared their experiences with COVID-19 testing, diagnosis, workplace burnout, emotional struggles, and thoughts on vaccination and vaccine trial participation.

Key Findings

The HERO Registry observational cohort study analysis showed how people of different races and ethnicities experienced disproportionate COVID-19 outcomes:

• Black and Asian healthcare workers were less likely to receive viral testing for the SARS-CoV-2 virus than White healthcare workers.
• Black and Asian healthcare workers were less likely to receive a COVID-19 vaccine series.
• Hispanic healthcare workers were more likely to report COVID-19 infection.

Results Analysis

The history of systematic racism in the United States has caused hesitancy and some distrust in the healthcare system amongst marginalized populations. This has led to many health disparities due to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, communities predominantly of racial and ethnic minorities often have fewer testing sites and less testing availability. The article also indicates White healthcare workers are more likely to receive testing referrals than non-White healthcare workers.

Cited literature suggests minority populations may have experienced more concerns about the COVID-19 vaccine during the early rollout of the vaccine in 2021. This is consistent with the study finding that Black and Asian healthcare workers were less likely to receive a COVID-19 vaccine series than White healthcare workers or participate in vaccine trials. In the HERO Registry, black healthcare workers were less interested in participating in COVID-19 vaccine clinical trials than White healthcare workers.

The article shares the finding that Hispanic healthcare workers had a higher chance of being diagnosed with COVID-19 than White healthcare workers, contributing to the ongoing literature that suggests Hispanics are at a higher risk of COVID-19 infection. However, more evidence is needed to determine the structural and community characteristics contributing to higher COVID-19 infection risk in this population.

One surprising yet crucial finding of the study is that Black healthcare workers reported less burnout and negative emotional tolls than White healthcare workers. It is important to note that more studies will be needed to confirm these findings, as approximately 80% of the HERO study population was White.

We Asked, You Answered: Who is Considering Leaving Health Care?

In a working environment where employees are already at a higher risk for burnout , the pandemic has pushed many healthcare workers out of medicine entirely – some have been laid off, many have quit. We asked the HERO Registry of healthcare workers if they were leaving health care or had considered it, and if so, why.

Hot Topic: Intent to Leave Health Care

The HERO Registry seeks to understand pandemic-related perspectives and problems of anyone in the U.S. who works in any type of first responder or healthcare setting, as well as the people who know them. One of the ways we do this is to ask you, our community of over 50,000 members, to answer brief surveys on topics of concern.

Twice last year, we asked the healthcare workers in the HERO registry if they intended to leave health care. From May to December, there was a 13% increase in those who were considering or planning to leave or who had already left.

That brings the total up to 57% of the nearly 1,600 healthcare workers surveyed in December who are at risk of leaving the field.

Some demographics have been more susceptible to the shift than others: nurses, middle-aged employees, and workers living in the West were all more likely to leave or consider leaving than their peers. Over two-thirds of nurses said they were leaving or had considered leaving. 61% of 30–49-year-olds and 66% of Westerners said the same.

Almost three-quarters of respondents identified burnout as a factor that made them think about leaving healthcare, by far the most frequently cited reason.

“It’s difficult to hear about the pandemic all the time,” one employee said, “At work and during personal time.”

Staffing shortages were often cited as one of the reasons employees were being overworked. As one employee noted, “I am receiving too many referrals and can’t keep up. I do not anticipate that this will get better.”

Lack of appreciation or support from their employer (50% and 36%, respectively), job-related moral injury (33%), and frustration with unvaccinated patients (30%) were the other reasons participants frequently identified as leading to them leaving or thinking about leaving. Whereas only 8.7% of employees cited frustration with employer vaccine mandates.

Despite noted frustration and challenges within the workplace, only 3% of respondents had actually left the healthcare field. Paramedics and technicians were both more likely to leave health care entirely than nurses or physicians.

More often, folks thought about it but didn’t have plans yet or switched fields in health care instead. 14% of nurses decided to move to a different field compared to the 1% who had already left; some survey respondents noted that they were taking this opportunity to go back to school.

Whether it stemmed from employer neglect or burnout, whether workers decided to leave their jobs or just fantasized about it, one common thread came through: For many in health care, the work didn’t feel worth it anymore.

“The U.S. healthcare system is collapsing,” one physician said, “And the public and the government don’t seem to care.”

If you are already a member of the HERO Registry, thank you! Anyone who works in a healthcare setting and their family and community members are invited to join the HERO Registry, a community of people who share what it is like to work and live during the COVID-19 pandemic. As a Registry member, you can help identify priorities for research and possible solutions for people impacted by the pandemic.

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Mathematical Foundations of the Golden Rule. II. Dynamic Case

• Mathematical Game Theory and Applications
• Published: 12 October 2018
• Volume 79 , pages 1929–1952, ( 2018 )

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• V. I. Zhukovskiy 1 ,
• L. V. Smirnova 2 &
• A. S. Gorbatov 1  

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This paper extends the earlier research of the Golden Rule in the static case [2] to the dynamic one. The main idea is to use the Germeier convolution of the payoff functions of players within the framework of antagonistic positional differential games in quasi motions and guiding control.

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Original Russian Text © V.I. Zhukovskiy, L.V. Smirnova, A.S. Gorbatov, 2016, published in Matematicheskaya Teoriya Igr i Ee Prilozheniya, 2016, No. 1, pp. 27–62.

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Zhukovskiy, V.I., Smirnova, L.V. & Gorbatov, A.S. Mathematical Foundations of the Golden Rule. II. Dynamic Case. Autom Remote Control 79 , 1929–1952 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0005117918100156

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Received : 11 November 2015

Published : 12 October 2018

Issue Date : October 2018

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S0005117918100156

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Serving as a U.S. Diplomat from 1993 until 2016,  Beth Payne  had witnessed a lot. However, it would be a day in October 2003 that would change her life forever.

While in Iraq, opening the Office of the U.S. Consul in Baghdad, Beth was awoken by a rocket slamming into her hotel room. Stunned and unable to speak, she launched into action — leading dozens of injured colleagues to safety. After that day Beth kept pressing on, but the emotional turmoil she experienced translated into debilitating symptoms, both physical and mental. It took years before she reached out for help, but after being diagnosed with PTSD and receiving proper mental health care, Beth now uses her life as a testimony to anyone suffering in silence.

Beth joins Benjamin to discuss what she remembers from that day back in 2003, how she continues to manage her PTSD, and why her journey led her to create Payne Resilience Training & Consulting, a company dedicated to teaching people tools to become their most resilient, adaptable selves.

Follow Benjamin on Twitter: @BenjaminHallFNC

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